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THE
FAITHS OF THE WORLD;
AN ACCOUNT CJF ALL
RELIGIONS AND RELIGIOUS SECTS,
DOCTIUNES, RITES, CEREMONIES, AND CUSTOMS.
COMPILED FliOM THE LATEST AND BEST AUTHORITIES,
BY
THE REY. JAMES' GARDNER. M.D. & A.M.,
AUTHOK OF THE CHRISTIAN CVCLOPIKHI A, ETC.
ASD ILLUSTRATED FROM AUTHENTIC ASli TRUSTWORTHY AUTHORITIES.
VOLUME 11.
H-Z.
A. FULLARTON & CO.,
LKITH WALK, EDINBURGH ; UxXION STREET. GLASGOW
AND 115 NEWGATE STREET, LONDON.
fliLlARTOX, M.UN.Ui & CO., NEW YORK.
::=_(
KDiMii lUJH :
FUI.LAKTON AKU MAONAU, riaSlKKS, I.KII H WALK.
FAITHS OF THE WOELD.
HAIjADIM, a branch of tlie modern C/irtsidini or
Jewisli Pietists in Polantl, wliicli -niis founded in
the eigliteentli century by Rabbi Solomon, in the
government of Molnlefl'. Their name Hahadim is
composed of tlie initial letters of three Hebrew words,
denoting wisdom, intelligence, and knowledge.
They may not improperly be called Qnietwts, as
their distinguisliing peculiarity consists in the rejec-
tion of external forms, and ilie complete abandon-
ment of the mind to abstraction and contemplation.
Instead of the baptisms customary among tlie Jews,
they go through the signs without the use of the
element, and consider it tlioir duty to disengage
themselves as niucli as possible from matter, because
of its tendency to clog the mind in its ascent to the
Supreme Source of Intelligence. In prayer, they
make no use of words, but simply place themselves
in the attitude of supplication, and exercise them-
selves in mental cyaculations.
HABBA, a sort of garment which tlie Miphamme-
dans throw over their shoulders after purification,
•somewhat in imitation of tlie Jewish Talldli.
HABDALA (Ileb. distinction), a ceremony which
is considered as dividing or .separating the Jewish
Sabbath from the other days of the week. It com-
mences after tlie concluding service in the .syna-
gogue. " On their return," says Mr. Allen, " from
this service they light a wax candle, or a lamp with
two wicks, wliich is usually held by a child; and the
master of the family, taking a glass of wine in his
right hand, and a box containing some spices in his
loft, recites several passages of scrijiture : ' " Behold,
God is my salvation : I will trust, and not be afraid;
for the Lord Jehovah is my strength and song; he
also is become my salvation. Therefore with joy
shall ye draw water out of .the wells of salvation. —
Salvation belongeth unto the Lord : thy blessing is
upon thy ppoiile. Selah. — The Lord of hosts is with
us ; the God of Jacob is our refuge. Selah. — The
Jews had light, and gladness, and joy, and honour."
Thus may it also be unto ns. — "I will take the cup
of salvation, and call upon the name of the Lord."
II.
Blessed art thou, 0 Lord our God, King of the imi-
verse! who hast created the fruit of the vine.' At
tliese words a little of the wine is to be poured upon
the floor. Then taking the glass of wine in his left
hand, and the box of spices in his right, he says :
' Blessed art thou, O Lord om- God, King of the
universe! who hast created divers spices.' Here he
smells the spices, and presents ihini to his family
that they may have the same gratilicatiou. Then
standing near the candle or lamp, he loidis at it with
great attention, and also at liis finger nails, and says ;
' Blessed art thou, O Lord our God, King of the
universe ! who hast created the light of the fire.'
Then taking the wine again in his right hand, he
says : ' Blessed art thon, 0 Lord our God, King ot
the universe ! who hast made a distinction between
things sacred and profane ; between light and dark-
ness ; between Israel and other nations ; between the
seventh day and the six days of labour. Blessed art
tliou, O Lord our God, who hast made a distinction
lielwoen things sacred and profane.' As soon as this
benediction is finished, he tastes the wine liimself,
and then hands it roimd to all the company." In
.some places where tlie Jews happen to be unable to
bear the exjiense of performing the Hubilala at
home, the CJio-istin or reader iicrfonns it in the syna-
gogue at the close of the Sabbath services. Those
who are unable from any peculiarity in their circum-
stances to attend to this duty either at home or in
the synagogue, are allowed to coni|iensatc for its per-
formance by privately ejaculating at the close of the
la.st Sabbath service, a short benediction, not men-
tioning the name of God ; " Blessed be He who liath
made a distinction between things sacred and pro-
fane." Thus the Sabbath terminates, and the people
are at liberty to resume tlieir ordinary week-day
employments. See Sabbath (Jewlsii.)
HA'dAD. See Adai). ,
HADES, a name given among the ancient Greeks I
and Romans, especially by the poets, to Pluto, the
god who was believed to preside over the infernal |
regions. He is represented as being the son of
HADKS— HAIU (Customs coNNiiCTUD with).
Clironos and Ulica, tlie liiisbaiid of Pei-seplione, and
the brotliur of Zeus and Poseidon. lie bore tlie
diameter of being a fierce, cruel, and inexorable t}'-
rant, dreaded bv niorlal.-. wlio, wben tliey invoked
liim, struck tlie earth with tlieir luuuls, sacrilieed
black slieep in bis honour, and in oftering their sacri-
fices stood with averted faces. The grim Hades
shut lip the shades of the dead in his dark domains.
His wife Persephone shared tlic throne of the lower
world with her cruel hn>l>:ind. And not only did
Hades rule over the infernal rc:,'ions; he was consi-
dered also as the author of those blessings which
sprung from the earth, and more especially of tliose
rich mineral treasures which are contained in the
bowels of the earth. 'I'he worship of Hades per-
vaded both Greece and Italy. In Elis, at Athens,
and Olvmpia. temples were built for the worship of
this infernal deity. .Vmong the earlier Greek poets,
more especiallv in Homer, tlie name Hades is as-
signed to the god, but among the later writers it was
ap]>lied al-o to his kingdom. See next article.
H.VDES. the dwelling-place of the dead, and hence
the Septnagint renders by this word the Hebrew
Sheol, while in the auihorizcd Knglish veision of the
New Testament it is generally rendered hell. In the
cljissieal writers both of Greek and Roman antiquity
the word ITiules is almost always used to denote the
infernal regions, where the shades of the dead were
believed to have their abode. Among the ancient
Hebrews it was suppo.-^ed to be a place of thick dark-
ness, such as is referred to in Job x. 21, 22, " Before
I go whence I .shall not return, even to the land of
darkness and the shadow of death ; a land of dark-
ness, as darkne.=s itself; and of the shadow of death,
without any order, and where the li;,dit is as dark-
ness." Here the spirits of the dead :iro supposed to
dwell till the resurrection in a slate in which they
are wholly devoid of thought and sensation. Tlie
word Haile.1 in the New, as well as Slieol in the Old
Testament, is often used in the most general sense
to denote the state of the dead, including the grave
as the residence of the body, and the world of spirits
as the abode of the soul. In some cases, indeed,
both words are employed either in reference to the
body or the soul taken separately. From a minute
consideration, however, of the various cases in which
the word Hades occurs in the New Testament, we
arc brought to the conclusion that it expresses the
state of the dead.
HADITII, a word used hy the Moliammedans to
express the .sayings of .Mohammed, and which were
handed down by oral tradition fnmi one generation
to another. There are said to be six authors of these
traditions, among whom are Ayesha the wife of the
Prophet; Abi'i-Horeira, his intimate friend; and ICbn
Abbas, his cousiii-german. The collection of these
traditions made by Khnarezmi, amounts to 5,2GG ;
nil of which the .Mohammedan doctors allege ought
to be coininiited to memory, and whi-re that cannot
be done, they ought to be transcribed.
H.-VDJI, or El-Hii.\gg (Arab, pilgrim), a title
given to a Moslem who has performed the pilgrim-
age to Mecca and Mount Arafiit. He is not entitled
to be called a Hadji until he has gone round the
Kaaba at Mecca seven times, kissing the black stone
each time. It is also indispensable that he should
have visited Mount Arafat, six hours distant, on
which Abraham is believed to have otVered up his
son. See MKtCA, (PtLGUlMAGL: to).
HAFEDHAH, an idol of the ancient Arabians,
usually invoked on obtaining a prosperous journey
whether by sea or land.
IIAFIZI (Arab, keepers), a name given to Mo-
hammedans who commit the Koran wholly to me-
mory, and are on that account regarded as holy men
intrusted with God's law.
H.XGIGAH, the sacred feast that took place on
the morrow after the celebration of the Paschal Su|i-
per, and also one of the two peace-ofi'erings which
those Jews who engaged in the passover were re-
quired to bring along with them to the solemnity. The
peace-ofl'erings behoved to be some beast, bulluck or
sheep, and they were called also the passover of the
herd. These passover olTeriugs were esteemed holy
things, and none in their deiilement might presume
to eat of them.
HAGIOGRAPHA (Gv. holy writings), the name
given to the third division of the Jewish Scriptures,
comprising the Book of Psalms, Proverbs, Job,
Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations of Jeremiah,
Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, and Nehemiah,
and al.so the two Books of Chronicles. Besides be-
ing called Hiirjingrapha, this class of the Hebrew
Scriptures was also called Ketubim (which see) or
Writings, because they were not orally delivered as
the I>aw of Moses was, but were innncdiately re-
vealed to the minds of their authors who wrote under
the inlluence of Divine inspiration.
HAGIOSCOPE, a word nsed by F.nglish ecclesi-
astical writers to describe openings made through
different parts of the interior walls of the church,
generally on either side of the chancel arch, so as
to aflbrd a view of the altar to those worshijiping in
the aisles.
HAICTITES, a Mohamnicd:m sect who profess
to believe in Jesus Christ as well as in Mohammed.
They regard Jesus as the true Messiah, and l)elie\e
that he existed from all eternity, and that he took
upon himself a true human body. They believe that
he will come again to judge the world at the last day
in the same body which he had on earth ; that he
will destroy Antichrist, and reign forty years, at the.
close of which the world will come to an end.
HAIL MARY. See Avk Maria.
HAIR (Customs connixtf.d with). The Jews
iu ancient times attached great importance to long
hair. Accordingly we find that the length of Absa-
lom's hair led to his death, 2 Sam. xviii. 9, "And
.■Misalom met the servants of David. And Ab.salom
rode upon a mule, and the mule went under the thick
IIArKKTITES— TIAKEMITES.
3
boughs of a great oak, and his liead caught lioM of
tlie oak, anil lie was taken up between the heaven
and the eai-th ; and the nude that was under hhn
went away." One of the most degradhig forms of
expressing contempt among the Jews was phicking
off the liair. We tiud Neliemiah (xiii. 25) mention-
ing tliis as a punisliment indicted upon those who
had contracted irregular marriages, " And 1 contend-
ed with them, and cursed them, and smote certain of
them, and plucked olf tlieir hair, and made tliem
swear by God, saying, Ye sliall not give your daugli-
ters unto their sons, nor take their daughters unto
your sons, or for yourselves." "Baldheail" seems
also to have been used occasionally as a strong term
of reproach. Thus -2 Kings ii. 23, " And he went up
from thence unto l!eth-el : and as he was going up
by the way, there ciime forth little children out of
the city, and mocked him, and said unto him, Go up,
thou bald head ; go up, thou bald head." Shaving
the head is sometimes referred to by the Hebrew
prophets as denoting metaphorically affliction, pover-
ty, and disgrace. The vow of the Nazauite (which
see) shows the importance wliich was attached to the
hair as a sacred emblem among the ancient Hebrews.
In ancient Greece also the hair was not unfrequently
used for superstitious puqioses. Thus it appears
from Homer that parents were accustomed to dedi-
cate the hair of tlieir children to some god ; and
when the children had reached adult age, the hair
was cut off and consecriited to that same deity. In
the account which Virgil gives of tlie deiith of Dido,
he mentions that the highest lock of her hair was
dedicated to the infernal gods. To such practices
tliere seems to be an allusion in Lev. xix. 27, " Ye
shall not round the corner of your heads, neitlier
shalt thou mar the corners of thy beard."
As an expression of sorrow for the dead, the hair
was frequently cut olf, and hence we find the pro-
phet Jeremiah declaring, xvi. 6, " Both the great and
the small shall die in this land : they -shall not lie
bun'ed, neither shall men lament for them, nor cut
themselves, nor make themselves bald for them."
The same custom appears to have prevailed among
the ancient Greeks, and Herodotus speaks of it as a
universal practice throughout the world, except in
Egypt, where the hair of the head and beard was
allowed to grow in seasons of mourning, being at all
other times shaved. It was a custom among the
Greeks to hang up the hair of their dead at the door
to prevent any one from deliling himself by entering
tlie house. Eastern females have always considered
the plaiting and adorning of their hair as an indis-
pensable [lart of their toilette. To this practice we
tind frei|uent allusions in Sacred Scripture. Thus
Paul strongly condemns it, 1 Tim. ii. 9, " In like
manuer also, that women adorn themselves in modest
apparel, with shamefacedness and sobriety ; not with
liroidered hair, or gold, or pearls, or costly array."
Peter also adopts a similar strain of reproof, 1 Pet.
iii. 3, "Whose adorning, let it not be that outward
adorning of plaiting the hair, and of wearing of gold,
or of piuting on of apparel." The idolaters who wor-
shijiped the heavenly bodies, but more especially the
Arabians, in imitation of Bacchus, used to cut their
hair equal behind and before, to make their head in
the form of a hemisphere, and they likewise shaved
the hair of their beards. It was probably in opposi-
tion to tliese practices tliat the Hebrews were en-
joined to let the hair of their heads grow, and not to
mar the corners of their beards.
IIAIUETITES, a sceptical sect among the Mo-
hanuiiedaus, who profess to doubt everything, and
to hold their minds in coustant equipoise, believing
nothing, and maintaining that it is absolutely impos
sible to distingidsh truth from falsehood. On any
controverted point, therefore, their usual remark is
" God knows it, we do not." Notwithstanding thi.s
sceptical turn of mind, they serupidously observe
the Mohammedan ceremonies and laws, both civil
and religious. Members of this sect have occasion
ally been raised to the dignity of MuFTi (which see),
or chief of the Mohanunedau law; but it has been
alleged that they have been somewhat negligent in
performing the duties of that high station, being
ready to sign any thing, appending however their
usual saying, " God knows wdiat is best." The
Fetva (which see) of the Mufti or Sheik-ul-Islam
being in many cases of the highest importance,
rashness or want of due consideration in signing
it may be attended with the most dangeious conse-
quences.
H.\I-'VAXG, the god of the sea among the
Chinese, answering to the Poseidon of the Greeks,
and the Neptune of the Komans. He is represented
holding a magnet in one hand, and a dolphin in the
other, and with dishevelled hair to indicate the tUs-
turhed state of the waters.
II.VKEM (El), Sect of. See Diiuzics.
HAKEMITES, a heretical sect among the Mo-
hammedans, originated by Hakem-ben-Haschem, wdio
made his appearance about the middle of the second
century from the Ilegira. Being a man of consider
able acuteness, he succeeded in attracting a great
number of followers. He maintained that God as-
sumed a human forjn after he had ordered the angels
to adore Adam ; that he appeared in the shape of
several prophets and other great men, princes and
kings. He met with great o]iposition in propagat-
ing his peculiar sentiments, and it is said of him that
he threw himself into a cistern full of oqua-fortin, in
which his whole body was consumed except his hair,
which floated on the surface. Before comnnlting
suicide, he had taught his followers that he would
return to them after death in the shape of an old
man mounted on a grey horse, and that in this fonn
he would con(|uer tlie whole world, and compel all
nations to embrace his religion. In expectation of
this event, the sect of the Hakemites is said by some
authors to have lasted above five hundred years affir
his death.
HALAL— HAND (Customs connected with the).
HALAL, what is permitted and sanctioned by tlie
Moliiinnnediin Law.
HALCYON CIIURCn, a denomination of Chvis
tiaiis wliich arose in 1802 in Colinnbia, Nortli Amer-
ica. Tlie members of tliis .seet rtjeet all creeds and
confessions of faitli. Tliey admit of only one person
in tlic Godhead, and maintain tliat the Father can-
not be known as a person l)iit as he was pleased to
a.ssiimc i)ersonality in his Anointed or Christ, 'i'hey
deny the doctrine of eternal punishment, and hold
that the existence both of apostate spirits and im-
pc-nitent men will cease at the close of Cln-'ist's me-
diatorial kingdom. They deny infiuit baptism, and
tlieir mode of administering the ordinance to adults
is peculiar. The persons to be baptized walk down
into the water in procession, attended by the congre-
gation, and accompanied with vocal and instrnmental
music. The ordinance is then dispensed in the name
of the Lord Jesus Christ, by whom they allege is
exhibited in one glorious Person, the Father, ;Son. and
Holy Ghost. The Halcyons devote tlieir cliildrcn
to God, not by baptism, but by dedicating them in
prayer, and placing them under the guardianship of
the members of the church, who take them into their
arms and bless them.
ILVLDANITES. See B.\ptists (Scotti.sii).
CoXGEF.r;.\TIONA[.ISTS (SCOTTISH).
ILVLK-COM.MUNION. See Ciialici;.
H.VI.IA, one of the Nereides in the ancient hea-
tlien mythology. This was the name also of a god-
de.ss worshiiiped among the Rhodians, as the spouse
of Poseidon (which see).
H.VrJAC.MON, a river-god of Macedonia, sprung
from (Jceanus and Thetys.
H.VLLK (Gr. luils, tlie sea), a name given among
the ancient heathens to sea-nymphs in general.
HAUjFL, certain psahns which were accustomed
to be sung by the .Jews on very solemn occasions.
It was divided into the Great Hallel and the Lesser
Hallel, the former being understood to be Ps. exxxvi.,
and the latter comprising six psalms, from Ps. cxiii.
to Ps. cxviii. inclusive.
HALLKLU.JAH. See Allkllh.
Sec
Piic-
and
1LVLLENSL\N CONTUUVKKSY.
TISTIt Co.NTRoVKHSY.
H.-VLOSYDNE, a surname of Aiiqihitrilf
TiiOiijn as being seaborn.
H.\M.\01vY'AI>ES, subordinate female divinities
among the ancient heathens, who presided over
woods and forests. See Dhyades.
HA MET (SiccT of), the followers of Hamct, a
Mohannnedan propliet, who in 1792 began to teach *
on the AVcstern Coa.st of Africa. Ho rejeclcd the
ancient iloctrine of the Caliphs, and by the modilica-
lions which lie sought to introduce into the Mussul-
man cri'cd, he gathered around him a great nmnber
of ilisciplcB. At length Ilamet was killed, and two
of his generals disputing for the command, the success-
fid one sold his antagonist to a French slave-dealer.
HAiM.MON. See .Vm.mon.
HAMPTON COURT CONFERENCE. See
Conference (Hami-ton Couut).
HAMUL, the angel who was regarded by the an-
cient Persians as the inspector of the heavens.
HAN15.\L1TES, one of the foin- orthodox sects
of the Moluunnicdans, which derived Us name from
Ahmed-ebn-Haidjal, who is said to have been so
well versed in the traditions of Mohammed, that he
eould repeat a million of them by rote. This zeal-
ous Mohammedan teacher strenuously maintainedl
the eternity of the Koran, and thus brought upon
himself the vengeance of the Caliph al M(5taseni,
who held the Koran to have been created. The
controversy on this disputed point raged for a time
with great keenness on both sides, and at length
Hanbal, by the comnuvnd of his antagonist, was im-
prisoned and scourged. He continued, notwithstand-
ing, to propagate his opinions until his death, which
took place towards the middle of the second cen-
tury from the Hcgira. The sect of the Hanbalites,
from which the sect of the Wahabees seems to have
been derived, prevails principally in the wilder dis-
tricts of Arabia; its austere tenets being well suited
to the simple manners of the Bedouins. In the reign
of the Caliph Al IJadi, the Hanbalites, enraged at the
wide prevalence of a luxurious spirit, raised a serious
commotion in Bagdad, breaking into houses, spilling
any wine they discovered, destroying musical instru-
ments, and burning rich garments. Considerable
alarm was excited for some time among the iidiabi-
tants of the city, and it was not without considerable
difficidty that the disturbance was quelled. In these
tumults several thousand lives were sacriliced.
HAND (Customs connected with the). The
custom of kissing the hand as an act of adoration
seems to have existed in very early times. Thus we
find a distinct reference to it in Job xxxi. 27, " And
my heart hath been secretly enticed, or my mouth
hath kissed my hand." In the East, even at the
present, one of the most usual modes of paying re-
spect to a person of superior rank is by kissing his
l)arid and pulling it to the forehead. A Mohamme-
dan, when he cannot observe this custom, commonly
kisses his own hand and raises it to his forehead.
An oath is often taken in Oriental countries by join-
ing hands, and to this practice there seems to be an
obvious allusion in Ezek. xxi. 14, " Smite thy hands
together," .and again verse 17, " I will also smite mine
hands together, and 1 will cause my fui-y to rest : I
the Lord have said it."
One of the most expressive modes also in the East
of indicating sorrow and deep humilialion is by putting
ihe hands to the head. Hence we find it said in Jer.
ii. 37, '■ Y"ea, thou .shalt go forth from him, and thine
hands upon thine head : for the Lord hath rejected
ihy conlidences, ;ind thou shall not prosper in them."
The same altitude in token of sorrow is frequently
nu't with on the painiings in tlie tombs of Egypt.
Mr. Roberts also, referring to modern customs in the
East, says, " When people are in great distress they
IIAXDKERCHIEF (Holy)— HANIFEES.
put their hands on tlieir head, the tinkers being
clasped on the top of tlie crown. Slioiild a man wlio
is phmged into wretchedness meet a friend, lie im-
mediately puts liis liands on his head to illiistraie liis
circmnstances. When a person liears of tlio deatli
of a relative or friend he forthwith clasps his hands
on his liead. Wlien boys have been punished at
school, they run home with their hands on tlieir
head. Parents are much displeased and alarmed
when they see their children with their hands in that
position, because they look upon it not merely as a
sign of grief, but as an emblem of bad fortune."
"handkerchief (Hoia-), a handkerchief said
to have belonged to St. Veronica, on wdnch is sup-
posed to have been imprinted the likeness of the
face of our blessed Lord. The legend is, that when
Christ was led to orucitixion, Veronica, who followed
him, put a handkerchief to his face, on which the
impress of his features remained. Tliis holy relic is
still preserved at Rome, and exhibited for the vener-
ation of Romanists on certain festivals. Dr. Middle-
ton says, that two difierent holy handkerchiet's exist ;
tlie one alleged to have been sent by Christ himself
as a present to Agbarus, prince of Edessa, who by
letter had requested a picture of him ; the other
given by Christ at the time of his crucifixion to a
Iioly woman, by name Veronica, upon a handkerchief
which she had lent him to wipe his face upon that oc-
casion. Both these handkerchiefs are said to be kept
with the utmost reverence, the one in St. Sylvester's
church, the other in St. Peter's, where, in honour
of this sacred relic, there is an .altar built by Pope
Urban VIH., with a statue of Veronica, bearing a
suitable inscription. It is related by Bower, upon
the authority of Mabillon, that Pope Innocent III.
composed a prayer in honour of the image imprinted
upon the handkerchief, and granted a ten days' in-
dulgence to all who should visit it, and that Pope
John XXII. promised no less than ten thousand
days' indulgence to every one who should repeat tlie
following prayer, -'Hail, holy face of our Redeemer,
printed upon a cloth as white as snow ; purge us
from all spot of vice, and join us to tlie company of
the blessed. Brhig us to our country, O Happy
Figure, there to see the pure face of Christ." The
holy handkerchief is also said to be preserved wdiich
wrapped our Lord's face in the grave.
HANDS (Imposition of). In very ancient times
the most usual ceremony adopted in conveying a
blessing to another was to lay the hands solemnly
npon the head of the individual accompanied with
prayer. Thus in Gen. xlviii. 14, we iiiid .lacul) lay-
ing hands upon the heads uf Ephraiin and Manasseh,
when he gave them his dying blessing. The high-
priest also, when he pronounced a blessing npon the
people, was wont to stretch out his hands as it were
over the heads of the assembled muliitude. And
when our Lord conveyed a blessing to the Jewish
children, we are told, " he laid his hands on them
and prayed." According to the Law of .Moses, the
ceremony to be followed in confessing sin over the
head of an animal presented as a sin-ofl'ering, was to
lay both hands upon the head of the victim. Wit-
nesses also, when charging any one with a crime,
laid their hands upon the head of the accused. The
same custom was followed by the apostles, as we
learu from Acts viii. 17, wdien they conferred the
Holy Ghost on those wdio were baptized.
The imposition of hands has from a very early
period formed an essential part of the ceremony by
wliich priests and ministers have been consecrated
and set apart to the sacred office. Thus in Num.
xx\ii. IS, we are informed tliat when Moses consti-
tuted Joshua his successor he laid his hands upon
him. In this solemn act indeed, accompanied with
l)rayer, ordination to the ministry has usually con-
sisted. The manner of performing the ceremony has
diil'ered at different times. As a part of the ordina-
tion of Christian ministers it has been usually traced
to apostolic institution and practice. Three passages
of Scriptime are generally referred to in support of this
ceremony. Thus in Acts viii. 17, mention is made
of the apostles laying hands on those whom Philip
had baptized ; and in Acts xix. G, Paul is said ti
have laid his hands on those whom he baptized after
John's bapti.sm; and finally, in Heb. vi. 2, imposi ■
tion of hands is ranked as one of the elementary
principles of religion. Hence Chkikotiiesia (which
see), the Greek term for the imposition of hands, is
frequently used in the early Christian writers as sy-
nonymous with ordination. In the baptism of cate-
chumens in the primitive Christian church, one of
the ceremonies practised was the imposition of hands
npon the head of the candidate, who stood with his
head bowed down in a submissive posture. This
was also one of the rites of Coxfir.m.vtiox (which
see).
HANIFEES, an ortliodox sect of Jlohammedans,
who derived their name from their originator Abu-
Hanifa, the first of the Islamite casuists, who flour-
ished in the second year of the Hegira. He learned
the dogmas of the Mohammedan faith and its prin-
cipal traditions from persons wdio had lived in tlie
time of the prophet; and though he is now regarded
as the chief authority among the Somiitcs, he was
through life a devoted partisan of the family of Aii.
Being a man of inflexible uprightness, he shrunk
from accepting the office of judge which was ottered
to him, and was in consequence thrown into prison.
While in confinement he is said to have read the
Koran no fewer than seven tlmu.sand times. Accord-
ing to D'Olisson, he was poisoned by command of
the Caliph for having in the Ulema or Council of the
doctors of the law, resisted the severe punishment
which it was proposed to inflict on the citizens of
Mosul, A. D. 767. The Haiiifees are usually called
the followers of reason, because they are principally
guided b)- their own judgment in giving a decision
upon any point, while the other Mohammedan seels
adhere more closely to the letter of tradition. This
6
HANUMAN— HAREM.
sect, .•\i wo leani from Dr. Tiiyl^r, was first estab-
lished ill Inik; it is now tlie cstablislied faitli of the
Turks aiui Tartars, but it has brauclied into numer-
ous subdivisions.
HANUCA. Sec Di^nicATiON (Feast of).
HANUMAX, the Api-Gwl of tlie Hindus, son of
Pavan, K)rd of tlie winds. There is a loference to
Ilanuinan in the Rainavana. an ancient epic poem, in
whicli tlie monkey-general is introibiced as heading
the Cushites or Negroes of India, who had come to
the assistance of Kama, and the Aliens of the
Ganges. In memorial of the eti'ective assistance
which he rendered to Rama Vislnui, a small pagoda
is erected in his honour within the temples of
Vishnu.
ILVrilTOROTH. tiftv-four sections of the Old
Teslament prophets, appointed to be read in the ser-
vice of the Jewish synagogue. The Kabbies say that
their forefathers read only the Law until the time of
Antiochus Epiphaues, who conquered the Jews about
B. c. 167, and issued an edict at Antioch command-
ing the inhabitants of the country to embrace the
Pagan religion professed by the conqueror. Besides
dedicating the Jewish temple to the wor.ship of Jupi-
ter Olympius, he prohibited the reading of the Law in
the synagogues on pain of death. In consequence
of this tyrannical prohibition, the Jews substituted a
series of selections from the Pro[ihets, which they
termeA Hiiphlorot/i ; and even wlien the reading of
the Law was restored in the time of the Maccabees,
the reading of the Prophets wa.i still continued, and
has remained in force down to tlie present day. The
Jews in ditferent countries have not in all instances
chosen the same passages from the prophets ; and
there is no evidence to prove that in ancient times
the lessons read t'rom the prophets were the same as
now. Dr. Adam Clarke remarks, that though the
Jews are agreed in the sections of the Law which
are read e\'ery Sabliatli, yet they are not agreed in
the Hapldoroth, for it appears in the selections from
the prophets, that the Dutch and German Jews
differ in several instances from the Italian and Por-
tuguese. It is somewhat remarkable, tliat while, as
we learn from Luke iv. 16 — 21, the sixty-lirst chap-
ter of Isaiah was read in the synagogue in the days
of our Lord, this and almost all the other prophe-
cies rcspecliiig the Messiah are omitted in the
modern Ilaplitoroth. From the custom among the
Jews of reading ri^gular portions of the Law and
the Prophets in the synagogue, is supposed to have
original ed the custom in many Christian churches
of reading !v lesson every Sabbath out of the Old
and New Testaments.
IIAK.V, one "I the names of SlllVA (whirh see),
till' Hindu deity.
II.VIi.VM, the term used by the Mohanimedan
doctors to denote what deserves a reprimand or
liunishment, being expressly forbidden by the Law.
It is the op|iosite of Hai.ai. (wliieh secO. The word
IT'irdia also sigiiilics a sacred thing iVom which infi-
dels are to abstain, as the temple of Mecca or Mo-
hammed's tomb at Medina.
H.VIiB.VDS, a name substituted by Zoroaster for
the Mti(ji. of the ancient Persians, and designed to
denote the priests of the Guebres or Parsees, or Fire-
Worshippers. Certain fixed regulations were laid
down as to the appearance and costume of the Har-
bads. Tliey were reipnred to wear long beards, and
conical-shaped caps falling down on their shoulilers,
and quite covering their ears. Their hair was never
cut except as a sign of mourning for a near relative.
AVlien performing divine service before the fire, the
cap was anciently so made as to cover the mouth of
the officiating priest, but the priest of the modern
Guebres wears a piece of stuff cut square for that pur-
pose. The cloak or Sudra was of a scarlet colour,
with long sleeves, and falling down to the middle of
the leg. Round the body was worn a cloth .sash or
girdle of camel's hair, from which hung down four
tassels, intended to remind the Harbad of four estab-
lished maxims, which he ought never to forget. The
first tassel was designed to remind him that he must
have one God alone, one omnipotent Being always
before his eyes ; the second, that he was bound to
believe in all the articles of the Magian faith ; the
third, that he must acknowledge Zoroaster as God's
genuine and true disciple ; and the fourth, that he
must resolve by the grace of God, never to weary of
well-doing. These girdles were believed to be of
divine institution, and it was required of all the faith-
ful of both sexes to wear them, that by the posses-
sion of this invaluable treasure they might ovcrconu.
the devil and all his works. If, however, any one
should happen through inadvertency or mistake to
lose his girdle, he must neither eat, drink, speak, nor
stir one foot until he has purchased a new one from
some Harhad. The man who has lost his girdle has
in their view lost his benediction. See Parsers.
HAREM, the apartment in the East set apart ex-
clusively for the women. It would appear that al-
though polygamy was forbidden by the Law of
Moses, the Hebrew kings, especially Solomon, form-
ed to themselves large establishments of wives and
concubines. In 1 Kings xxii. 25, we find mention
made of the " inner chamber," which is supposed to
refer to the harem, the words denoting literally a
chamber within a chamber. In the ICast,the harem is
held sacred, so that even the officers of justice dare nut
intrude therein, unless they have received certain
inforinatioii that a man is within the harem contrary
to the law; and if on entering the liarein they do not
lind what they look for, the wcjinen may punish and
even kill them. The Mohammedan law requires that
the faces of women be concealed from the view of
men, with theexccjition of their husbands, fathers, and
sons. In Egypt the strictest ])recaiitions are taken
that no male visitors be allowed to enter the interior
of the haroin, not even the slaves who are in atten-
dance. "Women," .savs Mr. Lane, "often pay visiii>
to each other's h.-uems, and sometimes spend wliul.*
HARIGARI— HARMONIES.
days in gossip, the display of finery, snioliinj; or
story-telling. It is deemed a breach of etiquette for
the master of the house to enter the apartment on
such occasions, unless his visit be upon some impe-
rative occasion ; even then he must give the usual
notice of his approach, so that the strange lady may
veil and retire." Female existence in the Oriental
harem is one monotonous and unvarying scene of in-
dolence and self-indulgence. The women seldom
leave their apartments to take exercise in the open
air, but reclining on soft divans, they spend their
time in gold embroidery, or in trifling amusements,
wliile they pamper their appetites witli large quanti-
ties of sweetmeats, and a variety of rich dishes, the
preparation of wliich tliev carefully superintend. In
addition to this, by the constant use of relaxing,
waiTTi, and vapour batlis, tliey soon grow so large
that the symmetry of llieir forms and the regularlly
of their features entirely disappear, and nothing of
beauty remains but the eyes. '■ When the moral
state of the harem is clo-sely examined," we are told
in the .Journal of a Deputation to the East, "a sad
picture of dejiravity and inisery is discovered. The
women are left wholly uneducated, being unable
either to read or write: their time is mostly occupied
in attending to their toilette, feasting their appetites,
frivolous gossip, and domestic squabbles. As re-
spects the intellect, they live and die in a state of
mental childhood ; and with regard to morals, being
witliout the restraints of eitlier religion or reason,
they are wholly abandoned to the sw.ay of the sen-
sual and malevolent passions of our fallen nature.
Envy, jealoLisv, and malice are the natural fruits of
this deep moral debasement. The elder women have
generally the rule, by custom, over their juniors;
factious intrigues against one another, acts of ty-
ranny and cruel revenge, are the inevitable conse-
quences of such a social system ; so that, could the
private and domestic life of the harems be disclosed,
the majority of them would be found little pande-
moiiia."
nAR!G.\R.\, a word which, wlie:i pronor.nced
along with Shimt and Rama, is believed by the Hin-
dus to bring down numberless blessmgs upon him
who utters it. The moment these three sacred words
escape from the lips, all sins are cancelled and blotted
out, but if they are thrice repeated, the gods are so
honoured that they are at a loss to find a recompense
equal to the merit. Such privileged persons are no
longer obliged to pass into other bodies, but are
straightway absorbed in Brahm.
H.VRIOLI, magicians who are mentioned by Ter-
ttdlian as waiting on the altars of the heathen to re-
ceive their inspiration from the fumes of the sacri-
fices.
H.\RISCHANDTS. a sect composed of doms or
sweepers in the western provinces of Hindustan.
Their name bears an allusion to the Pauranic prince
Harisehandra, who, becoming the purchased .slave of
a man of tliis impure order, instructed his master, it
is said, in the tenets of the sect. What these tenets
were, however, is not known, and Dr. H. H. Wilson
thinks it may be doubted wlicther any adherent of
the sect now exists.
HARKA-RE, a deity worshipped by the ancient
Egyptians. He was the son of AMiMOX (which see),
and supposed to be identical with the Grecian Her-
-iCLtvS fwhich see).
HARLOTS. See Prostitution (Sacked).
HARMONAH, a goddess of the Sliemitic nations,
corresponding to Harmunia (which see) of the
Greeks.
HARMONIA, a goddess among the ancient
Greeks. She was the daughter of Ares and Apliro-
dite, or, as some allege, of Zeus and Electra. Cad-
nuis, king of Tliebes, received Harmonia in niarriagr,
and all the gods of Olympus graced the nu])tials
with their presence. On that occasion the riewly
wedded s|]0use received either from Aphrodite or
Athena a fatal necklace, which caused mi.schief and
misfortune to every one who possessed it. After
passing through various hands, it was at length de-
dicated in the temple of Athena at Delphi. Both
Harmonia and Cadmus are said to have been changed
into dragons, and transferred to Elysium ; or as
others affirm, tliey were carried thither in a chariot
drawn by dragons.
HARMONIES, works designed to exhibit the
narratives of Scripture in clu-onological order, so as
to manifest the harmony or agreement of the state-
ments made by the different writers. Attempts of
this kind have been made from an early period after
the completion of the canon. Thus Jerome men
tioiis Theophilus of Antioch as hav ing written a har-
mony of Scripture ; but if such a work ever existed,
it has long ago perished. Eusebius speaks with ap
probation of a harmony of the four gospels prepared
about the middle of the second century by Tatian,
and also of another work of a similar kind by Am-
monius, an Alexandrian, in the commencement of tlie
third century. Both harmonies have long ago been
lost. Eusebius himself, who wrote in the early part
of the fourth century, composed a very celebrated
Harmony of the Gospels, in which he arranged the
various events narrated by the Evangelists in ten
tables, which serve as very useful indices to the four
Gos[)eIs. A work having in view the object of a
Harmony of the Evangelists was written about A. D.
400, by the illustrious Augustin, bishop of Hippo.
Various attempts were made to harmonize the Sacred
Writings, but more especially the Gospels, from the
middle ages onward to the Reformation, bnt no work
of the slightest value has been preserved. From the
Reformation down to the present day, several har
monies have appeared both in Britain and on the !
Continent. Of these Eightfoot, Doddridge, and \
jMacknight have been the most favourably received j
in our own country, and still more recently Towns- j
end's Old and New Testaments, arranged in Histori- !
cal and Chronological Order, has been received with j
HAUMOXY SOCIETY— HARVEST (Festival op).
fi i;oiisI(1i>ral)le meiisure of juiblic approbation. The
term Hanuony is now nlniost exclufively limited to
a clironologioal arraiisenient of tlie narratives as
given by tlie Four Evangelists. In tliis res)iect
Arclibisliop Ncwconie and tlie Rev. Ricliard Gres-
well liave done good service by presenting tfie paral-
lel passiigps in a tabular form. Some of the harmo-
nists proceed on the idea that the Evangelists
intended to preserve the order of time, while others
a.s strenuouslv deny that they had any such object
in view. In Germany of late years, several carefully
prepared lianiionics have been published, among
wliicli niav be mentioned De Wette and Liicke,
Matth^ei, Clausen, Koediger, Reichel, Overbeck, and
Ziegler.
HAR.MOXY SOCIETY, a community of Separa-
tists in Xorth Amcica. Its founder was George
Kapp, a Lutheran, wlio emigrated with a consider-
able number of followers from the kingdom of Wur-
tcmberg in Germany. This excellent man, who was
bom in 1757 at Maulbronn, seceded from the Lu-
theran church at the age of twenty-five, and gathered
around him a few adlierents, to whom he officiated
as pastor. In the midst of much opposition, and
even open persecution, Rapp continued to maint.ain
and to propagate his peculiar sentiments. At length
he resolved to seek an asylum in the United States.
Thitlicr, accordingly, lie went in 1803, accompanied
by three friends, and purchased lands in Butler
county. In tlie coiu"se of the two following year.s,
about one laindred and twenty-five families joined
Rapp and his companions, and in 1805 an association
was formed on the model of the primitive cliurcli at
Jerii.silem, mentioned in Acts iv. 34, 35, " Neither
wiis there any among them that lacked : for as many
as were possessors of lands or houses sold them, ami
broiiglit the prices of the things that were sold, and
laid them down at the apostles' feet : and distribu-
tion was made unto every man according as he had
need." The town which they formed on the prin-
ciple of having all things in common, was situated
about one hundred and twenty miles north of Phila-
delphia, and so well did the scheme succeed, that in
1815 they sold their property in Butler county, and
formed a new eslablishment on an improved ))Iaii in
Posey county, Indi.ana. Here they remained only
two years, wlieii they again .«old their jiroperty and
removed to Beaver county, Peunsyh ania, where they
built a third town called ixonomy, and devoted
themselves witli the most eommendalile industry to
agriculture, manufactures, and connnerce, and by the
exerlions of the whole community, amoinitijig to
somewhere about 4,000, not only are the wants "of
the members supplied, but a considerable surjilus is
yearly amassed. No inembcr is allowed to join tlie
I'ommunity iiiilil he lias passed tlmmgh a year's pro-
bation, at the end of which he is required to sign a
written contract, containing the b.asis or terms of
membership, in which ho surrenders not only his
properl)', but himself pirsonally to ihe loiniminity.
He loses in a manner his individuality, and becomes
the property of the whole, being lost in the mass,
each one living for all, and all for one. The venerable
founder of this conimunity, George Rapp, died in
1847. Immediately after his decease, the Society
ajipohitcd a board of elders, consisting of nine mem-
bers, seven of whom attend to the internal, and two
to the external concerns. Jacob Heiirici was chosen
to succeed George Rapp as spiritual guide. A vote
of six of the nine elders is binding. They can re
move any one of the nine, and till all \acancies.
H.-VRPIES, fabulous birds of remarkable rapacity
and swiftness which occur in the legends of ancient
heathen mythology. Only one is mentioned by
Homer, tinder the name of Podarge or swift-footed,
the spouse of Zephyrus. Any one who was suddenly
taken away by death was supi)Osed to have been
carried off by the Harpies. Two of these monstrous
creatures are spoken of by Ilesiod, under the names
of Ai?llo and Ocypete, who were so rapid in theii
motions as to outstrip the winds in their flight.
Their residence has been placed either in the islands
called Strophades, at the entrance of Orcus, or in a
cave in the island of Crete. They are represented
as fierce birds, with human heads and long claws.
The harpies of Virgil had the face of a woman, and
came out of Tartarus. Among the Greeks these
creattu'es personified the tempests. Tlie birds of
Styiiiphalus were no doubt the harpies of some Ar-
cadian tribes.
HARPOCRATES, the god of silence among the
ancient Egyptians, said by some to liave been the
son of Isis; by otliers, of Isis and Osiris. His sta-
tues were usually placed in the temples near to the
images of Osiris and Isis, to intimate, as VaiTO sup-
poses, that the people ouglit to observe silence, and
not divulge that these divinities had ever been mor-
tals. Harpocrates was exhibited under the form of a
young man with one finger on his mouth, indicating
silence. Egyptians cut his figure upon precious
stones, which they carried about with them as amu-
lets. Sometimes he was represented as mounted
upon an ostrich, with tlie sun and moon upon the
rever.se ; at other times he is represemed with a lion's
head and birds rouinl it.
HARUSPICES. See Aklspicks.
H.AKVEST (Festiv.^i. of). The Jews were ac
customed in ancient times to observe a peculiar cere
inony in honour of the inlroduction of harvest. On
the second day of the passover, or the morrow after
the Sabbath, as its first day was called, a slieaf of
barley was waved before the Lord as an olVeriiig of
the first fruits of the harvest in the name of the
whole peojile. This ceremony was acconipaninl
with a s|)ecial sacrifice. The festival was observed
annually according to the arrangements laid down in
the law of Moses, Lev. xxiii. 10 — 14, " Speak mito
the children of Israel, and .say unto them, AVhen ye
be cume into the land which I give unto you, and shall
naji the harvest thereof, then ye shall bring a sheaf
HASSAN— HEAD-DRESSES.
of tlie first-fruits of your liarvcst unto tlie priest :
and he slmll wave the slieaf before the Lord, to be
accepted for you : on tlie morrow after tlie sabbat.Ii
llie priest sliall wave it. And ye shall oiler tiiat day
\«hen ye wave the slieaf an he-lamb without blemish
of the first year for a burnt-o.Tering unto the Lord.
And the meat-ofiering thereof shall be two-tenth
deals of fine flour mingled with oil, an olTcring made
by fire unto the Lord for a sweet savour: and the
driidc-offering thereof shall be of wine, the fourth
part of an bin. And ye shall eat neither bread, nor
parched corn, nor green ears, until the self-same day
that ye have brouglit an ofiering unto yom- God :
it shall be a statute for ever throughout your gener-
ations in all your dwellings."
HASSAN, the eldest son of .-Mi, and the second
of the twelve Imams, of the luic of All. On the
death of his father A. D. GGl, Ha.-san was immediately
proclaimed Caliph and Inu'ini in Lak ; the former
title he was t'urced to resign to Motlwiyah, the latter
or spiritual dignity his followers regarded as inalien-
able. His rival granted him a pension, and permit-
ted him to retire into private life. After nine years
spent chiefly in devotion, Hassan was poisoned by
his wife Jaadah, who had been bribed to perpetrate
the crime by Yezid, the son of Mo.'im'yah. Hossein
having learnt from the physician of the horrid deed,
hastened to his brother's death-bed, and entreated
bini to name the murderer; but the dying prince re-
plied, "0 brother! the life of this world is made up
of nights that vanish away. Let the murderer alone
until we both meet at the judgment scat of God,
where justice will assuredly be done." Hassan ap-
pears to liave been, like his father All, a person of
amiable and pious dispositions, but at the same time
to have been deficient in firmness and decision of
character. It is said that wdien he surrendered tlie
Caliphate A. D. G69 to Moawiyah, he stipulated that
tlie anathemas pronounced against his father Ali in
the mosques should be discontinued, but that he
afterwards was weak enough to concede the point so
far as to be satisfied with the condition that they
sliould not be pronounced in his presence. Hence
one party have named him the disgrace of JIussul-
mans, wliile the ardent Schiites call him the young
prince of Paradise.
IIASSIDEANS. See Assideans.
IIATI, one of the two wolves in the Scandinavian
mythology which pursue the sun and moon. The
one called Skoll pursues the sun, while the other
called Hati, the son of Hrodvitnir, runs before her,
and as eagerly pursues the moon that will one da)-
be caught by him.
HATTEMISTS, a sect which arose in Holland in
the seventeenth century> deriving its name from
Pontian von Ilattem, a minister in the province of
Zealand. He pushed the Calvinistic doctrine to an
extreme length, so as to teach the doctrine of a fatal
and unintelligent necessity. He inculcited upon his
followers that men were not responsible for their
II.
actions, whether good or bad ; that religion does not
consist in active obedience, but in patient sufleriug
and undisturbed tranquillity of mind. He also al-
leged that Christ by his death did not satisfy Divine
justice, or e.xpiate the sins of men ; but that he sig-
nified to us that there was nothing in us to ofi'end
God, and in this w-ay lie made us just. This sect,
as well as the kindred and conteniporaiy sect of the
Verschokists (which see), is no longer known by
name to exist in Holland, but the extravagant opi-
nions of Von Hattem are not altogether unknown in
that couiitrv even at the present day.
HAUDlilETTES, an order of Koniish nuns hos-
pitallers at Paris, founded in the reign of St. Louis,
by Stephen Haudry, one of the secretaries of that
prince. At first it was limited to twelve poor fe-
males, but the number gradually inci'eased, and the
order was confirmed by several popes. The mem-
bers of this order afterwards received the name of
Nuns of the Assumption. They wear a black habit
and a crucifix on their breast. They ob.-erve the
rule of St. Augustin, and make a vow of poverty,
chastity, and obedience.
HEAD-DRESSES, In ancient times particular
forms of bead-dresses were considered as sacred, and
appropriated to the gods. This is evident from the
specimens of the Egy-ptian monuments in the British
Museum. Thus on the figure of Osiris may be seen
a species of crown which seems to have belonged to
that deity at least, if not to others in the land of the
Pharaohs. It consists of a conical cap, flanked by
two ostrich feathers with a disk in front, placed on
the horns of a goat. Among the Jews, while the
turban anciently formed the common head-dress of
both men and women, those worn by persons in sa-
cred offices differed in some particulars from the
ordinary turban. Thus Josephus .says, speaking of
the ordinary priest : '• Upon his head he wears a
cap, not brought in a conical form, nor including
the entire head, but still including more than the
half of it. It is called a mitre, but its make is such
that it resembles a crown. It is made of thick
swathes, but the contexture of it is linen, and it is
folded round many times, and sewed together, be-
sides which, a piece of fine linen covers the whole
cap from the upper part, and reaches down to the
forehead, and conceals the seams of the swathes,
which would otherwise appear unseemly. This ad-
heres closely to the head that it m,ay not fall oti
during the sacred service." Again, the same Jew-
ish historian remarks in regard to the high-priest's
liead-dress : " The high-priest's tiara or mitre was
like that of the other priests, oidy it had another of
purple or violet colour above, and a crown of gold of
three rows about that, and tenniiiating above in a
golden cap, about the size of the joint of the little
finger." In front of the mitre was a plate -of gold
tied with a blue lace, and on the plate were in-
scribed the words '-Holiness to the Lord" in He-
brew characters. The modcru Jews w-eai- the Tii-
10
HEALTH— HEAVEN.
piriLLiM (wliicli see), or frontlets between the eyes,
which they iinajinc to be commanded by the law of
Moses. The "Alohanimedan sects are known by the
coloin- of then- liead-dress. Tims the sect of AH
are distingiiislied from tlie rest by tlieir green tnr-
bans.
HEAI/ril, a heathen deliy wor.shi[iped in ancient
limes nndcr the Latin names of Saiiitas or Stilus, both
of which indicate healtli. Paiisanias asserts the wor-
ship of this goddess to have been very common in
Greece ; and he says that there was an altar for this
among other deities in the temple of Amphiaraus.
The temple of the goddess of health stood in the
city of Rome, on tlie Mons Quirinalis. The Greeks
worshipped this godde.ss under the name of Hygieia
(which see).
HEATHENS. See Pagans.
HEAVEN. Tliis word is frequently used in a
strictly material signilication as forming a part of
the created universe. Thus Gen. i. 1, "In the be-
ginning God created the heaven and tlie earth."
The ancient Hebrews, however, seem to have enter-
tained very strange notions as to the structure of the
material heaven, believing it to be a solid arch rest-
ing on pillars, and ha\ ing foundations. Thus Job
xxvi. lL"The pillars of heaven tremble, and are
astonished at his reproof." And in other passages
tlie heaven is compared to a curtain, or the covering
of a tent, as in Ps. civ. 2, " Who coverest thyself
with light as with a garment: who stretchest out the
heavens like a curtain." The ancient Jews believed
that there were several different heavens, the lower,
the middle, and the third or higher heavens. The
lower heaven they considered as including the clouds
and the atmospheru ; the middle as being the stellar
or starry region ; and the third as being the heaven
of heavens, or the hahitatimi of God and his angels.
The word heaven, liowever, is used not only in a
material but also in a spiritual sense, to indicate the
future aboile of the righteous after death. That such
a state of happiness exists after death is evident both
from reason and Scripture. The belief in a heaven
beyond the grave, accordingly, is not limited to
Christians, being a recognized article of the creed
of Heathens, Jews, and Mohammedans. Among
the ancient Greeks and Romans the heaven which
they allotted to the good was called Elysium
(which see), the precise locality of which was a
subject of considerable discu.ssion. Though the
writers of classic antiquity, particularly the poets,
declared the happiness of souls in Elysium to be
complete, some of them believed that the blessed
inmates would, many of them, return again to earth,
and pass into new bodies, destroying all recollections
of Elysian bliss, by drinking of tlie waters of Letlic,
one of the rivers of hell. Eternal blessedness was,
in the view of the ancient Pagans, reserved for those
only who were distinguished for their exalted virtues,
and who were accordingly admitted into the society
at' the gods, while their itluUi or simulacra, as the
poets alleged, continued to reside in the lower re-
gions. The views of dilTerent heathen nations in
regard to heaven are well described by Mr. Gross, in
his valuable and ingenious work, 'The Heathen
Religion in its Popular and Symbolical Develop-
ment :' " The ancient Mexicans, as it apjiears from
tlie statement of Kaiser, taught tlie existence of nu-
merous spirit-abodes, into one of which the innocent
shades of children were received ; into another, —
the sun, the vahant and illustrious soids of heroes
ascended ; while the corrupt and hideous ghosts ot
the wicked were doomed to grovel and pine in
subterranean caverns. Nine heavens served to cir-
cumscribe their fanciful visions and ardent dreams of
future bliss. The Greenlanders were contented to
predicate the doctrine of but one future Eden, which
they located in the abyss of the ocean, and to whidi
skilful fishermen alone migiit dare to aspire with the
confident hope of success. The relentless martial
spirit of the Appalachian Lidiaiis, proclaimed itself
in consigning their cowardly red brethren to the pro-
found chasms of their native mountains, where, over-
whelmed by snow and ice, they fell victims to the
tender mercy of shaggy and ferocious bears. The
aborigines of America were unanimous in their be-
lief in the immortality of the soul, and a liappv st.-iie
hereafter, somewhat similar to the Elysian bli.ss of
the Greeks and Romans ; but of a Hades, tliey know
little and speak seldom, and the savage-like Appa-
lachian hell just described, is one of the remarkable
exceptions in the general creed. 'AH,' writes Doc-
tor Robertson, ' entertain hopesof a future and more
happy state, where they shall be for ever exempt
from the calamities which embitter human life in its
present condition. This future state thev conceive
to be a deliglitfid country, blessed with perpetual
spring, whose forests abound with game, whose rivers
swarm with fish, where famine is never felt, and im-
interrupted plenty shall be enjoyed without labour
or toil. But as men, in forming their first imper-
fect ideas concerning the invisible world, suppose
that there they shall continue to feel the same de-
sires, and to be engaged in the same occupations, as
in the present world; they naturally ascribe emi-
nence and distinction, in that state, to the same qua-
lities and talents which are here the objects of their
esteem. The Americans, accordingly, allotted the
higlicst place in tlieir country of spirits, to the skil-
ful hunter, the adventurous and successful warrior,
and to such as had tortured the greatest niunber of
captives, and devoured their flesh. Tiiese notions
were so prevalent, that they gave rise to a universal
custom, which is, at once, the strongest evidence that
the Americans believe in a future state, and the best
illustration of what they expect there. As they
imagine that departed spirits begin their career anew
in the world whither they are gone, that their friends
may not enter upon it defenceless and unproviiUd,
they bury together with the bodies of the dead their
bow, their arrows, and other weapons used in hunt-
HEAVEN.
II
ins or war; tliey deposit in llieir tombs the skins or
stuffs of wliici) tliey inalie garments, Indian corn,
manioc, vein"soii, domestic utensils, and wliatever is
reclvoned among tlie necessaries in their simple mode
of life. In some provinces, upon the decease of a
cazique or cliief, a certain number of liis wives, of his
favourites, and of his slaves, were put to death, and
interred together with him, that he might appear
with the same dignity in his future station, and be
waiteii upon by the same attendants. Tliis persua-
sion is so deep-rooted, that many of the deceased
person's retainers offer themselves \ohuitary victims,
and court the privilege of accompanying their de-
parted masters, as a high distinction."'
The heaven of the Hindu is absorption in Bi-ahm,
and of the Hudhist, amiihilation or Nlrwditii. The
priesthood of the ancient Egyptians taught the im-
mortality of the soul under the name of Paliiigeiie--m,
or a second birth, being a return of the soul to the
celestial spheres, or its reabsorptiun into the Supreme
Being, without regard to the doctrine or the neces-
sity of transmigration — a doctrine v.diich was incul-
cated oidy upon the illiterate multitudes who could
form no conception of tho existence of the soul witli-
out the body. The ancient Scandinavians held that
there were (wo different heavens ; the one, the palace
of Odin, which they called V.\lii.\lla (which see),
where that august divinity received all who died a
violent death; and the other called GlMi>l (which
see), or tho palace covered with gold, wliich, after
the renovation of all things, was to be the everlast-
ing home of the righteous, where they were to enjoy
ecstatic and perennial delights. " The heroes," .saj'S
the Edda, " who are received into the palace of
Odin, have every day the pleasure of arming them-
selves, of passing in review, of ranging themselves
in order of battle, and of cutthvj one another in pieces ;
but as soon as the hour of repast approaches, they
return on horseback all safe and sound to the hall of
Odin, and fall to eating and drinking. Though the
number of them cannot be counted, the flesh of tlie
boar Saehrimnir is sufficient for them all ; ever}' day
it is served up at table, and every day it is renewed
again to its original bulk : their be\ei'age is ale and
mead ; one single goat, whose milk is excellent
mead, furnishes enough of that liquor to into.xicate
all the heroes. Od!u alone drinks wine, the only
fermented liquid to the use of which his good taste
or his superior dignity invites his attention. A
crowd of virgins wait upon the heroes at table, and
fill their cups as fast as they empty them."
The Jewish Rabbis teach that there is an uiiper
and a lower paradise or heaven. " Between them,''
says one writer, " is fixed a pillar : by this they are
joined together, and it is called the strength of Zion.
By this pillar, on every Sabbath and festival, the
righteous climb up and feed themselves with a glance
of the Divine majesty till the end of the Sabbath or
festival ; when they slide down and return to the
lower paradise." Both in the upper and the lower
paradise there are said to be seven apartments for
the residence and reward of the righteous. The in-
habitants of these dwellings, in so far as the upper
paradise is concerned, are thus described by Kabbini-
cil tradition : " It is stated, that there are seven par-
ties or orders which shall hereafter sland before God,
and that each of these orders or parties has its par-
ticular abode or dwelling in the upper paradise.
The first jiarty or order consists of those who, for
the kingdom and honoin- of God, suffered death, by
the government under whose authority they were :
as the Rabbi Akiba and his disciples were put to
death by the governniciit of Rome. The second
order consists of tho^e who have been drowned in
the sea. The third is the Rabbi Joehanan Ben
Zachai and his disciples. The foin-th order con-
sists of those on whom descended a cloud which
covered them. The fifth consists of (lio.se who
have repented : and in tho same place as the peni-
tents, stand the perfectly righteous. The sixth or-
der con.sists of tho.se who never married, and who in
all their lives never tasted of sin. The seventh con-
sists of the poor, who exercised themselves in the
Bible and Mislma, and in an honest vocation. — Ob-
serve, then, that to every order is allotted a distinct
abode : and the highest order, beyond which none
can go, consists of those who, for the kingdom and
honour of God, sulVcred death from the go\erninent
under which they lived ; as the Rabbi Akiba and liis
disciples."
The souls of the righteous, according to tlie .Jew-
ish Rabbis, do not ascend to the upper paradise
immediately after they have quitted the body, but
they are represented as undergoing a previous kind
of noviciate in the lower [laradise, which is situated
midway between this corporeal world and the upper
lieaN en. And even on reaching the ]i»rer abodes of
the blessed disembodied spirits, are said to be in the
habit of revisiting tlii.s lower world, and even of oc-
casionally passing to the other apartments of the
righteous. Thus the Rabbis alFnni : •' J ii paradise,
every one has his particular abode, and is not allowed
to go out, or ascend to the dwelling of his superior
neighbour; for if he do, he is presently consumed by
his neighboiu"'s great fire. And thus they arc called
standerx, because they stand or keep to their posts,
or allotted places. There are, indeed, some pious
ones, but their number is small, who, being worthy
of cleaving to the holy and blessed God, are sulVered
to ascend or descend, to go into the u|iper and lower
places, and to walk in all the quarters, and about all
the gates and aiiartments : and this is a pre-eminence
above which there is none: and these, when they
walk about in the palaces of the angels, the quarters
of paradise, and tho dwellings of the other righteoiis,
communicate to them of the lustre of that wisdom
which God has abundantly vouch.sited to them."
'I'he .Mohanimedans believe in "a heaven prepared
for the blessed among the faithful, that i.s, for tlia
professors of the true religion, juid followera of the
1-2
HEAVE-OFFKKINGS— UEBDOME.
holy iiroplu't Moliammcil; in whicli tliey sliall be
witli him enjoying perpetual light and all heavenly
pleasures, always beautiful, in their full strength and
vigour, blighter than the sun, and thought worthy to
sec face to lace the Most High God, and to adore
him." They hold also that there are eight heavens
or ditTcreMt degi-ces of happiness. Jlohanmied un-
doubtedly held out to his followers a heaven of car-
nal pleasures, in whicli the lowest appetites of man
should have their full and free indulgence, but at the
same time he taught in the Koran lliat the height of
haiipiiiess will consist in seeing God face to tace ;
that this pleasure will be the greatest, and make us
forget all the other ))leasures of Paradise, and
amongst others those which are common to men and
beasts. Mohammedan writers have allowed sensual
|jle!isures to form a part of the lowest degree of hap-
piness in heaven ; others have excluded them en-
tirely from those blessed mansions. The prophets
are believed to go to heaven directly ; the martyrs
are in the throats of birds who live only on the fruits
of Paradise; the souls of the common faithful either
are about the graves, or in the well Zemzcm, or -with
Adam in the lowfi.>it heaven.
HEAVE-OFFERINGS, ceremonies observed by
the Jews under the Law, the oiTerings being lifted
upwards in token of being presented to the Al-
mighty ; and, as was generally the case, being waved
towards the four quarters of the earth, hence called a
wave-offering, with the view of indicating that Ho
to whom the oli'eriiigs were presented was the Pro-
prietor of the universe. In a few cases animals
were subjected to the ceremony of heaving before
they were killed. More commonly, liowever, it was
performed with some particular parts after they were
cut up; especially with the breast and right shoulder
in all cases of peace-offerings, which were appropriated
for the use of the priests by aperpetualstatute. Blood-
less oUerings also were at times presented with the
same ceremony, according to the injunction contained
in Exod. xxix. 22 — 28. Before any bread was made
of the corn of the land, a cake was first made out of
the dough, consisting of a four and twentieth part,
which was heaved, and then, as was the case with all
heave-olTerings, it was given to the priests. The
Rabbis called by the name of Therumah or a heave-
o;lering, the oblation which was given to the priests
of corn and wine and oil, and whatever else was re-
tpiired to supjiort life. The Hebrews called this
payment sometimes the great heave offering, in com-
parison of the lithe which the Leviles paid to tlie
priests, and which was called the heave-offering of
the tithe.
Hi;i!I)0.\IAD.\Rir, a name applied to monks in
ancient times by Cassian and Jerome, from tlicir
weekly service.
HEBIJO.MAGETES, a surname of Ajwllo, be-
cause, as some think, sacriilces were offered to this
god on the seventh of every month, or as others sup-
pose, because at the festivals in honour of this god
the processions were headed by se\in boys and se-
ven maidens.
HEBDOMAS MAGNA (Lat. the great week), an
appellation given anciently to tlie week before Easier,
wliich was observed with the gi-eatest strictness and
solemnity. The reasons of the observance are fully
stated by Chrysostom, as quoted by Bingham : "It
was called the great week, not because it consisted
of longer days or more in number than other weeks,
but because at this time great things were wrought
for us by our Lord. For in this week the ancient
tyranny of the devil was dissolved, death was ex-
tinct, the strong man was bound, his goods were
.spoiled, sin was abolished, the curse was destroyed,
paradise was opened, heaven became accessible, men
and angels were joined together, the middle wall of
partition was broken down, the barriers were taken
out of tlie way, the God of peace made peace be-
tween things in heaven and things on earth ; there-
fore it is called the great week : and as this is the
head of all other weeks, so the great sabbath is the
head of this week, being the same thing in this week
as the head is in the body. Therefore in this week
many increase their labours ; some adding to their
fastings, others to their watchings ; others give more
liberal alms, testifyingthegreatness of tlieDivine good-
ness by their care of good works, and more intense
piety and holy living. As the Jews went forth to
meet Christ, when he had raised Lazarus from the
dead ; so now, not one city, but all the world go forth
to meet him, not with palm branches in their hands,
but with alms-deeds, hunianily, virtue, tears, prayers,
fastings, watchings, and all kinds of piety, which
they offer to Christ tlieir Lord. And not only we,
but the emperors of the world honour this week,
making it a time of vacation from all civil business,
that the magisl rates, being at liberty from business
of the law, may spend all these days in spiritual ser-
vice. Let the doors of the courts, say they, now be
shut up ; let all disputes, and all kinds of contention
and pnnishment cease; let the executioner's hands
rest a little : common blessings are wrought for us
all by our common Lord, let some good be done by
us his servants. Nor is this the only honour they
show to tliis week, but they do one thing miire no
less considerable. The imperial letters are sent
abroad at this lime, commanding all prisoners to be
set at liberty from their chains. For as our Lord,
when he descended into hell, set free those that
were detained by death; so the servants, according
to their power imitaling the kindness of their Lord,
loose men from tlieir corporal bunds, when they
have no power to relax the spiritual." Fasling was
carried by many Christians lo a much greater extent
on this week than on anj' other, some eating nothing
the whole week till the morning of the resurrection.
Epiphanius .says, that during this week the people
lived cliielly on dry meats, namely, bread and salt
and water, which they only used at evening.
IIEBDOME (Gr. the seveiUh}, a festival observed
HEBE— HEGELIANS.
13
by the ancient Greeks in honour of ApoUo, on tlie
seventh clay of every montli, because one of tliem hap-
jieneil to be tlie birtliii-iy of tlie god. The festival
was cclebrateii chiefly at Athens, wlieti liynins were
cung to Apollo, and the people walked in procession,
carrying; sprigs of laurel in their Iiands.
HEBE, the female attendant and ciip-bearer of
tlie gods, according to tlie ancient heathen mytho-
logy. She was the daughter of Zeus and Hera, and
Homer in his Odyssey represents her as liaving been
the wife of Heracles. She was worshipped at Athens
under the name of Hebe, and at Rome under the cor-
responding Latin name of Juventas, both names sig-
nifying youth.
HEBON, a god anciently worsliipped in Sicily in
the sliape of a bull. See Bull-Woi;siiip.
HEIjUEWS, a name given to tlio descendants of
AI)rahain according to the flesh. It was derived, as
some think, from Heber or Eber, the father of Peleg,
and the son of Salah, who was the grandson of Shem.
Others, however, founding their idea on the mean-
ing of the word Heher, -which signifies one that
passes, or a pilgrim, have derived the term Hebrews
from the circumstance that Abraham and his family
passed or journeyed from the other side of the Eu-
phrates into Canaan. In reference to the name He-
brew, we may remark, that a peculiar ex])ression
occurs in Phil. iii. 5, where the apostle Paul speaks
of himself as a "Hebrew of tlie Hel)rcws." In as-
suming such an appellation, the apostle probably
meant to intimate that he was of pure unmixed He-
brew lineage, without the slightest admixture of
Gentile blood. See Jews (Ancjunt).
HECAERGE, a surname of Aktemis (which
see).
HECAERGUS, a snrname of Apoi.i.o fwhich
see). Serviiis speaks of a person of tliis name who
was a priest of both Ajiollo and Artemis.
HECAT.EA, apparitions mentioned in a strange
story related by Eusebius. He gives an account of
a magical statue of Hecate (which see) of a very
extraordinary composition. It was said to be made
by order of Hecate herself. They took myrrh, in-
cense of Arabia, styrax, and certain animals called
ascalahotm, which soine interpret to be lizards, others
rats, and others moles ; tliey I'educed tliem all to
powder, and made of them a paste which they
moulded into tlie figure of Hecate. All those who
exercised magic arts invoked this goddess. The
ceremonies were performed at midnight by a river-
side, under a tree called lotus, by a person in an
azure-coloured garment, who was to dig a deep hole
in the ground, and then cut the throat of an ewe-
lamb, and bum it on a pile of wood over the hole,
all tlie wliile pouring out honey and calling on He-
cate. All being rightly done, certain apparitions
called Hecatcea were seen which changed themselves
into various sha[ies.
HECATE, an ancient heathen goddess, .said to be
the daugliler of Zeti'i and Devieter. She is said to
have been sent in search of PersejtJione, to whom,
wlien she was found, she became the constant at-
tendant and companion, thus becoming a goddess of
tlie infernal regions. In her capacity as a ruler in
Tartarus, she had charge of the souls of the de-
parted. Sometimes she is represented as having
three bodies, and at other times three heads, but al-
wavs acconiiianied by Stygian dugs. The worsliip
of Hecate prevailed in ditierent parts of Greece, but
more especially at Athens and Argos, where small
statues in honour of this goddess were kept inside
the houses, or in front of them, and also at points
where two cross roads met.
HECATOMB (Gr. hecaton, an hundred, and hovR,
an ox), a sacrilice among tlie ancient Greeks, of a
hundred oxen, ofiered onl)' upon very extraordinary
occasions. Herodotus mentions such a sacrilice as
having been ofiered by Clisthenes. Instead of being
limited to oxen, however, the word is sometimes ap-
plied to denote the sacrilice of a hundred animals of
any sort. Others again regard it as occasionally
used to denote simply a large sacrifice of anj- khid,
a definite being used for an indefinite number. Py-
tliagoras is said to have ofiisred a literal hecatomb in
token of joy and gratitude, that he had discovered
the demonstration of the forty-seventli proposition of
the First Book of Euclid, viz.. That in a right-
angled triangle, the square of the hypothennse is
ecpial to the square of the other two sides. From
the word hecatomb, was probably derived the name
of the Greek month Hecatomhaoii , which commenced
on tlie first new moon after the summer solstice, and
thus corresponded to the latter part of June and the
first part of July, according to our reckoning.
HECATOMBiEA. Se^e Her.'ea.
HECLA, a volcanic mountain in Iceland, which
was believed by the natives in their Pagan state to
be the mouth of the infernal regions,
HEGELIANS, the followers" of one of the latest
and most eminent pliilosophers of Germany. The
philosophy of Hegel is strictly rationalistic in its
character, religion with him being not a matter of
emotion and sentiment, but strictly of reason and
thought. He regarded ihovglit as the point of union
between the human nature and the divine. " Witli
him," says Morell, " God is not a person, but person-
ality itself, i. e. the universal personality, which rea-
lizes itself in every human con.scionsness as so many
separate thoughts of one eternal mind. The idea we
form of the Absolute, is to Hegel the Absolute itself,
its essential existence being .synonymous with our
conception of it. Apart from, and out of the world,
therefore, there is no God ; and so also, apart from
the universal consciou.sness of man there is no Divine
consciousness or personality. God is with him the
whole process of thought, combining in itself the
objective movement, as seen in nature, with ihe sub-
jective, as seen in logic, and fully realizing itself only
in the universal spirit of humanity. Willi regard to
other theological ideas, Hegel strove to deduce philo-
u
IIEGIKA— IIEGOUMENOS.
fopliicilly the main features of tlie evangeliciil doc-
trine, lie explained the doctrine of the Trinity hy
phnwin; tliat every moveniont of tlie thinking pro-
ces'i is. in fact, a Trinity in Unity. Pure indepen-
dent tlionglit and self-existence answers to the Fa-
ther--the ohjectifying of this pnre existence answers
to the >;on, God liianifested in the (lesh ; while the
Spirit is that wliich procecdoth from the Fatlier and
the Son, the complete reunion of the two in the
chnrch. IIe,::ers Christology, again, agrees in the
main ideas with the evangelical doctrine, except that
his attempt to deduce the whole from philosoidiical
j)rineiples gives to it a complete air of rationalism.
He views the idea of redemption as the reimioii of
the individnalized spirit of inan with the Spirit of
eternal truth and love. By faith we hccome one with
God. forming a part of himself, members of his mys-
tical body, as svniboli;!ed in the ordinances of the
Church. This view of the Christian doctrines has
been more fully developed by Strauss, who has en-
tirely denied a liistorical truth to the New Testament,
and made tiie whole simjily a mythological repic-
.■-entation of great moral and spiritual idea.s. On the
doctrine of immortality, Hegel has .said but little,
and that little by no means satisfactory. However
the depth and conipreliensiveness of his system may
charm the mind that loves to rationalize upon every
religious doctrine, it can, assuredly, give but little
consolation to the heart, that is yearning with earnest
longings after holiness and imn-.ort.ality."
In rtic view of Hegel, the absolute religion to
which all the others are only preparatory stages is
Christianity. In the God-Man is manifested the
nnity of man with God. In the mind of mankind
(rod evolves himself, and thus it i.s that mankind's
knowing of God is God's knowing of himself. The
revelation of absolute knowledge is the very essence
and design of Christianity, according to the .system
of Hegel, and hence he hold in utter contempt all
mere emotional religion. Thus, referring to the sys-
tem of Schlciermacher, he declares, " If religion in
man be founded on feeling only, ibis feeling can be
correctly delined only as the feeling of dependence ;
and hence the dog vvouhl be the best Christian, for
he has this feeling most strouglv developed in him-
self, and lives chiefly in tliis feeling. The dog has
even cravings for salvation when his liunger is ap-
peased by a bone."
During his life, the doctrines of Hegel were ably
(supported by a few faithful and devoted followers,
particulariy by Daub, lleinrichs, and Marheinieko;
but it was after his death in 18.31 that a school of
Hegelians assiuned to itself a decided place in the
literature of Germany. In the outset of their career
as a philosoiihieo-religious sect, the first and chief
efibrt of this liody of profound thinkers was to estab-
lish the accordance of the system which their nn\s-
ter had beijueatbcd to them, with the doc-lrlnes of
Christianiiy as laid down in the Bible. In connec-
tion will- this main sidiject. the first point of contro-
versy which arose referred to the question, wbcthei
immortality in the sense of a jjersonal existence aftei
death bad ever been taught by Hegel. The disci-
jdes of tliC Hegelian school now S]ilit into two jjar-
ties, the orthodox and the unorthodox ji.arty. The
former included Gabler, Gii.schel, Kosenkrauz, ami
Schaller. The latter was headed by Strauss, the
celebrated author of Das Leben Je ii, the Life of
•lesus, a woi'k which, published in 1835. denied the
historical existence of the God-man, and pushed to
its farthest limits the idea of Hegel, that not Christ
but mankind was the Son of God. In boldness of
statement the disciple far outran the master. He
attempted to prove that the Christ of the Gospels
is historically imjiossiblc, and can only be understood
as a myth. Professing as Strauss did to follow in
the steps of Hegel, the 'Life of Jesus' no sooner
appeared, than it called forth from all quarters ot
Germany the loudest denunciations, not only against
its author pcr.sonally, but against the whole Hegelian
school to which be belonged. Slraiiss was followed
by the Tubingen school, including Bam-, Teller, and
Schwegler, who laboiux'd to show that all the books
of the New Testament, with the exception of five,
were the fabriciitions of the second century. Peuer-
bach went still farther, and exerted his utmost in
genuitv to show that theology was only a reflection
of anthropology, and all leligion only a dream.
Thus was the absolute idealism of Hegel pushed by
his followers to the extreme of infidelity, .and no-
religion. But at this point matters reached their
crisis, and as might have been expected, a decided
reaction took place. 'I'lie ablest theologians of Ger-
many entered the field of conflict in defence of the
revealed truth of God. Neander, Tholuck, Liicke.
Hoffmann, .and Ebrard, with a host of others, replied
to Strauss and the Tubingen school so efl'ectively,
that tlie whole religious aspect of Germany has
within the last fifteen or twenty years undergone a
complete revulsion in favour of evangelical Chris
lianity.
HEGIRA (Ar.ab. flight), the grand era from which
all Moslem time is reckoned. It dates from the
IGth July A.I). 622, being the jn-ecise period at
which the projdiet Mohammed fled with his followers
from Mecca to Medina, that he might escape the
persecution of the Koreischites. On account of ri-
valries in commcree, the inhal itants of Medina were
jealous of those of Mecca, and lu) sooner therefore
did the prophet arrive in their city, than they pro-
fessed themselves his followers, and Moh.amracd seiz
jug the opportunity declared his mission, and took
up his residence in the town. This was in the four-
teenth year after he had proclaimed himself a pro-
jiliet, during the reign of Ileraclius in Constantinople,
and Khosron Parvis in Persia. 'I'he Medinese were
delighted to receive tht prophet, and forllnviih
changed the n.amc of their city from Yatreb to Mc-
dinet-al-Nabi, wliich signifies the city of the prophet.
HEGOUMENOS (Gr. ruler), the superior of a
HEIDELBERG CATECmS:.!— HELA.
If)
convent, the abbot or arch!inumli-i.te of a inonasteiy
in connection witli tlie (!reek clmrch.
HEIDELBEKG CA ^ECHIS^r, a " Form of In-
ftriiction," as it was nriginallv called, drawn np by
Caspar Olevianns and Zecliariali Ursinus in 15(52, for
flie use in the first instance of the llefomied Church
of the Palatinate, but afterwards received throughout
nearly the wliole of the Reformed Churches. This
excellent catechism, which was also called the Pala-
tine Catechism, was the model on which the West-
minster Divines formed the Shorter Catechism
of the Presbyterian cluirches in Britain. In later
times the Heidelberg Catechism wa-; translated into
almost all the modern languages, and many connnen-
taries were written upon it. It is divided into 129
questions, and it consists of three princijial parts: 1.
Concerning the misery of man in consequence of sin ;
2. Concerning the rediinption from that state; and
3. Concerning man's gratitude for that redemption.
The Heidelberg Catechism is a recognized symbolic
standard by the Dutch Reformed Church both in
Hollaiul and America.
HEIDELBEKG CONFESSION, a confession
drawn up by Bullinger, and iiublished by order of
the Elector Palatine A. D. 1564. It appeared at first
in Latin, and afterwards a German ti'anslation was
prepared by the author liimself. Though designed
originally for the use of the Reformed Churches in
the Palatinate, it came to be generally recognized
by the Calvinian churches both in Germany and
France.
HEIDRUN, a she-goat, which in the ancient
Scandinavian mythology is said to stand above Val-
lialla, or the heaven of heroes, and to feed on the
leaves of a very famous tree called Ija;rath. From
tlie teats of this she-goat flows mead in such abun-
dance, that every day a vessel large enough to bold
more than would suffice for all the heroes, is tilled
•with it.
HEIFER, a young cow anciently sacrificed by the
Jews in the temple of Jerusalem. It is called in
Num. xix. 2, by a term which in the original signities
"the 'red heifer," Special and minute directions were
given in the Law of Moses in reference to the sacri-
fice of this anin-al. A heifer wholly red was to be
selected, without one single spot of any other colour,
" free from blemi.sh, and on whicli the yoke had
never yet come." This aniinal was to be brought to
the priest, who was to slay her without the camp.
Having slain the heifer, he was to dip liis finger in
llie blood, and to sprinkle it seven times before the
tabernacle; after which he was to burn the carcase,
and taking cedar wood, hyssop, and scarlet wood, to
cast them into the flames. The ashes were then to
be gathered up, (see Ashes,) and laid in a clean
place for the use of the congregation, by the sprink-
ling of which ashes in water, it became a water of
sejiaration. This peculiar ceremony is supposed by
some to have been intended as a reproof to the super-
Etitions of idolatrous nations. But such a view of the
matter can scarcely be maintained, when we consider
that cows never were s.acriliced by the Egyptians, being
considered as sacred to Isis. In connection witli the
red colour of the heifer, Sir William Ousely lias
shown, that ahnost all over the East, idols were
painted or smeared with red. It has been supposed
that a red lieifer was sacrificed every year by the
Jews, and its ashes distributed over all the towns
and cities of Israel. JIaimonides, however, denies
this, and states, "Nine red heifers liave been .sacri-
ficed between the delivering of this precept and the
desolation of the second temple. Our master Moses
sacrificed the first ; ICzra olfered up the second ; and
seven more were slain during the period which
elapsed from the time of Ezra to the destruction of
the second temple; the tenth. King Messiah himself
shall saci'ifice ; by his speedy manifestation he shall
cause great joy. Amen : May he come quickly."
See Inoi.ATUY.
HEIMDALL, tlie porter or .sentinel of the gods
among the old Scandinavians. His jn-ovince was to
watch at one of the extremities of the bridge Bi-
iTvOST (which see), for fear the giants should make
use of it to get into lieaven, " It was a difficidt
matter," says Mallet, " to surprise him ; for tlie gods
had given him the faculty of sleejiing more lightly
than a bird, and of discovering objects b\' day or
night farther than the distance of a hundred leagues.
He had also an ear so fine that he could hear the
veiy grass grow in the meadows and the wool on the
backs of the sheep. He carried in the one liand a
sword, and in the other a trumpet, the sound o(
which coidd be heard through all the worlds." The
Prose Edda tlius describes him : " One of them (the
deities) is Hcimdall, called also the White God. He
is the son of nine virgins, who wore sitters, and is a
very sacred and powerful deity. He also bears the
.appellation of tlie Gold-toolhed, on account of his
teeth being of pure gold, and also that of Hallinski-
thi. His horse is called Gidltopp, and he dwells in
Iliminbjorg at the end of Bifrbst. He is the warder
of the gods, and is therefore placed on the borders of
heaven, to prevent the giants from forcing their way
over the bridge. He requires less sleep than a bird,
and sees by night, as well as by day, a hundred
miles around him. So acute is his ear that no sound
escapes him, for he can even hear the grass glowing
on the earth, and the wool on a sheep's bacli. He
has a horn called the Gjallor-horn, which is heard
throughout the universe." In the confusion of the
last times, Loki and Hcimdall fight and mutually
kill each other.
HEL, a term which in the Scandinavian mytho-
logy is synonymous with the hell or hades — the
lower regions of other creeds, with the important
exception, however, that it docs not imply either a
place or a state of punishment.
HEL.A, the goddess of Death among the .tncient
Scandinavians. She was said to have been banished
into the lower regions, where she has the govern
IG
HELENA— HELL.
ment of nine worlds, into which she distribntcs tliose
who are sent to lit-r. Eating ami drinking appear to
have been observed in tlie liall of Ilela, much in tlie
same manner a,< in tliat of Odin. Li the Alvis-ma!,
mention is made of a kind of corn which grows in
the infernal regions, and it is st.ated that the inhabi-
tants are regaled plentifully witli sujjplies of mead.
The regions over which Hela ruled were reserved for
those t!iat died of disease or old age. Her palace
W.TS Anguish : lier table Famine ; her waiters were
Slowness and Delay ; the threshold of her door was
Precipice; lier bed Care; she was livid and ghastly
pale; and her looks inspired liorror. Hela, who
thus rided over nine worlds in Xifleheini, was the
daughter of Loki, the contriver of all mischief, and
the disgrace of gods and men.
HELEXA, the daughter of Zeiig and Leda, and
being possessed of remarkable beauty, she was said
to have been carried off by Theseus to Attica. She
was delivered by the Dioscuri, wlio conveyed her to
Sparta, where amid numerous suitors she became tlie
wife of Menelaus. Afterwards she was seduced and
carried off by Paris to Troy, thus giving rise to the
Trojan war.
HELENA'S (St.) DAT, a festival in the Romish
church, celebrated on the IStli of August in honour
of the Einpress Helena, the mother of Constautine
the Great. Tliis female saint is said to have dis-
covered the wood of the true cross at Jerusalem,
some two hundred and fifty years after the total de-
struction of that city by the Romans.
HELICOXIDES, a name given to the Muses of
ancient Greece, from Blount nelicon, where there
was a ."anctnarv dedicated to their worship.
HELI0G.\T5ALU.S, an ancient Syrian deity, al-
leged by Dio and lltTodian to be the Sun, the name
being said to be derived from tlie Greek word helios.
the Sim. The symbol of tliis god was a large stone
or rock, rising up in the form of a mountain ; and at
Rome he was wois1:ipped under the form of a pyra-
midal stone. The Roman Emperor Elagabalus was
in his early days a priest of this Syro Phoenician
Sun-god ; and even after he had ascended the throne
of the Caesars, he demanded that his favourite god
should take the precedence of all the gods of Rome,
and even of Jupiter himself.
HELIOS, the Sun or tlie Sun-god of ancient
Greece, the son of Hyperion and Tlieia. He is re-
presented as riding in a chariot drawn by fiery steeds
round the world. He is often confounded with
ApoHo, who is sometimes represented with rays
round his head. Wherever Helios was worshipped,
sacred flocks of oxen arc mentioned in connection
with this god, and in Sicily in particular, which was
anciently sjicrcd to him, he is said to have had large
(lockii of sheep and oxen. Tcmjiles to the worship
of Helios a;i|iear to have existed in Greece at a very
early period, and in later limes in a great variety of
different parts of Greece, more especially in the
island of Rhodes, where the celebrated Colossus was
an image of Helios or the Sun. The animals oilcred
in sacrilice to this god were white, and esjecially
white horses were used for this purpose. Of the
animals, the cock was considered as particularly
sacred to Helios. The worship of the Sun was prac-
tised also among the ancient Romans, not however
under the name of Helios, which was peculiar to
Greece, but under that of Sol (which see).
HELL. Both in the Hebrew and Greek Scrip-
tures there are two words, Shcol and Hades, which
are sometimes translated '■ hell," but which denote
the world of dejiarted .<|)irits in general ; while there are
other two words similarly translated — Tartaros and
Gehenna — which signify the place of eternal punish-
ment reserved for the wicked after deaili. The ex-
istence of a hell as well as of a heaven, of a place of
everlasting misery as well as of a jjlace of ever-
lasting happiness, forms an essential part of every
religious creed. The Amenti of the ancient Egyp-
tians, the Patala of the Hindus, and the Orcits of the
Romans, refer to a future state ; but the doctrine of
■A future punishment is found embodied in all reli-
gious systems, whether Christian, Heathen, Jewish,
or Mohammedan.
The Christian Scriptures describe hell as a place
of torment, the bottomless pit, the worm that never
dies, the fire that never shall be quenched. The
eternity of hell's torments is placed on precisely the
same footing as the eternity of heaven's bliss. Thus
"The wicked shall go away into everlasting punish-
ment, but the righteous into life eternal." Some have
ventured to deny the eternal duration of the puni.-^h-
ment of the wicked, but the same word which is used
in the Bible to express the duration of the misery of
the wicked, is employed also to ex|'re>s the duration of
the happiness of the righteous ; and we have no rea-
son to believe that the inspired writers would use
the same word to express ideas essentially different
from one another. The Jewish R;ibbi.«, as we have
seen in the article Heaven, believe in an upper and
a lower heaven, and in the same way they believe
that there is an upper and a lower hell. Some of
them suppose that hell was created before the world,
while others assign its formation to the second day
of creation, and thus they account for no deelaratiou
being made concerning the work of that day that it
was good. The usual appellation which the Kabbis
give to hell is Gehennom, to which the Talmud adds
seven other names, said to he applied to seven man-
sions into which hull is divided. It is further al-
leged, that " in hell there are seven dwellings or
divisions; and in each division six thousand houses;
and in each house, six thousand chests ; and in each
chest six thousand barrels of gall." A high rabbini-
cal authority affirms each of the divisions of hell to
be as far in depth as one can walk in three hundred
years. The whole extent is thus described in the
Talmud : " Egypt is four hundred miles in length,
and the .«ame in breadth. Kgj-pt is cc|iial in extent
to a sixth part of Ethiopia; ICthiippi.i to a si.xili part
HELL.
n
of the world ; the world to a sixtli part of the garden
ill Rderi ; the garden to a sixth part of Eden ; Eden
fci a sixth part of hell. The whole world, therefore,
in respect of hell is but as the cover of a caldron ; and
the extent of hell is inadequately expressed even l)y
tliis comparison."
\ Uabbinical writer, quoted by Mr. Allen in his
' Modern Judaism,' says of the first division : " In it
there are many caverns, and in them are fiery lions :
and when a man falls into one of those caverns, the
lions devour him : and when he is consumed, he ap-
pears again, as perfect as if he had not bet'u touched
by the tire : and they who are thus restored, are
afterwards thrown into the fire of every cavern in
the first division. — In it are ten of the seventy na-
tions : and among them is Absalom. — An angel be.ats
everyone witli a tiery whip, — and they are tin-own in
and consumed with fire. Then are brought forth
others, whom he likewise beats ; and they are thrown
into the fire. And thus are all of them served, till
all have had their doom. Last of all, Absalom is
brought forth, in order to his receiving the same
punishment. But then is heard a voice from heaven,
saying, Beat him not, neither burn him ; because he
is one of the sons of my beloved, who said at mount
Sinai, All that the Lord hath said, we will do. This
process of beating and btmiing is said to be repeated
seven times hi the day, and three times in the night ;
but Absalom is declared to be exempted from it all.
The same writer proceeds to describe each of the six
other infernal mansions as containing ten of the
seventy nations who undergo the same punishments,
and one or more wicked Israelites who enjoy the same
exemption as Ab.saloni. Such is the manner in which
rabbinical justice dispenses vengeance to the Gen-
tiles, and impunitv to wicked Israelites. The Tal-
mud declares, that the fire of hell has no power over
the sinners among the Israelites. Another oracle
savs : Hereafter both the Israelites and the peo|i!o
of the world shall go down to hell : and the people
of the world shall be consumed and destroyed ; but
the Israelites shall come out again unhurt."
Many of the Jews believe in hell, not as an eter-
nal dwelling-place of the wicked, but, to the Israel-
ites at least, as a place of temporary pm-gatorial
punishment ; and the Rabbis teach that the prayers
of a son are of powerful efficacy in delivering his
father's soul from hell. The repetition of the Ko-
ni:sn (which see), also, a certain prayer in the daily
morning service, is powerful in accomplishing the
same end. Very wicked people are believed by
some Kabbis to be annihilated. The torments of
hell, whether they be temporary or eternal in the
view of Jewish writers, are at all events alleged to
have seasons of intermission. Tlius Menasseh says,
" Even the wicked, of whom it is said that they
descend into hell, and ascend not from thence, enjoy
rest on the Sabbath. The Sabbath is therefore called
' a delight,' because thereon those above and below are
bdlh delighted. Another writer says: the Sabbalh
is to the wicked in hell a day of rest. — But for this
they receive a double punishment on the sixtli day.
Another says, that they have every day, at each
time of prayer, morning, evening, and night, an hour
and half of rest. Wherefore tlicy rest, in the whole,
every day, four hours and half. — They likewise rest
twenty-four hours, every Sabbath ; which, added to
the other, make fifty-one hours of rest in the week."
According to the teaching of various Rabbis
there are three kinds of punishment in hell — heat,
cold, and the perturbation of the soul. The heat
they suppose to be occasioned by a violent fire,
which, in the opinion of some, "is not properly a
body that can receive its sustenance from wood and
other combustible matter i-ediieible to ashes, but
Grod maintains and feeds it, and keeps it shut up in
a place; as he has placed millions of angels in hea-
ven." The punishment is said by some to be in-
creased by changing its character, the unhappy vic-
tim being plunged at one time in scorching flames,
and at another in freezing cold. To these material
torments are also added the anxieties and devouring
anguish of a guilty conscience.
Tlie Mohammedans, like the Jews, divide hell,
which they term Gchennom, into seven portions,
but they are not agreed as to the inhabitants of its
several districts. The most common opinion in re-
gard to them is, that the first division, Gehennom,
properly so called, is destined for those worshippe s
of the true God who have not acted up to the prin-
ciples of the faith wliich they professed ; the second
division, called Lodha, is for the Christians ; the third,
named Hotliama, is for Jews; the fourth, denominated
S'dir, is destined for the Sabeans ; the fifth, called
Sacfir, is for the Magians or Guebres ; the sixth
named Gehim, Avill receive Pagans and idolaters,
while the seventh, the severest place of punishment
in tlie lowest depths of the abyss, is named Ilooviat,
and reserved for the hypocritical professors of reli-
gion. A guard of nineteen angels keep watch over
each of these apartments. Instead of the seven
divisions, one Mohammedan commentator smvs, that
hell has seven gates, by which he allcgorically inti-
mates seven sins: 1. Avarice; 2. Gluttony; .3.
Hatred; 4. Envy; 5. Anger; G. Luxury; and 7.
Pride. Another says tliat these gates are seven
members by which men commit sin.
The Mohammedans believe that the punishment
of those in the district of Gehennom will not be eter-
nal, but that after their crimes are expiated by pur-
gatorial flames, they will be admitted into paradise.
Between heaven and hell they believe there is an
intermediate place called Araf (which see).
The Hindus believe in a graduated scale of future
punishments as well as rewards ; the less wicked
being sunk into a lower position in the next birth —
the more wicked being sent down to one or other of
innumerable hells, to reappear, however, on earth,
in mineral, animal, and vegetable forms before they
rise to the huni.an, — the most wicked of all beiiis
18
HELLEXISTS— HELLOTIS.
dooniod to experin'iicc ilic misery ami woe of perdi-
tion till the time of llie liissoliitioii of all things.
According to the M-stem of the Hiidhists there are
eiglit principal »rtr<(/.-fl.<, or places of torment, Jill of
tlicm situated in the interior of the earth, and so en-
closed that there is no possibilily of escape from it.
The following description of the lindliisr hell is given
by Mr. Spence Hardy in his ■ .Manual of Biidliism :'
'• Under tlie great Bo-tree, at the depth of 100 yo-
janas, is the roof of Awichi, the (iarnc-s from which
burst forth beyond the walls, and rise to the height
of 100 yojana.s'. 'I'here arc 1 6 naraUas called Osnpat,
exterior to Awiclii, four on each side. The distance
from the centre of .\wichi to the onterniost part of
tlie Osnpat narakas is 19,400 gows, and at this part
they verge ujion the great sea. By the power of the
beings who sniVer in Am'chi, the doors of the Osiijiat
narakas are continually opening and shutting. The
flames proceeding through tlie doors, when they are
thus thrown open, hurst upon th.e waters of the sea,
to the distance of many yojanas, and thus cause a
vacuum. Towards this vacuum the water of the sea
is continually drawn, in a pow(ufid manner, and with
great noise and tumult, so that any shij) coming near
would be undoubtedly destroyed. This naraka is
called Awi'ehi, from a, negalive, and ww/ii, refuge,
because it affords no way of escape ; it allows of no
intermission to its misery.
"There is also the hell called L6kf'intarika, which
is the intervening s|race between every three sak-
walas. In this world, there is above neither sun,
niO(m, nor light ; and below there is water, extremely
cold. The darkness is incessant, except in tlie time
of a supreme Budha, when occasionally the rays
jiroceeding from his person, and filling the whole of
the 10,000 sakwalas, are seen; but this appearance
is only for a moment, like the lightning, no sooner
seen than go)ie.
" The inhabitants of Sanji'wa live 500 years, each
year being the san.e length as a j^ear in Chalurma-
hantjika, so that their age is 160,000 kelas of the
years of men. In Kalasi'itra the age is 1,290,000
kelas of years. In Sanghata it is one prakoli and
368.000 kelas. In Bowrawa, it is eight prakotis and
2,944.000 kelas. In Maha Rowrawa, it is sixty-foiu-
prakotis and .^,.''.68,000 kelas. In Tilpa, it is 530
prak()tis and 8,410,000 kelas. In Awichi it is an
entire anta-kal|)a."
The hell or infernal regions of the ancient heathens
was a mighty kingdom over which Pluto reigned,
and within its vast domains included the whole sub-
terranean woi-ld. Four rivers, Acheron, Styx, Co-
cytus, and Phlegethon, must be passed by the dead
before they found an entrance to the gloomy realms
of the shades below. According to the description
ot Virgil the regions of this kingdom were five in
iiiimbcr. The first or preparatory region was the
abode of all kinds of diseases, distresses, discord, and
war, and next U> these ccmtauis, harpies, giants, and
fabulous monsters of every description. The second
region was that of the waters through which llowcd
the Styx. 'J'he third was Erebus, in which Virgil
places infants, persons condemned to death without
cause, suicides, and those who had fallen in war.
This region was watched by Cerberus, the three-
headed dog; and here was erected the judgment-
seat of Minos, who assigned to each one of the
shades its special residence. The fourth region was
called Tartarus, wheredwelt ihosewho had been guilty
of great crimes. The fifth region was Elysium, the
abode of the blessed.
In the Scimdiiiavian mythology the wicked first
pa.ss to Hcl, which seems simply to denote the abode
of the dead, and thence to Hel/ichn or Nijlhem), which
is represented as being the dwelling-id.ace of Hi:r,A
(which see), in the ninth world. This, like Val-
halla, was not an eternal but a temporary place of
residence, and in a remote futurity the iiduibitants of
both regions will be consigned by Alfadir, either to
Gimli or to Nmtroml, both of which will be eternal.
HELLENISTS, a name apidied to the Grecian
Jews who lived in Egypt and other countries where
the Greek language was spoken, thus being distin-
guished from the Hebrews, properly so-called, wlio
used the Hebrew tongue. It was iu the time of
Alexander the Great that the Jews began to divide
themselves info Hebrews and Hellenists. They be-
came acquainted at this era with the langiuige, liter-
ature, and philosophy of the Greeks. The Greek
tr.anslalion of the Seventy was accomiilished at this
time, and synagogues were rapidly multiplied in all
parts of the world. Thus, in a most remarkable
manner, was preparation made for the diifusion of
that blessed Gospel which should come from the Jews.
No less important was the change wliich now took
place npon the character and habits of the Jews them-
selves. Their literature had even from the remotest
periods of their history been of a peculiar and al-
mo>t exclusive nature. By the influence, however,
of the langu.'igo and literature of Greece, wliich at
this jieriod began to be largely felt, tlie foundation
was laid of a new epoch in Jewish literature, which
received the name of Ilelleni.-^tic. Thus arose the
Alexandrian school of philosophy, which, by com-
bining Greci.an with the OrieiiLal modes of thinking,
led to the diversified forms of Gnosticism which
formed so characteristic a feature in the aspect of
Christianity during the first two centuries after the
Christian era.
HELLOTIA, a festival celebrated at Corinth in
honour of Athena, and akso in Crete in honour of
Kiirapa.
•HKLLOTIS, a surname of Athena at Corinth,
supposed to be derived from Hellotia, a daughter of
Tiinander, who, having taken refuge in the temple
of Athena, when Corinth was burnt down by the
Dorians, was destroyed, along with her sister, in the
temple. A short time after this disaster, the plague
broke out at Corinth, and it was declared by the on\-
cle that the pislileiice should not cca.se until a tern
HELMSTADIAN CONTROVERSY— HELVETIC REFORMED CHURCHES.
19
[lie was erecteii in lionour of AtJiena Hdlotis. The
term Hdlotis was also used as a siinianie of Eiiropa
in Crete.
HELMS rADL\X CONTROVERSY, a name
given to tlie controversy rai'-ed by Calixtns in tlie
seventeentli century, from Helnistadt, tlie place where
it originated. See Calixtins.
HELVETIC REFORMED CHURCHES. Chris-
tianitv was first introdnced into Helvetia or Swit-
zerland, in the seventh century, hy St. Gall, a
native of Ireland. Tliis pious monk was educated
at Bangor near Belfast, under Columbanus, and was
one of twelve Irish monks who left Ireland about
A. D. .''iPO, with the view of dilTusing a knowledge of
Christian truth on the continent of Europe. For
twenty years these zealous Irish missionaries la-
boured in Burgtmdy, and at the end of that jjeriod,
througli the opposition of the Pagans in that dis-
trict, Columbanus was driven intoe.xile, accompanied
by St. Gall. Ascending tlie Rhine, they entered
Switzerland about A. D. GIO, and took up tlieir resi-
dence at the head of the lake of Zurich. Here the
natives were wholly under tlie influence of Pag.in
idolatry, and St. Gall, burning with zeal, set fire to
the Pagan temple of tlie district, casting the idols
into the lake. Tliis, as might have been anticipated,
instead of gaining over the people to tlie side of
Christianity, only roused their indignation against
the missionaries, and the result was, tliat St. Gall
and his companions were compelled to seek refuge
in flight. Passing through the canton of St. Gall,
they formed a settlement at Bregentz, at the eastern
extremity of the lake of Constance. Taught by past
experience that tlie wrath of man worketli not tlie
righteousness of God, the monks conducted their
mission here with zeal, tempered with prudence, and,
accordingly, they met witli some measure of success.
At the end of two years, however, through the in-
fluence of the Pagan part of the population, they
were banished from this place also. Columbanus
and his companions, discouraged by the treatment
tliey had experienced in Switzerland, quitted the
country, and retired to Italy, leaving St. Gall be-
hind so sick as to be unable to be removed. On re-
covering from his illness, he repaired with a few
adherents to a sequestered spot, where he erected
the monastery of St. Gall in the canton of the same
name. Here he spent tlie rest of his days in works
of piety and devotion, while from his nionastcry the
light of Christianity was diffused over the snrrouud-
ing country. St. Gall lived to a very advanced age,
and died at Arbon A. D. 640.
After the death of Gallus or St. Gall, several of
his scholars continued to labour for the conversion
of the Swiss, founding monasteries, and sending forth
missionaries to impart to the people a knowledge of
Divine truth. Several monks also in succession
came from Ireland, through whose exertions a Hel-
vetian church was formed, strictly Romish in its char-
acter, and yielding implicit submission to the Papal
power. Paganism gradually lost its liold of the
country, and Christianity, in the form of Romani.sm,
was substituted in its place.
Matters continued with little variation in fills con-
dition down to the .sixteenth century. For some
time before that period, however, peculiar circum-
stances had been gradually nndenniiiing the influence
of the Pope in Switzerland. Though strongly and
enthusiastically attached to their native land, tlie
Swiss people had, from want of employment in
their own country, been in the habit of enlisting
extensively in tlie service of foreign countries.
Brave, hardy, and persevering, they were highly
prized as soldiers, and tliey had often determined
the fortune of war on the battle fields of north-
ern Italy. In his contentions with other nations,
the Pope frequently found it necessary to solicit
the support of the thirteen cantons ; and the more
elTectually to accomjilish his purpose, he was in
the habit of liberally distributing among the people
indulgences and church benefices. The natural
consequence of this hidiscriminate distribution of
church patronage was, tliat the clerical order be-
came rapidly degraded, and that intense reverence
wlu'cli the Swiss church and people had .so long en-
tertained f(u- the see of Rome was now much dimi-
nislied. The Swiss governments assumed a much
more inde|iendent bearing towards the Pope, and as
Gieseler well remarks, " the evil of foreign enlist-
ment, which was perpetually denounced by patriots
as the ruin of Switzerland, brought with it its own
cure, by lielping to prepare the ground for the re-
formation of the cliurch."
The Reformation in Switzerland, though contem-
poraneous witli that in Germany, was entirelv inde-
pendent of it, and proceeded from forces pecnli.ar to
tlio Helvetic church. D'Aubigiid divides it into
three periods, in which tlie liglit of the Gospel is
seen to emanate from three dilfercnt centres, all of
them, however, within the Swiss cantons. " From
1519 to 152G Zurich was tlie centre of the Reforma-
tion, which was then entirely German, and was pro-
jiagated in the eastern and northern parts of the
confederation. Between 152G and 1532 the move-
ment was communicated from Berne: it was at once
German and French, and extended to the centre of
Switzerland from the gorges of the Jura to the deep-
est valleys of the Alps. In 1532 Geneva became
the focus of the light ; and the Reformation, which
was here essentially French, was established on the
shores of the Leman lake, and gained strength in
every quarter."
The main instrument in commencing and carrying
forward the work of Reformation in Switzerland was
L'Iric Zwingli, a man eminently qualified, in many re-
spects, to take the lead in this great movement. Pos-
sessed of a strong and clear judgment, his ardent
love of truth, and an earnest zeal for its propagation,
combined with a coolness, caution, and fearless intre-
pidity of the most remarkable kind, marked him out
20
nELYETIC REFOK.MED CHUKCIIES.
as \vi>ll tiltd to take rank with siidi illiistriciis men
ad LutluT liiid Calvin. Zwingli was born at Wild-
lians. a village on the lake of Zmicli, on the 1st of
Jiuumry 1484. The first ten years of hU life were
spent in the liouse of one of his uncles, from wliicli
lie passed to the care of Uinzliiis, a teaeher of con-
siderable reputation at Basle. Here he made ve-
niarkalile progi-ess in his .studies, and distinguished
himself bv liis superior talents and attaiumeuts. He
was now removed to Beriie, where he studied under
Henry Lupnlus, an eminent professor of (lie belles
lettrcs. AVhile thu.s ensa'^ed at Berne, the Domini-
cans wished to persuade Zwiugli to join their order,
and with this view they prevailed upon him to come
and reside in their convent. Tlie step, however,
met with the decided disapproval of his father, -wlio
ordered him forthwith to leave Berne, and proceed
to Vienna. Thither, accordingly, Zwingli went, and
devoted himself to the study of philosophy.
Ilaviug spent two years at Vienna, Zwingli re-
turned to Basle, where, though not yet eighteen
years of age, he took upon him the charge of a school,
studying theology at the .same time under Thomas
Wyttenbach, wlio did not conceal from his pupils
the errors of the Cliurch of Borne, but boldly ex-
posed tliem, and inculcated a spirit of free inquiry
altogether unfettered by human .authority. To the
prelections of this able theologian, Zwingli in after
life was accustomed to acknowledge his deep obli-
gations. After having studied for four years longer
with great diligence and assiduity, lie was created
Master of Art.s. His preparatory studies being now
completed, he preached his first sermon in A. D.
1506. and was the same year chosen by the commu-
nity of Glarus to be their pastor. Thus invested
with a sacred character, and called to the discharge
of most responsible duties. Zwingli not only conti-
nued the study of the Latin classics, but devoted
him.self zealously to the careful examinalion of the
Sacred Scriptures. From the writings of the fa-
thers of the church also, more especially those of
.\ugustiiie, Ambrose, and Chrysostom, he drew much
information, both .as to the doctrines and practices
of the early church. Tims the ecclesiastical abuses
which Kome had introduced became obvious to his
mind, and he hesitated not, while expounding the
Scriptures from the pulpit, to exjiose faithfully and
fearlessly the innovations which, in the course of
centuries, h.ad been ingrafted upon the simplicity
and purity of the primitive ages of C'hri.stianity. As
yet he was quite devoted to tlie Pope ; he received
from him a pen>ion as an influential preacher, and
publicly approved of the support rendered by the
Swiss to the Holy See. Gradually, however, bis
opinions beg.an to undergo a remarkable change,
more esjiecially as to some of the leading points
of the Christian system. His studies being much
directed to the Word of God, be arrived at the set-
tled conviction thai the Holy Scripture is the sufH-
cicut and only rule of faitli and obedience. This
was the first step taken towards emaucipalion from
the yoke of Rome.
'i'lie fame of Zwingli as a preacher and a divine
from this time rose higher every d.ay. In A. n. 1513
be set himself to the study of the Greek language,
and entered with ze.al into the examination of the
New Testament in tlie original. His sermons were
now characterised by a remarkably simple and Scrip-
tural style. But Zwingli, while he sought to ac(piit
himself as a faithful miuister of Christ, look a lively
interest in the ]uiljlic atl'airs of the time. Ho was botli
a Christian and a patriot, and he could not look with-
out the deepest concern upon the unnatural position
in which a large portion of his countrymen had at
this period placed themselves, by engaging to fight on
the side of France. He therefore raised his voice, as
he had some years before used his pen, against pen-
sions and foreign enlistments. Such a step, though
thoroughly conscientious on his part, drew down iqion
him the iiidigu.ation of a large portion of the people
among whom he laboured. In these circumstances
he readily availed himself of an invitation, which he
received in A. D. 1516, to remove from Glarus, where
he had laboured so successfully, to another sphere of
usefulness, as preacher in the abbey of Einsiedeln, in
the canton of Schweitz. Here he continued Ids stu-
dies, both ill polite literature and theology. His
eyes were opening more and more to the abuses of
the church to which he belonged ; in common with
many others, he was deeply impressed with the ne-
cessity of a Reformation ; but instead of inveighing
openly against the errors of the system, Zwingli and
his friends vainly hoped that in due time the church
would reform herself, and thus supersede the neces-
sity of any movement from ■without. Meanwhile,
within his own limited sphere, he tiscd all his in-
fluence to correct glaring abuses. Thus he suc-
ceeded in persuading the administrator of the con-
vent to efface an inscription, which was jdaced over
the entrance of the .abbey, to the efl'ect, " that here
jilenary remission of all sins is obtained ;" the wor-
ship hitherto paid in the convent to saints and angels
was discouraged ; relics and other instruments of
superstitious devotion were destroyed ; the nuns
were required to read the New Testament in the
German language, and (heir attention ivas speciallv
directed to the seriptunil method of salvation through
Clirist alone.
Zwingli, however, while lie thus laboured quietly to
correct some of the most t'agraut and jialjiable errors of
the Romish church, came at length to the firm im-
pression that the time had nowarrivedto makea public
avowal tf his sentiments. Availing himself, therefore,
of the opportunity of the anniversary of the conse-
cration of the alibe.y, when vast crowds were assembled,
he took occasion to denounce the substitution of mere
external ceremonies in iil.ace of the life of God in
the soul, as an unscriptural and soul-destroying error.
"Cease to believe," said he. "that God resides in
this temple more llian in .any oilier place. What
HELVETIC REFORMED CHURCHES.
2\
ever region of the eartli you may inhabit, lie is near
you, lie surrounds you, he grants your prayers, if
they deserve to be granted ; but it is not by useless
vows, by long pilgrimages, (U- OiTeriugs destined to
adorn senseless images, that you can obtain the di-
vine favour: resist tcniplation, repress giulty desires,
shun all injustice, relieve the iniseiable, console the
afflicled, tliese are works pleasing to the Lord.
Alas ! I know it ; it is oui-sclves, the ministers of the
altar, we who ought to be the .salt of the earth, who
have led into a maze of error the ignorant and credu-
lous multitude. In order to accumulate treasures
sulficient to satisfy our avarice, we put vain and use-
loss practices in the place of good works; and the
Christians of the^^e times, too docile to our instruc-
tions, neglect to obey the law of God, and think they
can make atonement for their crimes, instead of re-
notmcing them. ' Let us live according to our de-
sires,' say they, 'let us enrich ourselves with the
goods of our neighbour; let us not fear to stain our
hands with blood and murder; we shall lind easy
expiations in the favourof the church.' Senselessmcn !
Do they think to obtain remissions for their lies, their
impurities, tlieir adulteries, their homicides, their
treacheries, by prayers reeited in honour of the Queen
of Heaven, as if she were the protectress of all evil
doers ! Undeceive yourselve.s, erring people. Tlie
God of ju.stice suffers not himself to be moved by
words which the tongue utters and the heart disowns.
Imitate the holiness of the lives of those saints at
whose feet you come hither to prostrate yourselves,
walk in their footsteps, suffering yourselves to be
turned aside neither by d.angers nor seductions ; this
is the honour you should pay them. But as to your-
selves, in the day of trouble, put your trust in none
but God, who created the heavens and the earth
with a word : invoke only Christ Jesus, who has
bought you with his blood, aiul is the sole Mediator
between God and man."
The die was now cast; the Reformer had taken
his position. His audience of course were divided
in opinion. Some were convinced by his arguments,
but not a few left the place of worship denouncing
the preacher as a heretic and traitor to his church.
The monks of the neighbouring convents, natu-
rally anxious to prevent the new doctrine fj-om
spreading among the people, stroNC to depreciate
the character and misrepi-esent the motives of Zwin-
gli. But all tl'.eir elVorts were unavailing. The
preacher of Einsiedchi was still in connection with
the Romish church ; he was looked upon by the
highest authorities in the cliurch as a man not only
of eminent talents, but of irreproachable character,
and so high did he stand in fiivour with the papal
Legate even at this time, that in a document dated
l.st September 1518, he was appointed by that dig-
nitary, chaplain to the Pope.
The intrepid reformer was not to be hindered in
liis work, either by desire of the favour or dread of
the frowns of men. In the very same year, accord-
ingly, wdien he was thus honoured by a dignitary of
the church, he openly from the pulpit of tlie convent
warned his hearers against a tratHeI-;er in indulgences,
the Franciscan Bernliardiu Samson, who made his
appearance in Switzerland. Nor did his zeal in the
cause of ecclesiastical reform stand in the way of his
promotion. On the contrary, he had been only a
year in Einsiedeln when lie was pressed to accept
the office of Lent priest in the great Minster of Zu-
rich. Tlie otl'er was tempting, but befure accepting
the office, he stipulated tliat he should not be con-
lined in bis preaching to the lessons publicly read,
but should be allowed to explain every part of tl,e
Bible. The stipulation was conceded, and on the
1st of January 1519, he entered upon his new office
in the spirit of a zealous and determined advocate of
reformed principles. In his mode of preaching he
departed widely from the universal practice of his
time. Instead of conlining his sermons to certain
passages appropriated to the festivals and different
Sundays in the year, he revived the practice of the
Fathers in expounding whole books of the Bible in
regular order.
At the commencement of the ministry of Zwingli
in Zurich, the bull of Pope Leo X. for the sale of in-
dulgences had been published throughout Christen-
dom. Luther's protest against this monstrous abuse
had been heard not in Germany alone, but in other
countries also. Zwingli was no stranger to what was
passing around him, and although he had already
lifted his voice against indulgences in the convent of
Einsiedeln, yet when Samson in the fulfilment of his
mission came to Zurich, the intrepid Swiss Reformer
denounced the unhallowed traffic in no measured
terms, and loudly censured the corruptions of the
clergy and monks. It was no small encouragement
to Zwingli that the opitiions which since 1516 he
had openly promulgated, were now preached by Lu-
ther in another country, and that the Reformation
was no longer an event to he desired, but an event
which was actually in progress. Switzerland, like
Germany, was now in a slate of religious excitement,
the adherents of the reformed opinions were daily on
the increase, while the monks and clergy warmly do
precated the slightest attempt at innovation on the
exi.sting order of things. The Papal Legate then at
Zurich tried to gain over the Swiss Reformer. But
Zwingli resigned his pension from Rome in 1520,
declaring, that no earthly consideration would pre-
vent him from preaching the gospel.
Through the influence of Zwingli, and the effect
of his preaching upon tlie minds of the people, many
of the ceremonies prescrilied by the church began to
be disregarded, and to fall into disuse. So rapidly,
indeed, did the principles of theRoformation make pro-
gress throughont Switzerland, that Erasmus, in a letter
which he wrote in 1522 to the president of the court
of Mechlin, declared, " that the spirit of reform had
so much inci'ea.^ed in the Helvetic coiife;ieracy that
there were 200,000 who abhorred the see of Rome.''
22
HELVETIC REFORMED CIICKCHES.
The civil aiilliorities of tlic country bccjiiiic jUaniied
at tlic extent to wliicli the jieople carried their disre-
gard ol' tlie injunctions of the chin-cli. Tlie fast of
Lent, which liad been kept witli tlie utmost striol-
iicss, was now neglected hy some of the towiispeoiilc
of Zurich, and on tlie complaint of several priests
they were committed to prison. When examined by
the council they maintained, as they had been taught
by Zwiiigli, that fasting during I^eul was an ordi-
nance of man altogether unsanctioned by the Word
of God. The bishop of Conslance accordingly sent
a commission to Zurich to enforce observance of the
ceremonies. The zeal of the Reformer was now
roused, and deeming it to be an imperative duty to
vindicate those who were subjected to persecution
for reformed principles, he published a tr.act on the
subject of I lie Lenten fast, as being an unscriptural
innovation of the Church of Rome. In vain did the
superior clergy remonstrate against the new doc-
trines; they spread rajiidly among the people. A
second tract from the pen of Zwingli followed a few
months after the publication of the first, and to ex-
hibit the freedom with which he exposes ecclesiastical
abuses a few pas.sages may be cited from it, which may
.serve as a .specimen of the spirit and style of the Swiss
Reformer: " Yon defend human traditions," says lie,
" by asserting that the writings of the first disciples of
Christ do not contain all that is necessary to salva-
tion ; and in support of your opinion you quote John
xvi. .5, 12, ' I have yet many things lo s.ay unto you,
but ye cannot boar them now ;' but recollect that Jesus
here speaks to his apostles, and not to iVquinas, Scotns,
Barthohis, or Baldus, whom you elevate to the rank
of supreme legislators. When Jesns adds, imme-
diately after, ' llowbeit when the Spirit of truth is
come, he will guide you into all truth,' it is still the
apostles whom he is addressing, and not men who
should rather be called disciples of Aristotle than of
Christ. If these famous doctors added to Scripture
doctrine what was deficient, it must bo confessed
that our ancestors possessed it imperfect ; that the
apo.stles transmitted it to us imperfect ; and that
Jesns Christ, the Son of God, taught it imperfect !
What blasphemy! Yet do not they who make hu-
man traditions equal or superior to the law of God,
or pretend that they are necessary to salvation,
really say this? If men cannot be .saved without
certain decrees of councils, neither the ajiostles nor
the primitive Christians, who were ignorant (jf those
decrees, can be saved. Ob.serve whither you are
tending I You defend all your ceremonies as if they
were essential lo religion; yet it exercised a much
more extensive empire over the heart when the read-
ing of pious books, prayer, and mutual exhortation,
formed the only worship of the faithlul. You accuse
me of overturning the state, because I openly cen-
sure the vices of the clergy ; no one respects more
than I do the ministers of religion, when they teach
it in all its purity, and pr.actise it with simplicity ;
but I cannot contain my indignation when I observe
shepherds who, by their conduct, appear to say to
their flocks, ' We are the elect, you the profane; we
are the enlightened, you the ignorant ; it is permit-
ted to us to live in idleness; you ought to eat your
bread by the sweat of your brow; you must abstain
from all sin, while we may give ourselves up with
imiuinity to eveiy kind of excess; you must defend
the state at the risk of your lives, but religion for-
bids us to expo-e ours.' I will now tell you what is
the Christianity that I profess, and which you en-
deavour to render suspected. It commands men lo
obey the laws, and respect the magistrate; to pay
tribute and impositions where they are due; to rival
one another only in beneficence ; to support and re-
lieve the indigent; to share the griefs of their neigh-
bour, and to regard all mankind as brethren. It
further reqinres the Christian to expect .salvation
from God alone, and Jesus Chri.st, his only Son, our
iMaster and Saviour, who givctli eternal life to them
who believe on him. Such are the principles from
which, in the exercise of my ministry, I have never
departed."
In addition to the subject of the Lenten fast,
Ztt-ingli called the atlention of the Ziu-ichers to the
gross aliuses which had siinuig up in Switzerland from
the celibacy of the clergy, and in a private letter to
the bishop of Constance he strongly urged the re-
moval of this human ordinance. Instead of listening,
however, to the respectful remonstrances of the Re-
former, the bi.-hop began to persecute several of the
clergy who had made themselves prominent in sup-
porting the new opinions. Reproaches and calum-
nies of every kind were now heaped upon Zwingli
and his friends. They were branded with the appel-
lation of Lutheran heretics, and accused of holding
opinions hostile to the See of Rome. Controversies
of the most violent description now arose between
the contending parties, and the most unseemly dis-
]mtes often took place during divine service on the
Sabbath. Such a state of matters was dee|ily dis-
tressing to the mind of Zwingli. lie was afraid that
the people might begin to lose all respect for reli-
gion, and that the most injurious consequences might
result to the morals of the community. He ajipeared
accordingly before the great council of Zurich, and
respectfully reipiested I hat a public conference should
be held at which he might have an opportunity ot
defending him.self and his doctrines. The wish of
the Reformer was acceded to, and a conference was
arranged between the two parlies, to take place on
the 29tli January 152.3, when both were a|)pointed
to set forth their respective doctrines, and to support
them by Holy iScripture alone.
In preparation for the proposed conference, Zwin-
gli published and distributed extensively sixty-seven
propositi<ms embodying the chief doctrines he had
preached. The most important of them were these •
"That the gospel is the only rule of faith, and the
assertion erroneous that it is nothing without the
approbation of the church; that Christ is the vnli)
HELVETIC REFORMED CHURCHES.
23
head of the church ; that all traditions are to be re-
jecteJ ; that the attempts of tlie clergy to justify
tlieir pomp, their ridies, honours, and dignities, are
the cause of tli« divisions in the church ; tliat pen-
ances, and other satisfactory works, are the dictates
of tradition alone, and do not avail to salvation ; that
the mass is not a sacrifice, but simply the commemo-
ration of tlie sacrifice of Cln'ist ; that meats are in-
difi'erent ; tliat the habits of monks savour of hypo-
crisy ; that God has irot forbidden marriage to any
class of CIn'istians, and conseijuently it is wrong to
interdict it to priests, whose celibacy has become tlie
cause of great licentiousness of manners; that ex-
communication ouglit only to take place for public
scandals, and be pronounced by the church of which
the sinner is a member; that tlie power which tlie
Pope and bishops arrogate to tliemselves. Is the ef-
fect of pride, and lias no foundation in Scripture ;
that God alone lias power to forgive sins ; that to
give absolution fVir money is to become guilty of
simony ; that the Scripture says nothing of such a
place as purgatory ; that the ojms operatnm, or the
assertion that grace is necessarily derived from re-
ceiving the sacraments, Is a doctrine of modern Inven-
tion ; that no person ought to be molested for his
religious opinions, it being the duty of the magis-
trate to stop those only whicli tend to disturb the
public tranquillity ; and that the word of (lod ac-
knowledges none as bisliops and priests but those
who preach the gospel."
The conference took place on the day appointed
In the presence of the council of two hundred, tlie
greater part of the nobility, and a large assembly of
the peo|)]e; and so successfully did the Swiss Re-
former defend his doctrines against Paber the vicar-
gcneral, who was his chief and almost sole opponent,
that the council closed the proceedings by passing
the following decree : "That Zwingli having neither
been convicted of heresy nor refuted, slionld continue
to preach the gospel as he had done hitherto; that
the pastors of Zurich should rest their discourses on
the words of Scripture alone ; and that both parties
should abstain from all personal reflections." The
publication of this decree gave a powerful impulse to
the progress of the Reformation in Switzerland.
The doctrines of Zwingli were generally embraced
throughout the canton of Zurich, and spreading from
one district to another, chiefly through the Labours of
the Swiss Reformer and his friend Leo Judae, who
came to Zurlcli In the beginning of L523, the minds
of the people were every day becoming more alie-
nated from the Romish church, and more favourable
to the reformed cause.
The Pope meanwhile seemed to take little or no
interest in the important religious movement which
was carrying forward among the Swiss. Zurich was
the only canton which steadfastly refused to join the
league with France, and still supplied the Papal
army with efiicient soldiers ; while the rest of the
cantons lent their support to France, and treated the
Pope's legate witli such determined hostilitj', that In i
Zurich alone could lie reside with safety. In these
circumstances Hadrian, who at that time filled the
Papal chair, felt unwilling to take aclive measures
in opposition to the reform movement In Zurich, and
contented himself, even while the controversy was at
its height, with despatching a flattering letter to
Zwingli, entreating him to employ his Influence In
retaining on the side of the Pope a canton which
had already done good service in the cause of the
cluirch. The Reformer had taken his ground, and
he was resolved to maintain it. Racked by the
Council of Zurich, he proceeded to rectify some of
the more obvious ecclesiastical abuses. Nuns were
allowed to leave their convents ; several of the clergy,
in defiance of the law of celibacy, entered Into the
married state; a German baptismal service was in-
troduced in the city, and a new and more suitable
constitution was given to the cathedral chapter. The
citizens of Zurich had now become warm friends of
the Reformation, and In their zeal they assembled
and pulled down a crucifix which had been erected
at the gate of the city. A tumult followed, and
several of the ringleaders were apprehended and
brought before the council, who, however, were di-
vided in opinion as to the extent of punishment
which ought to be inflicted upon the oHenders. Be-
fore giving sentence, therefore, they resolved to sum-
mon a second conference on the worship of Images and
the sacrifice of the mass. This conference took iilace
on the 28th of October 1.523, nearly nine hundred
persons being present. All ihc bishops and cantons
of Switzerland had been invited, but only Schatliau-
sen and St. Gall sent delegates. The discussion ter-
minated as in the first conference in favour of the
Reformers, but the council came to tlie resolution
that while they considered the worship of images as
iniscriptural, and the mass as no sacrifice, they would
leave the ancient order of things for a time undis-
turbed until the people were more thoroughly im-
formed on the disputed points. Meanwhile they
liberated the prisoners whose trial had given rise to
the conference. The bishop of Constance, ever zeal-
ous in supporting the doctrines of the Church of
Rome, published a defence of the worship of images
and the sacrifice of the mass. To this Zwingli re-
plied in an able and conclusive treatise against these
two leading doctrines of Romanism. So Inqiressed
were the council with the force of the argumenis
ad<luced by the Reformer, that they resolved to make
open concessions to the desire so generally expressed
for reform, and accordingly the shrined pictures in
the churches were allowed to be closed up, and every
priest was left free to celebrate mass or not as he
chose. In the course of a few months more an or-
der of council was issued decreeing the abolition of
Images In all places of public worship. This was
followed by the rapid disappearance of all the ob-
jects and usages of superstition, and the substltutiun
of a simjile and Scriptural mode of worship. On
24
HELVETIC REFORMED CHURCHES.
MiUimly-Thiireday 1525, tlic Lord's Supper was cele-
brated ill its origiiKil siiiijilicity iu tlie great minster
of Zurich. Mon.-vsteries wore suppressed and cluvngcd
into scliools and almsliousc?.
After Znricli liad begini tlie work of Reformation
ill Switzorl.iiid, Scliafliaiisen and Appcnzell openly
joined the party The other canton.^, jiarticnlarly
Scluveitz, Uri, Unterwaldon, T>ucenie, Fribnrg. and
Ziig, entered into a league •' with all their power, so
help them God, to stand by the old faith and banish
the new ; also to liave no fellowship witli its adhe-
rents." For some time matters assnnied a very
tlircateiiing asiiect. A civil war seemed to be im-
pending, which, however, was at this time liappily
averted.
.-Vboiit the period at which we have now arrived.
the cause of tlie Reformation was not a little impeded
in its progress, both in Switzerland and Germany, by a
keen dispute wliich arose among the Reformers them-
selves on the subject of the bodily presence of Christ
iu the sacrament of the Supper. For a few years
Zwingli had privately entertained and even publicly
promulgated opinions on tliis subject contrary alike
to those taught by th;; Church of Rome, and by the
principal leadi-rs of the Reformation. The expres-
sions used by our blessed Lord, " This is my body,"
he maintained to bo figurative in their character, and
to imply nothing more tlian that the sacramental
bread was a symbol or emblem of Christ's body.
The Lord's Supper was thus in his view a simply
commemorative ordin.ance. The same explanation
of the words of institution was given by CEcolampa-
diiis of Basle, who professed to have derived his opi-
nions on the point from the writings of .4ugnstin.
Transubstantiation, or tlie actual conversion of the
.sacramental elements into the veal body and blood of
Christ, was then, as it still is, the recognized doc-
trine of tlie Church of Rome. On this subject, there-
fore, tlie Swiss Reformer was so completely at va-
riance with the teaching of the church to which he
belonged, that lie felt no small difficulty and dcli-
c;icy iu explaining the matter to the people. While
meditating on the best mode of developing his senti-
ments, he had a dream which he thus relates: "I
tell the truth, and moreover what I have to tell is so
true, that my conscience compels me, against my
will, to reveal what the Lord h.as bestowed upon me ;
for I am well aware to wlwt jests and insults I sliall
in consequence expose myself. I .say then, that at
break of day, in a dream, I appeared to myst'If to
have a tedious debate with my former eppcnent, .and
at length to have become so complelely tongue-tied,
as to have lost the power of saying what I knew to
bo true. This inabiliiy seemed to distress me ex-
ceedingly, as delusive divams in tlie night sometimes
do-^for still, as far .as I am concevnc'd, I relate but a
mere dream, although it is by no mo.ans a light mat-
ter which I have learnt by this dream — thanks be to
God for whose glory alone I reveal these things.
When in this perplexity I thought I saw a man
(whether he was black or white I do not remember,
for I am telling only my dream) who said to me,
' Stiijiid man that thou art, canst thou not answer as
in Exodus xii. concerning the paschal lamb, This is
the Lord's passover.' I immediately awoke, rose,
consulted the passage in the Septu.agint, and m.ada
use of it in my sermon that day witli so much suc-
cess, that those who had formerly entertained doubts
on the subject of the Lord's Supper, immediately
yielded to the conviction which it produced."
To promote the progress of Divine truth, not in
Zurich alone, but throughout Switzerland generally,
Zwingli established a new academy, one of the fun-
damental rules of which wa.s, that, in the theological
department, the teaching of the professors should be
solely based on the Old and New Testaments. The
benefit of this institution was felt not only during the
lifetime of its founder, but has extended down even
to the present day, many able and accomplished
theologians having received their instruction within
its walls.
In Switzerland, as in Germany .and the Nether-
lands, the Reformation was hindered not a little by
the extravagant excesses of the Anabaptists. A
body of these fanatics having come to Zurich, suc-
ceeded in gaining over two learned men, Grcbel and
Manzius, and directed all their energies towards de-
preciating Zwingli, and diminishing his influence
among the people ; alleging that they alone were the
true church, and that all those in connection with
the reformed churches were unregeiierate. They
further insisted on the baptism of infants as invalid,
on the necessity of .adult baptism in .all cases, and on
rebaptization as the criterion of the genuine mem-
bers of the Church of Christ. The council made
every attempt to settle these disputes in an amica-
ble manner. Under their authority Zwingli hehl
private conferences with their leaders, desirous, if
possible, to convince them of their errors. All,
however, was unavailing, and the Reformer found it
necessary publicly to censure their conduct, and to
warn the people against them. Roused to madness
by this public condemnation of their doctrines, they
rushed to the city in crowds, with ropes round their
waists, and branches of nillow in their hands, pour-
ing torrents of abuse upon Zwingli, and uttering the
most fearful execrations .against him. They re-bap-
tizcd people in the public streets, proclaimed them-
selves to be the elect ones, and threatened to de-
stroy all who should oppose them.
Amid the commotions which ensued, Zwingli ex ■
erted all his influence with the council to prevent
them from using coerci-'e measures .against the Ana-
baptists, hoping by gentle moans to reclaim them
from the error of their ways. A small line at first was
the penalty imposed upon them for re-baplizing, and
this being inetfcctu.al, some of them were apprehend-
ed and committed to prison. Such moderate mea-
sures, however, had little effect in restraining thesa
misguided men from disturbing the peace of tlie city.
HELVETIC REFORMED CHURCHES.
25
The council accordingly procedded to take still
more stringent steps, and issued an edict forbidding
them under pain of death to re-baptize any person
within the territories of Zurich. In the face of this
decree, Manzius persisted in re-biijitizing a number
of people ; whereupon, being apprehended, and de-
claring bis determination to act in defi.ance of the
law, he was publicly executed on the 5th of January
1527. Tliis decided step, on the part of the civil
authorities, which had not been taken without ear-
nest remonstrances against it by Zwingli, had the
desired effect in checking the excesses of the Ana-
baptists, and putting an end to the tumults tliey had
raised.
The reformed doctrines were now professed gen-
erally throughout most of the cantons of Switzer-
land. In Berne especially, they had been exten-
sively received. The old superstitions were fast
disappearing; the Romish cathedrals and churches
were almost wholly deserted ; and the sermons of the
reformed preachers were listened to by crowded and
eager audiences. A proposal was made to abolish
the mass, and to make a public avow.al of adherence
to the Reformation. Before doing so, however, the
coiuicil summoned a convocation of the clergy of the
canton for the piu'pose of inquiring whetlier the doc-
trines of Zwingli appeared to them consonant with
Scripture. Zwingli, along with several Swiss and
German divines, attended the convocation, which
was held towards the close of 1527 ; and so success-
ful were the reformed in defending their principles,
tii.at, with the sanction of the council of Berne, the
reformed worship w.as established throughout the
w!\ole canton. The Romish cantons, perceiving that
the Reformation was rapidly gaining ground, took
alarm, and anxious to repress the growing tendency
towards a revolt from Rome, commenced a system
of oppression and persecution, expecting thereby to
reclaim those who had quitted the communion of the
church. The cantons of Zurich and Berne were re-
solved to maintain their ground in the face of all
0[iposition, and they were quite jirepared, if neces-
s.ary, to defend themselves in open war. The cxla-
mity of a civil war, however, was obviated in the
mcantiuie by the mediation of the neutral cantons,
and a treaty of peace was signed on the 25th of
June 1.5"iD, which was favourable to the reformed
throughout all the c^antons of Switzerland.
One of the most grievous sources of discourage-
ment to the friends of the Reformation arose about
this period from the controversy on the subject of
the Lord's Supper, and the separation thereby
effected between the Saxon and Swiss Reformers.
The doctrine of the bodily presence of Christ in the
Supper had been established in the Romish clim'ch
since the first Lateran council, in x. D. 1215, and to
this ancient doctrine Luther, for a time, firmly ad-
hered. Tlie first who commenced the controversy
was Carlstadt, (see Carolostadians), who poured
forth from Basle his indignation against Luther, in a
ir.
succession of writings directed agahjst his doctrine of
tlie Lord's Supper. Luther had so far differed frcjtn
the Romish cliurch as to deny the ojius ojKi'atiim, or
necessary efficacy of the sacrament, and to reject
transubstantiation, but he had maintained the real
presence of the body and blood of Clirist in and with
the sacramental elements. Dr. Carlstadt, on the
contrary, maintained the Lord's Supper to be no-
thing more than a commemorative rite, and the ele-
ments simply symbols of the body and blood of
Christ. Zwingli had long held this doctrine in
secret, and now, therefore, he opeidy avowed his
sympathy with tlie views of Carlstadt. Erasmus
was understood to be inclmed to the same opinion.
This controversy was conducted on both sides with
great ability and power. In refutation of Carlstadt
Luther wrote against the celestial prophets in 1525,
wlu'Ie Bugenhagen ih'rected his work on the same
subject against Zwingli, who defended his doctrine
in several works, followed by tEcolampadius, who
had indjibed the same sentiments. In a preface
which Luther prefixed to Agricola's translation of
the Swabian Syngramraa into German, the great
Saxon Reformer liist encountered the Swiss party,
and from that moment a strife arose of the niott
bitter .and exasperated kind, between Luther and
Zwingli, who ought to have been united in the bonds
of a common brotherhood against a common foe.
Nor was the Swiss doctrine of the Lord's Supper
confined to Switzerland ; it had many supporters
also in the south of Germany. For several years
the Reformed churches were agitated to a lamenta-
ble extent by the unhappy controversy which had
thus arisen, and it was not till 1529 that serious at-
tempts were made to reconcile the contending par-
ties. The Landgrave of Hesse was the most active
in resorting to healing measures. Being himself an
ardent friend of the Reformation, he was deeply dis-
tressed at the alienation and estrangement which
had taken place of the two leaders of the movement
from each other. With the view of bringing about
a friendly conference on the disputed point, he [ire-
vailed upon Luther and Zwingli to meet at Mar-
bin-g, accompanied by a few friends on each side. The
meeting was held at the request of the Landgivave,
but led to no satisfactory result, the two Reformers
being at the close of it as far as ever from agi'eeing
on the point in dispute. An attempt was made,
however, to reconcile them personally, but while
Zwingli entered readily into the proposal, it was
steridy declined by Luther, who expressed his aston-
ishment that Zwingli should lay claim to be regaided
as his Christian brother, when they difl'ered on a point
so momentous. Before the conference terminated,
however, fourteen articles were drawn up by the Swiss
and German divines jointly, containing the essen-
tial doctrines of Christianity, which they signed by
common consent. The disputed point of the Eu-
charist was left meanwhile in abeyance, both parties
agreeing to exercise mutual charity and forbearance
c
26
HELVETIC UEFOUMED CHUKCIIES.
tott-arils each other. Once more diil tlie Liiiiflgrave
eiulciivoiir to iieri;uade the two great Koformers to
recognize one another as hrethien. Zuingli hehl
out the liand of reconciliation, bnt Liillier was inex-
orable.
The elVect of the discussion upon the mind of the
[.andgrave wa.s, that he gave a decided preference to
the doctrines of Zwingli. In vain did both Lntlier
and Melancthon endeavour by correspondence to
convince him of the truth of consubstantiation. The
diet of the empire convened at Augsburg in 1530, and
wliile the Lnlherans presented their opinions to the
diet, the Zwinu'liaiis also gave in their confession uf
faith which had been drawn up by Martin Buoer,
and was called the Tetrapolitan Confession, from the
four towns, Strasburg, Constance, Mciningen, and
Lindau, by which it was presented. The only point
in which the two confessions difTered from each other
resjieoted the doctrine of the bodily presence of
Christ in the Sujiper ; the followers of Zwingli main-
taining the simply symbolic character of the elements.
At tlu? same diet the Swi.ss Reformer presented his
own private confession, which contained these words
on the sid.yect of the Lord's Supper : '■ I believe that
in the holy eucharist or supper of thanksgiving, the
real body of Christ is present to the eye of faith,
that is, to those who thaidi the Lord for the lieno-
tits conferred on us in Christ his Son, acknowledge
that he assumed a real body, truly suffered in it, and
washed away our sins in his own blood ; and tlius
the whole that Christ has done is, as it were, present
to the eye of their faith. But that the body of
Christ, in substance and reality, or that his natural
body is present in the Supper, and is received into
our mouth, and masticated by our teeth — as the pa-
pi<its, and some who look back to the flesh-pots of
Egypt represent — that I not only deny, but unliesit-
atingly pronounce an error, and contrary to the Word
of God." He subjoins elaborate proofs from Scrip-
ture, reason, and the Fathers, in support of these
views. To this confession Eck, the Romish divine,
replied ; and Zwingli defended himself in a letter
addro.-sed to the Emperor and the Protestant princes.
Whilst the Swiss Reformer was thus engaged in
refuting the doctrine of consubstantiation as taught
by Luther, his miml was much occupied in devising
means for promoting the progress of the Reforma-
tion in Switzerland. Hoih in private and in public
lie was indefatigable in his labours for the advance-
ment of the good cause. Nor were the enemies of
the Reformation indi.i'crent to the inroads which
were daily making on the king<iom of darkne-'s ; but
tliey wore resolved to make a determined elVort to
crush the Trote.slant cause. The diet of Augsburg
had published a decree condemning the Protestants,
and also the Sacramentarians, as they called the
Zwinglian<;, ami enjoining a strict conformity to the
Church of Rome in all points. In conse(iuence of
this intolerant decree, the Protestant princes of Ger-
many as.sendil.'d at Smalk.ild in December I.'J.'iO, and
bound themselves to del'end tlieir religion against .all
opiiosiiion from wliatever quarter. The Emperor
Charles V. was alarmed at this union ; but being
busily engaged in foreign wars, lie left the Pro-
testants to the free exercise of tlieir religion througli-
out his whole dominions.
The doctrines of the Reformation had now dif-
fused themselves throughout almost every town and
village of Switzerland. A speedy and complete
triumph seemed now to await the cause of truth and
religious freedom. But at the very time wlien the
hopes of success were at the Iiighest, Zwingli com-
menced a course of acting which savoured inore o(
the politician than the Reformer. He had evidently
set his mind upon tlie overthrow of Charles V. and
the substitution of a more popular sovereign in his
place. With this view he listened to proposals for
an alliance between Francis 1., the king of France,
and the Swiss republics. This line of [policy began
to alienate from Zwingli many of his warmest and
steadiest friends. Even tlie Landgrave of Hesse
drew towards Luther, and sought to check the Swiss
Reformer. Tlie five Romish cantons, enraged at the
progress of Reformed principles, were eager to find
some excuse for ridding themselves of the treaty of
Cappel. Hitherto they had been restrained from
proceeding to open violence by the superiority bolli
in numbers and force of the Protestant cantons; but
having, in the meantime, made ample preparations,
they were now determined to make open war. Everv-
thing now assumed an alarming aspect ; the tone of
the Five Cantons became every day more threaten-
ing, and Zwingli passed from one place to another
proclaiming the necessity of a new Helvetian Con-
stitution, involving an armed confederacy of the
friends of the Reformation in every part of Switzer-
land. In this critical state of matters, the Protes-
tant cantons held a diet at Aran on the 12tli of Mav
1531, when a middle course was adopted on the
suggestion of the deputies from Berne. " Let U6
close our markets," said they, ''against tlie Five
Cantons; let us refuse tliein corn, .salt, wine, steel,
and iron; we shall thus impart authority to the
friends of peace among them, and innocent blood
will be sjiarcd." This proposal was resisted bv
Zurich, headed by Zwingli, lli.at canton expressing
a decided preference for war. The Bernese propo-
sition, however, prevailed, and the consequences to
the Five Cantons were of the most disastrous de-
scription. Famine, and its invariable attendant,
disease, spread among the inhabitants despondency
and death. Closely shut up in their mountains, all
commmiication with them was intercepted by Zurich
and the other allied cantons. Still tlie Romish can-
tons were indexible. " We will never jiermit," said
they, " the preaching of the Word of (jod, as the
people of Zurich understand it." In vain were they
reminded that by persecuting the reformed tliey
were violating the treaty of peace. Holding a diet
at Liiirrne they came to the resohiliou of waging
HELVETIC REFORMED CHURCHES.
war in defeneu of tlie church and tlie lioly see.
Having tinislied tlieir preparations accordingly, they
took the tiiiUl on tlie (5th of October 1531.
Cappel, about three leagues from Zurich, was the
point at which the army of the Five Cantons was
concentrated. Alarmed at the intelligence of the
arrival of the enemy, the militia of the canton were
Ifutily assembled, and Zwingli accompanieii tlieni as
chaplain to tlie scene of action. A battle ensued,
fought with the utmost bravery on both sides, but
the Zuricher.i being at length overpowered by num-
bers, were thrown into confusion and coinpletely
defeated. In the heat of the action Zwingli fell
mortally wounded, and in a short time expired, ex-
claiming as he lay in the agonies of death, " Wliat
matters this misfortune? They may indeed kill the
body, but they cannot kill the soul." Thus died tlie
great Reformer of Switzerland, leaving behind him
an imperishable name.
This victory at Cappel was hailed by tlte Romanists
as a sure precursor, in their view, of the restoration
of the Papal authority, not in Switzerland alone, but
throughout all Europe. Their expectations, how-
ever, were doomed to be disappointed ; the cause of
the Reformation liad in it a vital energy winch no
opposition of man coidd possibly destroy. Meanwhile
the Zuriehers were deeply discouraged by the reverses
whicli they had sustained ; and with no other stipu-
lation than that their faith should be preserved, they
concluded a peace with the Five Cantons.
Tlie Church of Rome now succeeded in regaining
the ascendency in those very parts of Switzerland
where her sway had been most indignantly disowned.
" The wind of adversity," says D'Aubigntj, " was
blowing with fury : the evangelical churches fell one
after another, like the pines in the forest whose fall
l>efore the battle of the Goubel had raised such
gloomy presentiments. The Five Cantons, full of
gratitude to tlie Virgin, made a solemn pilgrimage
to her temple at Einsidlen. The chaplains cele-
brated anew their mysteries in this desolated .sanc-
tuary ; the abbot, who had no monks, sent a number
of youths into Swabia to be trained up in the rules
of the order, and this famous chapel, which Zwingle's
voice had converted into a sanctuary for the Word,
became for Switzerland, what it has remained until
this day, the centre of the power and of the intrigues
of the Papacy.
" liut this was not enough. At the veiy time
that these flourishing churches were falling to the
ground, the Reform witnessed the extinction of its
brightest lights. A blow from a stone had slain the
energetic Zwingle on the lield of battle, and the re-
bound reached the pacific CEcolampadius at Basle, in
the midst of a life that was wholly evangelical. The
death of his friend, the severe judgments with which
they pursued his memory, the teiTor that had sud-
denly taken the place of the hopes he had entertained
of tlie future — all these sorrows rent the heart of
Ui/olauipadiu3, and soon his head and his life In-
clined sadly to the tomb. 'Alas!' cried he, ' that
Zwingle, whom I have so long regarded as my right
arm, has fallen under the blows of cruel enemies !
He recovered, however, sufficient energy to defend
the memory of his brother. ' It was not,' said he,
' on the heads of the most guilty that the wTath of
Pilate and the lower of Siloam fell. The judgment
began in the house of God; our presumption has
been punished ; let onr trust be placed now on the
Lord alone, and this will be an inestimable gain."
Qicolampadius declined the call of Zurich to take the
place of Zwingle. ' My post is here,' said he, as he
looked upon Basle."
How often in the history of the Christian church
has the truth of the proverb been realized, that
" mail's extremity is God's opportunity." The death
of Zwingli, followed by that of CEcolampadius, ap-
peared at first as if it were the death blow of the
Siviss Reformation. But at that very moment, when
all seemed to be lost, was God preparing to com-
mence a work of Reformation in Geneva, which
should so eflectually operate on the whole Helvetic
territory, as to revive and finally establish the Re-
formed church in tliat country. Calvin may be con-
sidered as having succeeded to the authority ol
Zwingli in Switzerland. When the Swiss Reformer
fell on the field of Cappel, Geneva was still under
the power of Rome, but scarcely a year passes when
William Farel is found preaching the gospel in that
ancient city with acceptance and power, and in a
few years more John Calvin arri\es to complete
what Farel had begun. The doctrine and discipline
of the Reformed communion, as modelled by Calvin,
(see Geneva, Church of,) was received by the
Helvetic Reformed Church generally. Zurich and
Benie for a time adhered both to the tenets and form
of government which Zwmgli had established; but
such was the prudence and powerful influence of the
French Reformer, that he succeeded in overcoming
their prejudices, and in eil'eoting a union among the
Helvetic churches. The doctrine of Zwingli on the
subject of the eucharist, as being nothing more
than a conimemorative rite, and of the presence of
Christ in the sacrament, as being merely symbolical
or Jiffurative, was now abandoned, and the doctrine
of Calvin received, which acknowledges a real,
though spiritual, presence of Christ in the sacrament,
which is realized by the believer alone. The doc-
trine of predestination also, though resisted by Berne
and Zurich for a time, was at length accepted by the
Helvetic church, and a union ell'ected between the
Swiss churches and that of Geneva.
Purity of doctrine, however, did not continue long
to characterize the Reformed cluux-hes of Switzer-
land. Socinus, the originator of the Socinian heresy
was himself a member of the Swiss church, and even
professed to receive the Helvetic confession. And
evenduring the lifetime of Calvin, Servetus, in Geneva
itseb', denied openly the divinity of Christ. Dur-
ing the last two centuries, the Helvetic Reformed
28
IIKLVKTIC COXFESSIOX— HENRICIANS.
Clmreh, while it has maintained its ground against
Pojiory, has given wav to an influx of Arianism, Soci-
nianiini, and nationalism, wliich lias reduced its in-
lluenee among the Ketonnod churches of the Con-
tinent far below wluit might have been expected from
its earlier history. Irrcligion and inlidclity have so
completely pervaded Switzerland, even in its Pro-
testant cantons, that a rocent traveller of the highest
intelligence and integrity, Mr. Samuel Laing, re-
marks, " The Swiss people present the remarkable
social phenomenon of a people eminently mural in
conduct, but eminently irreligious; at tlie head of
the moral states in Europe for ready obedience to
the law, for honesty, fidelity, and sobriety — at the
bottom of the scale for religious feeling, observances,
or knowledge." The full extent of this description,
however, is scarcely borne out by the fact, that when
the local authorities of Zurich, in 1839, appointed
Dr. Strauss, the infidel author of ' Das Leben Jesu,'
to a professorship of theology, the people, assisted
by some of the clergy, rose in a mass to oppose his
instalment, and so violent was the tumult, that even
blood was shed.
Religion, it must be confessed, is at a low ebb in
Switzerland generally, and although a revival is no
doubt going forward at Geneva, chiefly through the
influence of the Evangelical Protestant Church, this
extends little farther than a few of the larger towns.
The Evangelical Society of Geneva is no doubt ef-
fecting a good work in their own country, as well
as in France, but much yet remains to be acconi-
plislied before the Helvetic Reformed Church will
be able to assert anything like a conspicuous place
among the Protestant churches of Europe.
HELVETIC CONFESSION. The first Helve-
tic Confession was published six years after the pre-
sentation of the Lutheran and Tetrapolitan Confes-
sions to tlie Diet of Augsburg. At a ineeting of
the Swiss divines held at Basle in 153G, it was re-
solved to draw up a confession, not only on the
disputed point of the eucliarist, but embodying the
general articles of the KeOnmed faith. The task
was committed to BuUingcr, Leo Judae, and throe
others. That which generally receives the name of
the Helvetic Confession is, however, the larger one,
called 'Expositio Simplex,' drawn up at the request
of the Elector Palatine, and composed by Bullinger.
It was put forth, first in Laiin, and afterwards in a
German translation made by the author himself. It
Consisted of thirty chapters, and was adopted not
only in Switzerland, but also in Gcrnuiny and Scot-
lanil, a.s well as liy the Polish, Hungarian, and
French Reformed churches. It was translated into
French by Theodore Beza.
IIIOLVIDI.\NS. See ANTimcA-MARiAMTr.s.
HEMEUKSIA, the soothing goddess, a surname
of Ar.Ti;Mls (which see), under which she was wor-
8liip[ied in Arcadia.
HE.MEROBAPTISTS (Gr. Daily Baptists), a
Jewish sect mentioned by Epiphanius, which derived
its naTue from practising daily ablutions, which they
looked upon as an essential jiart of religions duty.
They are said to l!a\e agrcd with the Phari.-^ces in
doctrine, with the single exception, that like the Sad-
ducees they denied the resurrection. It is not im-
probable that those who blamed the disciples of our
Lord for eating with unwashen hands (Mark vii. 1 —
8), may have belonged to this sect. — The name
Ileinfro-B'iptists is also given, in consequence of their
frequent washings, to the Mend.-EANS (which see.,
or Christians of St. John.
HEMIPHORIUM. See CoLLOisiu.vr.
HEN, spirits among the Taoists in China. They
are the souls of the intermediate class of men who
are neither good nor evil. The Emperor puis his
country under their protection, and he deposes them
or degrades them if they neglect their duty. They
are in general friendly to men, and though invisiblt
they perform many good oflices for him.
HENOTICON, a formula of concord drawn iqj
A. D. 482 by the Greek Emperor Zeno, through the
influence of Acacius, bishop of Constantinople. This
document was designed to put an end to the dissen-
tions which the Monophysite controversy caused
both in church and state. In the Henoticon, or Deed
of Union, the emperor explicitly recognized the
creed of the Nicene and Conslantinopolitan councils
as the oidy established and acknowledged creed of the
church. This creed, he says, was received by that
council of Ephesus which condenuied Nestorius, whom,
along with Eutyehes, the emperor declares to be here-
tics. He also acknowledges the twelve chapters of
Cyril of Alexandria to be orthodox, and declares Mary
to be the mother of God, and Jesus Chri-t to po.'sess
two natures, in one of which he was of like substance
with the Father, and in the other of the same sub-
stance with us. Thus without naming the cotmcil of
Chalcedon, he fidly recognized its doctrines, and
called upon all true Christians to unite on this basis.
In this way the emperor hoped to maintain the truth,
and yet to secure peace between the contending par-
ties. In Egypt tlie object of Zeno was fully gained,
but the bishops of Rome opposed the Henoticon as
casting a slight upon the last general council ; and
Pope Felix II. went so far as to excommunicate
Acacius, at whose instig.ation the deed had been
drawn up. The other patriarchs of the Eastern
church .sympathized with Acacius, who anathema-
tized in his turn the Latin Po])e, ordering his name
to be erased from the diptychs or sacred registers of
the cluirch. Thus the Oriental and Occidental
churches continued in open hostility with one an-
other for thirty-four yeai^;, until at length the for-
mer church gave in her formal adhesion to the can-
ons of the council of Chalcedon.
HENRICIANS, a Christian sect which arose in
the twelfth century, deriving their name from their
leader Henry, a monk of Chmy, and a deacon, who
came from Switzerland. In the retirement of his
monastery, lie had devoted himself to the study ol
HEXRICTANS.
tlif New Tc'Stanient. and rlniwing lils knowledge of
Clu-islianity IVom tlie jiure unsullied fountain of tlie.
Word of life, lie imbibed an earnest desire to sally
forth into tlie world and proclaim tlie truth to his
fellowmeii. Leaving the solitude of the cloister,
therefore, he went out a preacher of repentance in
tlie habit of a monk, and barefoot. The iir.st scene
of his missionary labours was the city of Lan.sanne,
where, in the spirit of Jolm the Baptist, he called
upon the people to repent and turn to the Lord.
After preaching here for a time, he proceeded into
France, where, gathering around him a goodly nuiii
ber of earnest and devoted associates, he formed
them into an apostolical society, These men,
usually denominated Henrieians, went before their
master, bearing in their hands the banner of the
cross, and calUng upon men to follow the cross of
Christ. For a time the preaching of Henry was
limited to repentance, but waxing bolder and more
zealous as he proceeded in his mission, he began uii-
spariiiglv to ex[iose the vices of the clergy and the
errors of the dominant church. His preaching was
so powerful and awakening, that it was said a heart
of stone must have melted under it.
The eflect of the discourses of this remarkable
man is thus noticed by Neandcr: "On Ash-Wed-
nesday of the year 1116, two of Henry's spiritual
society arrived with the banner of the cross at the
city of Mans; they came to inquire whether their
master might visit the city as a preaclier of repent-
ance during the season of Lent. The people who
had already heard so much of him, were now anxi-
ously expecting the time when he would make his
personal appearance. T'le bishop of the city at that
time, Hildebert, a pupil of Berengar of Tours, one of
tlie more discreet and pious bishops, received the
two messengers in a very friendly manner, and as
Henry was not known as yet to be guilty of any
heresy, as only his mighty influence on the peojile
was everywhere extolled, the bishop rejoiced at the
opportunity of securing a preacher like him for his
people during the Lent. And being then about to
st.art on a journey to Rome, he gave directions to his
archdeacon that he should allow Henry to preach
without molestation. The latter soon won the same
great influence liere as he had done everywhere
else. Among the clergy themselves there was a
division. The higher clergy were prejudiced against
him on account of his method of proceeding; the
younger clergy of the lower class, ^vho were less tied
to the church system, and liad nothing to fear from
Henry's invectives, could not resist the impression of
his discourses, and the seed of the doctrines which
he scattered among them, continued to spring up for
a long time after him. They became his adherents,
and prepared a stage for him, on which he could be
heard by the entire people. One eflect of his
preaching soon began to manifest itself. He chained
I he people to himself, and tilled them with contempt
a 111 hatred towards the higher clergy. They would
have nolhing to do with them. The di^ine service
celebrated by them was no longer attended. They
found themselves exposed to the insults and gibes or
the populace, and had to apply for proleclion to the
civil arm."
Tlic oppositions which Henry encountered from
tlie clergy only attracted the people the more to-
wards liim. Multitudes both of the poorer and the
wcahhicr classes took him as their spiritual guide in
all tilings. No wonder that when Hildebert returned
from his journey to Koine, he found the afl'ections ot
the people of his diocese entirely alienated from him,
and his episcopal blessing, which had formerly been
so eagerly courted, now treated with contempt.
Henry had obtained an overwhelming influence over
them. The bishop, with a meekness and prudence
well fitted to win re.spect, instead of inveighing with
bitterness against this powerful rival in his peoiile's
ail'ectioiis, contented himself with simply directing
Henry to leave his diocese and betake himself to
some other field. The zealous monk made no resist-
ance, but forthwith directing his steps southward,
made his opi/eaianee in Provence, where Peter of
Bruis, a monk of similar spirit, had already laboured
before him. Here he develojied still more clearly
his opposition to the errors of the Cliurch of Rome,
and drew down upon himself the bitter hostility of
the clergy. At length tlie archbishop of Aries suc-
ceeded in apprehending him. Having secured the
person of Henry, the Romish dignitary had him con-
veyed before the council of Pisa, which was held in
11.34, under the presidency of Pope Innocent II.
This council pronounced liim a heretic, and con-
demned him to confinement in a cell.
In a short time the reforming monk was set at
liberty, when returning to the former scene of his
labours in the South of France, he resumed his mis
si(m as a determined opponent of the reigning evils
of the dominant ecclesiastical system. All classes
flocked to hear him, and such was the eflect of his
preaching, after labouring for ten years in the dis-
tricts of Toulouse and Alby, tliat Bernard of Clair-
vaux, in a letter to a nobleman urging him to put
down the heretics, plainly confesses, "The churches
are without flocks, the flocks without priests, the
priests are nowhere treated vvilh due reverence, the
churches are levelled down to synagogues, the sacra-
ments are not esteemed holy, the festivals are no
longer celelirated." So rapidly did the sect of the
Henrieians make way among the population gener-
ally, that Bernard was obliged to confess, " Women
forsake their husbands, and husbands their wives,
and run over to this sect. Clergymen and priesis
desert their communities and churches ; and tliey
have been finind sitting with long beards among
weavers."
Tlic alarmmg progress of this reforming sect did
not escape the anxious notice of the See of Rome.
Pope Eugene III. hap]iening to be at this time resi-
dent in France, thought it necessary to take active
30
HKl'lL-EdTUS— nEKACLEONlTES.
inciisures for tlie suppression of tlie Ileiiriciaiis.
With tliis view lie dfsp.itelietl to the distiicts wlieie
tliey chiefly alioumled, a legite acconip.uiied bv the
abbot Bernaril. wliose ability ami hi^h cliaiatter
might proiliice. it was supposeil, a I'avoiirable iinpies-
sion upon tlie minds of tlie people. l$iit even I he
holy abbot of Claii-vaiix utterly failed in tlio object of
his mission; the tollowers of Henry successfully re
pelled liis arijumcnts by apposite quotations from
the Sacred Scriptures. Foiled in all their attempts
to reconcile these sectaries to the dominant church,
the clergy had no alternative left them but to haie
recourse to violent measures. Henrj-, accordingly,
was once more seized and brought before the council
of Kheims, which was held in that city in 1148.
Tlie archbisliop of Ilheims, who was his principal
accuser, being aver.se to proceed to extremities, dis-
suaded the council from inflicting capital punish-
ment, and by his advice Henry was simply condemn-
ed to imprisonmenl during life, with a meagre diet,
that if pos.sible he might be brought to repentance.
Soon after his commilfal to prison he died, and the
sect which bore his name disappeared, only, how-
ever, to give jilace to other sects holding the same
principles, and animated by a similar spirit, who, in
an almo.st unbroken series, continued till the period
of the Refonnatiijn to lift their solemn protest
.Hgainst the errors and corruptions of the Church of
Rome. See Apostolicals, Petrobrusians.
IIi:PILf:S'P.E.\. See Lampadepiioria.
IlKPH^ESTUS, the god of fire in the ancient
Greek mythology. He was said to be the son of
Zeus and Hera, and in the Roman mythology is
known by the name of Vulcan. Born in Olympus,
he was dropped from thence by his mother, or as is
sometimes alleged, cast down by his father. An en-
tire day was spent in passing from heaven to earth,
and in the evening Itepluestus landed on the island
of Lemnos in the ^geau Sea. As the deity who
presided over tire, he liad a palace in Olympus, which
was fitted up with a smith's forge, where he con-
structed thunderbolls for gods, and weapons and ar-
mour for mortal men. Later Greek and Roman
writers represent his workshop as not in Olympus,
but in the interior of some volcanic island, for exam-
ple, in Sicily, where he was supposed to have his
forge under Mount jEtna, where, assisted by the
Cyclopias (which see), he prosecuteil his arduous
labour.". Ilepluestus is reiiresented as having taught
men the aits of life, and at a very ancient period he
appears to have been a household god among the
(ireeks, small statues to liis honour being placed
near the hearth. His worship was sometimes com-
bined, as at Athens, with that of Athcrui, and festivals
were held in honour of both on one and the same
day.
IIERA, one of the principal goddesses of ilio an-
cient heathen mythology. Sometimes she is de-
icribed as the si.>-ter, and at other times as the wife
jf Zeus. She was worshipped principally at Argos
and Samos. On the occasion of her marriage with
the king of Olympus, all the gods are reiiresented as
having attended, bringing with them jiresents in
honour of the bride, and among the re.^^t Ge pre-
sented the gift of a tree with golden apples, which
was guarded by the Hesperides in a garden at the
foot of Mount Atlas. By her marriage with Zeus,
she was raised, according to the later writers, to the
exalted honour of being the queen of Heaven, but
the union is said not to liave been of the happiest
description, so that she found it necessary to borrow
the girdle of Aphrodite to win the love of her hus-
band. She was the mother by Zeus of Ares, Hebe,
and Hejilitivtut. Hera was the goddess of marriage
and of childbirih. Her worship seems to have pre-
vailed throughout Greece from a very ancient period,
and she is generally believed to have been the god-
dess of nature. Among the Romans she was wor-
shipped under the name oi Juno.
HERACLEIA, a festival anciently celebrated at
Athens eveiy five years, in honour of the Grecian
deity Heracles (which see),',
HERACLEONITES, a Ghiistian sect which arose
in the second century, profess-ing in a modified form
the doctrines of the Valentinian school of Gnostics.
Clement and Origen make a number of quotations
from the writings of Heracleon, from which it would
appear that instead of interpreting the Gospel of
John, on which he wrote a commentary, in the plain
literal signification, he sought to find a profound
meaning, warped, however, by bis decided partiality
for theosophic speculation. A specimen of the styla
of this Gnostic writer's expositions of Scripture is
selected by Neander from Heracleon's interpretation
of John iv. 5 — 26, containing our Saviour's conver-
sation with the woman of Samaria : " With the sim-
ple facts of the history, Heracleon could not rest
content ; nor was lie satisfied with a ailm psycholo-
gical contemplation of the Samaritan woman in her
relation to the Saviour. His imagination immediate-
ly traced in the woman who was so attracted by tlie
words and appearance of (^hrist, tlie type of nil spi-
ritual natures, that are attracted by the godlike ; and
hence ihis history must represent the entire relation
of the jyiH'umatlci to the Soter, and to the liigher,
sjiiritual world. Hence the words of the Samaritan
woman must Iia\e a double sense, — that of which
she was herself conscious, and that which she ex-
pressed unconsciously, as representing the whole
class of the piicuiiutlici ; and hence also the words of
the Saviour mu.st be taken in a two-fold sense, a
higher and a lower. True, he did not fail to under-
stand the fundamental idea* contained in the Saviour's
language ; but he allowed himself to be drawn away
from the principal point, by looking after too much
ill the several accompanying circumstances. ' The
water which our Saviour gives,' says he, ' is from his
Spirit and his power. His grace and his gifts are
something that never can be taken away, never can
bo exhausted, never can pass from those who have
HEKACLES.
31
ajiy portion i]i tliein. Tliey tliat liave received wliiit
is riclily bestoweil on tlieni from above, conininnicate
of the overflowing fulness wliich tliey enjoy, to tlie
everlasting life of others also.' But then he wrongly
concludes, that because Christ intended the water
which he would give to l)e understood in a symboli-
cal sense, so too the water of Jacob's well must be
understood in the same symbolical sense. It was a
symbol of Judaism, inadequate to the wants of the
spiritual nature — an image of its perishable, earthly
glory. Tlie words of the woman, — 'Give me this
water, that I thirst not, neither come hither to
dra,w," — express the burthensome character of .Ju-
daism, the difficulty of finding in it anything where-
with to nouri.sli the spiritual life, and the inadequacy
of that nourishment when found. When our Lord
afterwards bade the woman call her husband, he
meant bv this her otlier half in the spiritual world,
the angel belonging to her; — that with him coming
to the Saviour, she might from the latter receive
power to become united and blended with this her
destined companion. And the reason for this arbi-
trar}' inter|)retatiou is, that ' Christ could not have
spoken of her earthly husband, since he was aware,
that she had no lawful one. In the npintiial sense,
the woman knew not her husband — she knew no-
thing of the angel belonging to her; in the literal
sense, she was ashamed to confess that .she was liv-
ing in an unlawful connection.' The water being
the sj'mbol of the divine life communicated by the
Saviour, Heracleoii went on to infer that the water-
pot was the symbol of a recipient spirit for this divine
life on the part of the woman. She left her water-
pot behind with him ; that is, having now a vessel of
this kind with the Saviour, in which to receive the
living water she came for, she returned into the world
to announce that Christ was come to the psychical
natures."
HERACLES, the most illustrious of all the hero-
gods of heathen antiquity. His worship has pre-
vailed very extensively among all nations both of
the East and the West. Horner makes him the son
of Zeus by Alcmene, the wife of Auqibitryon, king of
Thebes. He is said to have been born B. c. 1280.
He became remarkable for his bodily strength, and is
chieflv noted for the twelve labours which he suc-
cessfully achieved. These were 1. The contest with
the Nemean lion and its slaughter with his own
hands. 2. The destruction of tlie Lernaean hydra
with its nine beads. 3. The wounding and carrying
ofi' of the stag of Ceryneia in Arcadia. 4. The tak-
ing of the Erymauthian boar. 5. The cleaning of
the stables of Augeas in one day. G. The putting
to flight of the Stymphalian birds. 7. The catching
of the Cretan bull. 8. The fetching to Mycen;e of
the mares of Diomedes. 9. The cariying off of the
girdle of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons. 10.
The fetching of the oxen of the monster Geryones.
11. The plucking and carrying away of the golden
apples of the Hesperides. 12. The fetching of Cer-
berus from the infernal regions. Besides these
Heracles is said to have performed many other feats
of .strength and courage, and among the rest he
fought against the giants and defeated tlieni. After
his death he was worshipped tlu'oughout Greece as
a god, and numerous temples erected to his honoin-,
while festivals were established in commemoration
of him, called Her.\cleia (which see). Anumg
the ancient Romans this deity was worshipped under
the name of Hercules, his worship liaving been in-
troduced into Italy by Greek colonies, and thence
conveyed into Gaid, Spain, and Germany.
Among the ancient Egyptians, Sir Gardner Wil-
kinson mentions Hercules as one of the twelve sec-
ondary deities, under the name of Gom, or rather
8om. He is a beneficent deity, connected closet}
with the good god Osiris. " Like Osiris," says Mr.
Gross, " he is an emanation of the supreme and im-
mortal divinity, and Anuin, the primeval source of
light, is his illustrious sire. To him his eyes are
steadily directed from the zodiacal mansion of Aries ;
and, submissive to his parental behest, he diligently
pursued the sidereal patli pointed out to him as the
spliere of his actions, and the bright domain of his
power. Hercules is emphatically the propitious
power, manifested in the blessings which the prolific
waters of the Nile disseminate over Egypt. When
it is asserted of him that he gagged or strangled
Ant.'BUS, the son of Poseidon and the earth, the mean-
ing is, that he overcame, or at least elfectually re-
sisted, the destructive siuid-showers of this ill-willed
giant of the desert, by the opposing flood of tlie
Nile, and the introduction of canals into the Delta,
especially towards the Libyan desert, and making
them of such a width that the stifling winds of that
arid and arenaceous region could no longer drive the
sands across the ample channels. Steadily persever-
ing in the execution of a laudable enterprise, he
opposed an additional barrier to the devastating en-
croachments of the obnoxious and justly dreaded
sands, by opening numerous ducts for the purpose of
imgation ; and by thus wisely intersecting Lower
Egypt with a seasonable and healthful aqueous cir-
culation, he happily succeeded in still more elfectu-
ally vanquishing Autieus, the surly, mischievous
monarch of sand-plains and sand-storms. Hercules
alone, the puissant god, and invincible wrestler,
could accomplish labours at once so extensive, so ar-
duous, and so useful : no wonder that mythic fame
accorded to him the honour of sustaining the weight
of heaven upon his Atlas shoulders ! His name and
daring still survive in the record of the Heradeun
canal. Numerous cities bore his name and comme-
morated his deeds ; and they were all situated at the
mouth of the Nile, or on the banks of the canals :
thus proclaiming to future ages that next to tlie
Nile, Hercules was the most munificent dispenser of
water to the often thirsty, ay, parched land of
Egypt; the mo.st renowned hero-god; and the illus-
trious prototype of the Jewish patriarch's viceregal
32
IIERACLITEAXS— HERESY.
Bon, whose name and merits laiik among those of tlie
earliest and most suocessfiil patrons of {nteriiul im-
provement. In reference to K^'vpt, he is therefore
properly stirnamed Cmobns, or tlie god of the va-
lers; and the Canobiaii and the Ileraelcan months
of the Nile, are synonymous phrases."
Hercules seems to have been wor>^Iiipped from a
very ejirly period in Phicnicia, and eliildren are .<aid
t') liave been s;icritioed to him in tlie Plioenician
colonies of Carthage and Gades, down even to the
time of Constantino. Artists usually represent this
deity under the figure of a strong inuscular man,
clothed in the skin of a lion, and carrying or some-
times leaning on an enormous club.
HERACMTE.W'S, the followers of Heraclitus,
a Greek phihisopher, and a native of Ephesus, who
flourished about the end of the tifth cemiu-y be
fore Christ. The fundamental ]jrinciple of his phy-
sical philosophy was, that lu-e was the origin of all
material phenomena ; but in addition to the physical
world he acknowledged a spiritual and intellectual
world. Sextus Empiricus has preserved fragments of
the writings of Heraclitus, which show thathe founded
his intellectual philosophy on the basis of a common
or imivers.al reason, thus reminding us of the eclec-
tic system of Cousin in the present day ; " Uni-
versal and divine reason, according to him, is the
cfitenon of truth. That which is universally be-
lieved is certain ; for it is borrowed from that com-
mon reason which is universal and divine; and, on
the contrary, every individual opinion is destitute of
certainty. . . . Such being the character of reason,
man remains in ignorance so long as he is deprived
of the commerce of language; it is by means of this
alone that he begins to know. Common reason,
therefore, rightly claims deference. Now this com-
mon reason being nothing but the picture of the
order of the universe, whenever we derive anything
from it, we possess the truth ; and when we interro-
gate only our own individual understanding, we fall
into error."
Heniclitus in his philosophy distinctly recognized
a God, and seems to have endeavoiu'ed to fotmd a
school which should avoid the excesses of idealist
pantheism on the one hand, and materialist atheism
on the other.
HER^EA, festivals celebrated in honour of Hera
(which see), in various towns of Greece. Argos ap-
pears to have been the original seat of the worship of
this goddess, where there were three temples erected
to her honour, and her festivals were celebrated
every fifth year. The ceremonies of the Hermi were
commenced with a jirocession of young men clothed
in armour, who marched to the temple of Hera, pre-
ceded by one hundred oxen, and hence the festival
received the name of Hecatombmn. 'I'he high priest-
ess accompanied the procession riding in a chariot
drawn by two white oxen. On reaching the temple
Ihc hecatomb w;i.s sacriliced, aiul the llesh of the
oxen distributed among the people. As celebrated
at Samos, the Ilera-a differed somewhat from the
same festival at other places in Greece, the proces-
sion consisting not oidy of young men in anr.our, but
of maidens and married women in splendid dresses.
At Elis again the festival was celebrated chiefly by
maidens, and ccpiiducted by sixteen matrons, who
wove the jieplus or sacred robe for the goddess.
One of the principal parts of the festival consisted
in a race of the m.iidens in the .stadium, the prize
being a garland of uli\ e-branches, ami part of a cow.
which was saci'iliccd to Hera.
HERANASIKH.A (Singhale.se, herana, a novice,
and slkkn, a rule or precept), a formularv required
to be counnitted to memory by the Kudhist priest,
while still in his noviciate. It is written in Elu, a
dialect of the ancient Singhalese, and contains a
number of rules or obligations under which the young
priest professes to come.
HERBS (Bn'TiCR). At the original institution of
the 2>asiOver, the .Jews were commanded to cat the
paschal lamb with bitter herbs. The ilishna and
JIaimonides mention live sorts of bitter herbs, anv
one or all of which might be eaten. .According to
some .Tewish writers, chicory, wild lettuce, and hore-
hoitnd were among the herbs which were intended
to be used at the Passover, and Forsk.al tells us, that
the Jews in Egypt eat the lettuce along with the
paschal lamb The modern Jews generally use as
hitler herbs some lettuce, chervil, parsley, celery
and wild succory or horseradish. See Passovek.
HERCULES. See Hicracles.
HERCYNA, a surname of Dcmeter, under which
she was worshipped at Lebadeia in Boeotia.
HERCYNA, a goddess of the internal regions,
worshipped at l^ebadeia in lioeotia. She was a
daughter of Trophouius, and a temple was erected to
her containing the stattie of a maiden carrying a
goose in her h.and. In this temple, which was reared
on the banks of a river bearing her name, Hercvna
was worshipped along with Zeus.
HERESIARCH ■(>r. ruler or head of a heresy),
the principal leader of a heretical sect, or the author
of a Herksy (which see.) The ancient Christian
Church always set a mark of inl'amy upon hcre-
siarchs, making a distinction between them and
those that followed them; allowing the latter
sometimes to continue in the clerical function on
giving evidence of repentance, but usuallv deufading
the former without hope of restitution. This distinc-
tion was observed in the case of the Doiuitists, Do-
natus, who was proved to be the author of the schism,
being alone condemned.
HIORESY (Gr. haresis, choice), a term which
seems to have been originally applied to the selection
of one opinion, or set of opinions, in preference to
another. Hence, by a very easy and natural transi-
tion it came to denote a particular school or sect
which maintained any particular class of opinions.
In this sense the word heresy was used by the later
Greek as well as by the Roman writers in speaking
HERESY.
33
of different schools of philosophy. It was also em-
ployed by tlie Hellenistic Jews to express the lead-
ing sects which existed among their countrymen,
and hence we lind Josephus speaking of the three
heresies of the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes.
In early times Cliristianity was called by the Jews
the heresy of the Nazai-enes ; and by the apostles, as
well as the early Fathers, a man who was not a trne
orthodox Christian was designated a heretic. In
process of time, when the errors of men came to be
added to, or even substituted for, the trutlis of the
Word of God, the term heresy came to be restricted
in its signilication to any partial or erroneous view
of Divine truth lield by a man wlio prolVs.sed to be-
lieve in Cliristianity.
Almost innumerable heresies have arisen in the
course of the history of the Christian Church, and
so varied are the modiiications of error which have
spruiig up in the very bosom of the cliurch itself, that
the origin and progress of heresy have become au
im]iortant and almost indispensable department of
ecclesiastical history. The advantages whicli accrue
from this part of theological study are tluis briefly
noticed by Dr. Welsh : " It is of the greatest cou-
se'|uenee, for example, in the controversy with unbe-
lievers. The little success that Christianity has met
with in the world, the divisions and heresies which
Iiave torn and afflicted the Church, and the frequent
abuses and flagrant enormities which have often ren-
dered the history of Christianity a melancholy re-
cord of the follies and vices of man, have been urged
by inlidels as arguments against the idea that our
religion could be divine. We are able in so far to
obviate this ditticulty on general grounds, and to
argue, tliat as it forms no valid objection to the doc-
trines of natural religion, that they have been re-
jected bv multitudes of the human race altogether,
and that they have exerted little influence upon
many who have professed to receive them ; so the
doctrines of revelation may be true, notwithstand-
ing the limited extent to which their influence has
reached. But we may proceed farther, and draw an
argument in support of the truth of Christianity from
the very corru[itions wliich have impeded its pro-
gress and marred its beauty. Though our Saviour
conlidently predicted the ultimate trium]ih of his
cause, he was far from declaring that its success
would be immediate and universal. And the minute
accuracy with which Christ and his apostles de-
scribed, not only tlie opposition which the Christian
cause was to experience from its enemies, but also the
greater evils to which it would be subjected from
those who should pretend to embrace it, may be con-
sidered as a convincing evidence of the divinity of
our religion. But the objections may take another
form in the hands of the infidel and Roman Catholic,
as implying an essential defect in the record, and the
necessity of an addition to the written word in the
decisions of an intallible church. To meet these
views, an acquaintance with the ditferent sects that
have appeared in the world is necessary ; as by such
acquaintance alone we are enabled to show, that
wherever, in any essential question, men have erred
from the truth, the cause is never to be found in any
obscurity in the Scriptures, while differences upon
points of minor moment are not repressed even by
an infallible church. An acquaintance with the
heresies is of great importance, from the remarkable
fact in regard to many of tlie doctrines of our Con-
fessions and Creeds, that while the germ of them is
to be found in the works of the most ancient Chris-
tian writers, and though substantially they were
always embraced by the Church, yet the full and
distinct statement of them has generally been flrst
occasioned by the existence of errors of an opposite
description. Not that any thing essentially new has
been discovered, but that the attention of the Church
has been directed to those portions of holy writ that
relate to such questions, by which means the nature
and bearing of Christian doctrine have been more
fully and more accurately evolved. Thus the spu-
rious gospels forged by the Gnostics, and the false
glosses made by them of the true gospels, first pre
pared tlie way for a right exegesis. Thus also tiie
doctrine of the Trinity, though received by the
Church from the earliest times, was never set forth
in all its fulness till the Patripassian, Sabellian, Arian,
and Macedonian heresies, brought the various pass-
ages of Scripture under the notice of minds solem-
nised by the subject, and shaqiened in the contr.-
versy which was cai'ried on. In like manner, the
ApoUinarian, Nestorian, and Eutychian errors led
to a more definite explanation of the doctrines of the
incarnation. And the same illiis rations might bo
given respecting the doctrines of original sin, justi-
fication by faith, and others."
The different heresies wdiich from time to time
have sprung up in the Christian Church are minutely
considered in the present work under their respec-
tive names, but it may not be without advantage
to the reader if we give a rapid view in this article
of the history of heresy in the different phases which
it assumed during the successive centuries wliich
elapsed from the Christian era down to the Reforma-
tion in the sixteenth century. The heresies which
have arisen from that period onward to the present
have been simply revivals of old errors, either in
their original grossness, or in a somewhat modified
form.
In its earliest development Christianity appeared in
the closest connection with Judaism, the one, in fact,
being the complement of the other. Both our Lord
and his apostles habitually recognized this truth in all
their teachings, making their appeal in explanation
•as well as vindication of the Christian system to the
Jewish or Old Testament Scriptures. The conse-
quence was, that first converts to the belief of Chris-
tianity were drawn from two very different classes of
men, Jews and Gentiles, ■whose respective opinions
and prejudices gave rise to no slight confiict and jar-
D
34
TIKRESY.
ring of sentiment among tlic members of tlic Clins-
tian Cliurili. The Jewish converts, in their intense
devotediiess to the Mosaic institutions, were most
unwillini; to allow them to be superseded by the
more sjiiritiial doctrines and observances of Chris-
tianity. Many of them, iiccorditisly, even during
the first century, instead of contenting tliemselves
witli retaining circumcision, ,ind tlic practice of some
other Jewisli ceremonies, were so imreasonable as to
insist on the observance of Jewisli rites by the Gen-
file converts also. Had this been acceded to by the
church generally, it would have proved an insur-
mountable barrier witli nuiltitudes to the profession
of the faith of Christ. So important, indeed, was the
removal of this obstacle to the conversion of the
Gentiles, that it was made tlie subject of a special
revelation to the Apostle Peter, who was charged by
a vision from heaven to make the ofler of the gospel
to the Gentiles as well as to the Jews. Notwith-
standing, however, this plain and explicit intimation
of the Divine will on the matter, the Judaizing party
continued resolutely to urge upon their feUnw-Chris-
tians the perpetual obligation of the law of Moses.
A controversy arose at Antiooh on this keenly dis-
puted point, and so bitterly was it conducted by both
parties, that it had well nigh given rise, even at that
early period, to a schism in the church. The apos-
tles and elders, liowever, lield a meeting at Jerusalem
on the subject, and the result of their deliberations
was, that circumcision was declared not to be bind-
ing, and nothing farther was demanded from the
Gentile converts than the abstaining " from meats
offered to idols, and from blood, and from things
strangled, and from fornication," regulations some-
what similar to those which were required from pro-
sclvtcs of the gate. This decision of the brethren
at Jerusalem was attended with the best effects, not
only upon the Christians at Antioch, among wliom
liartnonv now prevailed, but upon the church at
large. Tlie Nicolaitans alone appear to have acted
in literal opposition to the decree at Jerusalem, eat-
ing things offered to idols, and indulging in fornica-
tion. The destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans,
A. D. 70, and the consequent dispersion of the Jews,
proved in a great measure the deathblow of the
Judaizing tendency in the church generally, although
we find remains of the same spirit in the .sect of
the Xazarenes, who adhered to the ritual of the law
of Moses. Of this sect the Ehiotiites appear to liave
been a branch who held that, along with faith in
Christ, circumcision and the ceremonial law ought to
be retained. They used only the gospel of Matthew,
and celebrated both the Jewish and Christian Sab-
baths.
The heresies of the first century, however, were
not limited to those which had their origin in the
Judaizing tendency ; there were others of .'in equally
injurious char.iclcr which sprung out of the systems
of Gentile philosophy which then prevailed both in
the Eastern ai;d Western nations, llcnce arose a
mixed system of opinions which partook partly ot
the idealist and mystical, and partly of the sensualist
and practical. Simon M.agiis and his disei|ile Me-
nander appear to have drawn their heretical opinions
from these Gentile sources. 'J'hus they taught that
Jesus did not really suffer, nor even possess a true
body upon earth, but was merely a shadowy repre-
sentation and a figure. The Cerinthians, on the
other hand, maintained that Jesus had a true human
nature at his birth, but nothing divine ; that he was
simply the son of Josejih and Mary, and that his
divinity consisted in the communication of theSpii'lt
at his baptism.
During the second century the church overflowed
with heresies no longer of a strictly Jewish, but of a
thoroughly Gentile character, being chiefly drawn
from the idealistic .system of the Grecian I'lato, and
the mystical theosophy of the Oriental philosophers.
We refer, of course, to the dirl'erent schools of the
Gncstics (which see), all of which agi-eed in niaiu-
talning the necessary aut.igonism of mind and mat-
ter, so that the Demiurgus, who formed the material
world, w^as viewed as essentially inferior to the great
God who created the spiritual world. Hence man is
diialistic in character, because dualistic in constitution.
He possesses a material body which is corrupt and
doomed to perish, while he has a sold or more ethe-
real framewoik, which must either perish or be saved.
The body being thus in their view from its very na-
ture corrupt, many of them doubted whether the
body of Christ was a true body, or whether it was
not rather a phantom which deceived the eyes of
men. Others attempted to compromise the matter,
by alleging that it was truly visible, not however
from its own nature, but sinqily by the will of God.
They taught that the soul of man, when freed from
the body at death, is carried to the highest planetary
region, and there detained along with the soul oi
Christ, but that the mind, separated from the soul,
traverses the whole planetary spheres, and is at
length conveyed to heaven far above all the planets,
thence passing to the Plemnia, where the soul of
Christ dwells in unalloyed bliss. The Ccrdoiiians
so far difTered from the Gnostics generally as to in-
troduce the doctrine of a dualistic princii)le of all
things, which was afterwards revived in several dif-
ferent forms. The belief in the existence of a good
and an evil principle was coupled with the idea, that
this world was created by the evil principle, and
thus it was .attemiitcd to account for the introduction
of moral evil. Marci.an attached himself to Cerdo,
but dhfered from him in various particulars. Thus
he rejected the Old Testament as the work of an
evil, or at least of an imiicrfectly good spirit. lie
believed the body of Christ not to have been real,
but imaginary.
There were several heresies which arose in the
second century in regard to the person of Christ;
some going so far as ojienly to deny his divinity,
among whom was Theodotus of liyzantiuni, the first
HERESY.
35
probably who dared to avow Clirist to be notliing
more than a man. The Artemites revived this
heresy. To tliis century belong the Mvnl/im'sts, a
fanatical and enthusiastic sect, who from tlie extra-
vagant nature of the tenets which they maintained,
gained considerable favour at this early period of the
history of the church, when the minds of Christians
were earnest and susceptible. It was firmly main-
tained by the Montanists that a true prophetic gift
still existed in the church as in the days of the apos-
tles, that extraordinary motions of the Spirit were
still experienced by Christians, and that internal re-
velations were imparted which conveyed additional
information to that which is contained in the written
Word. Montanus arrogated to himself, and to all his
followers, including women and chiklren, the privi-
lege of those supernatural motions and revelations of
the Spirit.
A remarkable dissension broke out in the course
of this century between the Eastern and Western
churches in regard to the time when the Easter fes-
tival ought to be celebrated by the Christian church.
The Eastern or Asiatic churches maintained that
the proper period for its celebration was the day
when the Jews observe the passover. The Western
churches, on the other hand, asserled with equal
firnmoss that the Lord's Day, immediately following
the Jewisli passover, was the proper time for observ-
ing Easter. Both churches, after much contention,
adhered tenaciously to their own opinions. See
Easter.
The third century was marked by the appearance
of a here.sy which was of a striclly Oriental type,
and was in many respects allied to the opinions of
the Gnostics. M.anes, the founder of tliis system,
which fron> him received the name of the Manichean
heresy, taught, that there were two original princi-
ples diametrically opposed to each other, the purest
light, which he called God, and a dark matter which
was the source of all evil, and which he believed to
be endowed with a soul and life. In regard to the
Divine Being, the Manieheans held that from God
proceeded two spirits of the same substance and
Divine nature with himself; but not ecpuil to him.
These were the Son and tlie Holy Spirit ; the fonnor
inhabiting the sun and moon ; the latter, the air.
From the same Supreme God emanated the ^ons,
pure spirits infinite in number, but forming a king-
dom over which God presided. From the mixture
of light and darkness originated the world, and also
man. Manes assumed to be an apostle, alleged that
he had seen visions, and been translated to heaven,
where he learned his peculiar tenets. He rejected
the Old Testament, but admitted the New, with
many interpolations and corruptions, adding his own
gospel, and other apocryphal books.
Not long after this century had commenced, Noetus
of Smyrna gave forth the heretical sentiment in ref-
erence to the nature of the Godhead, that it consists of
only one person. Tlie same heresy was revived after
the middle of the century by Sabellius, from wdiom it
received the name of the Sabellian here.sy. A simi-
lar set of opinions was afterwards taught by Paul of
Samosata, who more directly opposed the deity of
Jesus Christ, and in consequence of his heretical
views he was condennied in two councils held suc-
cessively at .\ntioch A dissension occurred in this
century, also, on the subject of ecclesiastical disci-
pline, Novatus at Carthage, hi opposition to Cy-
prian, the bishop of that city, seemed to deny the
right of the church to exclude even delinquents from
her communion. Novatian at IJonie, on the con-
trary, held that none should be admitted into the
communion of the church who had fallen into gross
sin. Novatus, having been condemned at Carthage,
tied to Rome, and adopted the opinions of Novatian,
with whom he formed a separate sect, which main-
tained that the Church of Clu-ist ought to be pure
and free from all stain, and, tliercfurc, that any indi-
vidual who had once openly transgressed could im
longer be a member of the church. The Novatian
heresy lasted for several centuries. From this dis-
sension on church discipline arose another contro-
versy concerning the baptism of heretics, which con-
tinued till the iirst Nicene council in the following
century.
The Arian heresy disturbed the peace of the chui-ch
throughout the greater part of the fourth century.
It originated in the teaching of Arius, a presby-
ter of Alexandria, who denied the eternal deity of
the Son of God, and maintained that ho was created
by tho Father before the foundation of the world.
Arius was excommunicated by Alexander his bishop,
but the heresy still continuing to spread, the Em-
peror Constantine, wdio had embraced the Christian
faith, summoned the first council of Nice A. i). 32"i,
at which the eternal deity of the Son and his con-
substantiality with the Father were distinctly recog-
nized. By this council, at which the emperor him-
self presided, the heresy of Arius was condemned,
and he himself sent into banishment. In a .short
time, however, matters underwent a complete change.
Arius, aided by his friends, secured the favour of the
emperor, and he was in consequence recalled. The
favour shown to Arius and his party did not termi-
nate with the life of Constantine i it continued also
during the reign of Constantius, his son and succes-
sor. Valens also strongly inclined to Arian views,
and it was not till the death of that prince, and the
succession of Theodosius the Great, that the church
was delivered from the Arian heresy, and restored to
its former harmony and peace.
The Arian party split up into dilTerent and even con-
flicting sects. The pure Arians held that the Son was
of a totally different essence from the Father, and the
Semi- Arians urged that he was of a similar essence ;
while the orthodox or Athanasian party maintained
that he was of the same essence with the Father. In
the course of this century Photinus revived the Sabel-
lian heresy, which alleged that there was only one per-
36
HERESY.
soil in the Godhcail. ;iinl tluit Jesus Clirist was .1 mere
man, in wliom Goil dwelt as lie did in tlie propliets.
This heretic was coiidenmed and remo\ed Ironi liis
bishopric A. n. 351. Apolliuariiis, a hishop of Laodi-
cea, langlit nhoiit this time that in Jesus there was a
divine natnre and a human body, but he denied his
human n\ind or soul. He maintained, al-o, that
from the Divine Spirit and the human body of Christ,
there was formed a divine nature, and hence he is
often termed the father of the JFonophysites.
Nor were the heresies of this century limited (o
the person of Christ, they extended also to the [ er-
soii of the Sjjirit. Thus Macedonius, a Consfanli-
nopolitan bishop, denied the divinity of the Holy
Spirit, allegiri!,' that he was a created being, and sub-
ordinate to the Son. This heresy was condemned
in the second general council of Constantinople,
.\. D. 3?],and at this time there was added to the
Xicene creed, a clause containing the doctrine of the
true and eternal deity of the Holy Spirit. Thus the
Nicene-Constantinopolitan creed was so framed as to
convey the orthodox doctrine both on the person of
the Son and on the person of the Spirit. In the
course of this century a schism took place in an im-
portant sectinn of the church, that of North Africa,
founded on the question as to the true constitution
of the Christian church; the point of dispute being
whether a church, by the adnn'ssion of unworthy
persons into her comnumion, forfeited the title of a
Church of Christ. The party which held the alVu--
niative side of this question was headed by Donatns,
from whom his followers received the name of Don-
iitists.
In the commencement of the lifth century the Pe-
lagian heresy arose, which denied original sin as ex-
tending from Adam to his natural posterity; and,
consequently, denied also the necessity of Divine
grace to renew and purify the heart. This heresy,
which was promulgated by Pelagius and his friend
Celeslius, was speedily condemned, and those who
held it proscribed. Augustin, bishop of Hippo, was
the principal opponent of Pelagianism. There were
some, however, who, without going so far as Pela-
gius, did not entirely agree with the opinions of Au-
gustin. These, who received the name of Semi-Pe-
lagians, while they admitted that man was in part
corrupted by original sin, still held that by God's
grace it might be corrected and overcome. Acts of
faith and obedience they attributed partly to the
will of man, ami imrlly to the grace of God. In a
very short time this modilied form of Pelagianism
was also reprobated by the church.
During this century Nestorius broached in the
East his heretical opinions. He taught that a dis-
tinction ought to be drawn between Christ and God
dwelling in Christ as in a temple ; that from the
moment of the conception in the wond) of the Vir-
gin, there commenced an intiinale union between
Christ and God ; and that these two persons pre-
sented in Jesus Christ one aspect, but that the union
between them was one of will and affection. Nesto-
rius was keenly opposed by Cyril, bishop of Alexan-
dria, and a council being called A. D. 431, Nestorius
was dejiosed, in the first instance, but on the arrival
of the Eastern bishops, Cyril himself was depri\ ed
of his episcopal office. In oppo.sing the Nestorian
heresy, Eutyches fell into a contrary error, that of
maintaining that Christ was possessed of only one
nature, his human nature being absorbed in the
Divine. Hence the Eutychian was likewise called
the Monophysite heresy. After the fourth general
council at Clialcedon, the Eutychians continued to
increase in numbers; and, therefore, the Enqjeror
Zeuo, A. D. 482, proposed the Henoticon or Unitive
Edict. This attempt, however, to unite the con-
flicting parlies in the church, however well meant
on the part of Zeno, was without etiect, and, ac-
cordingly, the Henoticon was repealed by his suc-
cessor Justin.
The Donatist schism, which had rent asunder the
church in North Africa during the fourth century,
still continued during the tifth, with this did'erence
however, that the Donatists themselves split up into
ditTerent sects. The religious dissensions, and even
civil commotions, which this uidia[)py schism had
so long caused, attracted the attention of the Em-
peror Honorius, who sunnnoncd a meeting of the
contending parties, and the Donatists being foiled in
argument, v/ere commanded to join the church.
In the sixth centiu'y the Monophysite heresy gradu-
ally declined, chietly through the exertions of the Em-
peror Justinian, who greatly favoured the council of
Chalcedou, and put in force its decrees. From the
name of one of their leaders the Monophysites were
also called Jacobites. At length they divided into dif-
ferent sects bearing diti'erent names. The heresies
which Origen had taught in the third century and
which had led to his deposition and banishment, caused
no small dissension in the church, even at this remote
period. Fur nearly 150 years after the death of this
eminent man, who, to a faucifid and allegorical style
of interpreting Scripture, added an ardent love of com-
bining philosophy with religion, the mend)ers of the
Christian church were much divided in opinion con-
ccniing the true character of his views. iMany eagerly
called for the public condemnation of his works ; and,
accordingly, A. D. 400, a sentence, condemnatory of the
writiiigs of Origen, was pronounced by the synod ol
Alexandria. After a truce, which lasted nearly 14C
years, the war against the memory of Grigen again
broke out, for A. n. 641, his dogmas were once more
solemnly eondenmed. In the filth general council,
the coiulemnatiou of the works of Origen was again
repeated.
During the seventh century the Manichean, Nes-
torian, and Jjicobito heresies still continued to
agitate the church, and in addition to these the
.Monothelilc heresy sprung up, which asserted that,
in the constituticni of Christ's person, there was oidy
a natural will. To silence the adversaries of this
HERETICS.
37
sfut. the Emperor Ileradiiis jiromiil^ated, A. D. G39,
an Exposition of Faitli, setting fortli tlio double na-
ture of Cln-ist, but bis single will. In G80, however,
tlie sixth general council met at Constantinople, and
condemned this heresy.
The commencenient of this century was marked
bv two events of a most remarkable kind, which bad
an intimate and vital bearing on the history of the
Cliristlan church — the appearance of Mohammed,
the Ar.abian prophet, who promulgated that peculiar
system of religion which, down to the present day,
has maintained so powerful a sway over so large a
portion of the human race — and the assmnption of
the title of Universal Bishop by the bishop of Rome,
thus arrogating authority over tlie whole visible
Church of Christ upon the earth.
For several succeeding centin-ies some of the prin-
cipal heresies, to which we have already adverted,
disturbed the peace of the church, especially in the
.East, amidst the civil commotions by which the
Greek empire was so long distracted. No new
heresy f(U- a time was promulgated, except perhaps
tlic Paulician, which, without almost a single novel
tenet, embodied the worst points of the Gnostic and
Mauichean heresies. The Panlicians prevailed very
extensively in the East during the ninth and tenth
cewturies. In the eleventh century, Roscellinns, a
presbvfer in Gaul, invented a new form of error,
alleging that the Three Persons in the Godhead were
as distinct as three spirits..and three angels, but that
they, nevertheless, po.ssessed only one will and power.
This tenet, however, was no sooner condemned by
the Suessiau council, than in .\. n. 1092 RosccUiiiiis
publicly revoked it.
For several centuries darkness had been gradually
spreading over the church, and in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries the purity of the Christian faith
had almost entirely disappeared amid the unintelli-
gible follies and puerilities of the schoolmen. Men
of high intellect and profound learning, an Aquinas,
a Scotiis, an Anselm, and others, shone out, no
doubt, as lights amid the darkness ; but even these
men of might were feeble, and almost without the
slightest perceptible influence, amid the ignorance
and gi'oss corruption which prevailed around them.
This was emphatically the dark age of the Cliristian
church, when religion was nothing but a name, and
the church a nonentity. From time to time signs of
life began to appear. Sects arose, the l!ogomile.=,
the Cathari, the Henricians, and others, which, amid
the errors and excesses into which they ran, pro-
tested loudly against the vices of the clergy, and the
corruptions of the donn'nant churcli. The zeal of
these well-uioauiug men was met only by persecu-
tion, and the truth which they preached was pro-
nounced a heresy. At length, in the fourteenth
century, the Lollards in England, and in the fifteenth
the Hussites in Rohemia, raised the standard of open
revolt f'roin the haughty oppression of the Romish
i-hiu'cli and clergi,', and made their appeal from the
caimns of the church to the declarations of the Word
of God — an appeal which met with no other reply
than the fire and tlie faggot.
The sixteentli century came, and with it the Re-
formation, when Luther boldly affixed to the church
of the castle of AVittenberg his ninetj'-five Theses
against the sordid heresy of Rome on the sale of in-
dulgences The audacious monk was denoimced
from the Vatican as a heretic after many fruitless at-
tempts to make him recant. Setting at nought,
however, all the Papal fulminations which year after
year were launched against him, Luther went forward
with his great mission, joined by Melancthon, Zwin
gli, Calvin, and others, and thus were foimded those
churches which everywhere throughout the world to
this day bear the name of Protestant, thus holding
up their sustained and solemn protest against the
Church of Rome as a heretical church, while she in
tiu'n retorts the charge, declaring the churches of
the Reformation to be both heretical in doctrine, and
guilty of the heinous sin of schism, rending asunder
the Church of God.
HICRETICS, those who hold such opinions as are
considered to amount to heresy. In the ancient
history of Christianity every man was accounted a
heretic who rejected any point belonging to that
form of doctrine which was acknowledged and .set
forth by the church. Hence his sin was regarded as
greater or less according to the importance of the
doctrine denied, and the circumstances attendant on
the denial. But against heretics generally, laws were
[lassed by the church subjecting them to peculiar ec-
clesiastical censures. And from the time of Con-
stantine, when Christianity was first adopted as the
established religion of the Roman Emiiire, to Theo-
dosius the younger and Valentiiu'an III., various
penal laws were enacted by the Christian emperors
against the heretics as being guilty of crime against
the welfare of the state. Thus in both the Theodo-
sian and Justinian codes, they were styled infamous
persons; all intercourse was forliidden to be held
with them ; they were deprived of all oflices of pro-
fit and dignity in the civil admiuisfralion, while all
burdensoiTie offices, both of the camp and curia, were
imposed upon them ; they were disqualified from
disposing of their own estates by will, or accepting
estates bequeathed to them by others ; they were de-
nied the right of giving or receiving donations, of
contracting, buying, and selling; pecuniary fines
were imposed upon them ; they were often pro-
scribed and banished, and in many cases scourged,
before being sent into exile. In some particularly
aggravated cases, sentence of death was pronounced
upon heretics, though seldom executed in the time
of the Christian Emperors of Rome. Theodosius is
said to have been the first who ]U'onounced heresy a
capital crime. This sanguinary law was ]iasscd A. T>.
382 against the Encratites, the Saccophori, the Hy-
droparastatjc, and the Manicheans.
Ill the course of the period during which the laws
38
HERETICS (Baptism op).
were passed, to wliicli we liave now refernil, tliei-e
were also many pioliibitoiy enactments I'ormL'd ex-
pressly against hcieticjil teachers. Tims tliey were
forbidden to jii-opagate their doctrines publicly or
privately; to hold public disputations; to ordain
bishops, presbyters, or any other clergy; to hold
religions meetings and assemblies; to build con\en-
.icles or avail themselves of money bequeathed to
them for that [lurpose. Slaves were allowed to in-
fiinn aijainst their heretical masters, and to purchase
their freedom by coming over to the church. The
cliildren of heretical parents were denied their patri-
mony and inheritance, unless they returned to the
Cathnlic church. Finally, the books of heretics were
ordered to be burned.
Sui-h were the civil enactments against heretics
which disgraced the otherwise valuable Tiieodosian
and Justinian codes.
lu the eye of tlie church heresy was accounted
one of the most heinous crimes that a Christian
could possibly commit, being nothing less than a
vohmlary apostasy from the faith. His sin was
visited therefore with a sentence of formal excom-
nnniication, and as long as he continued impenitent,
he was debarred from the very lowest of the privi-
leges of the clun-ch. The council of Laodicea, by a
decree, prohibited heretics from entering the house
of God. This was by no means, however, a gener-
ally recognized law, as the common practice of the
church appears to have been to encourage heretics
to frequent one part of her .service, that which was
allowed to penitents and catechumens. All inem-
bers of the church, however, were strictly prohibited
from joining with heretics in any of their religious
offices, more especially in their churches, under pain
of excommunication. But the laws of the church
went still further in these early times, when the prin-
ciples of an enlightened toleration were scarcely if at
all understood. Thus no Christian was allowed to
eat at a feast or converse fauiiliarly with heretics.
No one was permitted to receive their euhgia; or fes-
tival presents. No one was allowed to read or re-
tain their writings, but was enjoined to bin-u them.
Marriage, or any near alliance with a heretic, was
forbidden, unless on condition that a pledge was
giveu of their return to the Catholic church. As
long as they continued in heresy, their names were
erased from the diptychs of the church ; and if they
died ill heresy, no psalmody or other solemnity was
used at their funeral ; no oblations were ofiered for
thein, or any mention ever after made of them in the
solemn service of the church. It is remarkable to
what .an extent the ancient church seems to have
carried her abhorrence of the heretic. In the exer-
cise of her ecclesiastical discijjliue, the testimony of
a heretic was inadmissible in the church courts. A
law was passed forbidding the ordination of such as
were cither bajjlizcd in heresy, or fell away after
they had been baptized. They were allowed to be
received as penitent hu men, but not to be j)romoted
to any clerical otlice. This arrangement, however,
was not universally observed. The council of Nice
dispensed with it in the case of the Novalians, and
the African church in the case of the Donatists.
Christians were forbidden to bring any cause, just or
unjust, before a heretical judge, under pain of exconi-
inunication.
The length of time to which the excommunication
of a heretic extended was very nmch dependent on
the peculiar circumstances of the case. The council
of Eliberis appointed a period of ten years, provided
the heretic repented and confessed his sin. In the
case, however, of bishops, presbyters, and deacons,
who suft'ered themselves to be rebaptized by heretics,
the council of Rome under Felix ordered them to be
denied communion even among the catechumens all
their natural lives, aud to be only allowed lay com-
munion at the hour of death. Heresiarchs or tirst
founders of heresies were always treated more se
verely than their followers; and those who complied
with heretical errors by force or coniijulsion were
punished with much more leniency than those who of
their own free will rejected the doctrines of the church.
A diiTerence was also made between those hereticswho
retained the regular form of baptism, and those who
set it wdiolly aside or corrupted it in any essential
part. The former were to be received only by hn-
position of hands, confessing their error; but the
latter were to be received only as heathens, having
never been truly baptized, and therefore requiring to
be baptized anew in order to their admission into the
Christian church. And yet amid all this severity on
the part of the ancient church, she was slow to jiro-
nounce any man a heretic, even though entertaining
dangerous error; the name being reserved for those
who persisted in the maintenance of heretical opi-
nions after a first and second admonition by the
church, thus adding contumacy to their error.
IIERKl'ICS (Bai-tism oi--). In the second halt
of the third century, a question arose in reference to
the baptism of heretics, which excited considerable
agitation in the Christian church. The point in dis-
pute was simply this, Ought a heretic who had been
baptized in his own sect, to be re-bai)tized in case of
his returning to the bosom of the orthodox or Catholic
church? There having been no rule laid down on
the subject, the practice of the church had been dif-
ferent in diii'erent countries. In Asia Minor and the
adjoining countries, the baptism of heretics had been
reg;ii'dcd as null, and therefore those heretics who
sought admission to the church were re-baptizcd.
In the Roman Church a precisely ojiposit.e jiractice
had ju-evailed; baptism in the name of Christ or of
the Trinity being regarded as valid, by whomsoever,
and under whatsoever religious views it may have
been administered. IIerelics,thereforc, who came over
to the Church of Rome were regarded as baptizea
Christians, and only the rite of continnatiou was ad-
ministered by the bishop, th.at the IlolySjiirit might
render eflicacious the baptism they had received.
HERETICS (Baptism of).
,=19
Towards tlie close of tlie second century, tlie atten-
tion of the Christian communities in Asia Minor be-
gan to Ije called to the subject, and the majority de-
clared in favour of adhering to the old priuciple.
The point was again agitated at a somewliat later
period, and tlie same principle was contirnicd by two
councils, one held at Icoiiium, and the other at Syn-
nada in Plirygia. This led to the discussion of the
controverted point in other countries. Tertidlian
wrote a treatise in the Greek language supporting
the view of the Asiatic in opposition to that of tlie
Roman church. The North African church was di-
vided on the question, but both |iarties still con-
tinued in In'otherly fellowship with one another.
Stephanus, however, a Roman bishop, altachiug to
the conlrover.s}' more importance than it deserved,
issued a sentence of excommunication, A. D. 253,
against the bisl)oi]S of Asia iMinor, Cappadocia, Ga-
latia, and Cilicia. Cyiu'iau, the bishop of Carthage,
proposed the disputed point for discussion at two
councils, held in that city A. D. 255, both of them de-
ciding in favour of the views of Cyprian, that the bap-
tism of heretics was invalid. Ste|ihaiius, the Roman
bishop, on learning that the decision of the North
African council had been in opposition to his own,
\.rote a haughty indignant letter to Cyprian, and re-
fused to give an audience to the bisliO]is who had
been sent as delegates from the council. The bishop
of Carthage, however, was not a man to be easily
overborne. He assendjled at Carthage another and
a larger council A. d. 256, which confirmed the views
already expressed by the North African church, in
opposition to the Roman bishop. Thus the North
African and the Asiatic Churches were agreed in
their views on the bapti.sni of heretics, and Diony-
sius, bishop of Alexandria, was dispo.scd to favour
tlie same party, making an exception, liowever, in
the case of the baptism of Montanists, which he
could not con.sent to put on a footing with the bap-
tism of other heretics. Stephanus continued to ful-
minate his anathemas, but without elect, and the
opjiosition gradually died away, both parties retain-
ing their respective opinions.
The true state of the question as between the two
parties cannot be better stated than in the words of
Neander : '-There were two points of dispute. In
respect to the first, the Itonian ]iarty maintained that
the validity of baptism depended simply on its being
administered as instituted by Christ. The formula
of baptism, in particular, gave it its objective validity ;
it mattered not what was the subjective character of
the ofliciating priest, who served merely as an in-
strument in the transaction ; it was of no consequence
where the baptism was administered. That which
is objectively divine in the transaction could evince
its power, the grace of God could thus operate
through the objective symbol, if it but found in the
(lerson baptized a recipient soul ; that person could
receive the grace of baptism, wherever he might be
baptized, through his oion faith, and through his own
disposition of heart. But Cyprian brings against his
opponents a charge of inconsistency, from which
they coidd not easily defend themsehes. If the t'(p-
tisni of heretics possessed an objective validity, then,
for the .same reason, their confirination must also pos-
sess an objective validity. ' For,' says Cyprian, ' if
a person born out of the Church, (namely, to the
new life,) may become a temple of God, why may
not also tlie Holy Spirit be poured out on this tem-
ple? He who has put off sin in baptism, and be-
come sanctified, spiritually transformed into a new
mail, is capable of receiving the Holy Spirit. The
Apostle .says, "As many of you as are baptized,
have put on Christ." It follows, then, that he who
may put on Christ, when baptized by heretics, can
much more receive the Holy Spirit, which Christ
has sent ; as if Christ conld be put on without the
Spirit, or the Spirit ooidd be separated from Christ.'
"The other party maintained, on the other hand,
that no baptism could be valid, unless administered
in the true Church, where alone the eflicacious influ-
ence of the Holy Spirit is exerted. If by this was
understood merely an outward being in the Church,
an outward connection with it, the decision of the
question would be easy. But what Cyprian really
meant liere, was an inward subjective connection
with the true Church by faith and disposition of
heart. He took it for granted that the officiating
priest himself, by virtue of his faith, must be an
organ of the Holy Spirit, and enabled, by the magi-
cal influence of his priestly office, duly to perform
the sacramental acts, to communicate, for examjile,
to the water its supernatural, sanctifying power.
But wlien the matter took this shape — was made
thus to depend on the suhjrctire chavaeter of the jjriest
— it became difficuh, in many cases, to decide as to
the validity of a baptism, which must be the occa-
sion of much perplexity and doubt ; — for who could
look into the heart of the ofhciating priest?
" But the Roman party went still farther in their
defence of the objective significancy of the formula
of baptism. Even a baptism where the complete
form was not employed, but administered simply in
the name of Christ, they declared to be objectively
valid. Cyprian maintained, on the other hand, that
the formula of baptism had no longer significancy,
when not in tlie full form instituted by Christ. We
perceive here the more liberal Christian spirit of the
anti-Cyprian party. The thought hovered vaguely
before their minds, that everything that pertains to
Christianity is properly embraced in the faith in
fhrist.
" Cyprian himself, however, did not venture to
limit God's grace by such outward things in cases
where converted heretics had already been adniilted
without a new baptism, and had enjoyed the fellow-
ship of the church, or died in it. ' God,' he observes,
' is great in his mercy, to show indulgence and not
exclude from the benefits of the Cliurch, those who
have been received into it informally, and thus fallen
40
HERMjE— HEUMEXEUT^.
asleep. A remarkable case of tliis sort is narrated
by Dioiiysius of Alexaiulria. Tliere was in llie
church of Alexandria a converted heretic, who lived
as a member of the Church for many years, and par-
ticipated in the various acts of worship. Happening
once to bo present at a baptism of catechumens, lie
remembered that the bapti.sni which he himself had
received in the sed from which he was converted,
probably a Gnostic sect, bore no resemblance wliat-
evcr to the one lie now witnessed. Had he been
aware that whoever possesses Clirist in faith, pos-
sesses all that is necessary to his growth in grace
and to the salvation of his soul, this circumstance
could not have given him so much uneasiness. But
as this was not so clear to him, he doubted as to his
title to consider himself a real Christian, and fell into
the greatest distress and anxiety, believing himself
to bo without baptism and the grace of baptism. In
tears, he threw himself at the bishop's feet, and be-
sought him for baptism. The bishop endeavoured
to quiet his ("ears ; he assured him that he could not,
at this late period, after he liad so long partaken of
the body and blood of the Lord, be baptized anew.
It was sutficient that ho had lived for so long a time
in the fellowship of tlie Ciiurch, and all he had to do
was to approach the holy supper with unwavering
faith and a good conscience. But the disquieted
man found it impossible to overcome his scruples and
regain his tranquillity. So destructive to peace of
conscience were the effects of such tenacious adher-
ence to outward thing.s, of not knowing how to rise
with freedom to those things of the Spirit, which the
inward m.an apprehends by faith !"
Wliile Stepbanus recognized the baptism of here-
tics as valid, he demanded the laying on of hands as
significant of penitence. The African bishops, on
tlio other hand, restricted this rile to the lapsed, and
appealed to the custom observed by the heretics
themselves in confirmation of their view. At an
after period in the history of the North African
churcli, we find the Donatists insisting on the rebajj-
tiz,ation of heretics. At tlie Reformation, when botli
Roman Catholics and Protestants charged each other
with heresy, both parties were agreed, as they have
ever since been, upon the disputed point of lieretical
b.aptism. The Roman Catholics, in accordance with
tlie views wliich their cliurch had always avowed on
the subject, were comiiclled to acknowledge the vali-
dity of I'rotestant bajitism, while the Protestants, on
the other hand, have alw.ays maintained Romish bap-
tism to be a Christian ordinance, and, with the ex-
ception of a few minor sects, have never dreamt of
rebaptizing those who have been converted to tlie
Protestant faith.
I1ERMj12, a name given by the ancient Greeks to
the rough unhewn stones whicli they u.=ed to repre-
sent their gods. The first unshapcn statues of this
kind were probably those of IIkkmes (which see),
and hence the name Ila-mw was ajiplicd to all those
lialf-wroiiglit blocks, the invention of which is altri-
buled by Pausaiiias to the Athenians. Statues of
this description, having no other part of the liumau
body developed but the head and the sexual organs,
were generally placed in front of the houses, where
they were worshipped by the women. They stood
also before the temples and public places, .as well .as
at the corners of the streets and high ro.ads, some of
which travellers describe as still to be seen at
Athens. The Romans used them as termim or land-
marks, sometimes in the original form of rude mis-
shapen stones, and at other times with the busts ot
eminent men resting on them. In this latter form
the name HermM was generally compounded with
that of the deity, whose figure it served to support.
Hence the names of Ilermathcna, He^-mcros, Hcrine-
racleci, and so forth.
HERMj'EA, festivals dedicated to the ancient
he.athen deity Hermes (which see), and celebrated
in different parts of Greece. The boys at Athens
usually took an active part in the religious ceremo-
nies, combining them with games and amusements ot
various kinds. In Crete and other places the Hcr-
mica were characterized by excesses somewhat simi-
lar to the Roman Saturnalia.
HERMANDxVD, societies in Spain which were
wont to supply victims to the Ikquisition (which
.see).
HERMANUBIS, an ancient Egyptian deity, a
son of Ob-iris and Nephthys, and usually represented
as a human being with a dog's head. It was regarded
as a symbol of the Egyptian prieslhood, engaged in
their inquiries into the mvsteries of nature.
HERMAPHRODITUS (Gr. Ilcrmcs, Mercury,
and Aphrodite, Venus), one of those compound dei-
ties which among the ancient heathens formed a part
of the wor.ship of nature. This divinity was re re-
sented by Pausanias as a Ilcrmes, conjoined with a
symbol of fertility, and in after times as a divinity,
the head, body, and breasts being those of a female,
and the lower parts those of a male. Hence the
word " hermaphrodiie" in our language is used to
denote the combination of the male and the female
in one.
HERMATHENA. See Herm.«.
HERMENEUTiE (Gr. interpreters), a class of
officers in the ancient Christian church, mentioned
by Epiphanius, whose employment it was to trans-
late from one language into another, in those
churches where the people spoke different languages.
They were also required to assist the bishop in
translating the correspondence of the church when
necessary. This officer might be chosen from among
the laity wlien no suit.able person among the clergy
could be found to discharge its duties, and when
cho.sen he took his place among the clergy. Such
officers might probably bo required in ihe churches
of Palestine, where some spoke Syriac, and others
Greek ; and also in the African cliurches, where
some spoke Punic or Phoenician, .and others Greek.
Thus all who attended Divine worship were enabled
IIEUME3— IIERMOGENIANS.
n
tliroiigli tlie interpreters to uirlerstaml bolli the (lor-
tions of Scripture rend, and tlie discourses preaelied.
HERAFERACLEA. Sec IIkhm^,.
HERMER03. See Herm/e.
HERMES, one of the most celebrated of the gods
of ancient Greece. He was said to be tlie son of
Zeui and Maia, and to him is usually ascribed the
invention of divine worship and sacriiices. He was
also the inventor of the lyre and other musical in-
struments, and thus became intimately associated
with Apollo, the god of music, whose oxen, however,
he was charged with having stolen at a former period
of his life. Tluis Hermes came to be regarded as
the p.atron of thieves, while he was also the protector
of flocks, and enjoyed the high distinction of being
the winged messenger of tlie gods, who taught men
the use of .speech, and the noble art of persuasive
eloquence. As an appropriate return for this last-
mentioned gift, the tongues of animals which had
been sacrificed were presented on his shrine. He
was the god of prudence, sagacity, and skill, the
guardian of travellers, and the god from whom su -
cess in expeditions of every kind was alone to be
expected, and accordingly statues in honour of
Hermes were placed in the most conspicuous places
on the public roads, that travellers might have no
difficulty in paying their homage to him, and asking
his protection. This divinity was recognized alt^o as
the god of commerce, and the regulator of games of
ch.ance. The ancient games of the Greeks, particu-
larly those which required bodily exertion, were sup-
posed to be under the patronage of Hermes. In-
deed, so varied were the oflices assigned to him, that
some writers have alleged that several gods of this
name existed in ancient Greece. The worship of
Hermes seems to have been first celebrated in Arca-
dia, then in Athens, and in the course of time
tlironghout every part of Greece ; temples and sta-
tues being everywhere erected to his honour, and
festivals kept by his votaries under the name of
Herm.'E.v (which see). By the Romans this god
was worshipped under the name of Merciirij. The
auiniiils sacred to him were the dog, goat, and cock.
As early as the time of Plato, the Greek Hermes
was identified with the Egyptian Thot; and when
pagan philosophy began to be mingled up with
Christianity in the form of New Platonism, this
Egyptian Hermes was looked upon as the author of
all knowledge and wise inventions among men.
Mcuice he received the high appellation of Hermes
Trismegistus, or the thrice gi-eatest. Clemens Alex-
andrinus mentions as extant in his time, that is in
the second century, forty-two books of Hermes, con-
taining all knowledge human and divine. Jamblichus
asserts that Hermes was the author of 20,000 works,
and Manetho even speaks of 36,525, being the satne
number as th.at which he assigns to his several dy-
nasties of kings. The works which are still ext.ant,
bearing the name of Hermes, have probably been the
|iroduction of the New Platouists, intended as they
obviously are to expound and to vindicate the doc-
trines of that philosophical school.
HER:MIANS, an e.arly Christian sect of which
Augustin speaks as refusing the use of bapti-sm by
water. Their rejection of water bajilism was ground-
ed on the statement of John the li.-iptist, as to the
ditTerence between his baptism and that of Christ,
'• I indeed baptize you with water, but he that Com-
eth after me shall baptize you with the Holy Ghost
and with fire." The baiitism, therefore, wliich the
Hermians i-egarded as the only true Christian bap-
tism, was not by water but by fire ; aiul as support-
ing this view, they alleged that the souls of men con-
sisted of fire and spirit, and thus a baptism by fire
was more accordant with their true nature. No dis-
tinct account occurs in the ancient writers of the mode
in which bnijtism by fire was celebrated, but Clemens
Alexandriuus states that some wdien they had bap-
tized men in water, made also ii mark upon their
ears with fire, thus combining as they imagined wa-
ter-baptism and fire baptism together. There seems
also to have been a sect, who, when thej' went down
into the water to disjiense baptism, made fire to ap-
pear upon the surface of the water, and this tliey
called baptism by fire. But in what precise way the
Hermians dispensed their fire-baptism we have no
means of ascertaining.
HERMITS. See A^'CIIOKETS.
HERMOD, the son of Odin, the messenger of the
Ases, and the Mercury of the Scandinavians.
HERMOGENIANS. Although there is no evi-
dence of a distinct .sect having ever existed under
this name, yet from the prominence which must liave
been given to the opinions of Hermogenes in the end
of the second and beginning of the third centuries,
by the circumstance that Tertullian dedicated a trea-
tise to their refutation, it were unpardonable to omit
all reference to the anti-Gnostic system of the Car-
thaginian painter. This bold .speculator felt himself
utterly unable to .sympathize wiili the prevailing
opinions of his day. The questions which chiefly
occupied his mind were the creation of the tmiverse,
and the existence of moral evil. In reference to the
former, the Gnostic theory of emanations he felt to
be quite unsatisfactory, inasmuch as it implied that
material objects emanated from a Spirit, and sinful
beings from a Being essentially holy. Neither did
Hermogenes conceive that the difliculty was at all re-
moved by the ordinary explanation that all things
sprang from the creative power of God. This neces-
sitated in his view a complete correspondence between
the moral character of the creature and that of the
Creator, such as is not found actually to exist. To
account for the existence, therefore, and the continu
ance in the universe of the discord.ant elements of
spirit and matter, holiness and sin, lie devised a
theory which he supposed would solve the gi'eat
physical and moral difficulty, viz., that both the in-
consistent principles were etenial. God existed as
the active principle, and chaotic matter as the pas-
42
HEKODIANS— HEKTHA.
give. To bring the two into contact so as to accom-
plish creation, lie supposes God to be possessed of
an eternal formative power over matter, in the exer-
cise of which he is sovereign and uncontrolled. The
resistance which matter gave to the formative power
of God was the source Hcnnogenes conceived of all
the iniperlection and evil whicli exists in the iini-
vei-se; and this stale of things would at last remedy
itself, tliat part of matter which yielded to organiza-
tion ultimately separating from that part which re-
sisted it. Such was the theory by which Hormo-
genes imagined that he overturned the doctrines of
the Gnostics in reference to creation and moral evil.
Prom a tract, which though lost, Tertullian is known
to have written, ' Ou the Soul,' in opposition to Her-
mo^encs, it would appear that the speculative artist
must have broached pecular views on that subject
also. What his sentiments were cannot now lie
known.
IIERODIAN.S, a Jewish sect referred to in the
New Testament, about whose character and oiiinions,
however, considerable diirerence of opinion exists
among the learned. It is generally supposed to have
derived its name from Herod tlie Great, king of
Judea, and appears to have been rather political than
religious in its objects, having in view the support of
Ilerod and his family, and the continued subjection of
P.alestine to the Roman government. The Herodians
may have also agreed with Herod in conniving at many
of the heathen practices which prevailed in the coun-
try, raising statues to the Kmperors, and instituting
games in honour of them. To this idolatrous ten-
dency our Lord may perhaps refer in the caution
which he gives to his disciples in Mark viii. 15,
against the leaven of Herod. In matters of religion
they seem to have been Saddncees, for what Matthew
calls the leaven of the Sadducees, Mark terms the
leaven of Herod. They were a kind of half Jews,
who, while they professed the Jewish religion, occji-
sionally conformed to the customs and practices of
the I'agans. Many of the ancients suppose that the
Herodians actually believed Herod to be the Mes-
siah, applying to him some of the Old Testament
prophecies, and particularly that of Micah, " And
thou, Bethlehem Ephratah, though thou be little
among the thousands of Jiidah, yet out of thee shall
he come forth unto nie, that is to be ruler in Israel."
Whatever amount of truth there may be in the state-
ments which are made concerning this sect, it is
plain at all events, that the sect of the Herodians
existed in the time of our blessed Lord, and joined
with the other Jewish sects in opposing him.
HERO WOliSIIlP. Next to the worshiii of na-
ture, the most ancient, and jirobably the most prolific
source of idolatry was the worship of heroes, or
great men, who, from the extent to which they had
been the instruments of good or evil while on eaith,
were reckoned among the gods when they were dead.
The admiration, gratitude, reverence, or respect,
which was \ielded to them when alive, followed them
to their graves ; and no sooner had they passed aw.ay
from the earth, than the extravagant feelings, whether
of love or of awe, with which their memory was re-
garded, led to their deiiication. This indeed appears
in very ancient times to have been the usual mode
of rewarding those who had apjiroved themselves as
the benefactors of their race. Plutarch tells us, that
the Egyptian priests were wont to boast that they
had the bodies of their gods embalmed and dciio-
sited in their sepulchres, and Syncellus reckons up
seven gods and nine demi-gods who reigned in
Egypt, assigning to each of them a certain number
of years for his reign. The Egyptians, however,
were somewhat unwilling to allow such a view of
their gods to be entertained generally among the
peo|)le. By the laws of the country it was a cajiital
crime to allege that Scraj'is had once been a num.
Nor was this feeling of jealoLisy contined to only one
of their deities; they had in almost every temide the
image of Silence, with her linger upon her mouth,
and several images of Sphynx about the altars, the
meaning of which, according to Varro, was, that no
man should dare to affirm that their gods were of
human origin.
It is scarcely possible, we conceive, to study atten-
tively the ancient heathen mythology of the Greeks
and Romans without being deeply impressed with the
conviction, that its most prominent features manifest
it to have been fundamentally and throughout a sys-
tem of hero-worship: '-That the ancient legends,"
says Mr. Crosthwaite, " concerning the deities o(
the Greeks refer to human beings, ought to be suffi-
ciently e\ident to any jilain candid inquirer, from the
circumstances related of them. Their actions, their
interm.nrriages, and other intercoiu-se with men and
women ; their being driven out of Greece, as it is
said, by giants, and their llight to Egypt, are all most
iiuquestioiutbly human atiairs poetically embellished.
Herodotus, Diodorus Siculns, Pausanias, and espe-
cially Cicero, who devoted much time and attention
to the subject, have all left this as their decided opi-
nion on the subject. Diodorus Siculns expressly de-
clares, that Osiris, the Jupiter of the Greeks, was a
man worsliipjied for the splendid benefits conferred
by him on his country and mankind ; and that his
associate deities were likewise men and women,
whom gratitude or fear raised into objects of wor-
ship." On this subject, however, it is uimecessary
to enlarge, as it has already been fully considered in
the article entitled Dead, Wor.siiip oi' the (which
see).
HERRXHUTTERS. See MoitAvi.vNs.
HEliSKl'HOKlA. See Aiu;in'iioi:iA:
HERTHA, the goddess of the earth among the
ancient Germ.ans, termed by Tacitus the mother of
the gods. This divinity is sometimes represented
as a male, aiul sometimes as a fenuile. One of the
principal seats of the worship of Hertha was the
island of Rugcn, where, according to Tacitus, human
vicliius were oH'ered in sacrifice to the earth goddess
HESPERIDES— riEXAPLA.
43
It has been alleged tliat Stoiiehenge on Sivlisbui'v
Plain was consecrated to lier, when the idolatrous
worship of the Saxons was introduced from Germany
into England.
HESPEI11DE3, the guardians of the golden ap-
ples, which are said in the mytliology of the ancient
Greeks to have been presented by Ge to Hera, on
the occasion of the celebration of her marriage with
Zens. Their names were ^Egle, Erytlieia, Hestia,
and Arethusa. Tliey are described by the poets as
remarkable for the riclniess of their melodious sing-
ing. The earlier legends tix the residence of the
ffciperidei or Atlanttdes, as they were sometimes
called, in the remote west, on the banks of the
Oceanus, but in the later writers they are usually
spoken of as located in different parts of Libya, or
even in the Hyperborean regions.
HESPERUS, the evening star worshipped among
the ancient Greeks, and under the name of Lucifer
also, or the morning star, among the ancient Romans.
He is called by Homer and Hesiod, the bringer of
light.
HESTIA (Gr. the hearth), the goddess of the
hearth among the ancient Greeks, and the daughter
of Chroiun and Rhea. Slie was worshipped as the
giver of all the comforts ami blessings of home, and
believed to dwell in the midst of families, rendering
them the scenes of domestic happiness. This god-
dess presided in all sacrifices, watching over the sa-
cred altar-tire, and was accordingly invoked at the
very outset of the ceremony. Slie was also worship-
ped as a separate deity, sacrifices being offered to
her of cows only one year old. When oaths of pe-
culiar solemnity were taken among the Greeks, tliey
swore by the goddess of the hearth, and it was ac-
counted a high privilege also to claim her protection.
Every town had its prytanid-'! or sanctuary of Hestia,
where slie had a statue and a sacred heartli, where
foreign ambassadors were formally received by tlie
public authorities of the city. The emigrant also as
he left his native home carried with him a portion
of the sacred tire to cheer his new, and it might be
far distant home. " If it happens," says Plutarch,
" the sacred fire by any accident has been put out,
as the sacred lamp is .said to have been at Athens,
under the tyranny of Aristion ; at Delphi, when the
temple was burned by the Modes ; and at Rome, in
the Mithridatic war, as also in tlie civil war, wlien
not only the fire was extinguished, but the altar
overturned: it is not to be lighted again from an-
other fire, but new fire is to be gained by drawing a
pure and unpolluted (lame from the sunbeams. They
kiridled it generally with concave vessels of brass,
formed by the conic section of a rectangled triangle,
whose lines from the circumference meet in one cen-
tral point." The Romans worshipped this goddess
under the name of Vest.4 (which see).
HESYCHAST CONTROVERSY. See IUr-
LAA.MITKS.
HESYCHASTS, a name applied by .Justinian in
one of his Novels to monks in general, on account of
the quietness and retirement in wliich they lived, but
it is more especi.ally applied to the Quietist monks
in the Greek convents on Mount Athos in Thessaly.
They entertained the notion that tranquillity of
mind and the extinction of all evil passions and de-
sires might be obtained by means of contemplation.
Accordingly, under the idea that there is a divine
light hidden in the soul, which only requires to be
developed, they seated themselves in some retired
corner, and fixing their eyes upon their navel, tliey
gave themselves up to intense contemplation for
days and nights together, until at lengtli, as tliey ima-
gined, a divine light broke forth from the body, and
they became luminous with the very light which
shone on .Mount Tabor. Thus by a motionless asce-
ticism, they sought to attain to a sensible perception
of the divine light. A similar practice prevailed
among the ascetics in Siam. The Greek Hesychasts
were attacked as enthusiasts liy a Calabrian monk,
named I'arlaam, whose followers were called B.\R-
LAAMITF.S (which see), and defended by Gregory
Palamas, archbishop of Thessalonica, A council
was held at Constantinople on the subject, A. D.
1314, which decided in favour of the monks, and
against Barlaain, who forthwith left Greece and re-
turned to Italy.
HESYCHIA, a goddess among the ancient Greeks,
who was considered as the patroness and producer of
peace and quietness. She was said to be the daugh-
of Dice or Justice, which settles all disputes, and
puts contending parties to silence.
HET.EILE. See Pkostitution (Saci!ed).
HET.EREIUS, a surname of Zeus among the
ancient Greeks, as protecting and patronising asso-
ciations of companions and friends.
HETERODOX (Gr. hetcros. another, and doxa,
an opinion), an epithet applied to such opinions as
are different from, or at variance with, the acknow-
ledged creed of the orthodox Christian church.
HETEROOUSIAXS (Gr. heteros, another, and
ousia, substance or essence), a name given to the
most open and avowed of the Arians (which see),
in the fourth century, who, not content with denying
the honioousia or identity of substance of tlie Father
and the Son, rejected also the more modified Arian
opinion of the hoiiioiouski, or similarity of substance
of the Father and the Son, and lield in plain and ex-
plicit terms that the Son was entirely difl'erent in
substance or essence from the Father. See ^Etians.
HEURIPPE, a surname of Artemis, to whom
Ulysses otTered sacrifice on finding his lost horses.
HEXAPL.A, an edition of the Bible prepared
with almost incredible industry and labour by Ori-
gen in the third century. It contained throughout
six columns, generally eight, and occaiiionally nine,
thus arranged; 1. The Hebrew text in the Hebrew
characters ; 2. The Hebrew text in Greek charac-
ters ; 3. The version of Aquila ; 4. The version of
Symmachus; 5. The Scptuagint veisioii; 6. The
44
iii-niCKsrj'Ks.
version of Tlicodotion ; 7. and 8. Two otiier Greek
versions wliose aniliors were unknown, tlie one
found at Jericlin, and tlie otlicr at Nicopolis ; 9. A
Greek version of the Psalms. The three last bcini;
anonymons, are denonn'natcd tlie Fiftli, Sixtli, and
Seveiitli Greek versiotis. When the edition con-
tained only the four versions of the Septiiagint,
Aqnila. Thcodotion. and Synimachus, it was called
the Teli-apla or the fonrfold edition; and when it
contained the whole except the Greek version of the
Psalms, it recei\cd the name of Octap^a or eightfold
edition. Kuffinus alleges that the object of Origen
in undertaking this elaborate work was to pnf an end
to llie controversies between the Jews and the
Christians. The Hexapla being found too cumbrous
and expensive, Origen undertook to abridge it. lie
published, accordingly, a version of the Septuagint,
adding supplemenlary renderings taken from the
translation of Thcodotion, wliere the Septuagint had
not rendered the Hebrew text. Tlie fragments of
the Hexapla which are preserved, have been collected
and published by Montfaucon, I'aris, 171.3. 2 vols,
folio. The most useful parts of Montfaucon's edi-
tion, with additions, corrections and notes, have been
published in two vols. 8vo, by Bahrdt, Leipzig,
17fia— 1770.
Hf, the second member of a mystic triad com-
posed by Lao-Tseu, the celebrated Chinese philoso-
jilier. It is thus described : "That which you look
at and do not see is called / ; that which you hearken
after and do not hoar is willed Hi ; that which your
hand reaches after and cannot grasp is called Wei.
'i'hese are three beings which cannot be compre-
hended, and which together make but one. That
which is above is no more brilliant ; that which is
l)eneath is no more obscnre. It is a chain witliout
break which cannot be named, which retiu-ns into
nonentity. It is that which may be called form with-
out form, image withont image, being indefinable.
If you go to meet it, yon see not this principle; if
yon follow it, you see nothing beyond. He who
grasps the old state of reason (that is, the negation of
beings before the creatfon) in order to estimate pre-
sent existences or the universe, ho inay be said to
have hold of the chain of reason."
HICKSITKS, one of the two great sections into
which the Society of Friends in America has, since
1828, been divided. Elias Ilicks, from whom they
derive their name, belonged to Philadeljihia, and
the peculiar sentitnents which be taught, he ima-
gined to be in accordanec with the original iirinciples
laid down by Fox and the first founders of the So-
ciety. The great fundamental principle on which
the leader of the schism in .\merica rested his teach-
ing is thus ex]iressed by Dr. Gibbons, himself a
llicksite: "(lod hath given to every man coming
into the world, and placed within hiin, a measnre
or manifestation of divine light, grace, or spirit
which, if obeyed, is all-snUicienl to redeem or save
him. It is referred to and ilhislrated in the .scrip-
tures, by the ]iropliets, and by Jesiis Christ and his
disciples and apostles, inidor various names and simi-
litudes. But the thing we believe to be one, even as
God is one and bis purpose one and the same in all.
viz., repentance, regeneration, and final redemption.
It is called Unlit — of which the light of the natural sun
is a beautiful and instructive emblem ; for this diiinc
light, like the natural, enables us to distinguish with
indubitable clearness all that concerns us in the works
of sal ration, and its blessings are as impart ialh', freely,
and universally dispensed to the .spiritual, as the
other is to the outward creation. It is called grace,
and rfrace of God, because freely bestowed on us by
his bounty and enduring love." According to this re-
presentation of the inatlcr, there cannot be adoubt that
the inward light is not only exalted above, but made
actually to supersede the wriiten word ; and this in-
ward light being communicated to every m.an with-
out exception, and being sufficient, if obeyed, to save
him, both the Word of Christ and Christ himself are
rendered without effect. Such a doctrine jilaiiily
lays the Hlchnite^ open to the charge which has been
brouglit against tliein by the old scliool section of
Friends, of having lapsed into deism. Nor docs the
slatement which Dr. Gibbons gives of the views of
the body, on the pecidiar doctrines of Christianity,
render them less amenable to the charge. "We be-
lieve," says he, " in the divinity of Christ. — not of
the outward body, but of the siurit which dwelt in
it — a divinity not self-existing and independent, but
derived from the Father, being the Holy Spirit or
God in Christ. 'The Son can do nothing of him-
self,' said Christ ; and again, ' I can of mine own self
do nothing,' (John v. 19, 30;) and in another place,
'The Father that dwellelh in me be doeth the work,"
(John xiv. 10:) 'As my Father hath taught me, 1
speak these things,' (John viii. 28;) 'Even as the
Father said unto me, so I speak,' (John xii. 50.)
" We reject the common doctrines of the Trinitii
and Satisfaction, as contrary to reason and revelation.
We are equally far from owning the docti-ine of ' im-
puted righteousness,' in the manner and form in
which it is held. We believe there must be a true
righ.tcousness of heart and life, wrought in us by the
Holy Spirit, or Christ within; in which work we
iiniiute all to him, for of ourselves we can do no-
thing. Neither do wc admit that the sins of Adam
are, in any sense, imimtcd to bis posterity; but we
believe that no one incurs the guilt of tin, until he
trau'^grcsses the law of God in his own person, (Dent.
i.39; Fzek. xvii. 10— 2-1 ; I\lalt. xsi. IG; Mark x.
14, 10, IG; Kom.ix. 11.) In that fallen state,.the love
iind incrcy of God are ever extended for his regener-
ation and redemption. God .so loved the world, lli.at
he sent his only-begotten Son into the world, in that
]irepaied body, under the former dispen.sation, for
the ."alvation of men. And it is through the same
redeeming love, and for the same purpose that, under
the 'new covenant,' he now sends the Spirit of his
Son into our hearts, a mediator and intcrces.sor, to
IIIERACITES— HIEnARCHY (Ecclesiastical).
reconcile us, and reiuler us obedient to tlie lioly will
and rigliteous law of God. We believe that all, that
is to be .^avingly known of God, is made manifest or
revealed in man by his Spirit, (Rom. i. 19;) and if
mankind had been satisfied to rest here, and had
practised ou the knowledge thus comnnuiicated,
there would never have existed a controversy about
religion."
I'lie opinions of Hicks spread to a large extent
among the Friends throughout the United States,
[larticularly in Pennsylvania where the members of
the Society have always been numerous. Accord-
ingly, at a yearly meeting held at Philadelphia in the
f lurth month, 18"28, a declaration was agreed upon
in reference to the proceedings of those who, diu-ing
(lie previous year, had separated from the Society, in
which the Hicksites are explicitly stated to have
been led into " an open denial of the fundamental
doctrines of the Christian religion ;" and the ortho-
dox party go on to say in their declaration, that
'■ they believe it riglit to bear their decided testimony
against such princiiles, and to disown those v.ho
liold them." The relative nundiers of the two parties
in that year were, Hicksites, 18,141 ; ortliodox, 7,134.
Tlie Hicksites still continue to form a large majority
of the whole Society of Friends in America. The
yearly meetings of New York, Genessee, Baltimore,
Ohio, and Indiana, hold an eiiistolary correspondence
with the Philadelphia yearly meeting according to
ancient practice. But the yearly meeting of Lon-
don has declined this intercourse since tlie separa-
tion in 18-27.
HIERACITES, a heretical Christian sect whieli
sprung up in Egypt at the end of the third or begin-
ning of the fourth century. Its founder was Hiera-
cas, as he is called by Epiphanius, or Hierax by John
of Damascus, an ascetic of Leontopolis, who earned
his subsistence by the practice of the art of calligra-
phy, which, at that period, was highly esteemed in
Egypt. He was intimately acquainted with the
Holy Scriptures, on which he wrote several commen-
taries, both in the Greek and in tlie Coptic lan-
guages. Lilce Origen he seems to have made much
use, iti his expositions, of the allegorical mode of
intei-pretation. lie denied the resurrection of the
body and of a heaven perceptible by the senses. He
objected to the married life, and sirongly inculcated
celibacy, alleging that none of those who were mar-
ried could inherit the kingdom of heaven. This doc-
trine he considered as forming the granil leading dis-
tinction between the Old and New Testaments.
Paul, he alleged, permitted marriage onlj' out of re-
spect to human infu'inity ; but to remain unmarried
indicated a high measure of mora! goodness. It was
a favourite notion of Hieracas that it ought to be
the habitual aim of every man, by his own efforts of
self-denialand asoeticisin, to earn a part in the blessed-
ness of heaven ; and as a corollary from this doctrine
lie maintained that children who died before they
are able to enter upon the great moral conflict are
excluded from the inheritance of the righteous, but
occupy a sort of middle position, such as Pelagius
and many of the Orientals afteiwai'ds believed to be-
long to unbaptized children. Hieracas, among his
other errors, was supposed to entertain lalse views
on the doctrine of the Trinity. " The Son of God,"
said he, '• emanates from the Father, as one lamp is
kindled from another, or as one torch is divided into
two." He held that ilelchisedec typically repre-
sented the IloIy Spirit. Into the sect of the Hiera-
cites only unmarried persons were admitted, and
some of the more rigorous among them abstained
from animal food. Some writers have classed il em
with the Manicheans, but for this there is no foun-
dation.
HIERARCHY (Angelic). See Angel.
IIIER.VRCHY (Ecclesiastical), a word used to
denote the Christian church when viewed in its eccle-
siastical constitution as having a regular gradation ol
orders among its ministers. In the article CleiiGY
(which see), we remarked that there is no evidence of
any difl'erence of rank among tlie clergy either in the
age of the apostles or of their immediate successors,
nor indeed until the establishment of Christianity un-
der Constantine. The gradual rise, however, of the
hierarchical tendency may be traced from a vevv
early period iu the history of the Christian church
As might naturally have been anticipated, the ear
liest congregations or churches were formed in towns
over which bishops or pastors were placed. From
tliese as centre points Christianity was ditTused
throughout tlie siuTOunding rural disti-icts, and se-
parate churches were formed which became con-
nected with the nearest town bishop, who supplied
them with a presbyter or deacon to discharge the
duties of the ministry among them, still continuing
himself to take a general oversight of the infant
church. The power of the town-bishops thus in-
creased .as the number of rur.al congregations were
multiplied; and the management of the ecclesiasti-
cal aSiirs becoming too difficult and complicated to
be overtaken by one individual, provincial synods
were formed towards the end of the second century.
These synods usually met once or twice a-year in
the chief town of the province, the bishop of that
town acting as [iresident. Thus the bishops of the
principal cities gradually assumed a kind of superin-
tendence over the other bishops of the province. In
the first instance, however, this arrangement took
place only in the east, where the Christian churches
particularly abounded. In the west, Rome was the
ecclesiastical metropolis of a great part of Italv,
where as yet only a small num.ber of Christian
churches existed. In Africa, where Christianity had
made rapid progress, a more regular ecclesiastical
organization had been formed. Every African [iro-
vince had a primate at the head of it, who, in Jlau-
ritania and Numidia, was usually, though not always,
the oldest bishop, and in proconsular Africa was the
bishop of Carthage. This last was at th.e same time
46
III KRARCHY— (Ecclesiastical).
the head of all the province*, and could sinnnion gen-
era! coiMK-ils. The regular ecdesiastical organiza-
tion lliiis early inlrodnced into the African c-hnrch
was prohably copied iVdin tlie political arrangcnienls
of the conntry, all the provinces being nndcr the pro-
consul in Carthage, inidcr whom the two Manritanias
were managed by procurators.
The bishops of the principal cities of the Roman
Empire, Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch, having
many rural bishops undei tlieir care, and presiding
in tlieir own provincial synods, which, were large and
more influential, naturally came to be looked upon
as possessed of more weight and importance than
their fellow-bishops, though the principle was as yet
fully recognized that all bishops were equal in rank
and power. In the West, it is true, no small re-
spect was paid to the Church of Rome, as the largest
and the onlv aiiostolic church in the whole of that
extensive district, but no authority w-as claimed over
anv one of the Western churches, far less over the
Eastern. In process of time the ministers of the
Christiar, church coming to be looked upon as a class
distinct from the members of the church, and set
apart, like the Jewish priesthood, for special sa-
cred offices, they naturally were treated with addi-
tional respect, and even reverence. For the inferior
services of the church, particular officers were ap-
pointed, different, however, in the Greek and Latin
churches. This arrangement increased the patron-
age, as well as the power, of the bishops, in whom was
vested the appointment of the inferior clergy. Still,
however, the authority of the bishop was not uncon-
trolled, as in the discharge of his duties he had not
only to consult his presbyters, but, in some cases,
to ask the opinion of the whole church.
The establishment of Christianity nnder Constan-
tine the Great had a powerful influence in devcloii-
ing the hierarchical tendency which had now for a
long period been gradualh' developing itself. "Ec-
clesiastical possessions," says Gioseler, " became very
considerable, partly by the lilw^rality of the emper-
ors, partly by the le-jal permission to accept of in-
heritances and gifts, which alas, was often abused by
the clergy, so as to become legacy-hunting. All
these external .advantages attracted many to the
spiritual profession, the number of clergy was swelled
beyond measure, and to the already exi-ting classes
were added parabolani and copiatae. The emperors
were obliged to meet this pressure, which became dan-
gerous to the state, with stringent laws.
" Under these circumstances the power of the
bishops p.articularly rose. At the head of a numer-
ous clergy completely subject to them, they alone
had ])ower to decide on the appropriation of the
church estates, and possessed ecclesiastical legisla-
tion by their exclusive privilege of having a voice at
synods. Hence they continued to make the coun-
try bi.shops more subservient to them; to the other
churches in cities and in the country, (ecolesia ple-
bana, titiilus), except the head church (eccl. cathe-
dralis) they sent according to their own free choice,
presbyters (parocluis, plebaiui.s), to conduct the wor
ship of God, who were entirely dependent on them
even in tlie matter of maintenance. The first per-
son next to the bishop was the. archdeacon, who helped
him to manage the revernies. Tlie arch-prrshyterx,
an order wdiich arose about the same time, were of
far inferior rank. All the lower clergy and the
presbyters too were now chosen by the bishop alone.
The choice of bishops mostly depended on the other
bishops of the provinces, except when the emperors
interfered. Still, however, the consent of the people
was required, and was not without weight, especially
in the west.
" Under these external advantages, it is not sur-
prising that the prevailing notions of iiricstly dig-
nity, and especially of the bishops' authoritv, rose
higher and higher; and that the bishops externally
enjoyed the highest demonstrations of respect, their
claims as the \icars of Christ and the successors of
the apostles being capable of indefinite development.
Yet their overweening pride often gave just cau.'^e for
complaint."
Notwithstanding this rapid increase of priestlv au-
thority and power among the bishops of I he Chris-
tian church at the council of Nice, A. n. 325, provin-
cial councils were still acknowledged as the highest
ecclesiastical authority. In the commotions, how-
ever, which were caused by tlie Arian controversy,
the provincial councils were freipiently found to be
too weak to withstand powerful adversaries often
backed by the overwhelming influence of the em-
perors. This consciousness of weakness led to the
still further development of the hierarchical spirit in
the churches both of the East and West.
In the East larger synods were formed called dio-
cesan, fraiTied according to the political distribution
of the realm, wdiich had been made by Constantine.
The second general council, which met at Constan-
tinople A. I). 381, raised the diocesan synods above
the provincial synods, so as to be the highest eccle-
siastical court, and gave the bishop of Constantino-
ple the fii'st rank after the bishop of Home. Thus
in the East the bishops of Constantinople, Alexan-
dria, Ephesus, and Ca'sarea, had risen above the
metropolitans, and received the distinctive names of
Exarch and Archbishop; ,and shortly before the coun-
cil of Clialcodon the title of I'atriarch, a name of re-
spect which, in the fourth century, had been given to
every bishop, was exclusively appropriated to them
" Rut," to quote again from Gieseler, " political rela-
tions and hierarchical ambition soon altered this ar-
rangement. The bishops of Ctinstuntwnplc, Vavoured
by their position, soon gained an influence over the
atfaii'S of other dioceses also, which m.inifcsted itself
decidedly in the neighbouring dioceses of Asia and
Pontus in particular. At first, indeed, they met
with resistance ; but since it was of moment to the
emperors of the eastern Roman empire to make the
bishop of their chief city powerful, as being thei»
HI EKARCnr— (Ecclesiastical).
47
principal instniinent in ruling the cliurcli, and to
make Iiini equal in rank to the bishop of the capital
of the western Roman empire, the council of Clial-
cedon formally invested the patriarch of Constanti-
nople with the same rank as the bishop of Rome, the
superintendence over those throe dioceses, and the
right of receiving complaints from all the dioceses
against metropolitans. Thus the exarchs of Ephe-
sus and Csesarea were put back into a middle raidc
between patriarchs and metropolitans. The bishops
of Aiithch endeavoured likewise to draw over Cy-
prus into their ecclesiastical diocese, as it belonged
to the political diocese of Asia ; but the Cyprian
bisliops received from the Alexandrian party at the
council of Ejihesus the assurance of their indepen-
dence. The hishojis nf Jerusalem, supported by the
precedence which had been conceded to them at the
council of Nice, after having long endeavoured in
vain to shake themselves free of their metropolitan
in Caesarea, succeeded at last in rising to the rank of
patriarchs, by an edict of Theodosius II., and by the
synod of Chalccdon, the three Palcstines were as-
signed them as their ecclesiastical domain. At the
close of this period, therefore, we have four pa-
triarchs in the east, viz. of Constantinople, A e.ran-
dria, Antiocli, Jermalem. In their dioceses tlu^y
were looked upon as ecclesiastical centres, to which
the other bishops had to attach themselves for the
preservation of unity ; and constituted, along with
their diocesan synod, the highest court of appeal in
all ecclesiastical matters of the diocese ; while on
the other hand they were considered as tlie highest
representatives of the church, who had to maintain
the unity of the church-universal by mutual commu-
nication, and without whose assent no measure.s
affecting the interests of the whole church could be
taken."
The bishop of Rome, from the peculi.ar position
which he occupied in the Western churcli, wns na-
tiu'ally looked up to by his brethren with the higliest
respect. He was bishop of the only apostolic con-
gregation of the west, that is, of the only congrega-
tion of the west which could boast of having been
planted by an apostle. He was besides possessed of
large episcopal revenues, metropolitan of ten suburbi-
carian provinces, and resided in the principal c ty of
the world. Witli such peculiar advantages as these,
it was not difficult for Julius, bishop of Rome, to ob-
tain from the synod of Sardica, A. D. 347, the power
of appointing judges to hear the appeals of con-
demned bishops, should he look upon them as well
founded. Questions of apostolic doctrine and prac-
tice werenaturallj' referred in the West to the bishop
3f the only apostolic and common mother-church,
such questions in the East being referred not to one
only, but to several distinguished bishops. In con-
sequence of the numerous disputed cases submitted
to their decision, the Roman bishops took occasion
to issue a great number of didactic letters which soon
assumed the tone of apostolic ordinances, and were
held in very high estimation in the West. All these
circumstances had the ell'cct of bringing about such a
state of things, that in the beginning of the fifth
century the bishops of Rome practically exercised an
oversight and sujiervision of I lie entire Western
church.
The Eastern church meanlime strenuou.sly assert-
ed its entire inde|iendence of the West. But tlie
doctrinal controversies which so frequently disturbed
the peace of the church tended not a little to in-
crease the power of the bishop of Rome; for while
the Eastern churches were agitated and split in-
to factions, the Western churches stood uniled
and firm with the bishop of Rome at their head.
The high influence and authority which that dig-
nitary had gained in the West rendered it im-
portant, whenever any ecclesiastical controversy
broke out in the East, for each parly to make all
etibrts to secure him on its side. Hence deference
was frequently paid to the bishop of Rome in the East,
which, in other circumstances, would have been de-
nied him. But the portion of the Christian church,
where the Roman bishops were le.isi successful in
obtaining influence, was the African church, which
had been long accustomed to possess a firmly fixed
ecclesiastical organization, through which its own
afliiirs were readily managed, without needing the
slightest interference from foreign churches.
The Christian church had now assumed a hier-
archical form both in the East and in the West, be-
ing headed in the one case by the patriarchs, and in
the other by the popes ; and from this period com
menced an earnest and sustained contention between
these dignitaries for superiority of rank and power.
At length their ambition coulil no longer be re-
strained within the bounds of their respective
churches, but first the patriarch of Con.'^tantinople,
and then the Pope of Rome, in course of time boldly
put forth the arrogant and presumptuous claim to be
regarded as the Universal Bishop, the sole head of
the visible church of Christ upon ihc earth. And
though the power and prestige of the patriarchs have
long since fallen before the bouiulless ambition of
the Russian czars, the pope of Rome, to this day,
still proclaims as loudly as ever that he is " the
head of all he.ids, and the prince moderator and
pastor of the whole church of Christ which is under
hea\ en."
The various orders of the ecclesiastical hierarchy
differ in ditTerent churches. The Roman Catholic
church adiieres firmly to the principle on which the
schoolmen were wont to insist, that the priesthood
ought to consist of .seven classes corresponding to
the seven Spirits of God. Three belong to the su-
jierior order, presbyters or priests, deacons and sub-
deacons, while the inferior order contains four, aco-
lytes, exorcists, readers, and doorkeepers. The
Romish canonists, however, divide the clergy into
nine classes, of which five belong to the inferior
order, singers, doorkeepers, readers, exorcists, and
18
niERARCHV (Ecclesiastical)— IIIEROGLYnilCS.
aciilytlis; ami four to tlie sii|icrior order, subdeii-
coiis, deacons, presbyters, and bisliops. In the
Greek cliurcli, again, tlie officers arc as follons,
bisliops, priests, deacons, snb-diacons, and readers,
to wliich la-t class belong the singers and acolytlis.
The higher orders of the clergj- include archbishops,
metropolitans, aiul patriarchs. To these was some-
times added another olFicer still higher, styled exarch.
In the Russo-Greek cliurcli, at the head of all as
the supreme ecclesiastical judicatory, is the Holy
Synod. The Syrian and Xestorian churches aiVeet
to copy after the heavenly hierarchy, and to com-
pare their ofliccrs with those of the court of heaven.
The XestoriiUis compare their patriarchs and bishops
with the orders of cherubim, seraphim, and tliroiies ;
their archdeacons, pastoral priests, and preachers,
with angels of the second rank, styled virtues,
powers, and dominions ; their deacons, sub-deacons,
and readers with those of the third rank, princedoms,
archangels, and angels. In the Cliurcli of England
there are three orders of clergy, bishops, priests, and
deacons, and besides there ai-e several dignities in-
cluding archbishops, deans, and chapters, archdea-
cons, and rural deans. Episcopalians are wont to
allege, in support of a gradation of oflice-bcarers in
the Cliristian cliurch, that the Jewish church, in Old
Testament times, partook of the nature of a hier-
archy. To tliis rre.'^byterians usually reply by de-
murring against all attiMiipts to draw an analogy
between the Jewish and Christian dispensations, the
two being so coiii|iIctely ditferent from one another.
For tlie argnnieiits on both sides see article Bisiioi".
IIIEUAKCIIV (Ecclesiastical). The word
hierarchy is not only used in reference to the inter-
nal government of the cluirch ; but it is also em-
ployed to denote the dominion which the church has
sometimes exercised over the state. For three cen-
turies the Christian church was wholly unconnected
with the civil government of the Roman Empire in
which it was lirst planted; nay, the hottest persecu-
tions through which the church had to pass in her
early history, had the express sanction of the Roman
state. Constaiitinc the Great, however, A. D. 312,
took Christianity under the shelter of the govern-
ment, and adopted it as the established religion of
the country. While the emperor thus atl'orded the
protection of law, and the sanction of the civil gov-
ernment to the proceedings of the church, lie still
retained in hi.s hands the power of calling synods,
and even of presiding over their deliberations, as well
as of exercising a general oversight over the whole
movements of the Christians. The tendency, for a
long [leriod, was rather to subjugate the church to
the authority of the slate, even in matters connected
with its internal constitution. Some of the Roman
emperors even went so tar as lo decide questions of
faitli by edicts, and to convoke synods almost en-
tirely for the purpose of adopting im|icrial articles of
faitli. Xoi' was this conlhied lolhe Roman Empire;
tlic eaiiic .spirit on the part of the government to
lord it over the church was displ.iyed in the Gothic,
Lombard, and Frankish states. Gradually, however,
the power of tlie clergy increased, and yet such was
the jcalou.sy with which they were viewed by the
ruling powers in all the diiTerent countries of Europe,
that it was not until the eleventh centurj- that, under
Gregory VII., the supremacy of the church over the
state first assumed a perfectly organized system
From the time of his pontificate the face of Europe
underwent a great change, and the prerogatives of
the emperors, and other sovereign princes, were
much diminished. The hierarchical principle w;is
helped forward not a little by the influence of the
crusades, and for nearly two centuries after the days
of Gregory, the power of the church was completely
in the ascendant. In the fourteenth century, how-
ever, it began gradually to diminish. The Refor-
mation lent it a heavy blow- ; but while in Protestant
countries the domination of the church over the slate
is unknown, the governments of Romish states have
a constant struggle to prevent the growing power of
the clergy, while the Pope endeavours, by means of
concordats, to carry the hierarchical views of the
Papacy as far as exi^ediency or safety permits.
HIERATIC WIUTIXG, a species of sacred writ-
ing among the ancient Egyptians, peculiar to the
priests, especially the Hiekogi!AM.matists (which
see). This sacerdotal writing is chielly found on the
papyri, and is evidently derived from the Hierogly-
phic writing, of which indeed it may be regarded as
an abbreviated form. Tiiongh the signs, however, in
the hieratic writing are considerably abridged, they
include figurative, emblematic, and phonetic charac-
ters, the two former being sometimes found separate,
and sometimes in groups. All the hieratic manu-
scripts exhibit the same character, that of abbreviated
hieroglyphic writing, and seem to have been use!
chietlj', if not exclusively, in the transcription of texts
in reference to matters of a purely religious or scien-
tific description, and in the drawing up of religious
inscriptions. The three species of writing in use
among the Egyptians, were the Hieroglyphic, pro-
perly so called; the Hieratic, and the Demotic.
Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus mention only two,
tifterwards referred to by Clemens Alexandrinus,
the popular and the sacred characters, an arrange-
ment which is borne out by the Ro.setia stone, which
spc.-dvs also of only two kinds of writing, the encho-
rial and the sacred. The only way in which this
iipparcnt discrepancy can be explained is, by sup-
posing that the sacred writing referrctl to by Hero-
dotus, Diydorus, and the Rosetta stone, includes
both the hieroglyphic and the liieialie* writing of
Clemens Alexandrinus.
HIEREION. See Sacrifice.
IliEllODIACOXI (Gr. hkros, sacred, and JUicu-
710.1, a deacon), monks of the Russo-Gkeek Ciiukch
(which see), who are also de;icons.
HIEROGLYPHICS (Gr. hieros, sacred, and ^/hj-
pho, to ciirve, or engrave), sacred carvings, a term
HI EROGRAMMATISTS— HIEROMNEMON.
49
applied liy tlie ancient Greeks to that species of
\vritiiig which they found engraved or sculptured
r.pou the Egyptian monuments. It is not impro-
bable from the word sacred being used as a part of
tlie compound term liieroglyphics, that the Greeks
supposed this species of writing to be employed to
denote sacred things. But the discovery has been
made by an examination of the inscriptions on the
Rosetta stone, that, as Bishoj) Warburton acutely
coujectiu-ed, these sculptured characters constituted
a real written language, applicable to events of his-
tory and eonnnon life, as well as to subjects con-
nected with religion and mythology. Picture writing,
indeed, was one of the earliest modes of comnnmica-
tion to which mankind resorted. Tliey must have
represented events and objects by painting them
before they could have acquired the art of describ-
ing them in writing. Accordingly, when the Span-
iards first landed on the shores of Soiilh America,
their arrival was announced to the inhabitants of the
interior by rude paintings of men, arms, and ships.
Egypt is perhaps the only countiy wliose monu-
ments present to us the successive steps by which
men have arrived at alphabetic m-iting, the first and
simplest part of the process being the use of hiero-
glyphics, which would be gradually reduced and ab-
breviated, until at length they came to use arbitrary
and conventional marks expre.ssive of the sounds
uttered by the human voice.
The hieroglyphic writing is of three kinds, the
Phonetic, the Syndxilio, and the Pictorial. 'I'he
names of the Egyptian god.s were usually expressed
by symbols, and not by letters. These representa-
tions were of two kinds ; Jir/tiratke, in which the
name of the deity is implied, by the form in which
he was represented in his statue; and xymholi'c, in
which a part of the statue or some object having a
reference to the deity was employed.
It is interesting to mark the singul.ar train of cir-
cumstances by which Dr. Young was tirst led to de-
cypher the Egyptian hieroglyphics. The details are
thus briefly given by Dr. Russell: "When the
French were in Egypt they discovered, in the founda-
tion of a fort near Rosetta, a block or slab of basalt,
whicli presented an inscription in tliree distinct lan-
guages, riamely, the sacred letters, the letters of the
country, and the Greek. The first class obviously
comprehends the hieroglyphic and hieratic, the mode
of writing used by the priests ; while the second not
less manifestly identities itself with what Clemens
calls the Epistolographic, and which is now usually
particidarized as demotic or common. Unfortunately
a considerable part of the first inscription was want-
ing; the beginning of the second and the end of the
third were also mutilated ; so that there were no
precise points of coincidence from which the ex-
pounder could set out in his attempt to decipher the
unknown characters. But the second inscription,
notwithstauding its deficiencies near the beginning,
was still sufliciently perfect to allow a comparison to
II
be made of its different parts with each other, and
with the Greek, by the saine method which would
have been followed if it had been entire. Thus, on
examining, in their relative .situation, the parts cor-
responding to two passages of the Greek inscription
in which Alexander and Alexandria oceuiTed, there
were soon i-ecognised two well-marked groups of
characters resembling each other, which were there-
fore considered as representing tliese names. A
variety of similar coincidences were detected, and
especially that between a certain assemblage of
figures and the word Ptolemy, which occurred no
fewer than fourteen times ; and hence, as the Greek
was known to be a translation of the Egyptian sym-
bols, the ta.sk of the decipherer was limited to a
discovery of the alphabetical power of the several
marks, or objects, v;hich denoted that particular
name. It was by pursuing this path that success
was ultimately attained; it being satisfactorily made
out that hieroglyphs not oidy expressed ideas, or
represented things, but also tliat they were frequently
used as letters ; and that, when employed for tlie
last of these purposes, the names of the several ob-
jects in the Coptic or ancient language of the coun-
try supplied the alpliabetical sounds which composed
any jiarticular word."
In hieroglyfjhical manuscripts or papyri the chai
acfers are generally jihiced in [lerpendicular lines;
while in sculptures and paintings, especially when
they refer to persons, the signs are arranged horizon-
tally. The hieroglyphics are always to be reail to-
wards the faces of the figures. Thus if the front be
to the left, they must be read from left to right ; if
to the right, from right to left ; and if arranged in
perpendicular lines, from the top downwards.
HIEROGRAMMATlSTS{Gr. hieros, sacred, and
(jranunatetis, a scribe), the sacred scribes among the
ancient Egyptians. Employing the hieratic or sa-
cerdotal writing, they transcribed religious writings
on papyri, and gave an account of rehgious rites and
ceremonies. Their duty was also to expound the
sacred mysteries as far as they were allowed to be
made known to the people. They appear to have
been skilled in divination. Like the other members
of the priesthood, they were subjected to rules of the
strictest austerity. They were highly esteemed at
court, and assisted the monarch with their counsels.
They earned a sceptre, and were dressed in linen
garments. See Egyptians (Religion of the An-
cient).
HIEROMANCY (Gr. hieros, sacred, and manteia,
divination"!, a species of divination among the an
cient Greeks and Romans, which consisted in pre-
dicting future events by observing the various ap-
piearances which presented themselves in the act of
offering sacrifices.
HIEROMNEMON, one of two deputies sent from
each city in Greece to the Amphictyonic council in
.\thens, and whose duty it was to take charge of
what related to sacrifices and religious ceremonies
50
IIIKUOMONACm— IIIGII-PKIEST.
HI I'^KO.MOXAC 1 1 r (G r. /lieiw, sacred, and mona-
choK, a mojik), monks of the Rn^.m Greeh Church,
who aie priests. They ai-e considered as saciod
monks, and never ylTieiatc but on solemn festivals.
IIIEROXVMl I'ES, a name given to the monks
over whom llieronymiis or St. Jerome jiresided in
Syria, in the end of tlic fourtli and the Ijegin-
ning of tlie iiftli ccntm-y. Tlie term is also ap-
plied to several orders of Romish monks which
arose in Spain and Italy in the course of the four-
teenth century. An order under tliis name was
founded in Spain by I'eter Ferdinand Pecha, cham-
berlain to Peter the Cruel, king of Caslile; they
were conlirnied by Gregory XI. in 1373, and gov-
erned by llie rule of St. Augustine. Their tliird
general, Lupus Olivetus, with the consent of Mar-
tin v., A.D. 1424, formed among them a peculiar
congregation, to which he gave a rule drawn from
Jerome's works. In the year 1505, this order was
rentiited in Spain with the rest of the Hieronymites.
In Italy, Peter Gambacorti, in 1.377, established ati
order of Hieronymites. Besides, there was also the
Fesulan Congregation, founded in 1417 by Charles of
Monfegravelli. Ilieronyniite monks, who are found
in Sicily, the West Indies, and Spanish America,
v/ear a white habit, with a black scapulary.
HIEROPH.VNTS. priests among the ancient
Athenians, who ofliciated in saeritices and sacred
ceremonies. They were bound to observe the strict-
est continence, and in order to allay carnal desires,
they are said to have drank decoctions of hemlock.
The ceremonies of initiation into the Eleusiiikiv mys-
terkx were performed by the Ilierophants, who were
licld in such veneration that the initiated were for-
bidden to mention then> in the presence of the pro-
fane. The supreme Hierophant, when presiding at
the mysteries, was anointed with the juice of hem-
lock as the type of Creative Onmipotence. He was
dressed in gorgeous robes, the outer vestment being
K sort of coarse brocade of woven gold, arabesqucd
with jewels, and scento<i with spikenard. He wore
a diailem oji his liead lavishly adorned with emeralds.
Ho was accompanied with three principal attendants,
severally the representatives of the sun, the moon,
and the planet Mercury. In the midst of the strange
visions which passed before the initiated iu tlie Eleu-
sinia, it was an important part of the ofl'icc of the
Ilierophants to read out of the sacred records of the
goddess Ceres, the explanation of the stupendous
types of tlie festivity,
HIEROPOIOI {Gr. hieros, sacred, and ^lo/co, to
make), per.>ions employed anciently at Athens in su-
perintending the oblations and in sacrillcing the vic-
tims. Ten were ainiointed to this oflico every year,
and at tlieir girdles they wore a consecrated axe as
an emblem of their duties.
HIGH CHURCIIME.X, a term at Inst aj^plied to
the Non-jurors, who at the Revolution in 1G88 re-
fused to acknowledge William III. as their lawful
sovereign. In the present day the name is given to
a party in the Church of England, who entertain
high views of the authority of the church, the apos-
tolical dignity of the clergy, and the efficacy of the
sacraments when adm-nistered by a regularly or-
dained clergy. See Exglaxd (Cucrcii of).
HIGH PLACES. From tlie frequent mention
which is made in the Old Testament of " high places,"
it is plain that from early times the tops of moun-
tains and other elevated situations were selected by
the heathen as suitable for their idolatrous obser-
vances. Hence we lind the Israelites coninianded,
Dcut. xii. 2, " Ye shall utterly destroy all the places
wherein the nations which ye shall possess served
their gods, upon the high mountains, and upon the
hills, and under every green tree." And in Exod.
xxxiv. 13, they are enjoined to quite pluck npall their
high places. In consequence of the heathen cus-
tom of worshipping idols in high places, several of
the Jewish kings are reproached for not taking away
these high places, but, on the contrary, imitating the
heathen by setting up images and groves on every
high hill, and under every green tree, and burning
incen.-e in all the high ]daces. We are not to un-
derstand, however, that there was any sin involved in
the <iet of worshiiiping in high places, provided God
alone was worshipped. On the contrary, we find,
in the time of the Judges, mention made of Gideon
building an altar, and otTering a sacrifice to God on
the top of a rock, and afterwards we are told that
the tabernacle itself was removed to the high ]ilace
that was at Gibeon. Th.e building of the temple
limited the place of sacrifice to Jerusalem, but
ihionghout a long line of kings, both of Israel and
Judah, there appears to have been an unhappy ten-
dency, even in (hose who wei'e zealous for God, to
retain the idolatrous high places. Not until the
reign of good King Josiah do we find the high places
wholly removed, and the land utterly pin-ged from
idolatry. Before the tabernacle was first set up,
says the Talmud, high pliices were permittcnl, and
tlie service was performed by the first-born ; but
after the tabernacle was erected high places were
prohibited, and tlie tervice was performed by the
priesthood. The reason why the heathen imagined
that their sacrifices were more acceptable to the
gods when oli'ercd on the hills than in the valleys, is
alleged by Lucian to have been because there men
were nearer to the gods, and so the more readily ob-
tained an audience.
HIGII-PRIEST, the head or chief of the Hebrew
lirie.^thood. This high dignitary was invested with
great influence and authority, and enjoyeil.nuuiy jie-
culi.ir privileges. He alone was permitted once a-
year to enter the Holy of Holies on the great day of
atonement. He wiis the appointed judge in all reli-
gious matters, and, indeed, the final arbiter in all
controversies. In later limes he presided over the
Sanhedrim, and held the next rank to the sovereign
or jirince. In the time of the Maccabees he united in
his own person the olliees of priest luid king. Some-
HIGH-PRIEST.
times in the Old Testament lie is called by way of
eminence " the priest," as in Exod. xxix. 29, 30,
" And the lioly garments of Aaron shall be his sons'
after liim, to be anointed therein, and to be conse-
crated in them. And that son that is priest in his
stead shall put them on seven days, when he comelh
into the tabernacle of the congregation to nihiistur in
the holy place." The oHice was held for life, and
was hereditary, but in New Testament times the
liigh-priest, nnder Roman domination, held his office
only for a time. Accordingly, we find. Matt. xxvi.
57, 58, the title high-priest given not only to the
person who actually held th« office, but also to indi-
viduals who had formerly been invested with the
iiigh-prlesthood. When the high-priest from age
was incapacitated for liis duties, a sngaii or substi-
tute was appointed in his room.
In the law of Moses the oflice of the high priest-
hood was vested in the family of Aaron, being ap-
pointed to descend hereditarily from the first born.
The succession in the family of Aaron appears to
have been regular during the existence of the first
temple; but, according to the Talmud, the high-
priests under the second temple purchased the
office, and some say destroyed one another by
witchcraft, so that it is alleged there were fourscore
high-priests from tlie return of the Jews out of Ba-
bylon till the destruction of Jerusalem and the second
temple, when the office of high-priest was abolished.
The ceremony of consecration to the higli-priest-
hood was performed witli great solemnity and sjilen-
dour. It commenced, as in the case of all the priests,
with ablution, which was performed with water
brought from the sacred laver to the door of the
tabernacle of the congregation. On this occasion
his whole bofly was washed in token of entire puri-
iication ; and being once cleansed lie had no. occa-
sion to do more, when lie went to minister, than to
wash his li.ands and his feet. After being washed,
the high-priest was solemnly invested with tlie
sacred ganrtents, four of which wei'e pecidiar to him-
self, viz. the breast-pkde, the ephod, the roie, and
the plate of gold. The sacred garments were of the
most gorgeous description, and the materials of
which they were composed consisted exclusively of
woollen or linen, nothing of hair or silk being used
in their formation.
The next part of the ceremony of consecration was
one peculiar to the high-priest, the anointing with
sacred oil. This solemn rite is thus described by
Mr. Lewis in his ' Hebrew Antiquities :' " The in-
gredients of tills oil were five hundred shekels of
pure myrrh, and half so much of sweet cinnamon,
two hundred and fifty shekels of sweet calamus, five
hundred shekels of cassia, after the shekels of the
sanctuary, and of oil olive a hin. The making up
of these sim|)les into the compound of the anoinliiig
oil was thus : The spices (except the myrrh, which
was liquid) were bruised every one apart and by
tlicmselves, and then were they mingled, and boiled
in clean water, till all their strength was come out
into that decoction ; which decoction strained, and
having oil put to it, was again boiled to the height
of an ointment, and so reserved. This anointing oil
was only in use in the times of the tabernacle and
the first temple ; and whilst it continued tlit high-
priests successively were anointed with it. The
manner was thus : it was poured upon the top of his
head, which was bare, and ran down his face upon
his beard ; and he that anointed him drew with his
linger the figure of the Greek letter eld upon his
forehead. The reason of the form of the letter du,
was to distinguish the anointing of the high-priest
from that of their kings, who were anointed in the
form of a circle or crown. The high- priest (the
Jews say) was anointed by the Sanhedrim, and
when the oil failed, he was clothed in the poiititica'
garments. If he were anointed, he was anointed
daily seven days together ; and if he were not (when
the holy oil was gone) he was clothed with the eight
vestments of the priesthood, every da}', for seven
days, and he was called the installed by the gar-
ments."
'i'lie last rite which was perf(u-med by the high-
priest, au his consecration to office, consisted in the
offering up of three sacrifices, namely, an offering
for sin, a holocaust or whole burnt-offering, and
a pcace-oflering. These sacrifices were repeated
daily for seven days. There was also a nieaf-o:i'er-
ing on such occasions, consisting of unleave: ed
bi-cad, unleavened cakes mingled with oil, and un-
leavened wafers anointed with oil ; all of which were
put into one basket, and brought to the door of the
tabernacle, to be presented there to.. God, along with
the other sacrifices. All these ceremonies having
been performed, Aaron and his sons were set apart
to minister in holy things, which rites of initiation
were always used before a high-priest could en or
upon his ofiice. But the sons of Aaron being once
consecrated by Moses, their posterity were nevei
after consecrated, because they succeede \ to the
priesthood by hereditary right.
A few of the peculiar privileges which belonged to
the high-priest, are thus stated by Mr. Lewis :
" To heighten the dignity of his office, he was ob-
liged to marry a virgin, one who was not so much as
espoused to any other person ; nor was any sort • f
virgin thought fit to be his wile, but only one that
was newly coine out of her minority, and had not
yet attained to her full puberty. This (the Hebrew
doctors say) is to be understood of the high-priest
after he was in his office ; for if he had married a
widow before (which was permitted to the common
priests) he was to keep her, and not to put her away
when he was advanced to the pontifical dignity. It
was peculiar to the high-priest, that besides other
women which no priests might marry, he alone was
forbidden to marry a widow. In this law is prohib-
ited not only a woman that had been married ; but
if she had been merely espoused, it was unlawful for
52
HIISI-IIILARIA.
the liigli-priest to take her for liis wife. He was luit
allowed to marry tlie wife of his brother, to which
otliers were obhL;od ; nor a woman bom of a persoii
wliom a liigh priest was forbidden to many : as, if
the liigh-priest had taken a widow, and had a daiigli-
ter by her, that child might not be married, thougli
a virgin, by a succeeding high-priest; but he was to
marry a virgin of Israel ; and though ho was not con-
fined to his own tribe, yet she was to be nobly born,
in order to preserve the dignity of his function. It
is generally supposed that polygamy was not allowed
to the high-priest, who was to have but one wife at
a time, thougli other men were permitted to have
more : if he took another, he was to give a bill of
divorce to one of them before the great day of ex-
piation, otherwise he was incapable to perform the
oftices of it ; but if his wife died, it was not unlawfid
for him to marry again.
"The high priest was exempt from tlie common
laws of mourning: he was not to let his hair grow
neglected, which was a funeral ceremony, nor was
he to rend his clothes; thougli the Talmudists will
have it, as Cunseus observes, that he might rend his
garments at the bottom about his feet, but not at the
top down to his breast. He was forbidden to go
into the house where the body of his father or his
mother lay dead, (which was permitted to the inferior
priests) and consequently he was not to make any
external signs of mourning for son or daughter,
brother or sister. But before his anointing and con-
secration, and putting on the holy garments, it was
not unlawful for him to attend the funeral of his fa-
ther; and therefore Eleazar was present when Aaron
died, being as yet in a lower ministry, and not com-
pletely advanced to the high-priesthood. If the
high-priest was in the sanctuary when he heard of
the death of his father or mother, he was not to stir
from thence till he had finished his ministry; for he
had a little house, after the temple was built, v.ithin
the precincts of it, where he commonly remained all
the day-time, wliich was called the parlour of the
high-priest. At night he went to his own dwelling-
house, which was at Jerusalem, and no where else.
There he might perform all the ofiiecs of a mourner
(except uncovering liis head, rending his clothes, or
going into the house where the dead body was) and
there the people came to comfort him; and sittijig
on the ground, while he sat in his chair, at the fu-
neral feast, they said. Let us be thy expiation (that
is, let all the grief that is upon thee fall upon us) to
which he answered. Blessed be ye from heaven.
"There are other marks of honour bestowed by
the Jews upon their high-priest. As all the lower
priests were esteemed holy, he was always accounted
the most holy. He was. says Maimonides, to excel
the rest of his brethren in five perfections, in the
comeliness of his body, in strength, in riches, in wis-
dom, and in a beautiful complexion; and if the heir
of the high-iuiesl had all the other accojuplishments,
and WHS not the most wealthy among his brethren, it
was thought just that so great a personage should be
made most rich by the contributions of the nther
priests. He wa.s only second to the king ; and as no
person of mean descent or occupation could be ad-
vanced to the regal dignify, so neither could he into
the high-priesthood : And some among the Jews go
so far as to .say, that the high jiriest was as valuable
as the whole people of Israel. He was never to
converse with the commonalty, or show himself
naked to them ; and therefore lie was to avoid all
public baths, and be cautious of going to feasts and
entertainments, the better to secure the reverence
due to the sanctity of his character. When he went
abroad to tliose that were in mourning, he was al-
ways attended by other priests : he was to clip his
hair twice a-week, but not to suifer a razor to come
upon his liead : he was to be every day in the sanc-
tuary, and not to go to his house above twice in oiif
day : he was not obliged to give testimony in anj-
cases, but what related to the king, and in tliose he
could not be forced but by the great .sanhedrim : he
was to have but one wife at one time. When he
went into the temple, he was attended by three
priests. He was not bound to .sacrifice bv lot, (as
the other priests were) but might do it as ot'teii as
he pleased, and take whatever sacrifice he thought
fit.
"But the greatest privilege and dignity of the
high-priest consisted in his performing the most holy
parts of Divine worship. He was tl»e mediaior, as
it were, between God and the people, to appease the
Divine anger, and to make atonement for the sins of
tlie whole nation : he was obliged to ofi'er a meat-
ofTering every day at his own charges, half of it in
the morning, and half at night, which was a distinct
offering from that which attended the daily burnt-
olferings : he alone was permitted to enter into the
holy of holies, and that but once in a year, upon the
day of expiation; and, upon great occasions, to en-
quire of God by Urini and Thummim."'
The greatest of all the privileges of the high-priest
was that of entering the most holy jjlace, which was
only permitted once a-year on the great day of ex-
piation. See -Atonement [1)\y of). In this re-
spect, and indeed in many others, the Jewish high-
priest was an eminent type of our Lord Jesus Christ,
who " ottered himself up once for all a sacrifice for
sin," who blesses his ])eople, and " hath entered not
into the Indy place made with hands, which is a
figure of the true, but into heaven itself, there to ap-
pear in the presence of God for us."
HllSI, the name given to the devil among 'the
Finns. He is supposed to have his residence in the
forests, whence he sends out diseases and cahmiities
of every kind among men. He is described as hav-
ing only three fingers on each hand, and as having
these fingers armed with large nails, with which lie
tears in pieces all who fall into his power. See
Finns (Iti-.i.KaoN of).
HILAKIA, a general term among the ancient
IIILLEL (School of)— HINDUISM.
5:-i
Romans, for days of feasting and rejuicing on any
account svhatever. It was usually appliud, liowevei',
in a more restricted form, to deTiote a festival held
on the 25th of March, in honour of Cybele, the nid-
ther of the gods. It .seems to have been celebrated
with games and amusements of every kind. Among
other rites there was a solemn procession in which
the statue of the goddess was borne along, preceded
by specimens of plate and other works of art provided
by the wealthy Romans for the occasion.
IIILLEL (School of), one of the most eminent
of the .Jewish academies forgiving instruction in the
Law of Moses. It was founded by Ilillel, a famous
.Jewish doctor, who was suvnamed tlie Babylonian,
because he was a native of Babylon. Thirty years
before the birth of Christ, this distinguislied Kabbi
arrived at Jerusalem, and was consulted about the
celebration of the passover, which fell that year upon
a Saturday. His answer was so satisfactory, that
they elected him patriarcli of the nation, and his pos-
terity succeeded him down to tlie filth century, when
the patriarchs of Jiidea were abolislied. Ilillel was
forty years of age when he left Babylon, and having
devoted himself to the study of the law, he was
elected patriarch at the age of eighty, and also head
of tlie sanhedrim. The Jews allege, that like Moses,
to whom they often compare him, he lived to the
ad\auced age of one hundred and twenty years.
Ilillel was the disciple of Scliamniai, and differing' in
opinion from his master, he set up a rival school;
and so violent was the opposition of the disciples of
Hillel to those of Schammai, that a bloody conten-
tion ensued, in the course of which several of the
combatants were slain. The quarrel, however, was
brought to a close, by the declaration of the Batii-
KoL (which see), in favour of the superiority of the
school of Hillel. The Jews blame Schamm.ai, and
highly extol Hillel, who they say was so nnich es-
teemed as a teacher, that ho had no fewer than a
thousand scholars. Eighty of his disciples rose to
great distinction, for the Jewish writers allege, that
thirty of them were worthy of having the glory of
God resting upon them as it did upon Moses ; thirly
who, hke Joshua, were able to stop the course of tlie
sun ; and the other twenty, little inferior to tlie first,
bid superior to the second.
HINA, a goddess among the New Zealandrrs,
who is regarded as the spouse of Mawi, the supreme
god, and by whose two sons the world is believed
to have been peopled.
HINDUIS.M, the prevailing religion of Ilimlustan,
jirofessed by 150,000,000 of people. It has been a
favourite idea with some Orientalists, that the sys-
tem of religion which is termed Brahmanism or Hin-
duism is of very remote antiquity, long before the
days of Moses. Niebuhr, however, has clearly
sliown that Hindu civilization is of comparatively
recent origin, not dating long before the conquests
of Alexander tlie Great. And this latter view is
fully borne out by the remnants of the primitive
inhabitants, which are still to be found in tlie hill
country, beyond the borders of the cultivated pljiins.
These hill and forest tribes are diminutive in stature,
uiih small eyes aud tiat noses. They have no caste,
and no idols, although they have various supersti-
tious practices. These aboriginal or non-Aryan
tribes, have evidently been compelled to take refuge
in the woods and fastnesses from the incursions of the
Hindus or Aryans, as they call themselves. In the
Vedas all who withstood the onward march of tjie
men of Aryan, are tei"med Daxyns, and ai'e said to
perform no religious rites. They are also termed
" those who do not tend the fire," and '■ fail to wor-
ship Agiii." Another appellation by which the
Vedas describe them is " flesh eaters," and in accord-
ance with this name, it is a well known fact that the
Bliils, who are the most numerous and important oi
all the aboriginal tribes, cat the flesh not only of buf-
faloes, but also of cows, when it can be obtained.
a pecidiarity which more perhaps than any other
marks them out as entirely se|iarate and dis^tlnct
iVoni the Hindus, with whom the cow is an iuiimal ot
special sacredness. The following points of distinc-
tion between the aborigines and their Aryan con
querors are stated by General Briggs in the Journal
of the Asiatic Society :
" 1. Hindus are divided info castes.
The aborigines have no such distinctions.
2. Hindu widows are forbidden to marry.
The widows of the aborigines not only do so,
but usually with the younger brotlier of the late
husband — a practice they follow in conmu.n
with the Scythian tribtll
3. The Hindus venerate the cow and abstain
from eating beef.
The aborigines feed alike on all I'l.sh.
4. The Hindus abstain from the use of fermented
liiptors.
The aborigines drink to excess ; and conceive
no ceremony, civil or religious, complete without.
5. The Hindus pajtake of food prepared only by
those of their own caste.
The aborigines partake of food prepared by
any one.
6. The Hindus abhor the spilling of blood
The aborigines conceive no religious or domes-
tic ceremony complete without the spilling of
blood and offering up a live victim.
7. The Hindus have a Brdhmanieal priestliood.
The indigenes do not venerate Brdhmajis.
Their own priests (who are self-created) are re-
spected according to their mode of life and their
skill in magic and sorcery, in di\iiiing future
events and in curing diseases : these are the
qualifications wdiich authorise their employnent
in slaying sacrificial victims and in distributing
them.
8. The Hindus burn their dead.
The aborigines bury their dead, and with them
theLi' arms, sometimes their cattle, as among
54
HINDUISM.
tlic Scythians. On sucli occiisions a victim
oiiglit to be sacriliced to atone for the sins of
the deceai-cd.
9. The Hindu civil institutions are all nuinicipal.
The aboriginal inslitnlions are all |>atnari.lial.
10. The Hindus have their courts of justice
composed of equals.
The aborigines have theirs composed of heads
of tribes or families, and chosen for life.
11. The Hindus brought with them (more than
three thousand years ago) the art of writing and
science.
The indigenes arc not only illiterate, but it is
forbidden for the Hindus to teach them."
The aboriginal tribes of Hindustan, as far as they
have yet been e.vamined, are generally supposed to
be of a Mongolian type, and to have come from the
northern parts of the country, probably at a remote
period having inhabited some part of the regions of
Central Asia. The best account of the religion of
the dili'erent non-Aryan tribes is to be found in a me-
moir furnished to ihe Journal of the Asiatic Society
bv Major Macphe .son, under the title of 'An Ac-
count of the Religion of the Khonds in Orissa.' The
chief object of their worship is stated to be the
Earth-god, under the name of Bui'.a-Pennu (which
see), to whom they ofier human sacrilices aininally,
in the hope of thereby obtaining success in their
agricultural operations. See Khonds (Religion
of). But in addition to the aborigines who inhabit
Northern India, such as the Bhils, the Mirs, the Khu-
lis, the Khonds, there has always been a large body of
Nishadas or non-Aryail''tribes in the southern part
of the Peninsula. Mr. Caldwell, in his ' Comparative
Grammar of the Dravidian or South Indian family
of Languages,' thus describes the religious character
of these aborigines of the south : " The system which
prevails in the fore.sts and mountain -fastnesses
throughout the Dr.-lvidian territories, and also in the
extreme south of the Peninsula amongst the low caste
tribes, and which appears to have been still more
widely [irevalent at an early period, is a system of
deinonolatry, or the worship of evil spirits by means
of bloody saeritices and frantic dances. This system
was introduced within the historical period from the
Tamil country into Ceylon, where it is now mixed
up with Buddhism. On comiiaring this Dravidian
system of deinonolatry and sorcery with ' Shama-
nism'— the superstilion which pre\ails amongst the
Ugriaii races of Siberia and the hill-tribes on the
foiuh western frontier of China, which is still mixed
up with the Buddhism of the Mongols, and which
was the old religion of the whole Tatar race before
l!udiliiisin and Mohammedanism were disseminated
amongst them — we cannot avoid the conclusion that
those two superstitions, though practised by races
so widely separated, are not only similar but identi-
cal."
But while the native tribes of Hindustan occupy
the forests and the hills, the whole of Ihe open coun-
try or plains of the Ganges intervening between the
Himalaya mountains and the Vindhya hills, is oecu-
)iied by the Hindu or Aryan races, who, at a remote
period, seem to have crosseil the Indian Al|e, .-iin!
been difl'used overthe Panjitb, idtimately overrunning
the whole Peninsula.
The religion of the Hindus, as it now presents it-
self in the system of Brahmanism, dillers essentially
from the religion of the .same people in its more an-
cient form, as it is found in the Vedas. These sa-
cred books, which are of great antiquity, arc four in
nimiber, and are denominated the Rig-Vdda, the
Yajur-Veda, the S^ma-Veda, and the Atharva-Vc'da.
The four Vedas were formerly supposed to be of
equal antiquity, but now it is ascertained that whilst
the hymns of which the Rig-Veda consists, rank "as
amongst the oldest extant records of the ancient
world," the Sama-V(;da merely gives extracts from
these hymns arranged for worship, the Yajur-Vcda
contains hymns of later date, mixed with repetitions
of the early specimens, and the Athar\a-Veda is a
much later compilation consisting of fornudaries re-
quired on certain rare occasions. The Rig V6la,
which is the earliest of these collections of sacred
hymns, is believed to have been written B. C. 1'200,
or B. c. 1400. It contains 1,017 mantras or prayer.s,
about one-half of which are addressed to Indni tlie
god of light, or Hindu Jupiter, or Ayni the god of
lire, or rather perhaps tiro itself, viewed partly as a
vivifying principle of vegetation, and partly as a
destructive agent. The next divinity, which in the
v'cw of some Orientalists completes the triad of the
Vaidic system, is Vuruiia the god of water. Thus the
Hindu religion of this early period seems to have been
a system of worship addressed to natural phenomena,
the light, the lire, the water; and must therefore
have partaken of a panthei-stic character. The ele-
ments were deified, and tlie very sacrifices they
olVered were converted into gods. Thus the hymns
comprising one entire section of the Rig Veda are
addressed to Soma (which see), the milky juice of the
moim-plant (asclepias acida), which was a libation
oli'ered to the gods, and without a draught of which
even they could not be immortal.
The language in which the Vedas are wi-itten is
the Sanskrit, which the Hindus seriously believe^o
be the language of the gods, and to have been com-
munic.-ited to men by a voice from heaven ; while the
V^das themselves have proceeded from the month of
the Creator. But the S/iaatms or sacred writings of
the Hindus are not limited to the four V&las: be-
sides these, there are four f/yw- F«/(w or Sub-Scrip-
tures ; six FffZ-onfl".? or bodies of learning; and four
Uji-aiignu or appended bodies of learning, forming in
all an immense mass of secular and sacred hue,
such as any single individual would in vain attcmjit
even cursorily to peruse, much less fully to master.
At the foundation of the complicated .system of
Ilindui.-m in its present form, lies the existemc cf
one great universal, self-existing Spirit, who is dc-
HINDUISM.
nominated Brahji (which see). It is one grand
peculiarity of this tlie Supreme God of India, tliiit
while all natural attributes are ascribed to him in infi-
nite perfection, he is not alleged to possess a single
moral attnbute. And even his natiu'al attribute!^,
though they may bo momentarily exerci.sed for the
purpose of manifesting the universe, they are speed-
ily recalled and reabsorbed into his mysterious es-
sence. Hence throughout all India, there are neither
temples, nor sacred rites, nor acts of worship in
honour of Brahm. The excuse given for this strange
state of matters is, that "the representing the Su-
preme Being by images, or the honouring him by
the institution of sacred rites, and the erection of
temples, must be perfectly incompatible with every
conceivable notion of au all-pervading, immaterial,
incorporeal spirit." Such an excuse would undoubt-
edly be valid, in so far as an outward image is con-
cerned, but has no force whatever when ai)|)lied to
the spiritual worship of an intelligent creature.
In the creed of the Hindus, Ilrahm ahme exists;
all else is illusory. How then is creation on such a
system to be aceoEnplislied? The mode in which
the universe sprang into existence is thus sketched
by Mr. Ilardwick iji his 'Christ and other Masters:'
" Alone, supreme, and unapproachable, a feeling of
dissatisfaction with Himself had crossed the mind of
the Great Solitary. He longed for oflspring, and at
length determined to resolve the primitive simplicity
of His essence, and transform Himself into a world
which might contrast with His eternal quietude.
From this desire of God has sprung whatever is, or
is to be : the earth, the sky, the rock, the tlower,
the forest, the innumerable tribes of gods and men,
of beasts and demons, — these, so far as they possess
a true existence, are all consubstantial with divinity.
The basis underlying all the forms which they as-
sume is the Inetfable, the Uncreated. God may be
regiU'ded as the undeveloped world, the world as the
development of God. He is both the fountain and
the stream, the cause and the eti'ect, the one Creator
and the one creation. 'As the spider spins and
gathers back [its thread]; as plants sprout on the
earth ; as hairs grow on a living person ; so is this
universe here, produced from the imperishable na-
ture. By contemplation the vast one germinates ;
from him food [or, body] is produced ; and thence,
successively, breath, mind, real [elements], worlds
and immortality arising from [good] deeds.' Ex-
pres^ions of this kind had not unnaturally suggested
to some minds the inference that the pantheism of
ancient India was simple and materialistic : but a
further insight into the philosophy, at least so far as
it appears in monuments of the Bralunanic age, will
prove such inferences to be erroneotis. We may
'Kit, indeed, be able to decide with confidence re-
specting the complexion of the earliest Hindu meta-
physics, since the Vedas, notwithstanding the inge-
I nuity of their commentators, will be found to have
' contained a very slender metaphysical element : but
as soon as ever an attempt was made to bring the
ruder superstitions of their forefathers ijito haruuiny
with more refined conceiitions of the Godhead, the
whole tone of Hindu [lantheism is subtilized, to the
extent of questioning the reality of the material
world itself. All fonns assumed by matter are then
held to be not only transient but illusive. The
semblance of reality which they possess is due to
Mfiya, — the persouilication of God's fruitless long-
ing for some being other than His own, — the power,
by which, in different words, the Absolute had been
Himself beguiled from His original quietude. But
while matter is thus held to be essentially uou exist-
ent, that which underlies and animates the whole ol
the phenomenal universe is one with the Divinity,
who, by a species of self-analysis, has brought Hijn-
self under the conditions of the finite and the tem-
poral, an<l must in future so continue till the \i>ible
is nhimately reabsorbed by the invisible, and multi-
plicity reduced afresh to simple unity."
Thus it is that, accdrding to Hinduism, every ob
ject in the universe, nay, the soul of man himself, is
nothing more than an illusory manifestation of the
essence of Brahm. But in all cosmological specula-
tions the ditficulty is a|)t to .«t;u't itself, how spirit cait
exert energy at all ; and more especially how it can
operate directly upon matter. It was conceived,
therefore, that in order to put forth his energy,
Brahm must assinne a form, or the appearance of a
form. Under this assumed personal form he di'ew
forth in some inetfable manner from his own imper-
sonal essence three distinct beingK or hypostases,
which became invested with corporeal forms. This
is the celebrated Hindu Triad or Trinun-ti, — Bruh-
via, Vidinii, and Sliivu. To tliese three beings were
intrusted the arrangement and government of the
universe after Brahm had relapsed into his proper
state of profound sleep and unconsciousness.
The creation of the universe is accounted for in
the Hindu Shastras by the production of the Mun-
dane Kgg, from which the whole universe sjirang
forth in perfected form. To produce the egg, Bnihm
is represented as having assumed a new and peculiar
form, in which he is usually called Purwli, or the
primeval male; while his divine energy separated
from his essence is ])ersonified, under a female form
named Prakviti or Nature. From the conibination
of Punish and Prah-Ui [iroceeded the Miuidane Fgg.
See Creation. Thus the elements of universal
nature came into being, consisting of fourteen
worlds ; seven interior, or below the world which we
inhabit; and seven superior, consisting — with the
excei)tion of our own which is the first — of immense
tracts of space, bestudded with glorious luminaries
and habitations of the gods.
But the worlds having thus been educed iVoni the
Miiiidiine Eyij, the ((uestion arises, who is the maker
of the dill'erent orders of being who are to inhabit
the worlds. This oliice is exclusively assigned to
I'KAll.MA (which see), the first person of the Hindu
SG
HINDUISM.
Triad, wlio is accordingly styled the Creator. From
liijii also proceeded by emanation or ediittion the
four cjustcs into which the Iliiidiis believe inaidiind
to be divided. From his mouth came the highest or
Brahman ca-sle; from his arm the Ksliattrya or mili-
tary caste; from his breast ihe Vaishya or produc-
tive caste ; and from his foot the Sliudra or servile
caste. The lite of Bra/ima measin-cs the dnration of
the iMiiversc, and is believed to extend to three hun-
dred billions of common years; and as a partial de-
.struction or disorganizalion of the ten lower worlds
recurs at tlio close of every hilpa or day of Brahma,
there are understood, according to this system, to be
thirty-six thousand |iarll;d destructions or disorga-
nizations of the larger half of the universe, and as
many reconslructions of it during the period of its
duration. And when the life of Brahma .shall have
terminated, there will be no longer a partial de-
siructiun, but an utter annihilation of the universe
called a liMia Pralai/fi. and Brahm alone will
cxi.st. '-Thus," to use the Language of Dr. Duff,
"there has been, according to the Hindu Shastras,
an alternating succession of manifestations and anni-
hilations of the universe, at intervals of inconceiv-
able length, throughout the measiu-eless ages of a
past eternity; — and there will be the same alternate
never-ending succession of manifestations and anni-
hilations throughout the boundless ages of the eter-
nity that is to come."
The Hindus believe in the doctrine of transmigra-
tion, holding that every hmnan soul in order to ex-
piate its guilt passes through millions and millions
more of ditierent bodily forms throughout the whole
duration of the present universe. 'I'o this arrange-
ment, however, there is an exceirtion, the superior
gods not being subject to undergo these numberless
changes, but enjoying I lie highest happiness attain-
able apart from absorption through the whole of
Brahma's life. It is the earnest desire, accordingly,
of every Hindu that he may rise a grade higher in
the next liirth, and thus attain one step in advance
towards ultimate deliverance. A higher species of
future bliss set before the devotee of Brahmanism, is
the enjoyment of carnal delights in the heaven of
one or other of Ihe superior gods. But the last and
highest kind of future bliss consists in the absorp-
tion of the soul into the essence of Brahm. See
AtiSORi'TlON. This is the consimwnation of felicity,
for the soul once absorbed is not liable to any fur-
ther transmigration. But while there is thus a gi-a-
duated scale of future rewards for the righteous,
there is also a graduated scale of future punishments
for the wicked. Thus an individuid may by his evil
deeds in this life incur a degraded position in the
next birth; or if more wicked, he may be sent down
to one or other of imnnnerable hells, to reappear,
however, on earth in mineral, animal, and vegetable
forms before he rises to Ihe human ; or if a peculiarly
hein'MLS transgrcs-'or, lie may be consigned to perdi-
tion until the dissolution of all Ihings.
Now to attain each of the three distinct kinds nf
future bliss, and escape the three distinct kinds of
future ]nmishment, there are three equally distinct
paths niarked out in the sacred books of the Hindus.
To secure advance in the next birth, all the neces-
sary duties ])ecidiar to caste must be carefully dis-
charged; and the ordinary practices and cerenumies
of religion nuist be diligently observed. To obtain
an entrance into the paradise of one of the superior
gods, there must be the performance of some extra-
ordinary services to the deities, or some acts of ex-
traordinary merit. But to render a man worthy of
absorption into Brahm, he must adopt peculiar
austerity in his mode of life ; he must apply himself
sedulously to divine knowledge; and above all, he
must give himself up to pure and intense meditation
on the Eternal Spirit. It is in the power of the
three higher castes to reach any one of the kinds of
bliss set before the Hindu; but the Sudra must
limit his andiition in either of the inferior kinds of
bliss, and when he has attained this primary object
in a future birth, he may then aspire to the highest
beatitude — final absorption in Brahm.
The gods of Hinduism are almost numberless,
and hence the immense variety of sects in India,
each deriving its denomination from the name of its
favourite divinity. At the head of this immense
jianlheon must be placed the members of the Hindu
Triad, who, of course, attract the greatest num-
ber of votaries and the largest amount of reverence.
It is not a little reniarkable, that though Brahma
occupies the first position among the Sacred Three,
and might be supposed, as the Creator, to call forth
the special homage of the creature, the active
worship of this deity has almost completely fallen
into desuetude among the people generally. Ho is
still worshipped by one class, the Brahmans, at sun-
rise every morning, when they repeat an incantation
containing a description of his image, and as an act
of worship present him with a single fiower; but as
Jlr. Eljihinstone informs us, he was never much wor-
shipped, and has now but one temple in India.
Vi.-hnii and Shiva, however, with their consorts, have
always secured the greatest amount of practical
homage, and their sects are more numerous than any
other of the sects of India. Professor Horace
Wilson .says, that the rcjirescntatives of these two
superior deities have in course of time borne away
the palm from the prototypes, and that Krishna,
Riima, or the Linyani, are almost the only forms
under which Vifhiiu and Shiva are now adored in
most parts of India.
The worshippers of the Sal/i, the power or energy
of the divine nature in action, are exceedingly nu-
merous among all clas.ses of Hindus. It has been
ct>nipulcd that of the Hindus of Bengal, at hast three-
fourths are of this sect ; of the remaining fourth,
three parts are Vai.ihnavas, and one Soivns. \\ hen
the worshippers of Snkli incline towards Ihe adora-
tion of Vit-hiiu, the personified Suhti is termed Laksh-
^
^>
n
m
^
HINDUISM.
57
mi 01" Malta Lakuhmi ; but wlien tliey incline towards
the luloration of Shiax, tlie personitied Sakti is termed
Parvatl, Bhavani or Darga. Tlie bride ol Shiva, in
one or other of her many and varied forms, is one of
the most popular emblems in Bengal and along the
Ganges. The chief ceremony of initiation in all
Hindu sects is the communication by the teacher to
tlie disciple, of the JSIantra, which generally consists
of the name of some deity, or a short address to him ;
it is communicated in a whisper, and never lightly
revealed to the uninitiated. Another distinction
amongst sects, but merely of a civil character, is the
term or terms with which the religious members sa-
lute each other when they meet, or in which they
are addressed by the lay members. But tlie usual
mode of discriminating one sect from another is by
various fantastic streaks on the face, breast, and
arms. For this purpose all the Vaishnava sects em-
|)Ioy a white earth called gopichamlana, which, to be
of the purest description, should be brought from
Dw.iraki, being said to be the soil of a pool in that
place where the Goph drowned themselves when
they heard of Krislinas death. The common gopi-
cJiandana, however, is nothing but a magnesia or cal-
careous clay.
The worship o( Shiva appears to be tlie most pre-
valent and popular of all the modes of adoration, if we
may judge from the number of shrines dedicated to
the only form under which Shiva is reverenced, that
of the Lingam ; yet these temples are scarcely e\er
Ihe resort of numerous votaries, and are regarded with
comparatively little veneration by the Hindus. Be-
nares, however, forms an exception, and the temi}le
of Visweswara, "the Lord of all," an epithet of Shiva,
represented as usual by a Lingam, is tlironged willi a
never-ceasing crowd of worshippers. " The adora-
tion of Shiva indeed," as Professor H. H. Wilson
remarks, " has never assiutied, in upper India, a po-
pular form. He appears in his shrines only in an
unattractive and rude emblem, the mystic purpose
of wliicli is little understood, or regarded by the un-
initiated and vulgar, and which oti'ers nothing to
interest the feelings or excite tlie imagination. No
legends are recorded of this deity of a poetic and
pleasing character ; and above all, such legends as
are narrated in the Puranas and Tantias have not
been presented to the Hindus in any accessible
shape. The Saivas have no works in any of the
common dialects, like the Rdmdyana, the Bdrtta,
or the Bhakta ]\fdld. Indeed, as far as any inquiry
has yet been instituted, no work whatever exists, in
any vernacular dialect, in which the actions of Siva,
in any of his forms, are celebrated. It must be kept
in mind, however, that these observations are in-
tended to apply only to Gangetic Hindustan, for in the
south of India ])opular legends relating to local mani-
festations of Siva are not uncommon. Correspond-
ing to the absence of multiplied forms of this divi-
nity, as objects of wor.ship, a.'.d to the want of those
works which attach importance to particular mani-
festations of the favourite god, the people can scarcely
be .said to be divided into different sects, any farther
than as they may have certain religious mendicants
for their spiritual guides. Actual divisions of the
worshippers of Siva are almost restricted to these
religious personages, collected sometimes in opu ent
and numerous associations ; but for the greater part
detached, few, and indigent."
The course of wox-ship among the Hindus consists
in circumambulating the temple, keeiiing the right
hand to it, as often as the devotee pleases : the wor-
shipper then enters the vestibule, and if a bell is sus-
pended there, as is commonly the case, he strikes
two or three times upon it. He then advances to
the threshold of the shrine, presents his oiFering,
which the officiating Brahman receives, mutters iii-
audibly a short prayer, accompanied with prostra
tioii, or simply with the act of lifting the hands
to the forehead, and then departs. There is no-
thing like a religious service, and the hurried man-
ner in which the whole is performed, the quick suc-
cession of worsIii|)pers, the gloomy aspect of the
shrine, and tlie scattering about of water, oil, and
faded flowers, inspire anything but feelings of rever-
ence and devotion.
Besides the usual forms of religious homage and
rites of worship, there are other acts which, accord-
ing to the religion of the Hindu, possess such ex-
traordinary merit as to entitle the performer to an
entrance into one or other of the heavens of the gods.
Some of the most prominent of these are thus enu-
ine-;itel by Dr. Duft': "Fastings, frequent, long-
continued, and accompanied by various medit.itive
exercises : — the presenting of gifts to the Brahmans,
such as a valuable piece of land, cows, horses, or
elephants, large sums of silver or of gold, houses
well stored with food, clothes, and utensils : — tlie
honouring of Brahmans with feasts, which are re-
plenished with all maimer of rare delicacies and
expensive luxuries : readings and recitations of por-
tions of the Mahabharat and other Shastras, on aus-
picious days ; and rehearsals for \veeks or months
together of those legends which embody the histories
of their gods, accompanied with dancings and wav-
ings of brushes, and the jinglings of rings, and the
no'ses of instrumental music: — the digging of public
wells, or tanks, or pools of water 'to quench the
thirst of mankind;' the building of public ghats or
flights of steps along the banks of rivers, to assist
the faithful in their ablutions ; the planting and con
secrating of trees to afTord a sliade, and of groves to
furnish refreshment to holy pilgrims ; the repairing
of old temples, or the erecting of new, in honour of
the gods: — long and arduous pilgrimages to the con-
tinence of sacred streams, — to spots that have been
immortalized by the exploits of gods or the penances
of holy sages, — or to shrines where the presence of
some divinity may lie more than ordinarily realized,
and his favours and blessings with more than wonted
affluence bestowed. Besides these, and others ton
V
58
HINDUISM.
tedious to be recounted, must be specially noted the
manifold practices of selt'-murder. Certain modes of
voluntary religious suicide some of the Shastras dis-
tinctly recommend, annexing thereto promises of a
heaveidy recompense. To the modes thus divinely
appointed t!ie fervent but blind and perverse zeal of
deluded votaries has not been slow in adding many
more to testify the intensity of their devotion.
Hence it is that numbers annually tlu'ow themselves
over precipices and are daslied to pieces, — or cast
themselves into sacred rivers and are drowned, — or
bury themselves alive in graves which may have been
dug by their nearest kindred. All these, and other
modes of self-murder, are practised with the distinct
expectation of eariuiuj an entrance into heaven. But
the most celebrated of them all is the rite of Sati or
Suttee."
The primitive form of Hinduism was, as we have
seen, the religion of the Vedas, dating somewhere
about B. c. 1400. At length philosophers appeared
who avowed themselves not only critics, but op-
ponents of the doctrines of these ancient sacred
books. Three systems arose, the Sankhya, the
Nyaya, and the Veclanta; and each system being
divided into two parts, six schools of philosophy
were formed somewhere between b. c. 700 and
n. c. 600, which systems are, even at this day,
taught at Benares. The earliest of tbe.^e systems
is undoubtedly the Sanhhya, which is attributed to
the sage Kapila as its author ; but the precise
date of any one of the three it is impossible to dis-
cover. One thing, however, is certain, that they
gradually succeeded in destroying the credit and
authority of the Vedas. At length, while Brahman-
ism was still struggUng with tlie metaphysical schools
whicii were dividing the public mind, Budha ap-
peared, regarding it as the great object of his inission
to overturn the ancient religion of the Hindus. A
contest now commenced between Biidhi-on and Brah-
vianism, whicli lasted for a long period. For seven or
eight centuries after the Christian era, Biidhiiis were
in turn patronised, neglected, and persecuted by the
kings of India. When driven from the Ganges
they tied to Nepaul, or sought refuge among the
hills of the Dekkan.
" We first hear of Siva wor.ship," says Mrs. Speir,
in her recent work, entitled ' Life in Ancient India,'
" about n. c. 300, some centuries after the first pro-
mulgation of Buddhism, but before Buddhi.sm had
become the court religion. At that time Alex.indcr
the Great was dead : Seleueus held Bactria and Ba-
bylon, and his and)assad(ir Megasthenes dwelt with
Hindu Ilajas at Patna, on the Clanges. Brahmani-
cal |)hili)»ophy had before this tinu^ made war upon
the Vedas ; Rain and Fire-worship had become ob-
solete, and Sacrilice typical ; the Greeks were not
therefore likely to see Soma-festivals, or to hear of
oflerings to Indra and Agni ; and as the philosophic
Brahmans reserved their religious doctrine for the
privileged few, the only obvious religions were those
of the populace, which Megasthenes describes as Siva
worship on the hills and Vaislmava worship in the
plains. The first was, he says, celebrated in tumul-
tuous festivals, the worshippers anointing their bo-
dies, wearing crowns of flowers and sounding bells
and cymbals. From this the Greeks conjecture that
Siva worship must be derived from Bacchus or
Dionysus, and have been carried to the Ea.st in
the traditionai-y expedition wliich Bacchus made in
company with Hercides. Tliis view was confimied
by finding that the wild vine grew in some of the
very districts where this worship flourished. But
these conjectures are treated by Professor Lassen as
pure invention, and all that he accepts from the ob-
servations of Megasthenes is, that Siva worship was
prevalent in the hills of India previous to the reign
of Chandragupta.
" For a time the Brahmans resisted this innova-
tion, and refused theii- patronage both to Siva and
his worshippers ; but the popular current was too
strong for their virtue, it swept away their break-
waters, and left them in danger of unimportance and
neglect. Then perceivingtheir selfish errors, and look-
ing for a selfish remedy, the old Brahmans resolved
to consecrate the people's harbours, or, in other
%vords, to adopt the people's gods. Unable to stand
like Moses, firmly promulgating a law which they
declared Divine, they took the part of Aaron and
presided over worshij) to the Golden Calf. From
this era the morality and grandeur of ancient Brah-
manism degenerated."
From the Chinese we learn that Budhism was
patronized in Central India so late as A. D. 645 ; but
in the course of the seventh century it seems to have
gradually disappeared, and Shmixin to have taken its
place as the favourite worship of the Brahmans, and
Shiva as the presiding deity of their order. To this
day the greater number of sacred castes, particularly
those who practise the rites of the Vedas, or who
profess the study of the Shastras, receive Shiva as
their tutelary deity, wear his insignia, and worship
the Lingam either in temples, in their houses, or on
the side of a sacred stream, providing in the latter
case Lingams kneaded out of the mud or clay of the
river's bed. The worship of the god Vishnu now
began to prevail. He had been mentioned in the
Rig- Veda, but merely as an inferior divinity. The
publication of the Bliagavat-Gitu, which is generally
dated about the seventh or eighth century, made
Vishnu a prominent god, styling him even the
Supreme Deity, from whom all things have issued,
and into whom all things shall be absorbed. For a
time the religions of the Vuklivdva and of the
Slilni. sects coutciuled for the mastery. The two
parties split up into numberless little sects, worship-
ping either the one deity or the other, in some one
of his varied forms, or perhaps his consort, under one
or other of her varied a|)pellations. Wli.at has been
the ell'ect of the cundtrons and comjdicated system
of idolatry which now constitutes Hinduism is seen
HINNOM (Valley of)— HOBAL.
59
in tlie dcgra(le<), debased, and immoral condition
into which the whole Hindu population is plunged.
Sucli is, indeed, the natural result of their reli-
gion. "It matters not," Professor Horace Wilson
truly remarks, " how atrocious a sinner may be, if he
paints his face, his breast, his arms, with certain sec-
tarial marks ; or, which is better, if he brands his
skin permanently with them with a hot iron stamp ;
if he is constantly chanting hymns in lionour of
Vishm'i ; or, wliat is equally efficacious, if he spends
hours in tlie simple reiteration of his name or names ;
if he (lie with the word Hari, or Rama, or Krislmd,
on his lips, and the thought of him in his mind, he
may have lived a monster of iniquity, — he is certain
of heaven."
During the last half century much has been done
to ameliorate the condition of the Hindus. Missions
have been established throughout almost every part
of India; somewhere about 200 stations and 400
missionaries are scattered over the entire Peninsula;
and from the indirect, as well as the direct influence
of Christianity, a decided improvement has been
effected in the general aspect and condition of tlie
country. The Marquis of Hastings, who went to
India in 1813 as govenior-general, was the first to
lend the influence of government to the cause of
civilization among the natives. He gave every en-
couragement, private and public, to schools and col-
leges. Under his auspices the Calcutta Scliool
Society, the School Book Society, the Hindu Col-
lege, and other institutions sprung into being. He
also abolished the censorship of the press. Lord
Bentinck abolished the Suttee throughout the Bri-
tish possessions of India, and Lord Hanlinge made
great, and in various instances, successful exertions
to have it abolished in the dominions of the native
princes not under British rule. Infanticide has been
very extensively suppressed. Tlie Pliansiagars or
Thug';, with whom it was a religious duty to murder
and plunder, have been nearly, if not entirely, rooted
out. A stop has been put in a good degree to the
Meriah sacrifices in the extensive hill-tracts of Orissa.
The law which declares that a native shall forfeit his
paternal inlieritance, by becoming a Christian, has
been abrogated. Caste, tlie greatest obstacle to the
spread of Christianity in India, has, in some degree,
been put down. The marriage of Hindu widows lias
been sanctioned. In the courts the practice of swear-
ing is in some places changed, the Bible behig sub-
stituted for the water of the Ganges ; or the wit-
nesses only required to make a declaration that they
speak the truth. Above all, the preaching of the
gospel extensively, both by European and native
missionaries, and the estabUshment of schools for
tlie instruction of the young in general knowledge,
and the elements of pure Bible Christianity, have
done much to undermine and prepare for the final
overthrow of the gigantic fabric of Hinduism. No
doubt tlie recent insurrection in the Nurlh-western
parts of India has put a temporary arrest on tlie
progress of missions in that quarter ; but when the
cloud which now darkens the horizon of India shall
have passed away ; when this fierce outbreak of Mo-
liammedan ambition and Brahmanical jealousy shall
have been suppressed, the work of missions will be
resumed with redoubled zeal and energy, and Chris-
tianity will at length, by God's blessing, cover the
whole peninsula of Hindustan from the Himalaya
mountains to Cape Comorin.
HINNOM (V.\lli;y of), a noted valley situated
on the south of Jerusalem, where the apostate Is-
raelites celebrated the horrid rites of MoLOt'ii (which
see), often accompanied with human .sacrifices. This
valley is rather more than half-a-mile long, about
fifty yards broad, and twenty deep. By the Old
Testament prophets it is sometimes called Toiyhct,
from the tabrets, in Hebrew topli, with which the
cries of the victims were drowned. After the Ba-
bylonian captivity, when the Jews had renounced
their love of idolatry, they held Hinnoni in abhor-
rence, casting into it the carcases of dead animals
and the bodies of malefactors ; lighting up fires in
the valley to consume the offal. Hence Gehenna
came to signify the place of final torment.
HIPPOCAMPUS, the mythical sea-horse of the
ancient classical mythology. It was believed to be
a kind of marine deity, half horse, half fish, and em-
ployed in the service of Poseidon of the Greeks or
Neptumts of the Romans.
HIPPOCENTAUR. See Centaurs.
HIPPOCRATIA, a festival held by the Arca-
dians in honour of Poseidon, in course of which it
was customary to lead horses and mules gaily ca-
parisoned in procession. It is supposed to have cor-
responded to the CONSUALIA (which see) of the Ro-
mans.
HIPPOLAITIS, a surname of At/iem, under
which she was worshijiped at Hippola in Laconia.
HIPPONA, an ancient heathen deity worshipped
by grooms who usually kept an image of this god-
dess in the stables that they might invoke her to
bless the horses.
HIRSCHAU (CoNGREOATiON of), a class of re-
ligious established by William, abbot of Hirschau,
in the diocese of Spire in Germany. It was formed
on the model of that of Clugny. (See Cluniacen-
SIANS.) Its founder died in 1091. The monks went
by the name of the Hirsaugian monks.
HISAGUS, a river-god who decided the dispute
between Athena and Poseidon about the possession
of Athens.
HISTOPEDES, a name given to the Eunomians
(which see), a branch of the Arians, in the fourth cen-
tury, because they immersed in baptism, as Epipha-
nius relates, with the heels upwards and the head
downwards, baptizing, however, in this singular way,
only the upper parts of the body as far as the breast.
HOAGNAM, a deity among the Chinese, who ia
believed to preside over the eyes.
IIOBAL, an idol of the ancient Araljians, wliici
60
" HOC AGE"— HOG (The Sacrifice of the).
was doinolisheil by Molmnmifil after )ie liati taken
possession of Mecca. It was surrounded witli tliree
hundred and sixty smaller idols, each of them pre-
siding over one day of the lunar year.
" HOC AGE " (Eat. Do this), a form of words so-
lemnly pronounced by a herald, when tiie ancient
Romans were about to engage in a public sacrilice.
It implied that the whole attention of tlie people was
to be lixed on the sacred employment. Do this, as it
were, and nothing else.
HO-CH.\XG, a name given in China to the priests
of Fo or Budha. They strongly inculcate upon tlieir
followers the worship of Budha, the sacred books,
and the priesthood, which are termed the three
gems. See Gems (The Three).
HODAMO, a priest of the Pagan inhabitants of
the island of Socotra, on the coast of Africa, who
worshipped the moon, and liad temples called Mo-
quamos, in wliich that luminaiy was adored. The
Hodamo was annualh' chosen and presented with a
staff and a cross as the emblems of his fimctions.
HODUR, a Scandinavian god, son of Odin. He
is repre.sented in the Eddaas blind, and yet so strong
that he slew Baldur by throwing at him the twig of
a mistletoe, which pierced him through and through.
Referring to this murder the Edda says of Hodur,
"Both gods and men would be very glad if tliey
never had occasion to pronounce his name, for they
will long have cause to remember the deed perpe-
trated bv his hand." See BALiiUK.
HOFFMANISTS, the followers of Daniel Hoff-
man, professor tir.st of logic, and afterwards of theology,
in the university of Helmstadt in Germany. In the
end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seven-
teenth century he taught that the light of reason, even
as it is set forth in the writings of the most eminent
philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, is injurious
to religion ; and, accordingly, he declared his decided
opposition to all philosophical inquiry. This led to
a keen controversy, in wliich Hoffman was joined by
a number of ardent supporters. At length such was
the heat and animosity manifested between the two
parties, that tlie civil government found it necessary
to interpose, and to refer the matter to arbitration,
the result of which was, that Ilorthiau was called
upon to recant, which accordingly he did, and thus
escaped all further persecution.
HOFFMANNITES, a new sect of a mystic and
apocalyptic character, which arose in 1854 aniong
the Pietists in Wiu-temberg. Their leader is Dr.
HotTmann of Ludwigsburg, son of the founder of the
pietistic colony of Konitlial, and brother to the dis-
tinguished court- preacher at Berlin. He is de-
scribed Ijy Di-. .Schail'as a man of much talent, learning,
and piety. He was elected in 1848 a member of the
parliament of Frankfort in opposition to Dr. Strauss,
the author of 'The Life of Jesus.' Dr. lloiVm.inn
regard:; the church, in its present mixture with the
world, as the modern ISabylon hastening to destruc-
tion, dimly foreshadowed by the revolution of 1848,
and he looks to the Holy Land as destined to be the
scene of the gathering of God's own people to await
the second coming of Clirist. His friends made pre-
paration for an emigration to Palestine, and we
leani, on the authority of Dr. Schaff, that they ac-
tually applied to the Sultan for a gift of that coun-
try, but of course witliout success. They formed
great expectations from the Eastern war, but these
have not as yet been realized.
HOG (The Sacrifice of the). The Jews were
strictly prohibited from using the hog as food. The
reason of this prohibition is supposed by Maimonides
to have been the iilthy feeding of the animal, and its
wallowing in the mire ; others trace it to the cir-
cumstance that the liog is a c;irnivorous animal, and
others still believe that the flesh of tlie hog, when
used as food, would have produced the leprosy, to
which the inliabitants of the East have always been
liable. But whatever might be the cause of its |iro-
hibition as an article of food, the hog has alwavs
been held in special abhoiTence by the Jews. They
were not allowed so much as to open one of these
animals, to take out the fat and apply it to any use.
In regard to this animal the Jews are so scrupidous,
that they say they may not touch a hog when alive
with one of their fingers, it being a proverbial say-
ing among them, that ten measures of leprosy de-
scending into the world, swine took to themselves
nine of them, and the rest of the world one. It is a
curious circumstance, and one which strikingly shows
the ignorance which prevailed among the ancient
Pagans as to the religion of the Jews, that Plutarch,
in hisivritings, introduces one Callistratus saying, that
the Jews refrained from eating the flesh of a hog out
of the great respect in which they held that animal,
because, by turning the ground with his muzzle, he
had taught men husbandry. Such an as.»«rtiori is
unworthy of a writer so intelligent ant* ^enerally
well-informed as Plutarch undoubtedh' yas. The
true reason probably why the Jews accounted the
hog an abomination was, because of its use among
some idolatrous nations. Not only, however, did
the Hebrews abstain from the use of hog's flesh ;
the Egyptians, Arabians, Phoenicians, and other
neighbouring nations also refrained from this kind of
food. And yet from the frequency with which swine
are seen painted on the monuments, these animals
appear to have been reared in considerable numbers
aniong the Egyptians; but for what purpose it is
difticult even to conjecture. The Scythians would
not sacrifice them, nor even rear them. At this day
the Kalmuck Tartars will not feed these animals,
though the Budhist religion does not forbid them.
Among the ancient Greeks and Roinans hogs Ibrmed
a frequent class of victims in tlieir .saeritices. so that
the SiioLVlaurilia of the Uomans. ami the Trittiia of
the Greeks, consisting of a pig, a sheep, and an ox,
were not unfreqiiently employed on sacred occasions.
Thus in the regular and general lustration or purifi-
cation of the whole Roman people, which took place
HOLY— HOLY GHOST.
61
at the eiul jf every five years, this was the species
of sacrifice whicli was offered in tlie Campus Mar-
tins, wliere the people assembled for the purpose.
These, indeed, were the most common animal sacri-
fices at Rome. They were performed in all cases of
a lustration, and the victims were carried around the
thing to be lustrated, %vhether it was a city, a peo-
ple, or a piece of land. In the arcli of Constantine at
Rome there is still seen a representation of the Suo-
veiaurilia. It was a practice also among the C4reeks
and Romans to offer a hog in sacrifice to Ceres at
the beginning of harvest, and another to Baccluis
before they began to gatlier the vintage ; because the
animal is equally hostile to the growing corn and the
loaded vineyard. It is possible that to this practice
there may be an allusion in Isa. kvi. 3, " He that kill-
eth an ox is as if he slew a man ; he that sacrificeth a
lamb, as if he cut oft' a dog's neck ; he that offeretli
an oblation, as if he offered swine's blood ; he that
burneth incense, as if he blessed an idol. Yea, they
liave chosen their own ways, and their soul delight-
eth in their abominations."
The Hindus hold the hog in as great abhorrence
as the Jews themselves do. In his third avatar or in-
carnation, Vishnu assumed the form of a hog. The
Mohammedans, also, who have imbibed many Jew-
ish prejudices and customs, abhor hogs, and look up-
on them as so unclean that they dare not touch
them ; and should they do so, even by chance, they
become thereby polluted.
HOLOCAUSTS. See Buent-Offf.rings.
HOLY, that which is morally ptn-e, sot apart from
a common to a sacred use, or devoted to God.
HOLY ASHES. See Ashes, Ash- Wednesday.
HOLY CANDLES See Candlemas-Day.
HOLY-CROSS-DAY. See Exaltation of the
Cross.
HOLY-DAYS. See Festivals.
HOLY FIRE. See Fire, Fire (Holy).
HOLY FONT. See Font.
HOLY GHOST, tlie third Person in the blessed
Trinity. He is also termed the Holy Spirit, and
believed by all Trinitarian Christians to be the same
in substance with the Father and the Son, and oqual
to them in power and glory. This was the doctrine
of the primitive Christian church, founded on nu-
merous passages of the Holy Scriptures. Thus we
find the Holy Ghost combined with the Father and
the Son on a distinct footing of equality, or rather
identity in the baptismal formula. Matt, xxviii. 19,
" Go ye therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing
them ill the name of the Father, and of the Son, and
of the Holy Ghost." And again, the name Holy
Ghost is interchanged witli that of God in Acts v.
3, 4, " But Peter said, Ananias, why hath Satan filled
thine heart to lie to the Holy Ghost, and to keep
back part of the price of the land ? Whiles it re-
mained, was it not thine own ? and after it was sold,
was it not in thine owii power ? why hast thou con-
ceived this thing in thine heart ? thou hast not Ued
unto men, but unto God." Not only is the Holy
Ghost thus termed God, but the Divine attributes
are ascribed to him in various passages. Thus He
is said to be omniscient, 1 Cor. ii. 10, 11. Omni-
potent, Luke i. 35, where lie is termed " the Power
of the Highest;" Eternal, Heb. ix. 14. The works
of God are ascribed also to the Holy Ghost ; for
example, creation. Gen. ii. 2; .Tob xxvi. 13; Ps
civ. 30. The Holy Ghost is joined with the Fa-
ther and the Son in the apostolic blessing pro-
nounced upon the Corinthian church, 2 Cor. xiii.
14, ''The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, and tlie
love of God, and the communion of the Holy
Ghost, be with you all. Amen." He is stated also
to be the author of all those extraordinary gifts
which were communicated to the Church of Christ
in the earliest period of her history, and to impart to
the souls of men in all ages those regenerating and
sanctifying influences which can alone fit them for
serving God on earth, and enjoying him in heaven.
From considerations such as these, the Holy Ghost
is concluded to be a Divine Person, equal to the
Father and the Son.
In the fourth century, when the church was agi-
tated with the Arian controversy, various difl'erent opi-
nions began to be expressed in regard to the nature
and constitution of the Holy Ghost. The council
of Nice, A. D. .32 n, had been silent on the subject.
Lacfantius, while he separated the Son from the
Father after the manner of the Arians, confounded
the IIolv Spirit with the Son, as the Sabellians did.
Some writers followed his examph', while others as-
cribed a distinct pcrpon.ality to the Spirit, but asserted
that he was subordinale to both the Father and the
Son. The most prominent individual, however, in
the fourth century, who denied the divinity of the
Holy Spirit, was the Semi- Arian Macedonius, bishop
of Constantinople, who is said to have reasoned
thus : " The Holy Spirit is either begotten or not
begotten ; if the latter, we have two u.ncreated be-
ings, the Father and the Spirit ; if begotten, he must
be begotten either of the Father or of tlie Son ; if
of the Father, it follows that there are two Sons in
the Trinity, and hence brothers ; but if of the Son,
we have a grandson of God." In ojiposition to this
reasoning, Gregory of Nazianzum simply remarked,
that not the idea of generation, but tliat of proces-
sion is to be applied to the Holy Spirit, according to
John XV. 26, and that the procession of the Spirit
is quite as incomprehensible as the generation of the
Son.
The rise of the Macedonian heresy occasioned con-
siderable discussion, and at length the general council
of Constantinople, A. D. 381. influenced chiefly by
Gregory of Nazianzum, decided the point as to the
nature of the Spirit, not by applying the term Ho-
motisios, of the same substance, to the Spirit, as the
Nicene council had done in the case of the contro-
versy as to the nature of the Son, but simply by
detennining that he proceeded from tlie Father. It
C2
HOLY ROOD DAV— HOMA.
woiiUi appear that wlieii tlie Nicene-Coiistantiiiopo-
litan cret'il was furiueil, tlie most coiilIictiiiL; opinions
were held by differont divines, tlius clearly calling
for a definite deliverance of the church upon the
subject. Gregory of Xazianzum gives a summary of
the chief opinions in regard to the Holy Spirit at
the time when the council of Constantinople was
held : " Some of the wise men amongst us regard
the Holy Spirit as an energy, others think that he
is a creature, some again tliat he is God himself, and,
lastly, there are some who do not know what opinion
to adopt, from reverence, as they say, for the Sacred
Scriptures, because they do not teach anything de
finite on this point. Eustathius of Sebaste belonged
to this latter class. Eusebius of C;esarea was the
more willing to subordinate the Spirit to both the
Father and the Son, tlie more he was disposed to ad-
mit the subordination of the Son to the Father. lie
thinks that the Spirit is the first of all rational be-
ings, but belongs nevertheless to the Trinity. Hilary
was satisfied that that, which searcheth the deep
things of God, must be itself divine, though he could
not find any passage in Scripture in which the name
' GocV was given to the Holy Spirit. He also ad-
vises us not to be perplexed by the language of
Scripture, in which both the Father and the Son are
sometimes called Spirit. Cyrill of Jerusalem, too,
endeavours to confine himself to the use of scrip-
tural definitions on the nature of the Holy Spirit,
though he distinctly separates him from all created
beings, and regards him as an es.=cntial part of the
Trinity." Basil, surnamed the Great, also, at the
same period, published a treatise expressly on the
subject of the Holy Spirit, in which he maintained
that the name God sliould be given to the Holy
Spirit, and appealed, in sujiport of tliis view, both
to Scri]iture m general, and to the baptismal formula
in particular. Witliout, however, laying much stress
upon the n.-mie itself, he simply demanded tliat the
Spirit, so far from being regarded as a creature,
should be considered as inseparable from both the
Father and the Son.
In so far as the particular heresy of Macedonius
was concerned, the canons of the council of Constan-
tinople were iiuite .satisfactory. " The relation,"
says Hagenbach, in his 'History of Doctrines,' " of
the Spirit to the Trinity in general had been deter-
mined, but the particular relation in which he stands
to the Son and the Father separately, remained yet
to be decided. Inasmuch as the formula declared,
that the Spirit proceeds from the Father, without
making any distinct mention of the Son, room was
left for doubt, whether it denied the proce.'^sion of
the Spirit from the latter, or not. On the one hand,
the assertion that the Sjiirit proceeds onhj from the
Father, and not from the Son, seemed to fiivoiu- the
notion, tliat the Son is subordinate to the Father ;
on the other, to maintain that he proceeds from both
the Father and the Son, would be placing the Spirit
in a still greater dependence (viz. on two persons in-
stead of one). Thus the desire fully to establish the
Divinity of the Son, would easily detract from the
Divine nature of the Spirit ; the wish, on the con-
trary, to prove the self-existence and independence
of the Spirit, would tend to throw the importance of
the Son into the shade. The Greek fathers, Atha-
nasius, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, and
others, asserted the proces.sion of the Spirit from the
Father, without distinctly denying that he also pro-
ceeds from the Son. Epiphanius, on the other hand,
ascribed the origin of the Spirit to both the Father
and the Son, with whom Marcellus of Ancyra agreed.
But Theodore of Mopsuestia and Theodoret would
not ill any way admit that the Spirit owes his ex-
istence to the Son, and defended their opinion in
opposition to Cyrill of Alexandria. The Latin fa-
thers, on the contrary, and Augustine in particular,
taught the procession of the Spirit from botli the
Father and the Son. This doctrine was so firmly
established in the West, that at the third synod of
Toledo (A. D. 589) the clause flioque was added to
the confession of faith adopted by the council of Con-
stantinople, which afterwards led to the disruption
between the Eastern and Western church."
The addition made by the Spanish church to
the Nicene-Constantinopolitan creed, was afterwards
adopted by the churches of France and Gennany.
Tlie Eastern or Greek church refused to recognize
the change, as, in their view, unwarranted and here-
tical (see Filioque), and to this day, the que.stion
as to the single or double procession of the Holy
Ghost is one of the main grounds of difference be-
tween the Greek church and the churches of the
West. See Procession (Double) of the Holy
Ghost.
HOLY HANDKERCHIEF. See Handerchicf
(Holy).
"HOLY, HOLY, HOLY." See Cherubical
Hymn.
HOLY MORTAR. See Mortar (Holy).
HOLY OIL. See Anotnting Oil.
HOLY PLACE. See Tabernacle, Temple.
HOLY OF HOLIES. See Tabernacle, Tem-
ple.
HOLY ROOD DAY, a festival celebrated on the
3d of May in commemoration of the Empress He-
lena, the mother of Constantine, having discovered
what was believed to be the true cross. This festi-
val was instituted in the sixth century by Pope Gre-
gory the Great.
HOLY SCRIPTURES. See Bible.
HOLY SYNOD. See Synod (Holy).
HOLY TABLE. See Communion Table.
HOLY THURSDAY. See Maundy Thurs-
day.
HOLY WARS. See Crusades.
HOLY WA'^ER, See Water (Holy).
HOLY WEEK. See Passion Week.
IIOMA, a sacrifice to fire among the Hindus
which the Brahnians alone have the privilege of per
HOMAGYRIUS— HONEY.
63
forming. It is simply a fire kindled with a kind of
consecrated wood, into tlie tlanies of which they cast
a little boiled rice sprinkled with melted butter.
This sacrifice is performed by the father of the no-
vice at the initiation of a Brahman. When the fire
has been consecrated, it is carried into a particular
apartment of tlie house, where it is kept up day and
night with great care, until the ceremony is ended.
It would be considered a very inauspicious event if
for want of attention, or by any accident, it should
happen to go out.
HOMAGYRIUS, a surname of Zeus among ihe
ancient Greeks, under which he was worshipped at
jEgium, on the north-west coast of the Peloponne.sus,
where Agamemnon is said to have assembled the
Greek chiefs for the pui-pose of deliberating about
the Trojan war. It was under this name also that
Zeus was worshipped as patronising the Aohsean
league.
HOMILIARIUM OP CHARLEMAGNE, a
selection of sermons made by order of Charlemagne
in the eighth centuiy, in order to assist those clergy-
men, and they were numerous at that period, who
were tumble to compose their own sermons. At an
earlier period, there had been prepared for this pur-
pose selections from the discourses of the Fathers,
and which the clergy were permitted to read in their
churches. But these selections having been greatly
corrupted through the ignorance of the age, the
Emperor Cliarles directed an improved collection to
be made by one of his clergy, Paul Warnefrid or
Paulus Diaconus of the abbey of Montecassino.
Thus by means of this Homiliarium, the sermons
preached on Sundays and festival days were collected
and arranged, and the order of Ijiblical texts being
observed which had been gi-adually formed in the
Roman church from the time of Gregory the Great,
that order came more generally into use, and a
greater degree of uniformity in this respect was in-
troduced. To extend the usefulness of the Homilia-
rium, several councils ordered its translation into
different languages. The example of Charlemagne
was speedily followed, and several Homiliaria ap-
peared in the eighth and ninth centuries, all of them,
however, in the Latin language. Ottfrid of Weis-
senburg appears to have been the first who composed
a Homiliarium in the German language.
HOMILIES (Gr. HomiUai, discourses), the name
given in the ancient Christian church to the Ser-
mons (which see), or discourses which were delivered
on the Lord's Day, and on festivals, for the instruc-
tion and edification of the people. All the homilies
which have been preserved both by the Greek and
Latin Fathers were composed by bishops.
HOMILIES (Book op), plain discourses drawn up
at the Reformation, to be used in the churches in
England " on any Sunday or holy-day when there is
no sermon." The first book, which appeared in the
reign of Edward the Sixth, is attributed chiefly to
Archbishop Cranmer, aided, as is generally supposed,
by Ridley and Latimer. The second book appeared
in 1502 ui the reign of Elizabeth. It is difficult, if
not impossible, to ascertain precisely the authors of
the discourses in either Book, and many members ot
the Church of England disapprove of some of the
doctrines which they inculcate, such as the sacra-
mental character of marriage, baptismal regeneration,
and the real presence in the eucliarist.
HOMINICOLtE (Lat. man-worshippers), a term
of reproach applied by the Apollinarians (which
see), and others to those who worshipped the God-
man Christ Jesus.
HOMMES D'INTELLIGENCE (Fr. men of
understanding), a sect which appeared in the Ne-
therlands in the fifteenth century, headed by William
of Ilildesheim or Ilildenissen, a Carmelite friar.
They are thought by Jlosheim to have been a branch
of the Brethren of the Free Spirit (which
see) ; for they asserted that a new law of the Holy
Spirit and spiritual liberty was about to be an-
nounced. Tliey taught various doctrines which
tended no doubt to prepare the way for the Reforma-
tion. Tlius they preached justification through the
merits of Christ without the deeds of the law. They
rejected priestly absolution, maintaining that Christ
alone can forgive sins. They held that voluntary
penances are not necessary to salvation, but true re-
jientance and a change of heart. Along with the
Brethren of the Free Sjiirit, they appear to have be-
lieved that the period of the old law was the time of
the Father, the period of the new law the time of the
Son, and the remaining period that of the Holy
Ghost or Elias.
IIOMOIOUSIANS (Gr. homoios, similar, and ou-
sia, substance or essence), a name sometimes applied
to the high Akians (which see), on account of the
opinion which they held in regard to the Person of
the Son, maintaining that he was not of the same
but of siinilar substance with the Father.
HOMOOUSIANS (Gr. homos, together, and o«-
sia, substance or essence), a name given to the or-
thodox or Athanasians (which see), in the fourth
century, because they held the Son to be of the same
substance or consubstantial with the Father.
HOMUNCIONITES. See Photinians.
HONEY. The Jews were forbidden in Lev. ii.
11, to mingle honey in any bunit-ofi'ering made by
fire ; at the same time they were commanded to
present the first-fruits of tlieir honey, these being
intended for the support of the priests, and not to
be used in sacrifices. The Jewish doctors allege
that the honey here referred to was not that which
is produced by bees, but a sweet syrup procured
from ripe dates. The reason why it was fordidden
as an ingredient of the Jewish sacrifices is probably
to be found in the circumstance that it was so used by
the heathen. It was much employed in the prepara-
tion of ordinary beverages, both among the Greeks
and Romans, and it also fonned an ingredient in sa-
crifices to many of their gods, besides constituting
64
lIONOll— HOPKINSIANS.
an inipurtiuit part in olVcriiigs to tlie dead. At tliis
day the Kiissians place near the grave a dish into
wliicli honey enters as an ingredient, and the Ej^ilio-
nians a clay vessel full of honeyed drink. Herodutiis
mentions it in describing the sacrifice of !Ui ox to the
Egyptian goddess Ism.
Among the early Christians, it was cnstomaiy to
give to the newly Imptized a small portion of milk
and honey, to signity, as Jerome and Tertaliian al-
lege, that they were now as children adopted ii o
God's family. From the third council of Carthage
it appears tliiif this milk and iioney had a pecidiar
consecration distinct from the eiicharist. It is said
in the canons of that council to be oflered at the
altar on a most solenm day, and there to have its pro-
per benediction for the mystery of infants, that is for
llie hajrtized, who are considered to be new-born
babes, in a spiritual sense.
HONOR, a personilicatiuu of Honour, which was
worshipped at Kome, having a temple detlicitcd to
him outside the Colline gate. C;uus Jlarius built a
temple to this deity after his victory over the Cim-
bri and Teutones. Those who sacriticed to Iliyiwr
required to have their heads imcovered.
HOXORIXUS, the name by which Augustin de-
scribes the Roman god Himor (see preceding article).
HONOR CATHEDRA, an expression used in
Spain in the sixth century, to denote the honorary
acknowledgment which tlie bishops received in their
parochial visitations.
HOOD, an ornamental fold that hangs down the
back of a graduate in England to njark his degree.
Formerly (he dili'erent degrees were known in the
universities by the colour and materials of tlie
hood. V>y the canons of tlie Church of England, all
ministers saying the public prayers, or ministering
the sacraments, or other rites of the church, if they
ai-e graduates, shall wear upon their surplices at such
times such hoods as by the orders of the universities
are agreeable to their degrees.
norivINSIAXS, or HopKiNSiAN Calvintsts,
the follou-crs of the Rev. Samuel Hopkins, a North
American divine, who was pastor of the first Congre-
gational Church at Newport, Rhode Island, about
A. D. 1770. Being a man of a somewhat metaphy-
sical turn of mind, he was particularly partial to the
writings of I'resident Edwards, but instead of follow-
ing closely in the steps of that eminent philosophical
tlicologiiui, Dr. Hopkins struck out in some, respects
a jiath of his own, and in his ' System of Divinity,'
which was published at I'.oston, New England, a
short time after liis death, has given forth sentiments
on the most important points of Clirislian doctrine,
at variance not only with the views of Edwards, but
of orthodox divines in general. The peculiar opi-
nions of Hopkins, liowever, have found considcralile
favour with some Christians, who, though not form-
ing a sejiarate sect or denomination, are called from
their leader Hopldimum, though they them.selves
prefer to be called Ilophiiman Cakiimts,
At the foundation of this system of theology lies
the notion that all virtue or true holiness consists in
disinterested benevolence, and all sin in interested
selfishness, the latter principle being in its wliole
natiu-e,' and in every degree of it, enmity against
God, the enthroning of the creature, and the de-
throning of the Creator. The distinction is not
sufiiciently kept in view in the writings of Hop-
kins between legitimate self-love, and illegitimate
seljiishness. The former is an inherent part of our
moral constitution, and its exercise is both lawful
and necessaiy ; the latter is the offspring of the
fall, and in its very nature vicious and sinful. But
the very existence of self-love as a part of our
moral constitution, and the Divine sanction given to
it in the command, " Thou shalt love thy neighbour
(IS thyself," shows plainly that disinterested benevo-
lence cannot be of the essence of human virtue. The
goodness vvliich the Bible commands, in so far at least
as regards the second table of the law, consists not
in total self-forgetfulness or self-extinction, but in a
beautiful equipoise of love to self and to our neigh-
boiu-. Neither, in so far as the first table of the
law is concerned, can disinterested benevolence be
said to be of the essence of human virtue, seeing the
whole Christian scheme revealed to us in the Word
of God, is so constructed as to establish the great
moral principle arising out of the whole, " We love
Him, because he first loved us." The fundamental
principle then of ilopkinsianisni as a moral system is
obviously fallacious.
In this theological system, the distinction on which
Edwards so much insists between natural and moral
inability is firmly maintained, and it is clearly pointed
out, that the inability of man to believe in Christ is
wholly of a moral character, as Chi-ist himself says
to the Jews, "Ye will not come to me that ye might
have life." Unbelief, therefore, is not an infirmity,
but a crime. In this point the Ilopkiiisians are cor-
rect. But whenever their favourite notion of disin-
terested benevolence is introduced, their views be-
come erroneous. Thus they allege that, in order to
faith in Christ, a sinner must approve in his heart of
the divine conduct, even though God should cast him
oft' for ever. Now it is inidoubtediy true that con-
viction of sin, or a deep heartfelt consciousness of
guilt and demerit, precedes conversion, but while
we judge oiu'selves to be righteously condemned
sinners, we are not called upon to pronounce judg-
ment upon the divine conduct in a hypothetical
case. Our own sinfulness, and our own need of a
Saviour, are at that important stage of oiu' spiritual
history the chief objects of our concern. The llop-
kinsians arc thoroughly Siijrrohipsuriaiis in their Cal-
\inism, for they belie\e that God has predestinated
the full and all its consequences, and that he designed
the introduction of sin to ojierate for the production of
the general good. They allege also that repentance
is necessarily prior in jioint of time to the exercise
of faith in Christ — a point which is cjf little iin-
HORiE-HORSE-SACRinCE.
portaiice, as the two graces of faith and repentaiioe
are so closely and intimately connected, that it is
difficult to assert priority in regard to either the one
or the other. But the gi-eat theological distinction
of the Hoplcinsian system is a denial of the doctrine
of imputation, whether of Adam's guilt on the one
hand, or of Christ's righteousness on the other. This
pecidiarity lias been extensively embraced both in
Britain and America, not so much from the difTnsion
of the writings of Hopkins, as from the wide circula-
tion which Dr. Dwight's System of Theology has
obtained on both sides of the Atlantic — a work
which, amid all its excellencies, is pervaded by
this one error. Both sin and rigliteousness, it is
alleged by those who deny imputation, are strictly
personal in their nature, and cannot possibly be
transferred from one person to another. But the
fallacy of this objection consists in confounding two
things which are essentially distinct, the actual and
the kgal. It is nowhere alleged that Adam's poster-
ity liave become adualhj guilty of Adam's personal
sin, but it is alleged that in consequence of their
federal connection with their first father they have
become legally, or in the eye of law chargeable with,
or rather involved in, his guilt. In the same way it
is nowhere alleged that tlie righteousness of Christ
is actually conveyed over to believers, but it is as-
serted that his righteousness is legally, or in the eye
of law imputed to them, or put down to their ac-
coimt. Imputation then is not an actual but a legal
transference. The term is strictly forensic, and the
principle which it involves is familiarly known to us
in the transactions of every day life. Let but a royal
ambassador be insulted at a foreign court, and the
whole nation whence the insult has proceeded will be
made to suffer for it. How often do we fnid the
debts of one man put down to tlie account of another,
who may happen to be his surety? And the same
principle is often seen at work in the providential
dealings of God. Thus in a thousand instances the
cliild sufl'ers for the vices of his parent, and the wife
for those of her husband, and even a whole people
for the crimes of their rulers. After all, the distinc-
tion wliicli the Hopkinsian draws is nominal rather
tli;in real. We are become sinners by Adam's sin,
nut fur it ; we become righteous by or through
Christ's righteousness, but not for it. The residt is
the same on either supposition ; the controversy is
as to the mode in which the result has been pro-
duced.
In regard to the doctrines of grace and the divine
decrees, the nopkinxians are high Calvinists. They
believe both in particular election and in reprobation ;
they hold the total depravity of human iiatin-e ; they
contend for the special influences of the Spirit of
God in regeneration, justification by faith alone, the
tinal perseverance of the saints, and the complete
consistency between free agency and absolute de-
pendence on the grace of God.
The Hopkinsian controversy is but little known
in Britain, but in the United Slates of America it
was some years ago warm and protracted, giving rise
to a number of publications on both sides, marked
by considerable ability and polemic power.
HORjE, the goddesses of the seasons among the
ancient Greeks, and the servants of Zeus in convey-
ing benefits to men. Two of them were worshipped
at Athens from a remote period, one of them, Thallo,
presiding over spring, and the other, Carpo, presiding
over autumn. They are often combined with the
Charites. They were worshipped not only at Athens,
but also at Argos, Corinth, and Olympia. Hesiod
makes them three in inimber, Euuoinla, Dice, and
Eirene, and calls them the daughters of Zeus and
Themis, who, ui accordance with their respective
names, give to a commonwealth good laws, justice,
and peace.
HORCUS (Gr. an oath), the personification of an
oath among the ancient Greeks. He is mentioned
by Hesiod as the son of Eiis, and ready at all times
to punish perjury.
HORDICALIA, or I1ordicii>ia, an ancient Ro-
man festival, celebrated on the 15th of April in I
honour of the goddess Tellus. Thirty cows with ! !
calf were sacrificed on the occasion, part of them in ! !
the temples of Jupiter.
HORME, the personification of energy among the
ancient Greeks. She had an altar dedicated to her
at Athens.
HORNS. The principal instruments of defence
in many animals being in their bonis, it often hap-
pens that the horn is used as a symbol of power,
Thus in the Old Testament we find such expressions
as the Lord exalting the horn of David, and break-
ing the horn of the ungodly. It is said, Psal. xviii.
2, " The horn of my salvation," that is, my Saviour
and defence. Horns are also used in Scripture as the
symbols of royal dignity and authority. Thus Jer.
xlviii. 25, "The horn of Moab is cut oft';" and in
Zecli. i. 18, the four horns are four great monarchies.
" The ten horns," says Daniel, "are ten kings." In
Judea, in Persia, in China, and even, according to
Schoolcraft, among the Red Indians of North Amer-
ica, horns have been used as a symbol of power.
The pictures and statues of the gods of heathen an-
tiquity were often adorned with horns. Tlie Greeks,
Porphyry tells us, fixed the horns of a ram to the
image of Jupiter, and those of a bull to that of Bac-
chus. The same ornament is found according to
Spanheim, on medals of Jupiter Amnion, Bacchus,
I sis, and Serapis. Clemens Alexandrinus alleges
that Alexander the Great wore horns in token of his
di\ine extraction. Accordingly, he is called in the
Koran the two-horned, as the famous era of the
Seleucidpe is called the era of the two-horned.
HOROLOGIUM, the name given to a collection
of prayers used in the Greek ehiu'ch, corresponding
nearly to the Hmirs of the Romish Church.
HORSE-SACRIFICE. At a very ancient penod
this rite appears to have been practised in some coun-
66
HORSE-SACRIFICE.
tries. Tlius tlie Massagetip, a great and powerful na-
tion, whose temtorics extended beyond tlie Araxes to
,he extreme parts of tlie East, are said by Herodotus
to have sacritieed horses to the Sun, deeming it most
proper to offer the swiftest of all animals to the
swiftest of the gods. Larclier, in referenee to this
species of sacrifice, remarks, " This was a very an-
cient custom ; it was practised in Persia in the time
of Cvrus, and was probably anterior to that prince.
Horses were sacrificed to Neptune and the deities
of the rivers, being precipitated into the sea or into
the rivers. Sextiis Pompeius threw into the sea
h(n-ses and live oxen in honour of Neptime, whose
son he professed to be." Hence we find the surname
applied to Neptune of Hqijdus, from the Greek word
hippos, a horse. Among the Lacedemonians, a horse
was sacrificed to the winds, which by their force car-
ried the ashes of the victim to a distance. Nay,
from its swiftness the horse is sometimes used as the
emblem of the winds. Thus in the Scandinavian
mythology, Sleijmir, the horse of Odin, has eight
legs, probably to indicate the extreme rapidity of
the winds. In the Rig- Veda, the car of the winds
is represented as being drawn by reddish and yellow
horses.
But in the different systems of heathen mythology,
both ancient and modern, horses are often introduced
in connection with the Sun, the great khig of day,
who starts from the East, and with great rapidity-
traverses the heavens until he finds his resting place
iu the West. In Persia, white horses were conse-
crated and sacrificed to the Sun. In Thrace, the
man-eating horses of Diomede show that the god of
the country was the Sun, and that they offered him
human victims. The Romans also sacrificed a horse
to Mars with peculiar ceremonies. Apollo the Sun-
god had his four-wheeled chariot drawn by swift-fly-
ing steeds. The Greeks ga\'e several of their gods
cars supplied with splendid horses. The Scandina-
vians and the Germans attributed a prophetic virtue
to horses, especially those of Freyr, the god of day.
The Sclavonians reared sacred horses, some of them
white, others black. Among the ancient Romans a
horse was sacrificed annually to Mars, in the Campus
iMartius at Rome, ui the month of October. On that
occasion the blood which dropped from the tail of
the October horse, as it was called, was carefully
preserved by the Vestal virgins in the temple of
Vesta, for the purpose of being used at the Palilin
or shepherd -festival, which was annually celebrated
at Rome in the month of April, when the blood was
burned along with other articles to produce a purify-
ing smoke.
The horse is not unfre(piently mentioned in
heathen mythology in connection with water, pro-
bably on account of its rapidity. In the Zaid-
Avesta, the water Ardonissour, which gushes forth
from Albordj, the sacred mountain, is represented
under the fonn of a young girl with the body of a
horse. The Rig- Veda makes the Sun which dries
the earth struggle against Etusa, the horse, or tlie
water, and in the Zend-Avesta, Taschter the genius
of rain fights under the figure of a horse against
Epeoscho the genius of dryness.
In the Rig- Veda, are two hymns in honour of the
horse sacrifice, called Aswamedlm : " The horse,"
says Mrs. Speir, " is a mystical horse, ' sprung from
the Gods,' 'fabricated from the sun.' The actmd
sacrifice was probably a custom belonging to the
Hindus' earlier home in Northem Asia, where the
Scythians and Massagetie are known to have offered
horses to the sun ; and later, when treated as an
emblematic ceremony, the mythical horse typified
the Sun, and the Sun typified the universal soul.
The hjnnns describe the horse as ' bathed and deco-
rated with rich trappings, the variously-coloured
goat going before him.' Three times he is led round
the sacrificial fire; he is bound to a post and immo-
lated by an axe, and the flesh is roasted on a spit,
boiled, made into balls and eaten, and finally —
' The horse proceeds to that assembly which is most
excellent ;
To the presence of his father and his mother (hea-
ven and earth).
Go horse to-day rejoicing to the Gods, that (the
sacrifice) may yield blessings to the donor.'
" This ceremony was afterwards performed nyni
bolically, and is alluded to in Upanishads and Brali-
manas (which are treatises attached to the Vedas,)
as a ceremony of peculiar solemnity and deep signifi
cance, and one which is supposed to procure univer-
sal dominion. In the very much later writings called
I'uranas the rite is altogether travestied : a mortal
rajah there performs the sacrifice in order to de-
throne the God Indra ; and it is upon this version of
the story, that Southey constructed his ' Curse of
Kehama,' — correctly enough. Professor Wilson ob-
serves, according to the authorities which he followed,
' but the main object of the ceremony, the deposal of
Indra from the throne of Sirarrju and the elevation
of the Sacrificer after a hundred celebrations to that
rank, are fictions of a later date, uncountenanced by
the Veda.' "
The horse sacrifice at this day is one of the great
annual ceremonies of the Hindns. It is thus de-
scribed : " The animal must be of one colour, if pos-
sible white, of good signs, young and well formed.
The sacrificer must touch, on an aus{)icious day, the
head of the horse with clay from the Gsmges, with
sandal-wood, a pebble, rice not cleansed from the
husk, leaves of diirva grass, flowers, fruits, curds, a
shell, a lamp, a mirror, silver and gold, repeating the
necessary formula. Having first been bathed with
water, in which had been immersed a ball composed
of the bark of different trees and various kinds of
spices, the horse is next superbly caparisoned. Tlien
the god Indra is invoked by a number of prayers to
come and preserve the horse, wliich is about to be
set at liberty. After this a small piece of paper is
HORTA— HOSPITIUM.
67
fastened on the forehead of the horse, inscribed with
the following words: 'I liberate this horse, having
devoted it to be sacrificed. Whoever has strength
to detain it, let him detain it. I will come and de-
liver it. They who are unable to detain it, will let
it go, and must come to the sacrifice, bringing tri-
bute.' These ceremonies being concluded, the horse
is let loose, and runs at liberty for a whole year,
during wliich whole time, however, he is constantly
followed by servants belonging to the sacriticer. The
year being expired, he is caught and bonnd. A
proper place for the saciitice having been selected
and walled roimd with bricks, a roof is raised on
pillars, under which is erected an altar of eartli. At
the eastern extremity of the altar a small terrace of
sand is raised for receiving the tire ; and from the
roof is suspended a canopy, with elegant curtains on
all sides. On the pillars of the altar jue suspended
branches of the mango-tree, bells, garlands of Howers,
with chdmaras, or tails of the cow of Tartary. The
sacriticer, accompanied by a number of persons en-
gaged to ofticiate at the rites, then enters, while por-
tions of the Sama-Veda are recited. Twenty-one
posts, to one of which the horse is fastened, are then
fixed in the earth, adorned with garlands, and having
thirty inferior victims tied to them. These are
purified by aspersions of holy water, and numerous
incantations. A silver image of Garuda, with six-
teen golden bricks, is then bonie in, and the sacri-
ticer and his wife wash the feet of the horse, and
caparison him anew. The fire is blown with a fan
of deer's skin. The holy water is contained in a tig-
tree bowl. There is likewise provided an earthen
vessel of water, with the image of a man painted on
it, which is covered with branches, fruit, and flowers,
and ornamented with gold, silver, pearls, and other
gems. The horse is then slain, and his flesh, cut
into small pieces, is cast into the fire, while the
sacriticer and his wife sit upon the altar and receive
the fumes. After this the other victims are slain,
amidst the chaunting of repeated incantations. The
gods to wliom these sacrifices are ofiered are Brahma,
Vishnu, Siva, and the ten guardian deities of the
earth."
HORSES (Blessing of). See Anthony's (St.)
Day.
HORTA, a name sometimes given to Angerona
(which see).
HORUS, the ancient Egyptian god of the sun. He
was the son of Osiris and Isis, and the symbol under
which he was represented was with the head of the
sacred hawk. He is thought to have been the same
as Aroueris. His worship extended from Egypt to
Greece, and even to Rome, though under a some-
what modified fonn. In the astronomical view of
the Egyptian mythologv', he was Osiris in the sign
of Leo. He was identified with the Greek Apollo,
so early as the time of Herodotus, and in some
respects with the Egyjitian god of silence, Harpo-
crates, being born like him with his finger on his
mouth, indicative of mysterious secrecy and si
lence.
HOSANNA, a form of blb«sing used by the
Jews at the feast of tabernacles. In the course of
that ancient festival they carried branches of palm-
trees, olives, citrons, myrtles, and willows, singing
all the while Hosanna, " Give salvation," or " Save
I beseech thee," meaning thereby to pray for
the coming of the Messiah. Tlie branches which
they carried were called Hosanna,- as well as all the
days of the feast. During the continuance of the
feast, which in ancient times lasted for seven days,
the Jews walked in [irocession round the altar with
branches in their hands, amid the sound of trumpets,
singing Hosanna; and on the last day of the feast,
which was called the Great Hosanna, they marched
round the altar seven times. Among the modern
Jews, the feast of tabernacles is made to extend to
nine days. The seventh day is called Hosanna
Rabha, that is, " assist with great succour," being a
solemn acclamation used in the prayers of this day.
The Christian church, both ancient and modern,
ascribe to the word Hosanna a signification some-
what similar to that of Hallelujah (which see).
Eusebius gives the first instance on record of its use,
where, at the death of a certain martyr, the multitude
are said to have shouted, " Hosanna to the Son of
David." The use of it is prescribed in religious
worship in the Apostolical Constitutions, in connec-
tion with a doxology to Christ. It occurs also m the
liturgy of Chrysosfom. By the ancients it was uni-
formly regarded as a doxology. Jerome speaks of a
custom which existed in his time, and which he
strongly condemns, that of the people singing hosan-
nas to their bishops, as the multitudes did to our
Saviour on his entrance into Jerusalem. The hosan-
na used to the bishops appears to liave been couched
in these words : " Blessed be ye of the Lord, and
blessed be your coming; ho.sinna in the highest."
In the Apostohcal Constitutions, the Hosanna is
appointed to be used after participating in the com-
munion, and the precise form is thus recorded :
" Hosaima to the Son of David. Blessed is he that
Cometh in the name of the Lord : blessed be the
Lord our God who was manifestid to us in the
flesh."
HOSPITALLERS. See Knighthood (Eccle-
siastical Okders of).
HOSPITALS, houses in which the poor are gra-
tuitously accommodated and supported. Such
buildings were often erected in connection with
Christian churches in ancient times ; and it became
an express regulation that a fourth part of the reve-
nues of the church should be set apart for the poor
and sick. Priests and deacons often had the man-
agement of the hospitals, being responsible to the
bishop for the right management of their trust.
HOSPITIUM, a place sometimes attached to
monasteries in former times, with the view of afford-
ing temporary relief to travellers, and in which
68
HOSSETN.
a certain number of the poor were relieved by a
daily alms. It was also called a xrnoilocldain.
HOSSEIN, the second son of AH and Fatima,
and tlie third of the Twelve Imams. He had lieen
bom prcmatnrely. which some of his followers ac-
counted a mii-aclc. He endeavoured to dissuade his
brother Hassan (which see) from resigning the
Caliphate in favour of Mo.iwiyah, but on finding his
remonstrances unavailing, he was one of the first to
declare submission to the new Caliph, not only at-
tending at the court to pay homage, but actually
serving in the Caliph's army when the Saracens first
attacked Constantinople. On the death of i\[oawi-
yah, A. D. 679, his son Yczid succeeded, but Ilossein
was persuaded to contest the Caliphate with him, be-
ing deceived by the promise of powerful support from
the professed adherents of the house of Ali. Over-
powered by numbers, and deserted by many of his
followers, he was in imminent danger of falling into
the hands of his enemy : " That night," says Dr.
Taylor, " Hossein slept soundly, using for a pillow
the pommel of his sword. During his sleep, he
dreamed that Mohammed appeared to him, and pre-
dicted that they should meet tlie next day in Paradise.
When morning dawned, he related the dream to his
sister Zeiuab, who had accompanied him on his fatal
expedition. She burst into a passion of tears, and
e.xclaimed, ' Alas ! alas ! Woe worth the day ! What
a destiny is ours ! !\Iy father is dead ! My mother is
dead I My brother Hassan is dead ! and the measure
of our calamities is not yet full.' Hossein tried to
console her; 'Why should you weep?' he said;
'Did we not come on earth to die? My father was
more worthy than I — my mother was more worthy
than I — my brother was more worthy tlian I. They
are all dead ! Why .should not we be ready to follow
their example?' He then strictly enjoined his fa-
mily to make no lamentation for his approaching
martyrdom ; telling them that a patient submission
to the Divine decrees was the conduct most pleasing
to God and his prophet.
" When morning appeared, Hossein, having washed
and perfumed himself, as if preparing for a banquet,
mounted his steed, and addressed bis followers in
terms of endearing affection that drew tears from the
eyes of the gallant warriors. Then opening the
Kor^n, he read the following verse; '0 God! be
thou my refuge in suffering, and my hope in afflic-
tion.' But the soldiers of Yczid were reluctant to
assail the favourite grandson of the prophet ; they
demanded of their generals to allow him to draw
water from the Euphrates, a permission which would
not have been refused to beasts and infidels. ' Let
us be ciuitious they exclaimed, ' of raising our hands
against him who was carried in the arms of God'.s
apostle ; it would be, in fact, to fight against God
himself.' So strong were their feelings, that thirty
cavaliers deserted to Ilossein, resolved to share with
him the glories of martyrdom.
" Rut Yezid's generals shared not in these senti-
ments, they alTected to regard Hossein as an enemy
of Isldm ; they forced tlieir soldiers forward with
blows, and exclaimed, ' War to those who abandon
the true religion, and separate themselves from the
council of the faithful.' Ho.ssein replied, ' It is you
who have abandoned the true religion, it is you
who have severed yourselves from the assembly of
the faithful. Ah ! when your souls shall be sepa-
rated from your bodies, you will learn, too late,
which party has incurred the penalty of eternal con-
demnation.' Notwithstanding their vast superiority,
the Khaliph's forces hesitated to engage men deter-
mined on death ; they poured in their arrows from a
distance, and soon dismounted the little troop of
Hossein's cavalry.
" When the hour of noon arrived, Ho.ssein solicited
a suspension of arms during the time appointed for
the meridian prayer. This trifiing boon was con-
ceded with difficulty ; the generals of Yezid asking,
' How a wretch like him could venture to address
the Deity?' and adding the vilest reproaches, to
which Hossein made no reply. The Persian tradi-
tions relate a fabulous circumstance, designed to
exalt the character of Hossein, though fiction itself
cannot increase the deep interest of his history.
Tiiey tell us, that whilst he was upon his knees, the
king of the Genii appeared to him, and offered, for
the sake of his father Ali, to disperse his enemies in
a moment. ' No,' replied tlie generous Hossein,
' what use is there in fighting any longer? I am but
a guest of one breath in this transitory world; my
relatives and companions are all gone, and what will
it profit me to remain behind ; I long for nothing,
now, save my martyrdom ; therefore, depart thou,
and may the Lord recompense and bless thee.' The
Ginn was so deeply affected by the reply, that his
soul exhibited human weakness, and he departed
weeping and lamenting.
" When the hour of prayer was passed, the com-
bat was renewed; Hossein soon found himself alone;
one of his sons, six of his brethren, and several of
his nephews, lay dead around him ; the rest of his
followers were either killed or grievously wounded.
Hitherto he had escaped unhurt, for every one
dreaded to raise a hand against the grandson of Mo-
hammed ; at length a soldier, more daring than the
rest, gave him a severe wound in the head ; faint
with the loss of blood, he staggered to the door of his
tent, and with a bnr.st of parental afiection, which at
such a moment must have been mingled with unspeak-
able bitterness, took up his infant child and began to
caress it. Whilst the babe was lisping out an in-
quiry as to the cause of his father's emotion, it w.as
struck dead by an arrow in Hossein's arms. When
the blood of the innocent bubbling over his bosom,
disclosed this new calamity, Hossein cast the body
towards heaven, exclainung, ' 0 Lord ! if thou re-
fusest us thy succour, at least spare those who have
not yet sinned, and tuni thy wrath upon the heads oi
the guilty.'
HOSSEIN'S MARTYRDOM (Anniversaky of).
69
" Parched by a burning thirst, Hossein made a
desperate effort to reach tlie Euphrates ; but when he
stooped to drink, he was struck by an arrow hi the
moutli, and at the same moment one of his nepliews,
who came to embrace him for the last time, had his
hand cut off by the blow of a sabre. Hossein, now
the sole survivor of his party, threw himself into tlie
midst of the enemy, and fell beneath a thousand
weapons. The officers of Yezid barliarously mangled
the corpse of the mifortunate prince ; they cut off
his head, and sent it to the Klialiph."
A splendid mosiiue was erected ON-er the i)laco
where Hossein's body was buried ; and tlie place,
which is named Mesched Hos'-ein, that is, "the place
of Hossein's martyrdom," is a favourite resort of
pilgrims to this day. The Sckiites believe that the
martyr's head, after having wrought several miracles,
left Egypt, .and joined itself to his body at Kerhela,
and one of the days of the Mohiirrum is dedicated
to the commemoration of this event. There is a
curious tradition in reference to Hossein's head,
which may be related : "When Hossein's head was
sent to be presented to Yezid, the escort that guarded
it, halting for the niffht in the city of Mosul, placed
it in a box, whidi they locked up in a temple. One
of the sentinels, in the midst of the night, looking
tlirough a chink in one of the doors, saw a man of
immense stature, with a white and venerable Ijcard,
take Hossein's head out of the box, kiss it affection-
ately, and weep over it. Soon after, a crowd of
venerable sages arrived, each of whom kissed the
pallid lips and wept bitteriy. Fearing that these
people might convey the head away, he unlocked
the door and entered. Immediately, one of the
niimber came up, gave him a violent slap on the
face, and said, ' The prophets have come to pay a
morning-visit to the head of the martyr. Whither
dost thou venture so disrespectfully?' — The blow
left a black mark on his cheek. In the morning he
related the circumstances to the commander of the
escort, and showed his cheek, on which the impres-
sion of the hand and lingers was plainly percep-
tible."
Hossein, like his father AU, is said to have been
remarkable for his piety, and his biograpliers actually
affirm that he paid his adorations to the Most High
a thousand times every day.
HOSSEIN'S MARTYRDOM (Anniversary
of), a religious solemnity observed both in Persia
and India with extraordinary splendour. It lasts
for ten days, during which the Scliiites keep up con-
tinual mourning for the martyr's fate, giving them-
selves up to sighs and groans, fastings and tears.
They abstain from sliaving their heads, from bath-
ing, and even from changing their clotlies. The
observances consist of a series of representations of
the successive scenes in the life of Hossein, from
the date of his flight from Medina, onward to his
martyrdom on the plains of Kerbela ; and the exhi-
bition of each day is preceded by the reading in a
plaintive and pathetic tone a portion of the history
of Hossein. The mosques are hung with black, and
tlie pulpits are also covered with cloth ol the same
colour. Parts of the history recited are in verse,
and chanted in most doleful strains. The audience
is soon wrought up to a high pitch of gi'ief, waving
their bodies to and fro, and smiting their breasts, ex-
claiming, "O Ho.ssein!" "Alas, Hossein!" Wan-
dering minstrels go about the streets every day dur-
ing the solemnity, carrying pictures relating to the
martyr's history, and crowds of men, follow in
tlieir train, some representing the soldiers of Hossein
and others his enemies. The two opposing parties
often come into collision, and mock fights ensue
which are occasionally attended with serious conse-
quences. The events of the last or tenth day, com-
prise the circumstances of Hossein's miu'der, which
are acted in the presence of the King of Persia, in
the great square of Ispahan. " I have been pre-
sent," says Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali, in her description
of Mohammedanism in India, " when the effect pro-
duced by tlie superior oratory and gestures of a
Maulvee reading the history of tlie house of Ali has
almost terrified me ; the profound grief evinced in
his tears and groans, being piercing and apparently
sincere. I have even witnessed blood issuing from
the breasts of sturdy men, who beat themselves
simultaneously as they ejaculated the names ' Has-
san!' Hossein!' for ten minutes, and occasionally
for a longer period in that part of the service called
Mortem." Mr. Morier, in his Travels in Persia,
gives the following account of what he witnessed
on the eighth night of the i\Ioluu-rum : " On entering
the room, we found a large assemlily of Persians,
clad in dark-coloured clothes, which, accompanied
witli their black caps, black beards, and their dismal
faces, looked really as if they were ' alilicting their
souls.' We observed that ' no man did put on him
his ornaments,' Exod. xxxiii. 4. They wore neither
their daggers nor any other part of their dress which
they regard as ornamental. A mollah of high con-
sideration sat next to the grand vizier, and kept him
in serious conversation, wdiUe the remaining part of the
company communicated with each other in whispers.
After we had been seated some time, the windows of
the room in which we were seated were thrown open,
and we then discovered a priest, placed on a high
chair, under the covering of a tent, siurounded by a
crowd of the populace, the whole place being lighted
up with candles. He commenced with an exordium,
in which he remuided them of the great value of
each tear shed for the sake of the Iniaiun Hossein,
which would be an atonement for a past life of
wickedness ; and also informed them, with much so-
lemnity, that ' whatsoever soul it be that shall not be
afflicted m that same day, he shall be cut oft' from
among the people,' Lev. xxiii. 29. He then began
to read from a book, with a sort of nasal chiint, that
(lait of the tragic history of Hossein appointed for
the day, which soon produced its effect upon his au-
10
HOST— HOST (Adoration of the).
dieiice, for he liad scarcely turned over tlu-ee leaves,
before the grand vizier began sliaking his liead to
and fro. and uttering in a most piteous voice, the
usual Persian exclamation of grief, ' Wahi! wahl!
irahi!' both of whicli acts were followed, in a more
or less violent manner, by the rest of the audience.
"The chanting of the i)riest lasted nearly an hour,
and some parts of the story were indeed pathetic,
and well calculated to rouse the feeUngs of a super-
stitious and lively people. In one part of it all tlie
people stood up; and I observed that the grand
vizier turned himself towards the wall, witli liis hand
extended before him, and prayed. After tlie priest
had finished, a company of actors appeared, some
dressed as women, who chanted forth their parts
from slips of paper, in a sort of recitative, that was
not impleasing even to our ears. In the very tragi-
csd parts inost of the audience appeared to weep very
unaflectedly ; and as I sat near the grand vizier and
his neiglibour the priest, I was witness to many real
tears that fell from tliem. In some of these moum-
fid assemblies, it is the custom for a priest to go
about to each person, in the height of his grief, with
a piece of cotton in his liand, with which he care-
fully collects the falling tears, and then squeezes it
into a bottle, preserving tliem with the greatest cau-
tion. Tliis practice illustrates tliat passage in Psalm
Ivi. 8, 'Put thou my tears into thy bottle.' Some
Persians believe that in the agony of death, when all
medicines have failed, a drop of the tears so collect-
ed, put into the mouth of a dying man, has been
known to revive him. It is for tins use tliey are
collected."
HOST, a term applied by Romanists to the eu-
charistic wafer after it has been consecrated liy tlie
))riest. The word is evidently derived from the La-
tin word hostia, a sacrilicial victim, under the idea
that the Mass (which see), is a sacrifice in whicli
the real body, soul, and divinity of the Lord Jesus
Christ is offered up to God. The host is composed
of meal and water, which is baked into small circular
cakes like wafers. See Bread (Euciiartstic).
It is offered daily in the itiass, as a sacrifice for
the sins of mankind. The consecrated wafer or
host is kept in a small tabernacle called C1BORIU.M
(which see), or Pyx. Tlie practice which is followed
in the Greek and Roman churches of elevating the
host immediately after consecration, does not appear
to have existed before the eiglith century. Ger-
maniis, bishop of Constantinople, wlio lived about
A. D. 715, is the first writer who refers to it in con-
connection with the Greek church ; and assigning a
reason for the custom, he says it was to represent
our Saviour's elevation upon the cross, and his dy-
ing there, together with his rising from the dead.
In the Latin church there is a perfect silence ob-
served by all tlie older ritualists in regard to it until
the eleventh century, whcTi it is mentioned by Ivo
f'arnotensis and Hugo de Sancto Victore, wlio as-
sign tlio same reason for it as that which is alleged
by Germanus, but make not the slightest allusion
to the practice of adoration of tlie host. (See next
article).
HOST (Adoration of the). The worship 01
the host or consecrated sacramental wafer, was the
natural result of tlie adoption of the doctrine of tran-
substantiation. Froin the Roman canon law, we
learn that Pope Honorius, who succeeded Inno-
cent III., in the beginning of the thirteenth century,
ordered that the priests, at a certain part of tlie mass
service, shoidd elevate the consecrated wafer, and at
the same instant the people should prostrate them-
selves before it in worship. In a. d. 1264, the fes-
tival of Corpus Christi (which see), which is still
observed witli so much pomp, was established Ijy
Pope Urban IV. On that occasion the host is
carried in solemn procession through the streets,
every individual, as it passes him, bowing the knee
in token of adoration. In all Roman Catliolic coun-
tries the ]n-actice of kneeling to the host is univer-
sal. In Spain, when a priest carries the consecrated
wafer to a dying man, a person witli a small bell ac-
companies him. At the sound of the bell all wlio
hear it are obliged to fall on their knees, and to re-
main in that posture till they hear it no longer. The
first writer who mentions the elevation of the host
in connection with its adoration, is Gulielnius Du-
rantus, who wrote about the year 138G. Some Ro-
mi.sli writers have endeavoured to claim for the
jiractice of adoring the host an almost apostolic
origin. In support of this claim they refer to the
Sur.siim Corda, or invitation to lift up the heart, of
early times, as an admonition to worship the conse-
crated bread, whereas it was an exhortation to lift
their souls from earth to heaven, setting their whole
afl'ections upon Divine and heavenly things.
If the adoration of the host was indeed a practice of
the early Christian church, it is surely most unaccount-
able that not the remotest allusion is made to it by the
Fathers of the church, whether Greek or Latin; and
eipially strange is it that amid all the objections and
calumnies urged by the heathens against the Chris-
tians, they never object to them the worsliip of bread
and wine, which they assuredly would have done if
it had been in their power. Bingham, in his ' Chris-
tian Antiquities,' gives an admirable summary of the
arguments urged against the adoration of the host,
which we cannot do better than quote : " As, 1.
From the silence of all ancient writers about it. 2.
From their using no elevation of the host for wor-
ship for many ages. 3. The ancients knew nothing of
ringing a bell, to give notice of the time of adoration
to the peojile. 4. There are no histories of beasts
miraculously worshipping the eucharist, which sort
of fictions are so common in later ages. 5. The an-
cients never carried the eucliarist to the sick or
absent with any pomp or signs of worship ; never
exposed it to public view in times of solemn rejoicing
or sorrow ; never adored or invoked its assistanct
in distr«ss, or upon any great undertaking : whicb
nOSTIA— HOTRI.
n
ire now such common practices in the Roman
churcli. 6. The ancients never enjoined persons
newly baptized and penitents to fall down before
the encharist and worship it, as is now commonly
done in the Roman church. 7. The ancients never
allowed non-commmiicants to stay and worsliip the
encharist, as the practice now is; whicli yet had
been very proper, had they believed the encharist to
be their God. But they used it only for communion,
not for adoration. 8. The ancients never used to
carry the eucharist publicly in processions, to be
adored by all the people ; which is a novel practice
in the judgment of Krantzius and Cassander. 9.
The ancients lighted no lamps nor candles by day to
the eucharist, nor bin-ned incense before it, as is
now the practice. 10. They made no little images
of the eucharist, to be kissed and worshipped as tlie
images of Christ. 11. They had no peculiar festi-
val appropriated to its more solemn worship. This
is of no longer date than Pope Urban IV., who tirst
instituted it, anno 1264:, and it is peculiar only to
the Roman church. 12. The ancient liturgies have
no forms of prayers, doxologies, or praises to the
eucharist, as are in the Roman Missal. 13. The
adoration of the eucharist was never objected by the
heathens to the primitive Christians ; nor were they
reproached as the Romanists have been since, as
eaters of their God. It is a noted saying of Averroes.
Since Christians eat what they worship, let my soul
rather have her portion among the philosophers.
This learned philosopher lived about the year 1150,
when the host worship began to be practised, which
gave him this prejudice to the Christian religion. 14.
The Christians objected such things to tlie heathens,
as they never would have objected, had they them-
selves worshipped the host ; as that it was an im-
pious thing to eat what they worshipped, and wor-
ship what they eat and sacrificed. Wliich objections
might easily have been retorted upon them. 15.
The Christians were accused by the heathens of
eating infants' blood in their solemn mysteries, but
never any mention is made of eating the blood of
Christ, either in the objection or answer to it. The
ground of the story arose from the practice of the
Carpoa-atians and other heretics, and not from the
Christians eating the blood of Christ. 16. l^astly,
the Christians never urged the adoration of the eu-
charist in tlieir disputes with the Ehtonites and
Doceke, which yet would have been very proper to
confute their errors, who denied tlie reality of the
flesh of Christ."
These arguments are drawn by Bingham from the
able and learned treatise of Daille on the object of
religious worship against the Latins, and they are
sufficient to show, that although respect was un-
doubtedly shown by the early Christian church to
the sacramental elements, the practice of host-wor-
ship was totally unknown.
HOST OP HEAVEN (WoRSUiP or the). See
TsAM.VNS.
HOSTIA, an animal among the ancient Romans,
which was destined for sacrilice to the gods. In
early times it seems to have been the custom to burn
the whole victim upon the altars of the gods. In
later times this was dcme in the case of sacritices to
the infernal gods. So far back as the time of Homer,,
however, only the legs and part of the intestines
were consumed by tire, while the rest of the animal
was eaten. It was the smoke ascending from the
sacritice which was considered to be chiefly pleasing
to the gods, and, accordingly, it was imagined that
the more numerous the animals consumed upon the
altar, so much the more plentiful the smoke, and,
therefore, so much the more acceptable the sacrifice.
Hence a hecatomb, or a hundred bulls, sometimes
smoked upon the altars at once. The hostile or vic-
tims were generally animals of the domestic kind, such
as bulls, cows, sheep, rams, lambs, goats, pigs, dogs,
and liorses. The beast to be sacrificed, if it was of
the larger sort, used to be marked on the horns with
gold ; if of the smaller sort, it was crowned with the
leaves of that tree which the deity was thought most
to delight in for whom the sacritice was designed.
And besides these they wore the infidie and vitlm, a
sort of white fillets, about their heads. The ani-
mal selected for sacritice required to be free from all
blemishes and diseases. Having been decorated for
the solemn occasion, it was led to the place of sacri-
fice, preceded by the officiating priest clothed in a
white robe, white being a colour particularly pleas-
ing to the gods. A libation of wine was then poured
upon the altar, and a solemn invocation addressed to
the deity. After this the victim was usually slain,
though sometimes it was previously consecrated by
throwing some sort of corn and frankincense togetlier
with the mola, that is bran or meal mixed with salt,
upon the head of the beast. This was technically
called immolatio. Before the animal was killed, a
bunch of hair was cut from its forehead and thrown
into the fire as first-fruits. "Wine was then poured
between its horns, and if it was to the gods above,
its head was drawn upwards, but if to the gods be-
low, downwards ; after which it was slain, and laid
upon the altar to be consumed. While burning,
wine and incense were poured upon it, and prayers
and music accompanied the solenmity. Among the
Greeks the victims were usually killed by the priests,
but among the Romans by a person called Po^m, who
struck the animal with a hammer before using the
knife. The better parts of the hitesfines were
strewed with barley-meal, wine, and incense, and were
burnt upon the altar ; but if the sacrifice was made
to the gods of the rivers or of the sea, these parts
were not burnt, but thrown into the sea. See Sa-
crifice.
HOSTILINA, a female deity worshipped among
the ancient Romans when the ground shot forth new
ears of corn.
HOTRI, in the system of Hinduism, one who in
vokes the gods, or calls them to sacrifice.
72
IIOTTi:\TOTS (Relfgion of thk).
HOTTKXTOTS (Religion of the). Tiie Hot-
tentots comprise a mimbcj- of coimecterl tribes in
Soiilli Africa, tlie Corannas, tlie Xaiiiaqiias, and tlie
Bustimen, formoriy iiiliabitiiig tlie territory wliicli is
now embraccJ in the Kni^'lisli colony of tlie Cape of
Good Hope. Mr. Moffat describes tliem as " not
swarthy or black, but rather of a sallow colour, and,
in some eases, so li,;,'ht that a tinge of red in the
cheek is perceptible, especially among the Bush-
men. They are generally smaller in stature than
their neighbours of the interior; their visage and
form very distinct, and in general the top of the
head broad and flat ; tlicir faces tapering to the chin,
with high cheek bones, flat noses, and large lips."
They resemble none of the Katir tribes, and are
equally distinct from the Negro race. Mr. Mofl'at
concurs with Mr. Barrow in supposing, that they re-
semble the Chinese more than any other people.
Gibbon alleged them to be " the connecting Ihik
between the rational and irrational creation." This
remark, however, applies rather to the Bushmen who
hihabit tlie deserts and mountain fastnesses of the
interior than to the Corannas and Naniaquas who are
the unmixed Uoltentots. The language of the latter
tribes is characterized by a peculiar click, which it is
exceedingly difficult for any European to imitate.
Dr. Pliilip, in his Researches in South Africa, gives a
very favourable view of tlie native character of the
Hottentot tribes, alleging that when the Portuguese
first visited the Cape of Good Hope, they found
them rich in cattle, living comfortably, and so dis-
tinguished for their morality and good conduct, that
they received the appellation of '■ The good men."
Mr. Barrow says, that Uoltentots are capable of
strong attachments, are grateful for kindness shown,
and honest and truthful. The present number of
Hottentots, including all the tribes, is estimated at
150,000,
It is difficult to give any satisfactory accowitof the
religion of the Hottentots. Dr. Pliilip, who passed
many years as a missionary in the Cape Colony, says
of them, " I have ne\er been able to discover from my
intercourse with the natives, or from any other source,
that this nation had ever attained any di-stinct notion
of a Supreme Being, or that an idea of a future state
had at any period prevailed among them." The
Hottentot word Utiko seems to be the name which
denotes the Supreme Being, and, accordingly, it is
used among the frontier or Kalir tribes to denote the
Christian's God. The Naniaquas use the term
T.imkuiip, or as some tribes pronounce it, Utrhtrq) ;
the L7i"/tO of the Hottentots is articulated with the
click peculiar to that language. "In my journey,"
H.'iys Mr. Moll'at, in his ' Missionary Labours and
Scenes in South Africa, "to the back parts of Great
Namaqualand, I met with an aged sorcerer, or doc-
tor, who stated that he had always understood that
Tsui'kuap was a notable warrior, of great physical
strength ; that, in a desperate struggle with another
thieftain, he received a wound in the knee, but hav-
ing vanquished his enemy, his name was lost in the
mighty combat, which rendered the nation indepen-
dent ; for no one could conquer the Tsui'knap
(wounded knee.) When I referred to the import of
the word, one who inflicts pain, or a sore knee,
manifesting my surprise that they should gi\-e such
a name to the Creator and Benefactor, he replied in
a way that induced a belief that he applied the
term to what we should call the devil, or to death
itself, adding, that he thought ' death, or the power
causing death, was very sore indeed.' To him, as
to many others, this Tsui'kuap was an object neither
of reverence nor love. Dui-ing tremendous tliiin-
derstorms, wliich prevail in that climate, and which
it might be sujiposed would speak to the mind of
man with an awful voice, I have known the natives
of Namaqualand shoot their poisoned arrows at the
lightning, in order to arrest the de.structive fluid.
May not the Tsui'kuap of these people be like the
Thlanga of the Kafirs, an .ancient hero ; or represent
some power, which they superstitiously dread, from
its causing death or pain?"
The Rev. Mr. Henry TiiuLill, who spent several
years in Great Namaqualand, thus states his imjires-
sions of the religion of the Namaqiia branch of the
Hottentot family : " As to religion, their minds ap-
pear to have been almost a blank. They do not
seem, before they became acquainted with the first
principles of Christianity, to have been in the habit
of observing any rites or ceremonies of a religious
character, or to have had any idea of responsibility
to a higher Being. The fact that their language
contains appellations for God, spirits, and also for
the wicked one, seems to indicate that they were not
totally ignorant of those subjects, thougli there is
nothing more in the terms of the language, or in their
ceremonial observances and superstitions that afi'ords
evidence of anything beyond a crude notion of a
spiritual world. I believe that the superstitious tales
which have been gleaned from them by travellers,
and advanced as religious records, are regarded by
the natives themselves in the light of fables, which
are either narrated for amusement, or intended to
illustrate the habits and characteristics of wild ani-
mals.
" They have much more confidence in witchcraft
than in religion. Almost all disease or calamity, and
sudden death in particular, is attributed to some ene-
my who is supposed to liold tlie fatal charm. The
practice of medicine is almost exclusively confined
to the witch doctor, and though his efforts often re-
sult in a signal failure, yet occ<asional success, attri-
butable to the simple remedies which he employs, or
the recovery of patients under his troatment in the
course of nature, confirms them in their belief of the
accusations which he makes, and the power that he
arrogates. The doctor generally practises some
sleight of hand, and pretends to extract pieces ol
sticks, sheep's bones, and other substances from the
limbs of his patients. As a autive council will sol-
HOUAMES— HOUR.
73
dom meet without breathing destruction to some
well-fed beeves, so the witch doctor never carries on
his operations without sacrificing the best of his
patient's flock to his art, or rather to his appetite,
and besides this, demands exorbitant pay."
The same hitelh'gent writer, speakingof the Bushmen
scattered up and down the interior, remarks. '■ They
are ahnost entire strangers to religious linowledge or
sentiment. Their ideas of a Supreme Being and of
a s]iirifual world are extremely vague, and supersti-
tion has little hold upon them. Many of them wear
pieces of wood or bone dar.gling from their necks,
which they regard as charms to avert the influence
of witchcraft ; it is also customary for them when
going to hunt to c^ast a stone on a heap which has
been raised over the grave of some departed friend,
by successive offerings, in order to insure success ;
but this custom appears to be confined to those who
have had most intercourse with their Namaqua neigh-
bours. If unsuccessful they become petulant, and on
their next expedition will pass the spot without
t.aking any notice of it ; of course, they still have ill
luck, which they attribute to the insult which they
have offered to their god ; they generally become
penitent, return home, and after having spent a sleep-
less night, ri-se early on the following morning, hasten
to the i)Iace of offering, and atone for the past by
casting another stone on the heap. A Bushman
was once asked by a mis.sionary if he knew there
w,as a God, and if he had any idea where He was.
He replied that he had heard that there was such a
Being, and that the missionary was the most likely
person he had ever seen to be He."
It has long been alleged that one peculiarity of the
religion of the Hottentots was, that they worshipped
an insect which has received the name of the " Pray-
ing Mantis," from the erect position and motion it as-
sumes when alaiTned. Considerable doubt, however,
is now entertained as to the truth of this allegation.
That there is a diminutive species of insect which goes
in the colony by the name of the " Hottentot's god,"
is admitted on all hands ; but the missionaries who
have been long resident in South Africa, entertain
very serious doubts whether such worship was ever
known among the Hottentots, and they state that
the fullest information which they have been able to
obtain upon the subject amounts to nothing more
than that the insect in question was viewed with such
superstitious feelings that they accounted it a crime
to kill it, and believed that if by any accident they
should happen to do so, they would be unfortunate
during the rest of their lives. All this, even admit-
ting it to be well-founded, does not substantiate the
charge of insect-worship. But though not perhaps
chargeable with the gross idolatry of worshipping
the " Praying Mantis," their whole religion, if reli-
gion it can be called, consists of sorcery, superstition,
and witchcraft.
Missions have been established for many years
among the Hottentot as well as the other ti-ibes of
II.
Southern Africa, and it is remarkable, in conse-
quence of the pro_gi"ess of Christianity and the in-
fluence of the civilization of the English and Dufcli
colonists, what a complete change has been eftected,
both in the physical and moral condition of the
Hottentots. They have lost many of their foiTner
characteristics, and are becoming rapidly amalga-
mated with the colonists among whom they live.
This remark, at the same time, is limited to those
Hottentots who are resident within the colony, the
more distant tribes being still the victims of the
most degrading superstition.
HOUAMES, a set of vagrant Jlohammedans in
Arabia, who dwell in tents. They have a law by
which they are commanded to perform their cere-
monies and prayers under a pavilion. They are held
in great contempt and abhorrence for their wicked
and immoral conduct.
HOUR. This division of time, according to He-
rodotus, originated with the Chaldeans, from whom
probably it passed to the .Jews. Tlie first mention
of hours in the Scriptures occurs in Dan. iii. 6.
The .Jews reckoned the hours of the civil day from
six in the morning fill six in the evening. The morn-
ing sacrifice was oft'ered at the third hour, that is, at
nine o'clock of our time, and the e\ening sacrifice
at the ninth hour, that is, at three o'clock of our
time. The evening watches lasted each of them
three hours, the first reaching from six till nine, the
second from nine till twelve, the third from twelve
till throe, and the fourth from tlu-ee till six, when
the day commenced. At an after period the natural
da)' was divided into twelve portions or hours, which
varied in their length with the season, being longer
in summer and shorter in winter.
The division of the day into hours has been adopted
by ahnost all nations. One case, however, may be
mentioned in which the hours differ in length from
those of other countries. We refer to the Japanese,
whose division of time is of a peculiar kind. The day,
we learn from Siebold, " extending from the begin-
ning of morning twilight to the end of evening twi-
light, is divided into six hours, and the night, from
the beginning to the end of darkness, into six other
hours. Of course the length of these hours is con-
stantly varying. Their names (according to Titsingh)
are as follows : Kokonots, noon and midnight ; Yaats,
about our two o'clock ; Nanatt, from finu' to five ;
]\[outsdoulci, end of the evening and commencement
of morning twilight ; Itaous, eight to nine ; Toots,
about ten ; and then Kokonots again. Each of these
hours is also subdivided into four parts, thus: Kohn-
tiots, noon or midnight ; Kohonots-fiin, quarter past ;
Kol-onoti-fan-sovhi, half-past ; Kokonots-fon-sonlci-
mo?/e, three-quarters past; YaaU, commencement of
second hour ; Yaats-fan, &c., and so through all the
hours.
" The hom-s are struck on bells, Kokmwts being
indicated by nine strokes, preceded (as is the case
also with all the hours) by three warning strokes, to
G
74
HOUSEI.^HUMAN SACRIFICES.
call attention, and to indicate tliat the hour is to be
struck, and followed, after a pause of about a minute
and a-half, by tlie strokes for the liour, between
which there is an interval of about fifteen seconds —
the last, however, following its predecessor still more
rapidly, to indicate that the lionr is struck. Faofe is
indicated by eight strokes, Xamila by seven, Muiits-
(lonki by six, lUous by live, and Yoots by four. Much
speculation has been resorted to by the Japanese to
explain why they do not employ, to indicate hours,
one, two, and three strokes. Tlie obvious answer
seems to be, that while three strokes have been ap-
propriated as a forewarning, their method of indicat-
ing that tlie striking is tinished would not be availa-
ble, if one and two strokes designated the first and
second hours." See D.\Y.
liOUKS (Canonical). See Canonical IIouk.s.
HOUSE OP EXPOSITION. See Beth-Ham-
MIDEAS.
HOUSE OF JUDGMENT. See Bf.tii-Din.
HOUSE OF READING. See Betii-Hammi-
KRA. .
HOUSE OF THE LIVING. See Beth-Haim.
HOUSEL, the term which, in the Saxon language,
denotes the Lord's Supper.
HRIMFAXI, the horse in the ancient Scandina-
vian mythology, on which Night rides, and which
every morning, as he ends his course, bedews the
earth with tlie foam which falls from his bit.
imiMTHUKSAK, the frost-giants of the Scan-
dinavian mythology sprung from the giant Ymir.
Tlie Prose Edda saj's, that "when Ymir slept, he
fell into a sweat, and from the pit of his left arm
was born a man and woman, and one of his feet en-
gendered with the other a son from whom descended
the Frost-Giants, and we, therefore, call Ymir the
Old Frost-Giant."
HU, the supreme god of the ancient Cymri, who,
with his spouse Ceeidwen (which see), dwelt at tlie
extremity of an immense lake, called LUon, which
was always threatening to burst its barriers, when a
black beaver, the degenerate offspring of these two
divinities, let out the waters, and a universal de-
struction took place. Hii is represented as winged.
He is said to have drawn forth the destroyer out of
the water, so that the lake should no more bring a
deluge upon the earth. This lie is said to have done
by means of oxen. He also instructed the primitive
race in the art of tilling the soil. He first collected
and arranged them in difi'erent tribes, and transferred
the Cymri or Celts into Britain. In various points
there is tliought to be an analogy between this deity
and Noah.
HUGUENOTS, a name given to the Protestants
of France at a very early period of their history.
The earliest known instance of its occurrence is in a
letter addressed by the Count de Villars, lieutenant-
general of Languedoc, to the king, dated November
11, 1560, in which he terms the riotous Calvinists of
the Cevennes, Huguenots. It is impossible, al this
distance of time, to ascertain with certain!}' the pre-
cise origin and meaning of the word. The derivation
which D'Aubigne thinks the most probably correct
is that drawn from Hugon, a gate in Tours, where
the Protestants first assembled. Others derive it
from a corruption of the first words of their protest,
" Hue nos." Browning, in his ' Hist<n-y of the Hu-
guenots,' gives no fewer than ten different deriva-
tions of the term, the most ancient of them taken
from a work printed at Lyons in 1573, tracing it to
John Huss, whose doctrines they professed, and
from whom they were called in derision, " Guenons de
Huss," or IIuss's apes. Conder thinks a more pro-
bable etymology is found in the Gennan word eid
genossen, confederates, softened into egnotes, a tenn
which was originally applied to the brave citizens
of Geneva, who entered into the alliance against the
tyrannical attempts of Charles III., duke of Savoy.
See France (Protestant Church of).
HULSEAN LECTURES, an annual series ol
theological lectures delivered at Cambridge under the
will of the Rev. John Hulse, late of Elworth, bearing
date the l'2th July 1777. Tlie course extended ori-
ginally to twenty lectures, but is now reduced to eiglit.
HUMAN SACRIFICES. It is a melancholy
fact, that, in almost all heathen nations at one period
or another of their history, tlie practice has been found
to exist of ofl'ering human beings in sacrifice to their
gods. The earliest instance on record of this bar-
barous practice, is the ancient sacrifice to Moloch, in
which children were caused to pass through the fire
to this sanguinary deity. Attempts have sometimes
been made to explain away the expression which de-
scribes this inhuman rite as indicating something
loss than the sacrifice of children ; but all doubt as
to the real existence of such a practice among tlie
Jews is removed by the plain statement of the pro-
phet Jeremiah vii. 31, "And they have built the
high places of Topliet, which is in the valley of the
son of Hinnom, to burn their sons and their daugh-
ters in the fire ; which I commanded tliem not, nei-
ther came it into my heart." And again, in regard to
the service of another fal.-e god, whose worsliip had
been adopted by the Jews, the same prophet men-
tions, xix. 5, " They have built also the high places
of Baal, to burn their sons with fire for buiTit offer-
ings unto Baal, which I commanded not, nor spake
it, neither came it into my mind." Both these quo-
tations establish beyond a doubt that the Jews were
chargeable, at least in the degenerate days of Manas-
seh, with ofi'ering human beings in sacrifice to hea-
then idols. In all probability, however, this cruel
rite had been learned from the Canaanites, as indeed
appears very plainly from Ps. cvi. 37, 38, " Yea,
they sacrificed their sons and their daughters unto
devils, and shed innocent blood, even tlie blood of their
sons and of their daughters, whom they sacrificed
unto the idols of Canaan : and the land was polluted
with blood." The practice of this horrid ceremony
is expressly forbidden under pain of death in the
HUMAN SACRIFICES
l.iw of Moses, Lev. xx. 2, " Again, thou shalt say to
the childreii of Israel, Whosoever he he of tlie chil-
dren of Israel, or of the strangers that sojourn in Is-
rael, that giveth any of his seed unto Molech ; he
shall surely be put to death : the people of the land
shall stone him with stones."
Far from being limited to the Canaanites, human
beings were offered in sacritice by almost all the
heathen nations of antiquity. The Egyjitians, the
Cretans, the Arabians, brought human blood to the
altars of their gods. The ancient Mexicans deemed
human sacrifices the most acceptable offerings which
they could present to their deities. Tacitus relates
that it was the custom of the ancient (rermans to
sacrifice human victims to their gods. The Phoeni-
cians, the Cyprians, the Rhodians, all had human
sacrifices. In the early ages of Grecian history such
a mode of propitiating their deities seems to have
prevailed, and Pausanias informs us that the prac-
tice of shedding the blood of human victims in hon-
our of ZeuK Lycaus, existed in Arcadia, and it ap-
pears to have conthmed down to the time of the
Roman emperors. In Leucas, every year at the fes-
tival of Apollo, a man was thrown from a rock into
the sea. At an annual festival, also, called Tliarije-
lia, which was celebrated in honour of the Delian
Apollo and Artemis at Athens, two human beings
were burnt on a funeral pile, the one sacrificed in
behalf of the women of Athens, and the other of the
men. It is not certain that on every return of the
festival such a sacrifice was offered, but more proba-
bly it was reserved for extraordinary emergencies,
such as the occurrence of heavy calamities seriously
affecting the welfare of the city. In the later ages
of the history of Greece, the custom of sacrificing
human victims seems to have disappeared before the
advancing progress of civilization.
Among the Romans, also, human sacrifices ex-
isted. To Satuni human victims were off'ered. "As
Saturn," says Tertullian, " did not spare his own
children, so he persisted in not sparing those of other
people ; for parents ofi"ered up their own children to
him." Curtius and the Deeii are well known exam-
ples in Roman history of self-sacrifice for the good
of the country. Among the early Italian nations,
more particularly the Sabines, votive offerings, like
that of Jeiihtha in Old Testament history, often in-
volved the sacrifice of human beings. But even in
the latest period of the Roman republic, an instance
of such bloody offerings is to be found. In the reign
of Julius Csesar, when a military insurrection took
place, two of the soldiers were sacrificed to Mars in
the Campus Martins.
Human sacrifices seem to have formed an essen-
tial part of the Drnidical religion. Procopius C';e-
sariensis, who fiourished so late as the sixth century
affirms that these sacrifices were oflfered by the
Druids in Gaul in his time ; and Strabo expressly
declares, that it was because the Druids offered hu-
man sacrifices that the Romans were determined to
abolish their religion. Csesar, in speaking of this
custom as it existed among the Gauls, says, " Those
who are afflicted with any grievous distemper, or
whose lives are hazarded in war, or exposed to other
dangers, either offer up men for sacrifices, or vow so
to do ; and they make use of the Druids for their
priests upon such occasions, imagining their gods are
to be satisfied no other way for sparing their lives
than by offering up the life of another man." There
is no doubt that the Druids followed the same cruel
practice also in Britain.
Numberless are the ancient divinities who seem to
have delighted in blood. Cyprus sacrificed a man
every year to Agrauhis, Rhodes to Satnrn, Chios,
Lesbos, Tenedos to Bacchus, Phocea to Diana, La-
cedemon to Mars. The sacrifice of children, as we
have seen, had its origin among the Canaanites and
the Phoenicians. Colonies from these nations carried
the practice to Cyprus, to Crete, to the coasts of the
^gean Sea, to Carthage, Sicily, and Sardinia. From
the Canaanites, also, doubtless, had the Moabites and
Ammonites leanied the custom. It existed among the
the Syrian worshippers of Adonis, among the Ly-
dians towards the north, and among the Arabians
towards the south. We find it also among the an-
cient Scandinavians, and even among the primitive
races of Peru and of Mexico, as well as among the
savages of Florida. Some nations have persuaded
themselves that the gods would be satisfied with the
blood of old men, of prisoners of war, of slaves, or cri-
minals. Such was the case wilh the Eicyptiaus, the
Syrians, the Scythians, the Celts, the Germans, the
Sclavonians, and even the Persians, the Greeks and
Romans. But other nations carry farther still this
horrid immolation of luiman victims. The ancient
Mexicans, and even, at this daj', some tribes of West-
ern Africa, butcher their prisoners of war by him-
dreds, and even by thonsands, in one day, not to
propitiate the gods but as a triimiphal offering in
honoiu" of victory over their enemies.
In many of the nations of modern heathendom,
the practice of offering human victims to the gods
still exists in full ^^gour. Not to speak of the cruel
acts of self-torture perpetrated by the votaries ot
Kali and Durga among the Hindus, numberless hu-
man sacrifices were offered down to a recent period by
the Thugs under the sanction of their patron goddess
Kali, and by the Khonds of Goonisoor, who, till very
recently, offered up their annual Merias or human vic-
tims. In the Kalika Parana minute directions are
given for the performance of a human sacrifice, by
which the goddess Kali is said to be rendered pro-
pitious for a thousand years. What multitudes have
sacrificed themselves to the idnAJagafnath, and what
multitudes more have given up their lives to the wa-
ters of the all -devouring Gimga! Dr. Sprj', in his
' Modern India,' gives an account of a tribe, in the
Nagpore district, who not only sacrifice luiman vic-
tims, but feast upon the sacrifice. See Cannib.^ls.
The practice of offering luiman sacrifices has pre-
7G
nUSIANISTS— HUMANITY (Religion of).
vailed, to some extent, among the North Americin
Indians, and is still found attended with shocking
barbarism among most of the heathen tribes of
Southern and 'Wi'Stern Africa. The same rite was
generally prevalent among the islands of the Pacific
before the introduction of Christianity, and even yet
has not altogether disappeared among the Pagan in-
habitants of some of tliose islands.
HUMANISTS, a class of thinkers which arose in
Germany towards the end of the eighteenth century,
originating chiefly from the diffusion of the writings
of Rousseau. Their viesvs were thoroughly infidel,
their chief aim being to sink the Christian in the
man. Hence the name given to their system, which
was usually called Humanism. It sought to level
all fomily distinctions, all dili'crences of rank, all na-
tionality, all positive moral obligation, .ill positive
religion, and to train mankind to be men, as the first,
the last, tlie highest accomplishment. This was the
kind of education which Rousseau professed to repre-
sent in his ' Emile,' — a work which sapped the foun-
dations of Christian principle in the case of multi-
tudes both in France and Germany. In the latter
coimtry particularly, the Deistic tendencies which
were fostered by the writings and the example of
Frederick II., began to shoot forth in tlie direction
of Humanism. The practical aspect which it now
assumed, was that of the Philanthropic education, as
it was teiTned, of Basedow. Tlie irrst Pliilanthropi-
num was formed at Dessau in 1774. One of its fun-
damental regulations was, that all religious distinc-
tions were to be entirely kept out of view, and tlie
private devotional exercises, accordingly, were so
framed as tliat nothing should be done which would
not be approved of by every worshipper of God,
whether he were a Christian, Jew, Jfohanimedan, or
Deist. In the system of teaching, which was adopted
by Basedow, and the others who followed in his
wake, the chief object was not so much to impart
knowledge as to develop all the human powers and
faculties. The entire education was based on the sup-
posed goodness of human nature. " While the for-
mer education," says Dr. Kahnis, in his 'Internal
History of German Protestantism,' " had required
all which it was hi the power of youths to do, whe-
ther it gave theiTi plensure or pain, the philanthropic
education asked, in the first place, "What is in ac-
cordance with the nature of the child ? What aflbrds
him enjoyment ? IIov/ do all the inclinations and
dispositions of childhood find their suitable sphere?
The delight of children in bodily exercise is made use
of as bodily gymnastics ; the inclination for play, as
mental gymnastics ; walks, as opportunities for edu-
cating and teaching ; ambition as a moral engine.
Hut although the Philanthropina at first promised to
teach every thing better and more rpiickly than the
ordinary school did, yet it soon appeared that lin-
guistic knowledge, and all matters of memory, would
not thrive. Because they would not teach any thing
from without, and mechanically, but would develop
every thing according to nature, rational knowledge,
such as logic, mathematics, arithnietio, natural reli-
gion, and morals, as well as those sciences based up-
on perception, experience, and advantage, were there
chiefly cultivated. The fresh youth, gi'own up under
fine bodily training, simply and easily dressed in an
age of wigs and pigtails, walked about the fields and
forests to acquire a knowledge of nature ; went into
the workshops of tradesmen to acquire a knowledge
of common life, with its arts and wants ; exercised
themselves in the labour of the husbandman, in the
art of the citizen, in order to stand a future like that
oi Rohinson Crusoe, better than the hero of that book
himself."
The plausible manner in which Basedow, Campe,
and others liad set forth the advantages of this sy.s-
teni of philanthropic education blinded the minds of
many to its true character. But the spell was speed-
ily broken, the delusion vanished. Men began to
look coldly at this utilitarian mode of educating the
human being. The Philanthropic Humanism soon
gave place to a higher Humanism, which began to
spring out of the ardent study of the ancient classics.
But neither the one species of Iluniauism nor the
other was fitted to render the human being either
morally good or practically useful, but thoroughly
selfish in his whole nature and actings. He was not
trained to be a member of a family, of a nation, of a
church, but of that great totality, the liuman race.
A training so vague and unpractical was altogether
unsuited to man in the various positions which he is
called to occupy in this world, or to fit him for a
higher .sphere in the world to come.
HUMANITARIANS, a name sometimes applied
to those modern Socinia7is who maintain, with Dr.
Priestley, the doctrine of the simple humanity of
Christ. Socini.anism, in its original form as taught
in the Racovian Catechism, and in the writings of
the Poli.sh divines, admitted the miraculous concep-
tion, and inculcated the worship of Christ. Dr.
Priesflev, however, anxious to remove what lie consi-
dered the corruptions of Christianity, carried liis So-
cinian principles to their full length, and taught that
Jesus was a mere man, the son of Joseph and «f
Mary, and naturally as fallible and peccable as Moses,
or any other prophet. This view of the n.ature of
Christ is held by the modern school of Socinians in
Britain, which may be said to have been founded by
Dr. Priestley, and consolidated by LIndsey, Bel-
sham, and others. That portion of their creed which
relates to the person of Christ, and which may well
entitle them to the appellation of Humanitarians, is
thus expressed by Belsham in his ' Calm Inquiry :'
That Jesus of Nazareth was "a man of exemplary
character, constituted in all respects like other men,
subject to the same inlirniitics, the same ignorance,
prejudices, and frailties." See SociNl.\NS.
HUMANITY (Religion of), a species of infidel-
ity which has grown up during tlie last twenty years
in BrilaJn and America. It is a kind of idesilism.
HUMANITY (Religion of).
77
which resolves all true I'eligion, not into any of the
special forms of belief which are found in the world,
but into the instincts of humanity. This system of
thought is sometimes called the Ahsobite RcUgion,
ignoring all written revelation, and finding religion
only in the outward universe, and the inward man.
Tims Theodore Farker, one of the most able exposi-
tors of the system, remarks, that "we are never to
forget tliat there is no monopoly of religion by any
nation or any age. Religion itself is one and the
same. He that worships truly, by whatever form,
worships the Only God. He hears the prayer,
whether called Brahma, Jehovah, Pan, or Lord ; or
called by no name at all. F.acli people lias its pro-
phets and its saints ; and many a swarthy Indian,
who bowed down to wood and stone — many a grim-
faced Calmuck, who worshipped the gi'eat God of
storms — many a Grecian peasant, who did liomage
to Plioebus-ApoUo when the Sun rose or went down
— yes, many a savage, his hands smeared all over
with human sacrifice, shall come forth from the east
and west, and sit down in the kingdom of God, with
Moses and Zoroaster, with Socrates and Jesus."
In regard to the name of the system, Mr. Parker
says, " I call this the Absolute Religion, because it
is drawn from the absolute and ultimate source ; be-
cause it gives us the Absolute Idea of God — God as
Infinite ; and because it guarantees to man his na-
tural rights, and demands the perform.ance of the
absolute duties of human nature." Mr. W. J. Fox,
who, though formerly a Unitarian, has adopted a
creed identical with that of Mr. Parker, calls it a
IJeligion of Humanity, stating that, in his belief,
"the source of all revelation is the moral constitu
tion of human nature, the human njind and heart."
The views of the writers, both in England and
America, who have adopted the Religion of Human-
ity, are thus set forth in the Westminster Review,
which is their ablest organ in this country : " It is
not the presence of God in antiquity, but his presence
only there, — not his inspiration in Palestine, but his
withdrawal from every spot besides, — not his supreme
and unique expression in Jesus of Nazareth, but his
absence from every other human medium, — against
which tliese writers protest. They feel tliat the
usual Clnistian advocate has adopted a narrow and
even irreligious gi'ound; that he has not found a
satisfactory place in the Divine scheme of human
afi'airs for the great Pagan world ; that he has pre-
sumptuously branded all history but one as 'pro-
time;' that he has not only read it without sympa-
thy and reverence, but has u^ed it chiefly as a foil to
show otV the beauty of evangelic truth and holiness,
and so has dwelt only on the inadequacy of its
philosophy, the deformity of its morals, the degener-
ate features of its social life ; that he has forgotten
the Divine infinitude when he assumes that Christ's
plenitude of the Spirit implies the emptiness of So-
crates. In their view, he has rashly nndertaken to
prove, not one 2^osilive fact, — a revelation of Divine
trutli in Galilee; — but an infinite negative; — no in-
spiration anywhere else. To this negation and to
this alone is their remonstrance addressed. They
do not deny a tlieoplmny in the gift of Christianity ;
but they deny two very difi'erent things, viz. 1. That
this is tlie only theophany ; and 2. That this is
theophany alone; that is, they look for some divine
elements elsewhere, and tliey look for some human
here. It is not therefore a smaller, but a larger,
religious obligation to lii.story, whicli they are anxi-
ons to establish ; and they remain in company with
tlie Christian advocate so long as his devout and
gentle mood continues; and only quit him when he
enters on his sceptical antipathies."
One marked characteristic of this the latest form
which infidelity has assumed, is a rejection of all
outward revelation, except in so far as it is an ex-
pression of the fundamental beliefs inherent in our
spiritual nature. It demands of every man that if
he would find religion, he must look not to the
Bible, the Koran, or the Shastras, but to the original
intuitions of his own heart. There he will find
engi'aven in indelible characters the primitive idea
of an Infinite God, and this one idea is sufficient
in the view of the writers whose opinions we are
now considering, to give shape and forni, as well
as impulse and energy, to the religion of every
age and people. " Nor can these," says Mr. Hard-
wick, in his 'Chri.st and other Masters,' "be termed
the speculations of a band of ignorant or dreamy
mystics. They are entertained by men of learning ;
who profess moreover a peculiar interest in the pro-
gress of civilization, and who laljour to advance what
they believe to be the disenthrahnent of the human
spirit. They affirm that something higher, deeper,
heavenlier, is reserved for ns ; that growth must be
expected and promoted not only in our apprehension
of religious truth, but in the orb of truth itself; that
their peculiar mission is to hasten this result by
showing man his real dignity and destiny, by sound-
ing all the depths of human consciousness, and call-
uig to their aid the newest facts of history and the
last discoveries of science. They do not, indeed,
contemn the worthies of antiquity. The statues of
Confucius, Moses, and Pythagoras ; of Socrates and
Zoroaster; of Buddha, Christ, and ApoUonius; of
Maui and Muhanmied, are all elevated side by side
in the Walhalla of spiritualism. These all in difler-
ent measures are ajiplauded as the saints, the pro-
phets, the apostles of their age ; yet, notwithstand-
ing the enormous latitude of his belief, the spiritualist
is not content with any of the forms in wliich religion
has hitherto appeared on eartli. However well
adapted to peculiar countries or to transitory phases
of the human mind, they are unequal to the wants
and the capacities of the present century. He would
not himself have worshipped either with his ' swar-
thy Indian who bowed down to wood and stone,' or
with his 'grim-faced Calmuck,' or his 'Grecian pea-
sant,' or his ' savage,' whose hands were ' smeared all
78
HUMILIATI— HUNGARY (Protestant Church of).
over with human sacrifice;' but rather aims, Ijy
analysing the principles of heathenism and cultivating
a deeper sympathy with what is termed the 'great
pagan world,' to organise a new system which he
calls the Absolute Religion, the Religion of Human-
ity, the Religion of the Future. From it all special
dogmas are to be eliminated ; sentiments which every
one may clothe according to his fancy, are to occupy
the place of facts ; the light of a spontaneous Gospel
is to supersede the clumsy artilice of teaching by
the aid of an historical revelation. Thus, while the
promoters of this scheme affect the greatest rever-
ence for the wisdom and the so-called 'inspirations'
of the past, they aim to soar indefinitely above it.
Nearly all the doctrines of ancient systems are aban-
doned or explained away, as things which really
have no stronger claim upon us than the cycle of
luxuri.int mythes that captivated Greek im.'iginations
in the prehistoric period. The Christ and Chris-
tianity of the Bible are thus virtually denied : ' su-
perior intellects' are bidden to advance still higher,
to cast of as worthless or ill-fitting the old garments
of the Church, to join the standard of the Absolute
Religion, and so march forward to the 'promised
land.' "
The only positive and prominent article of the
creed of this sect of infidels is, that there is one Infi-
nite God, and beyond it is a mere series of negations.
Thus Mr. Farker, " Of coin-se I do not believe in a
devil, eternal torment, nor in a particle of absolute
evil in God's world or in God. I do not believe
that there ever was a miracle, or ever will be ; every-
where I find law, — the constant mode of operation
of the Infinite God. I do not believe in the miracu-
lous inspiration of the Old Testament or the New
Testament. I do not believe that the Old Testa-
ment was God's first word, nor the New Testament
his last. The Scriptures are no finality to me. In-
spiration is a per|)etual fact. Prophets and Apostles
did not monopolize the Father : He inspires men to-
day as much as heretofore. In nature, also, God
speaks for ever. . . . I do not believe in the miracu-
lous origin of the Hebrew Church, or the Buddhist
Church, or the Christian Church; nor the miracu-
lous character of .Jesus. I take not the Bible for my
master, nor yet the Church ; nor even Jesus of Na-
zareth for my njaster. ... I try all things by the
human faculties. . . . But at the .same time, I rever-
ence the Christian Church for the great good it has
done to mankind ; I reverence the Mahometan
Church for the good it has done, — a far less good.' "
Such is the Absolute Religion, or the Religion of
Huinainty, which some writers in our own day would
extol as destined to form a new era in the history of
religious thought, but which from its very ineagre-
nesB and vagueness is in all jirobaljility destined ere
long to dwindle away and be forgotten.
nr.MILIATI, an order of Romish monks which
originated in A. n. IIGI. They were brought out of
Lombardy into Germany, as captives by Barbarossa,
who after a time permitted them to return into theii
own country, where they built monasteries, and gave
themselves up to fasting, prayer, and meditation
They followed the rule of St. Benedict, and were
approved and conlinned by Pope Innocent III.
Their dress was a plain coat, a scapular, and a white
cloak over it. They were suppressed by Pius V. in
1571, on account of the degenerate and immoral
habits which had begun to characterize the monks
of the order.
HUNGARIAN CONFESSION, a Confession ot
the Reformed Churches in Hungary, drawn up at a
Synod held A. D. 1557. It consisted of eleven arti-
cles.
HUNGARY (Protestant Church of). The
kingdom of Hungary, though once mighty and
powerful, has for some time been a mere political
dependency of the Austrian empire. The climate is
temperate and healthy, the inhabitants industrious
and active, and the country, by proper cultivation, is
capable of supplying within itseh' all that the neces-
sities and comforts of life demand. When Rome
was mistress of the world, Hungary was colonized by
that warlike people, from whom it received the name
of Dacia; and on the irruption of the northern na-
tions, it was overrun, first by the Goths, and after-
wards by the Hims, who were followed in succession
by other equally savage tribes, until the days of
Charlemagne.
The ninth century found Hungary in the hands of
the Magyars, the ancestors of its present inhabitants,
a rude and warlike, and withal, an idolatrous people,
worshipping Mars as their chief god, and paying
their adorations also to the sun and moon, the earth
and fire. It was about this period, when the Magyar
faith predominated, that Christianity began to be
introduced into the country, and to spread .silently
and slowly, but not on that account the less surely,
among all classes, from the palace to the peasant's
hut.
It is with Stephen, a prince who ascended the
throne in A. D. 997, at the early age of eighteen, that
the history of Christianity in Hungary projjerly
commences. The period of Stephen's accession had
been preceded by events of the greatest magnitude
and interest. Charlemagne had succeeded, though
not without bloodshed, in sjireading Christianity in
Germany; and about the year 890, the Christian re-
ligion had been established in Bohemia. Poland
not long after embraced the true faith ; and mission-
aries from Italy and firccce poured into all parts of
Hungary. No sooner h,ad Stephen succeeded to the
goveriiincnt, than inider the inlluence of his pious
mother and the (Christian teachers, he made an open
profession of Christianity, calling upon bis peojile,
under heavy penalties, to take the same step. Such
a diu'ing infVingenjent of the rights of toleration was
met by the most determined ojiiiosition on the p.art
of the people, who broke out into open rebellion.
TIk; young king attacked the insurgents, and speed-
HUNGARY (Protestant Church of).
79
ily reduced tliem to subjection. Having succeeded
in restoring quiet and order in the kingdom, he
passed varimis laws in favour of Cln'istianitv, enforc-
ing a strict observance of the Sabbath, building and
endowing chiu-ches, establishing schools for the edu-
cation of youth, and endeavouring in every possible
way to advance the religious welfare of his people.
The beneficial influence of Stephen's exertions
however was not long in being completely neutralized.
The Magyars still lo\ed their idolatry, and seized
the first opportunity that occurred after the death
of Stephen to demolish all that bore the Christian
name. An attempt was made by more than one sov-
ereign to repress the vioh'nce of the people, and to
restore the true religion ; but with the exception of
Ladislaus, a long inibroken line of princes only pro ■
longed the darkness which now covered the land. It
is pleasing however to notice, that so early as the
year 1176, there were many to be found in Hungary
adhering to the doctrines of the Waldenses, who had
sought an asylum in that country from the intoler-
ance and persecutions of Rome. Tliere that devoted
people laboured for many years in spreading among
the Magyars the pure and unsophisticated doctrines
of Bible truth. Rapidly increasing in numbers, we
find them, about the year 1315, amounting to 80,000.
No wonder, that both from their numbers and their
zeal, the Waldenses in Hungary should have caused
no little anxiety to Rome. Calumny, the ever ready
weapon of the Papacy, was resorted to with unspar-
ing malignity. These active propagators of pure
Christian truth were represented as teaching the most
ten-ible heresies. But all was unavailing. The cause
of Christ stcadi'y advanced ; and many, even of the
nobility, embraced the new doctrines.
Thus did the AValdenses continue to maintain
their ground in free Hungary until the reign of the
emperor Sigismund, in the beginning of the fifteenth
century. It was at this eventful period in the his-
tory of Protestant truth that John Huss arose, who,
followed by Jerome of Prague and other pious and
devoted men, openly proclaimed the Pope of Rome
to be antichrist. The consequences of such plain
declarations of their conscientious convictions were
such as might have been expected wherever the Pa-
pacy is concerned. Both Huss and Jerome were
burned at the stake. But these noble men died as
became martyrs to the truth of God. On their way
to the stake they sang hymns ; and as jEiieas Syl-
vius remarks, "no mere philosopher ever sufiered
the fiery death so nobly as these men did."
From that moment Protestant truth made the
most astonishing progi'ess. The Hussites, as they
were now called, were to be found in multitudes in
Hungary and Transylvania. The Scriptures were
translated into the native language ; and as a natural
result, more especially in days of fiery persecution,
the Word of God grew mightily and prevailed. In
ahnost every part of Hungary, many congrega-
tions of the Hussites were formed, and churches
built, where they worshipped God according to their
consciences. The progress of Bible truth annoyed
Rome very much ; but what was to be done ? If the
Hussites were to be driven from Hungary, such a
step would only propagate the evil, not arrest it.
The new doctrines must be extirpated, whatever
may be the consequences. Torrents of blood may
flow, but Rome is inexorable. How true is it, that
" she makes herself drunk with the blood of the
saints." In the year 1444, Cardinal Julian con-
cluded a contract with King Uladislaus, that the
Hussites, wherever found, should be completely de-
stroyed. Providence, however, thwarted this bloody
decree. Before it could be carried into execution,
King Uladislaus was killed in battle, and Cardinal
Julian also was slain in attempting to escape. Thus
did the Lord mercifully deliver his people, as he
has often done of old, by the destruction of their
foes.
Though the hand of persecution was thus merci-
fully stayed for a time, the Hussites became at every
little inter\al the victims of the most cruel treat-
ment, and always at the instigation of Rome. Re-
presenting them as maintaining opinions the most
heretical and blasphemous, the adherents of the Pa-
pacy called upon the civil power to put forth its
strong arm for their destruction. Too often were
such appeals listened to, and these faithful followers
of Jesus were subjected to sufl'erings of the most
cruel and heartless description. It was remark-
able, that for some time before the dawn of the Glo-
rious Reformation, they were permitted to live in
quietness and peace, prepared to hail the blessings
of that happy era in the history of the Christian
Church.
As the era of the Lutheran Reformation approach
ed, religion in Hungary, as elsewhere, had degener-
ated into empty ceremony. Rome endeavoured as
usual to support her authority and influence by the
propagation of lying wonders; and tlie better edu-
cated among the people, especially among the nobil-
ity, were disgusted with the palpable tricks wdiich
were attempted to be palmed upon them. In this
condition of things, more especially taken in connec-
tion with the previous success of the Hussites, the
Reformation, as may easily be supposed, was hailed
in Hungary as a Iiappy deliverance from the ignoble
fetters of a degrading and idolatrous superstition.
No country more readily declared in favour of the
Reformation. The way had no doubt been previous-
ly prepared to no small extent by the zealous labours
of the Hussites, in proclaiming far and wide the
truth as it is in Jesus ; and the good seed of the
Word had also been sown by the German troops,
who came to help Hungary against the Turks.
Accordingly, at so early a period as 1521, so numer
ous were the adherents of Luther in Hungary, that
it was deemed necessary to read a condemnation of
the writings of the Refonner from the pulpits of the
principal churches.
80
HUNGARY (Protestant Church of).
One of the most zealous and active in propagating
tlirOMghout Hungary tlie tenets of Luther was Simon
Grynaeus. a professor in the academy in Ofen, wlio
was in consequenee imprisoned, but only for a sliort
time, public opinion liaving risen so strongly in his
favour as to denuiud his speedy liberation. For a
considerable period the truth advanced among all
classes, but a sudden and tearful check was given to
its progi-ess by the publication of the edict of King
Louis in 1523, according to wliich, " All Lutherans,
and those who favour them, as well as all adherents
to the sect, shall have their property confiscated, and
themselves be punished with death, as heretics and
foes of the most Holy Virgin Mary." This violent
decree, though it seemed to s.itisfy the priests, did
not product the desired elVect. Tlie truth still made
progress, and at length in 1525, Louis was prevailed
upon by the Romish clergy to issue a decree, that
" All Lutherans shall be rooted out of the land ; and
wherever they are found, either by clergy or laymen,
they may be seized and burned."
This bloody law Louis had so far yielded to the
priests as to enact, but now that it was enacted he
had not courage to execute it. All that lie could be
persuaded to do, was to write to the authorities of
the different towns, reminding them of their duty.
Providentially, at this critical period in the history
of the Protestant Church in Hungary, political events
arose which directed the attention of the king in
another channel, and produced a most powerful effect
on the progi'ess of the Reformation in that country.
Sohmau, the then reigning emperor of Turkey,
was resolved upon the subjugation of Hungary. So
boldly had he carried forward his plans, that early in
1526 Belgrade was taken ; the Turkish emperor was
already in Peterwardein, the Hungarian Gibraltar,
and Louis, though his treasury was exhausted, was
summoned to pay immediate tribute. On the 2.3d
July, the king set out to meet liis powerful enemy,
and on the 29th August he was signally defeated in
the plain of Mohacs; and in attempting to tly,
Louis's horse fell backwards, and crushed him to
death in the mud. Tlie carnage on that eventful
day was tremendous. Seven bishops, twenty-eight
princes, five liundred nobles, and twenty thousand
warriors lay on the field.
This sanguinary engagement, while it cut off large
numbers of the bitter persecutors of the truth, was
productive of no ultimate benefit to the Protestant
cause. On the death of Louis, two individuals con-
tended for the throne, neither of them favourable to
the Lutheran party. The consequence was, that
persecution still raged in Hungary, prevented no
doubt from reaching its former severity by the pre-
valence of civil war. With this unceasing strife time
passed on, until at length arrived the 25th of June,
15.30, when the Augsburg Confession was read. Its
simplicity, clearness, and power, subdued many ene-
mies, and converted them into decided friends of the
truth.
About this time there arose in Hungary a man or
whom the spirit of Luther had descended. Honour-
ed with the friendship of the great reformer and his
illustrious coadjutors, Matthew Devay had returned
to his native land, resolved, in the strength of God,
to preach the doctrines of the Reformation. He
was remarkably successful in bringing over converts
from Popery ; and for this heinous crime he was im-
pri-soned in Ofen. The following little anecdote
connected with Devay's imprisonment is well worth
relating: " It happened that in the same prison was
a blacksmith, who in the shoeing had lamed the
king's favourite horse, and the passionate John bar"
sworn that he should die for it. The blacksmith
heard Devay converse as never man spoke ; the
words were to him as the words of Paul to the jailer
at Philippi, and the consequence was, that when the
blacksmith was shortly after to be set free, he de-
clared he would sliare Devay's fate as a martyr, for
he also partook of the same faith. The king moved
by this declaration, pardoned both, and set them
free,"
Soon after his liberation, Devay became pastor ot
Kashaw in Upper Hungary, which was then in the
possession of Ferdinand. Jealous of the success ot
his eloquent invectives against Rome, the monks
complained of him to the king, who had him brought
immediately to Vienna, and given over for examina-
tion to Dr. Faber, the bitterest foe of the Reforma-
tion. For nearly two years Devay lay in prison, at
the end of which time Ferdinand relented and liber-
ated him.
This apostolic man was no sooner delivered from
prison than he proceeded to itinerate in Hungai-y,
preaching the Gospel, and assisting in the translation
of file Epistles of Paul into the Hungarian language.
Oveijoyed with the thought that the truth was mak-
ing such progress in Hungary, Devay hastened to
Wittenberg to refresh the heart of Luther with the
glad tidings. They were men of a kindred spirit,
and no greater happiness did they know on earth
than in hearing that the cause of God was advanc-
ing. In his absence, Devay's pastoral charge in
Upper Hungary was occupied by a man of great
learning and Christian courage, Stephen Szantai. A
man of this stamp was not likely to escape the per-
secution of the monks, who demanded of Ferdinand
that he shoidd be arrested and punished as a heretic.
The king, however, who had before this time relaxed
in his opposition to the Protestant faith, proposed,
to the dismay of the priests, th.at a public discussion
should be held on the great di.sputed points of reli-
gion. This discussion took place in 1538. To op-
pose Stephen Szantai the monks had chosen Gregory
of Grosswardeiu. Szantai continued the discussion
for several days, and after the umpires liad noted all
down, they came to present their decision to the
king. Tliey reported that all which Szantai had
said was founded on the Scriptures, and that tlm
monks had brought forward only fables and idle
HUNGARY (Protestant Church of).
81
tales. "But," the}' addeti, "should we state this
publicly, we are lost, for we should be represented
as enemies to our religion ; if we condemn Szanfai,
we act contrary to truth and justice, and would not
escape Divine retribution." They begged, there-
fore, that the king would protect them from the
danger on both sides. Ferdinand promised to do
his utmost, and let them go.
From the tenderness which Ferdinand showed to
Stephen Szantai, it appears plain, that Ferdinand's
mind had undergone a great change ; but that it was
really a saving change, we have no satisfactory
grounds for believing.
One circumstance which tended to promote the
progress of Protestantism in Hungary, was the con-
stant con-espondence which the Reformers maintain-
ed with those of the princes and clergy, who were
knowni to be friendly to the new movement. The
truth spread far and wide among all classes of the
people, and King Ferdinand, perceiving that the
chasm which separated the Protestants from Rome
was every day becoming wider, urged earnestly upon
the Pope that he should summon a general council.
At length the Council of Trent was appointed to
meet on the 13th December, 1545. Two distin-
guished bishops were despatched as deputies from
Hungary, and the instructions which they received
show cleariy that the king's views were far from
unfavourable to the Reformation.
" Ferdinand cliarged them to use their influence
to bring on the discussion respecting a reformation
of morals first, and of faith afterwards ; to have a
reformation in the coiu't at Rome ; to have the num-
ber of cardinals reduced to twelve or twenty-four ;
to have the number of indulgences diminislied ; to
have simony completely abolished, as well as all
payments in spiritiuil matters ; to have the clergy
brought back to their original purity in dress, morals,
and doctrines ; to have the eating of flesh permitted,
and the Lord's Supi)er administered in both kinds."
The sittings of this far-famed council lasted for
eighteen years, during which those decrees were
passed which form tlie established creed of the Ro-
man Catholic Clun-ch down to the present day.
Ferdinand could not conceal from the Pope the
deep disappointment which he felt at the residt of
the Council of Trent, more particularly in forbid-
ding the cup to the laity. The remonstrance which
he tendered, along with the advice of some of the
bishops, extorted a bull in favour of comnumion in
both kinds, — a concession which gave so much
delight to Ferdinand that he had a medal struck
to commemorate the transaction. It was not,
however, until his son Maximilian I. succeeded to
the throne that permission to the laity to use the
cup in the sacrament was extended to Hungary.
This prince, throughout the whole of his reign
seems to have treated the Protestants with lenity
if not with favour With Iiis son Rudolph, how-
ever, begins a period of thirty-two years, wliich
II.
for the Church in Hungary abounded in suft'erings
and trials. It was by this cruel and bigoted king
that the decree was passed, which once more sanc-
tioned the persecution of all who dissented from the
Church of Rome. In vain did the States protest
against a decree so arbitrary and intolerant ; the
Protestant clergy were expelled in multitudes, and
Popish priests appointed in their place.
Tlie peace of Vienna, which was concluded on the
23d June, 1G06, put an end for a time to the troubles
of the Church in Hungary. It declared the perse-
cuting decree to which we have just referred, to be
illegal ; it set aside all decrees which had been passed
against the Protestants ; it proclaimed liberty of con-
science and free exercise of worship. The hero of
this great achievement for the Protestant Church
was destined to see little of its fruits. It was but a
few months till the prince, in the vigour of manhood,
sunk into his grave. lie died from poison, on the
7th January, 1G07, to the great grief of tlie Protes-
tants by whom the loss of a prince so noble and
generous was severely felt.
The Roman party now acquired fresh courage.
The persecuting enactments were renewed, and at-
tempts were made to crush the liberties of the Hun-
garian Church. In the providence of God, how-
ever, Hungary and Austria were transferred fr(jm
Riulolph to his brother Mattliew, who declared upon
oath his determination to protect the rights and pri-
vileges of the Protestants. One of their party was
elected palatine, and by his influence the Synod of
Sillein was summoned, wliich went far by its decrees
to place the Church of Hungary on a secure footing.
The Popish party were exasperated. Within eigh-
teen days the Cardinal and Archbishop Forgacs pro-
tested against the decrees, and pronounced a curse
upon all who should observe them. The Protestants
replied with the most determined boldness. A con-
troversy ensued, which was conducted with intense
bittenicss on both sides. The Papists, however,
through the influence which they possessed at court,
succeeded in bringing the reformed party into fresh
and even severer troubles. No attack made upon
them did them so nuich injury as the appearance of
a work, entitled ' The Guide to Truth,' which was
published at Presburg in 1013. The author in this
volume defended, with no small ingenuity, the doc-
trines of Rome, and represented Luther and Calvin
as servants of Antichrist. Many were by this book
— which was full of plausible reflections — drawn
back into the Romish Church. Years passed aw.ay,
and this dangerous work remained unanswered ; the
time was wasted in unseemly quarrels between the
two sections of the Protestant Church — the Reform-
ed and the Lutheran. These quarrels were very
acceptable to the Romish clergy, but notwithstand-
ing their dissensions the Protestant party continued
to maintain their protest against Rome with firmness
and zeal.
In the year 1618, through the influence of the
H
82
HUNGARY (PliOTESTANT Cllt'UCII OF).
Jesuits, the Uiiii^ariaii ci'own fell to the Archduke
Ferdinand of Austria. At this period matters were
in a very critical condition. " All Europe was in
such a state of religious excitement as had not been
tlie case since the time of Luther; and this was the
work of the Jesuits and Pope Clement VIII., who
had entered into a contract with the princes and
kings of Europe, since the beginning of the century,
to annihilate the Protestant name. As the storm
raises the water, and drives the mud and scinu to the
top of tlie waves, so did they by tlieir inuiioral prin-
ciples goad the nations to madness. They had,
within the memory of that generation, made France
a great churchyard; and in the St. Bartholomew's
Day — the height of their glory — they showed what
they could do when aided by debased women and a
fanatical king. By the Gunpowder Plot they would
Ica\e destroyed England's liberty, had not Providence
interfered and prevented. In Carinthia, Styria, and
Austria, tiiey had, in the name of the one true
Church, ' out of which is no .salvation,' practised
deeds which cried to Iiigh lieaven for a speedy ven-
geance. In Hungary, Bohemia, and Transylvania,
thev deserved the credit of having done only all the
evil they could. In these lands, where a recognized
constitution existed, and where considerable civil and
political liberty prevailed, their influence was limited,
and the people took to arms rather than bow them-
selves under the yoke of tyraiuiy and unjust perse-
cution."
With the reign of Leopold, however, in 1057,
began the golden age of the Jesuits, and the decay
of the Hungarian Church. The king, the Popish
nobles, and the army, all combined to do their ut-
most to eradicate Protestantism from the land. But
a small witnessing renniaut were still to be found.
" Putting their lives in their haiuls, there were a few
pastors who either had not been summoned to Pres-
burg, or who had not gone, and in lonely glens, in
woods aud mountains wild, in ruined castles and
mor.asses, inaccessible except for the initiated, these
men resided, aud preached the Gospel to the faithful
who were scattered over the land From the dark
cavern, scantily lighted, arose flie psalm of praise
sung to those wild melodies which to this day thrill
the heart of the worshipper. From lips pale and
trembling with disease, arising from a life spent in
constant fear and datigcr, the consolations of the Gos-
pel were proclaimed to the dying. The Lord's Sup-
jier was admijiisiered ; fathers held up their infants
to be devoted in baptism to Ilini for whom they
themselves were willitig to lay down their lives; and,
amid the tears which oppression wrung from them,
they joined their hands and looked up to Ilim who
bottles up the tears, aud looked forward to a better
land beyond the grave."
This melancholy state of mjiltors continued until
the death of Leopold in 1705. His successor was
Joseph the First of Austria, whose accession to the
dirone proved the dawn of a better day to the Hun-
garian Church. But alas I how short. In the
midst of his benevolent efl'orts to restore peace and
harmony among his subjects, he was suddenly cut ol)
by an attack of small-pox.
Shortly after the sudden aud unexpected death of
Joseph the First, the Protestant Church in Hun-
gaiy obtained a considerable share of religious free-
dom by the establishment of the " Peace of Szath-
niar," which was signed on the 10th May, 1711. For
some time the Popish bishops attempted to evade the
conditions of this famous treaty, but the succession
of Charles to the vacant throne put an end to the
arliitraiy acts of the clergy, and secured impartial
justice to the Protestants. At lengtli, however, the
Uoiuanist party so far succeeded in gaining an in-
fluence over the njiiid of the king, that he was pre-
vailed upon, at their instig.ation, to pass an edict,
imposing various restrictions upon the Protestant
pastors. Such public enactments were extorted from
Charles completely in opposition to his own indiri-
dual wishes ; aud on all tittiiig occasion.s, therefore,
he lent his powerful protection to the oppressed ad-
herents of the Protestant cause, defending them, as
far as he possibly could, from their sworn enemies —
the Jesuits. But in secret deflance of the royal in-
clination, freedom of conscience and of religious wor-
ship were little more than nominally enjoyed. At
length the complaints which reached the king were
so luimerous, that a royal commission w'as sununoned
to meet at Pesth on the 16th March, 1721, with the
view of adjusting matters between the two great re-
ligious parties in the coiuitry. The attempt proved
utterly abortive. The conmiission was completely
di\ided in opinion. Warm debates arose, and at
length the king found it necessary to adjourn the
meeting iiiie die.
Charles was at heart an amiable cand kind-hearted
person. He grieved o\cr the feuds and animosities
which so much disturbed the tranquillity of his king-
dom. Many were his eft'orts to establish harmony
and peace, but all had hitherto been unsuccessful.
At length he hoped to find a remedy for these cry-
ing evils, in the establishment of a new coiu't, which
he constituted under the naiue of a deputy privy
council. It consisted of twenty-two members, no-
minated by the king — the Palatine being always pre-
sident ; and the jiurpuse for which it had been ap-
pointed, was to publish and to watch over the
execution of the laws of the land. This coimcil,
however, completely disappointed the expectations
of the king. Instead of being impartial, all its deci
sions were one-sided ; so that it was well termed by
one of the Popish bishops of the time, the '' hammer
of the heretics." The king's influence in favour of
the Protestants was now gradually decreasing. He
smnmoned a diet at i'resbiu-g in 1721), but without the
lea^t elVect. Still the Protestants hojied, that when the
report of the Pesth Conimissicju should be given in
and examined, the king would have good groimd for
publishing an authoritative edict in their favour
HUNGARY (Protestant Church of).
83
Here, also, their hopes were blasted. Charles issued
a series of resohitioiis, whicli hifringed upon the
riglits of the Protestants, and gave no small encour-
agement to the Popish party. In vain did the Pro-
testants remonstrate. Tlie king followed up his
" Resolutions" by an Imperial decree, directing all
the churches still in possession of the Protestants,
which had not been guaranteed to them, to be con-
fiscated.
The sovereign was now completely under the in-
fluence of the Jesuits. The kingdom was ruled
on tlie principles of Rome. No promise, no con-
tract, no oath, was kept with heretics. Even the
private religious exercises, in the femilies of the Pro-
testant nobility, were often prohibited on tlie most
frivolous and vexatious grounds. The writings of Pro-
testant authors were subjected to a strict censorship,
which was entirely in the hands of the Jesuits, whose
arbitrary decisions knew no limits. Feeble attempts
were made by the Court of Vienna to check the ty-
rannical domination exercised over the Protestants ;
but Rome has a tliousand means of defeating the tem-
poral power, and the persecution therefore, though
perliaps in a more concealed form, raged as fiercely
as ever.
At length Cliarles VI. died, and was succeeded by
liis daughter, Maria Theresa, who was crowned on
the 18th March 1741. Shortly after the new sov-
ereign had ascended the thi'one, and even before her
coronation, a dejiufation appeared in Vienna, and
presented a petition, setting forth, in strong colours,
tlie numerous grievances of the Hungarian Protes-
tants. To this petition, the queen, by the advice
first of her chancellor, and then of her privy council,
returned no answer. Tlie queen and the Protestant
cause were still in the hands of the Jesuits. The
utmost restrictions were put upon the Protestant
schools. The popish bishops and archdeacons inter-
fered in a most provoking way with all the affairs of
the Protestant cinn-ches. In many cases the mar-
riage with Protestants was forbidden unless the Pro-
testant party should consent to join the Church of
Rome ; or if it was tolerated, all the children were
regarded as by right belonging to that church. The
husband was no longer " the head of the wife" in this
respect, but all must be subject to the priests, who
made themselves "lords over God's heritage."
Several foreign powers, but more especially the
King of Prussia, attempted to interfere on behalf of
tlie Protestants, but without much etl'ect. The Je-
suits and their colleagues, the Romish bishops of
Hungary, continued to carry on the work of pei"secu-
lion. Heavy fines were imposed for holding reli-
gious meetings ; the Protestants were removed from
all civil offices, and their pastors were subjected to
examination by the bishops and archbishops.
It is impossible to enumerate the complicated trials
and sufferings to which the Protestants in Hungary
were exposed umler the reign of Maria Theresa. The
Seven Years' War with Prussia broke out, but
brought with it no relief to the persecuted Protes-
tants ; and when at length, in 1763, the peace o(
Hubertsburg was ratified, Popish intolerance conti-
nued as strong as ever.
On the death of her husband, Francis First, who
was cut oft' in 1765, ^Maria Theresa gave her son
Joseph a share in the government. Tliis arrange-
ment was productive of little improvement in the
state of the Protestants. About tliis time the Ro-
manists commenced a system of active proselytising
in Hungary, erecting missionary institutions in the
districts wliere the Protestants chiefly resided, and
engaging in street and field preaching, with the view
of gaining over, if possible, some to the adoption of
Popish principles. But these eftbrts were almost
entirely fruitless. The Bible was so widely diffused
among the Protestants, and they were so well ac-
quainted with Scripture truth, that they had n <
relish for those idle legends and miraculous tales in
which the sermons of tlie friars so much abounded.
It so happened, in the providence of God, that
about this time the Emperor Joseph set out on a tour
through his Hungarian dominions. This brought
him much in contact with Protestants, with whom he
freely conversed, and thus became intimately ac-
quainted with their grievances. He was not long in
discovering, that the Jesuits were the principal cause
of all the calamities and immorality which prevailed.
The influence, besides, of the minister Kaunitz over
the mind of the Empress was considerable, and this
iiilluence lie used to turn her against the Jesuits.
In 1773, accordingly, was the order of the Jesuits
suspended, and with the banishment of these ene-
mies of the truth a new day dawned upon llungaiy.
The Protestant church now began to rouse herself
from the torpor into which she had fallen. The Ro-
man Catholic priests and bishops were prohibited
from having any communication with Rome, other-
wise than through the foreign secretary at the Court
of Vienna. It was forbidden to apply to Rome for dis-
pensations in case of marriage and for divorces. New
decrees were from time to time published, limiting
the authority of the priests and relieving the Pro ■
testants. On the 24th March. 1781, all connection
was ordered to be broken otf between the monaste-
ries of the country and foreign monks or inspectoi'S.
None but natives could be received into the religious
brotherhoods, and neither monks nor nuns dared
collect money to send out of the kingdom. It was
also ordered, that no papal bull should be published
in any part of the empire without first having ob-
tained the emperor's sanction.
This was the daiviiiiig of a bright day for the Pro-
testants, But in this same year (1781) the great
principles of Christian freedom were nobly vindi-
cated by the publication of the Edict of Toknition,
which gave full liberty to the Protestants to follow
out their conscientious convictions without let or
liinderance of any kind. Soon after the promulga-
tion of this famous and welcome edict, a meeting of
/
84
HUNGARY (ruoTESTANT Church of).
Protestants was held at Pestli, at which a vote of
tlianks to the emperor was passed, which was writ-
ten in Latin and German, and sent to Vienna under
charge of a nnmerons deputation.
The reforms introihieed by Joseph were far from
being agreeable to the Papists, who now felt that
their authority and inllucuce were completely de-
stroyed. Tlie Pope, Pius VI., became alamied,
and he resolved to pay a visit to the minister Kau-
iiitz, hoping to gain him over to his side, and in this
way perhaps to intiuence the Emperor. Kaunitz,
however, received his Holiness without any cere-
mony, and cautiously avoided all allusion to ecclesi-
astical topics. The emperor hoped that the recent
measures of toleration were approved by his Holi-
ness, but assured him at the same time, that if they
were not, lie could dispense with his approbation.
The Pope, having received from Joseph a present of
a cross set with diamonds, value £20,000, went on
his way to Rome, and the emperor pui-sued his course
of reform quite unmoved. The Protestants were
permitted to print their Bibles and other religious
books in the country. The books, but especially
the Bible, which had been confiscated during the
previous reign, were ordered to be restored, and,
shortly after, the compulsory attendance of Protes-
tant children on Popish schools was dispensed with.
Such measures naturally enraged the adherents of
the Church of Rome, and calumny, her usual wea-
pon, was employed against the emperor — the report
being widely spread, that he was disposed to leave
the Romanist and join the Protestant party. So far
had this groundless rumour been diffused, that Joseph
found it necessary to publish a disclaimer in the
most earnest terms. He did not however pause for
a moment in the work of reform. A national school
system, on the most liberal plan, was introduced, and
the Protestant schools were placed on the best foot-
ing. In the year 1785 all bishops were removed
from the civil and judicial offices which they held,
and their power in other respects was very much
limited. The time was not to be long, however, in
■which the Protestants could enjoy such fiivours. Tlie
emperor was hastening fast to his grave. On the
28th January, 1790, he was so far exhausted with
the opposition made to his benevolent plans, that
wiih his own hand he withdrew many of the reforms
which he had introduced ; but he still retained the
famous Edict of Toleration and the new parishes
wliicli he had formed. In less than a month he was
found sitting up in his bed in the attitude of prayer,
but life had tied.
The reign of Leopold II., who succeeded to the
throne on the death of Joseph, was very brief, but
long enough to manifest with sufficient clearness
that the new sovereign was resolved to follow in
the steps of his predecessor. In February, 1792,
he was cut off by a violent intlannnation, and his
son, Francis I., sueceeded to the government. This
was the commencement of a new series of an-
noyances and persecutions which the Protestants
experienced at the hands of the Romanists. The
cruelties of the French Revolution gave the Ro-
man party an opportunity of representing their
church as the only bulwark against anarchy. Ac-
cording to tliem, the Revolution was the cause of all
the evils in France. The king was often absent, and
advantage was frequently taken of this circumstance
to treat the Protestants with harshness and severity.
Francis wanted firmness, and matters therefore grew
gradually worse, until at length, in 1799, a complaint
and petition, occupying sixty sheets, was handed to
the emperor ; but pretexts of one kind or another
were constantly found to leave the Protestants with-
out relief. Attempts were meanwhile made to re-
duce their number, by encouraging the youth to be
sent to Roman Catholic schools.
The state of the Continent, for the tirst sixteen years
of the present century, was such, that little could be
done to protect the Hungarian Protestants against
the persecutions of the Romanists. At length, in
April, 1817, a deputation from both the Lutheran and
Reformed Churches proceeded to Vieima, with the
view of laying their grievancesat the foot of the throne
The emperor received them with the utmost civility,
and promised, along with the Prime Minister Metter-
nich, to see that justice was done to the Protestants of
Hungary. These promises, however, were far from be-
ing realized. A time of severe trial soon broke loose on
Hungary, and the schools experienced the withering
blast. When the king came to Hungary in 1822, a
Protestant deputation again waited upon him, and was
kindly received. After a lengthened audience, the
deputation was dismissed with the assurance, that on
bis return to Vienna, the emperor would attend to
all their grievances and have them redressed. In
vain do we search for any of the good fruits which
the Protestants anticipated from this interview with
the emperor. A diet was summoned at Presburg in
1825, and here the Protestants did their utmost to
obtain relief, but the majority was too heavy against
them. Matters continued much in the same state
until the death of the king in 1835.
With the death of the king the Protestants had
expected a change of ministry, but Metteniich still
continued at the head of the government, and all
went on as before. In 18-13 a royal resolution ap-
peared, declaring that all the difi'erent confessions
should have equal rights and privileges, and at the
same time recommending that the education of the
children of mixed marriages should be loft to the
free choice of the parents, as they might choose to
agree between themselves. This royal resolution
was unsatisfactory both to Protcsiants nnd Papists.
The Ilung.ariaii insurrection, which broke out soon
after this pcnod, was not a little hastened on by the
publication of an edict by General Haynau, threat-
ening the extinction of the Protestant Church of
Hungary. Soitow, .astonishment, and abhorrence,
were the feelings awakened in the minds of the Pro
HUNTINGDON'S (Countess of) CONNEXION.
8£
testaiits on the publication of this edict. Private
meetings were hekl to consider how the impending
evil was to be averted. Upwards of ten deputations
in succession appeared before the throne, begging for
relief in tliis critical emergency, but in vain. In the
j'ear 1851, the church wished to hold several meet-
ings, and sent deputations to Vienna to state tlieir
wishes ; bnt the deputations were refused permission
to go to Vienna.
Recently both the L\itheran and Calvinistio com-
munities in Hungary have begun to display an inde-
pendent and energetic spirit, which has not a little
surprised the government of Austria. They have
positively rejected a ministerial programme of a
" Con.stitution for the Protestant Church," and have
taken steps to petition tlie Emperor to permit them
to draw up a Constitution for tliemselves, and to lay
it before hira for his sanction. The resolutions
whicli have been taken by tlie Lutherans beyond the
Tiieis.s, are, 1 . To petition his majesty to permit a
general synod to assemble and to draw up a Consti-
tution. 2. That the ministerial draft was not ac-
ceptable, because it was in a spirit foreign to the
Hungarian Protestant Church, and woidd tend to
further principles which Hungarian Protestants can
never subscribe to. What the Protestants require
is, (1.) That the Protestant schools shall be nnder
the exclu.sive direction of Protestants. (2.) That
there shall be no hierarchy in the Hungarian Pro-
testant Church, but that, as has heretofore been the
case, the alfairs of the conimimities shall be managed
by laymen as well as clergymen. (3.) That the high
Consistorial Council (Oberkirchenrath) shall be ap-
pointed by the synod, and not by the state. (4.) As
a rule, publicity in clerical matters, but the consul-
tations of the consistories shall be private. (5.) The
communities shall be at liberty to give positive in-
structions to their deputies how to act. (6.) The
protocols of the " Local Convent" shall be submitted
to the elders, and those of the " Convent of Elders"
to the superintendents. (7.) The spheres of action
of the General Convent, DLstrict Convents, and Gen-
eral Synods, shall be the same as they are now.
T!ie superintendents and district inspectors shall be
elected. (8.) The topographical distribution of the
various superintendencies shall remain unchanged.
Tlie Protestants iu Hungary are earnestly desirous
to reorganize their own church and schools, but they
have sustained no small discouragement and damage
from the stringent matmer iu which the Romish
clergy carry out the provisions of the concordat
which has been lately concluded between the Aus-
trian government and the Papal see. The Hun-
garian Protestants are calculated to number some-
where about three millions, including both the Lu-
theran and the Reformed communions, and although
the utmost efforts are put forth by tlie Romanists to
prevent secessions from their body, numbers are
3very year found to join the ranks of Protestantism.
"But to enable the Church of Hungary," we use the
language of Merle I)"Aubign6, " to take the posi-
tion that belongs to her among the other refonncd
churches, the pure faith held by the children of God
must become mighty within her. She must, in obe-
dience to the Word of Gud, believe witli the heart
and confess with the mouth, the fall of man through
Adam's transgression — his corruption through sin —
his utter inability to raise himself from the miserable
condition into which he has fallen — the eternal God-
head of the Son of God, who became man, and was
offered up for us on the altar of the cross — justiiica-
tion by faith, which, resting upon that sacrifice, res-
cues the sinner from the death which he has de-
served, and gives him eternal life ; — finally, the
Holy Ghost (God as well as the Father and the Son)
ruling in the heart by the Word, and liberating it
from the law of sin. It is necessary, then, that the
Church of God in Hungary should confess in heart-
felt sincerity, with Luther, as have also confessed
Calvin and all the other Reformers : ' The tirst and
princijial article of our faith is, that Jesus Christ our
God and Lord died for our sins, and rose again for
our justification. All have sinned and are justified
freely by his grace without works or merit of their
own, by the redemption that is in Christ Jesus
through his blood. No pious man can give up any
portion of this belief, even if heaven, and earth, and
all things, should be involved in ruin. In this be-
lief is contained all that we teach, bear witness to in
our lives, and act upon, in spite of the Pope, the
devil, and tlie whole world.'
" If faith in these articles be a living principle in
the church of Hungary, that church is secure. We
demand then of that church to hold this belief, to
proclaim it from the pulpit, to keep it alive in the
heart. We make this demand for the sake of its
forefathers, for the sake of its martyrs, for the sake
of its own life and prosperity, in the name of the
Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, which is pronounced
over the heads of all its children. This church has
been illustrious in ancient times, and ought at the
present period to rise up and again take her place
among us. Perhaps she may only be able to raise
herself amidst privation and tears, bound like La-
zarus ' with grave-clothes, and swathed in a shroud :'
but if she lives by faith, that is sufficient : her reward
will not fail her."
HUNTINGDON'S (Countess of) CONNEX-
ION, a denomination of Christians in England, which
originated in the first half of the eighteenth century,
with Lady Selina Shirley, Countess of Huntingdon.
The mind of her Ladyship had been from early child-
hood impressed with the importance of Divine
things, and though her views of the way of salvation
were not then satisfactory and clear, yet even after
she became involved in the cares and anxieties of a
married life, she took a particular delight in the dili-
gent and prayerful perusal of the Word of God.
While thus carefully studying her Bible, and scru-
pulously observant of the outwardordiuances of rcli-
I 86
HUNTINGDON'S (Countess of) CONNEXION.
gion. tliis amialile laiiy was as yet a straiigor to the
power of a living Cliristiaiiity. About this time,
however, her attention was callcc) to tlie earnest and
energetic labours of the Metliorlists, who had re-
centlv commenced a work of revival and reformation
in lMiL,'land. Slie became deeply interested in the
missionarv work, which was actively carried on by
WhitcHeld, John ami Charles Wesley, and others.
Several of I>ady Huntingdon's sisters had, through
the instrunieiitality of these truly devoted and apos-
tolic men, been brought to a .saving knowledge of the
truth as it is in Jesus. Amid tlie awakening in-
fluences of this time of revival, her Ladysliip's mind
began to be aroused to more serious reflection upon
her state before God ; and while in this condition
of mental anxiety, having been seized with a severe
and almost fatal illness, she availed herself of the
oppnrtunitv which her sickbed aUnrded for calm me-
dit.ation and prayer, which, by God's blessing, re-
sulted in inward .satisfaction and peace.
No sooner had Lady Huntingdon recovered her
wonted health than she set herself to commence a
life of active usefulness. She attended statedly, ae-
;oin])anied by her husband, on the mini.stry of Mr.
Whitetield, and so highly did she prize his valuable
instructions, that she selected him to be her chap-
lain. The Methodists now entered upon a .system of
lay-preaching, which gave great offence to many
pious members of the Church of England, but which,
nevertheless, appeared to her Ladyship as a plan
likelj' under God to be productive of much good.
It was quite plain that the low state of religion at
the tline called for some extraordinary measures to
prevent the light of the gospel from being altogether
extinguished in many districts of the country. The
zeal and energy, however, which Wesley and his
followers displavod, attracted, as might have been ex-
pected, keen opposition from many, both in and out
of the I'lstablished Church, and not only were the
Methodi.sts, in this early stage of tlieir history, called
to encounter much violent opposition from without,
but they were also exposed to bitter dissensions and
discouragements from within. Many of the Mora-
vians had found their way into the infant sect, and
sought actively to propagate among its members
their peculiar opinions. The chief scene of tlie bit-
ter contentions which ensued was Fetter Lane chapel,
London, which was at length abandoned by the Me-
thodists, and given up whollv to the Moravians. Lady
Huntingdon retired with the Wosleys and their fol-
lowers to the Foundr)', L^pper Moorlields. For a
time Charles Wesley favoured the Moravian senti-
ments, and a rupture between the two brothers
seemed to be imjiending, when, through the judicious
intervention of Lady Huntingdon, not only was a se-
paration prevented, but Charles Weslev was led to
renounce the errors which he had adopted.
The itinerant labours of the Metlioilist preachers
began to bo attended with no small success, and
some of the most determined enemies of lay preach-
ing liecame its warmest friends. Lady Huntingdon
was deeply impressed with the jieculiar acLantages of
such a mode of extending the gospel, more especially
among the simple peasantry of the rural districts.
r4he resolved, accordingly, to try the plan in the
neighbourhood of her own residence, Donnington
Park. She despatched one of her servants, David
Taylor, to preach the gospel in the surroimding vil-
lages and hamlets, and so favourable was the result,
that, with her Ladyship's sanction, this plain pious
m.an extended the range of his missionary labours to
various parts of Cheshire and Derbyshire, where the
fruits of his preaching were soon apparent in the
conversion of not a few to the knowledge and ex-
perience of the truth.
Domdngton Park now became a centre of attrac-
tion to pious men of all Christian denominations, but
more especially to the adherents of Wesley and
Whitetield. The first Methodist Conference was
hfid in London on the 25t\\ .June 1744. It was at-
tended by only six ministers and four travelling
]ireachers. Lady Huntingdon, who was then in
London, invited them to her house, and treated
them with the utmost hospitality and kiiidnes. This
devout lady watched with the greatest interest every
movement of the rising sect, sympathizing with them
in their difficulties, and by her money, her counsel,
her influence, and her prayers, she was of invaluable
service to the Methodist body. No doubt, her ex-
ertions in their behalf exposed her to inuch reproach
and bitter obloquy, but she had counted the co.st,
and was ready to endure all for Clirist. But while
she meekly bore the insults heaped upon herself,
when the faithful men, who were preaching the
gospel under her aus]iices were assailed, she came
boldly forward and claimed the protection of govern-
ment, and even the interposition of the sovereign in
their behalf.
The leaders of the Methodist body were not men
wlio would shrink from discliarging their duty to their
heavenly Master through fear of their fellow-men ;
they oidy waxed more and more bold uiuler the perse-
cution to wdiich they were subjected. And at length
the body asserted for itself a high and conspicuous
place among the Chn'stian denominations of the land.
Their useful and self-denying labours in the diffusion
of the gospel, both in town and country, secured for
them the warm approval, and, in many cases, the
earnest jirayers and cordial co-operation of good men.
Government itself extended its counfenanee as well
as protection to the once reviled and calumniated
Methodists, and Lady Huntiugdon had the gratilica-
fion of seeing the good work carried forward with-
out molestation throughout all parts of England.
After the death of Lord Huntingdon, which hap-
)ieued in 1746, her Ladyship evinced a more active
interest than before in the progress of the Methodist
cause. Having soon after taken up her residence in
London, she enqdoyed Mr. Whitefield to preach at
her luuise twice a-week. Numbers, chiofiyof the
HUNTINGDON'S (Countess of) CONNEXION.
87
nobility, botli Eiiglisli and Scotcli, attended on tliese
occasions, and some of tliem in conseqnence under-
went a saving cliange.
Mr. Wliitetield and ilr. Wesley labonred together
for several years with unbroken harmony and peace.
But in 1748 dissensions arose between them on some
of the vital doctrines of Christianity ; the views of
the former being Calvinistic, and of the latter Ar-
minian. Lady Huntingdon favoured the opinions of
Mr. Wliitetield, and when a sejiaration took place
between the two leaders of the Methodist body, she
attached herself to the WHiitetield or Calvinistic
party. She contril)uted liberally to the erection of
Tottenham-court chapel, and it afforded her sincere
satisfaction, when, on the 7th November 1756, it was
opened for Divine worship according to tlie forms of
the Cliurch of England. About this time Lady
Huntingdon established a college at Trevecca in
South Wales, for the education and training of young
men for the office of the ministry. She erected
also a number of churches at various places, such as
Worcester, Gloucester, and Bath. In one year (1775)
four chapels were erected by her Ladyship at Bris-
tol, Lewes, Petworth, and Guildford. She spent
some portion of every year at Trevecca, sending out
the students to preach in the destitute districts of
the country, and encouraging them to go forward in
preparation for the work of the ministry. She sent
some of the young men also to itinerate in Ireland,
and at her suggestion several of them set out as mis-
sionaries to North America.
In the year 1770 a very important controversy
arose between the Calvinistic and the Arminian
Methodists. From the minutes of the Wesleyan
Conference of that year, it appeared that several er-
roneous tenets were held and avowed by that division
of the Methodist body. Lady Huntingdon and the
Calvinistic Jlethodists generally, entered upon the
controversy with an earnest desire to uphold what
they considered to be the truth of God. A keen
and protracted contest ensued, which, though sus-
pended for a time in consequence of the excitement
occasioned by tlie breaking out of the American
war, was renewed and carried on for several years
with great ardour and ability by Mr. Toplady and
Mr. Uowland Hill on the one side, and Mr. Wesley
and Mr. Fletcher on the other. The most bitter
and caustic remarks were indidged in on both sides ;
and for several successive years the two sections of
Methodists were more hostile to each other than any
otlier diti'ering sects in Christendom.
The unwearied exertions of Lady Huntingdon to
promote the progress of evangelical religion through-
out England, could scarcely fail to awaken the eager
liostility of many. But the most determinedof her op-
ponents was the Kev. William Sellon, minister of St.
James's, Clerkenwell, London, who raised an action
against several devoted ministers belonging to the Es-
tablishment for the crime of preaching in her Ladv-
shiji's cliapels. To avoid all further molestation it was
resolved to take shelter under the Toleration Act ;
and, accorilingly, several of the Established minis-
ters seceded and took the oaths of allegiance as di.s-
senting ministers — retaining such part of the church
service as is allowed to the Dissenters by the can-
ons. The processes raised in the Consistorial courts
against several of the clergy of tlie Established
Church, led Messrs. Romaine, Venn, Townsend, and
otliers, to witlidraw from the service of her Lady-
ship's connexion, though they continued still to hold
the most friendly private intercourse with her and
her ministers.
It had from the beginning been the earnest wish
of Lady Huntingdon that both slie and her connexion
should not sever the tie which bound them to the
Church of England. They were most reluctant to
assume the position of Dissenters, but in conse-
quence of the processes instituted in the Ecclesiast-
cal courts, and the law laid down on the subject,
which proclaimed them Dissenters, no alternative
was left them, and, accordingly, in 1783, they were
compelled to become a separate and independent
body, at the same time retaining the Liturgy with a
few modifications, the forms, and even the vestments
of the Cliurch of England, without its Episcopacy.
A Confession of Faitli, being in substance the same
with the Thirty-Nine Articles, was drawn up in con-
sequence of the altered po.sition of the body, and a
declaration was set forth, that " some things in the
Jjiturgy, and many things in the discipline and gov-
ernment of the Established Cliurch, being contrary
to Holy Scripture, thev have felt it necessarv to se-
cede."
One circumstance which forced on the Secession
more quickly than it would otherwise have liappened,
was the refusal on the part of the English bishops
to ordain the young men trained at Trevecca. Now
therefore tliat the tie was completely severed, and
the " Connexion" was left to its own independent
action, the ordination of six students took place at
Spa-fields chapel, which her Ladyshiji had recently
piu'chased. The solemn service was conducted by
two ]iresbyters of the Church of England, who had
resigned their charges and joined the new denomina-
tion. An attempt was now made on the part of the
Ecclesiastical Courts to deny the legality of the pro-
ceedings of the Connexion, to shut u|i their chapels,
and silence their ministers. But at length the regu-
larity and completeness of the act of Secession hav-
ing been recognized, the legal position of the chapels
was fixed by the Spiritual Courts as Dissenting
Chapels, and tolerated accordingly. The body
was permitted tlierefore to prosecute its great work
without further molestation or hindrance.
Hitherto the great burden of conducting the afi'airs
of her numerous chapels had mainly devolved upon
Lady Huntingdon herself, with the assistance of
trustees in the different localities ; but now feeling
the infirmities of age, she was desirous of adopting
some plan for perpetuating tlie great work which she
88
HU-XTINGTONIANS— HUSCANAWER.
had so siicct'ssfiillv begun. Witli tliis view she took
steps for the fonnation of an Association composed
ot' ministers and hiymen ; but in consetpicnce of the
opposition of Dr. Ilaweis and Lady Ann Erslcine,
tlie sclieme was abandoned. Her wislies in tliis
matter being frustrated, she turned her attention to
the best mode of settling her chniiels on a proper
basis. This was a point of some dilhculty, in conse-
quence of tlie existing state of the law of England,
whicli declared all bequests of buildings or lands for
religious or even charitable uses to be null and void.
Her Ladysliip, accordingly, having consulted with
several legal friends on the subject, came to the re-
solution of adopting the only mode of settlement
which remained to her, that of leaving the chapels
and houses by will to certain persons, with imre-
stricted power to sell or dispose of the same to such
uses as they might think proper. Following up this
resolution, she bequeathed them to Dr. Haweis and
his wife, Lady Ann Erskine, and Jlr. Lloyd. These
*bur trustees accordingly, at the death of Lady
Himtingdon, which took place on the 17th June
179 L obtained possession of her chapels, and em-
ployed them strictly in accordance with her Lady-
ship's wishes. The college was also vested in seven
trustees, who have the sole power of admitting and
rejecting students, as well as of appointing and dis-
missing tutors. The young men we left at liberty
when their studies are completed, " to serve in the
ministry of the Gospel, either in the late Countess
of Huntingdon's Connexion, or in the Established
Church, or in any other of the churches of Christ."
This theological seminary is one of the wealtliiest
of the Dissenting colleges in England. The allotted
term of study is four years, the maintenance and
education being entirely free. The lease of the col-
lege at Trevecca having expired in 1792, about a
year after her Ladyship's decease, the institution was
removed by the trustees to Chesliunt, where it still
exists in a state of etficiency and usefulness.
Lady Huntingdon's Connexion is a trust rather
than a separate sect or denomination ; and is strongly
bound by affinity with the Calvinistic Methodists.
The original mode of supplying the churches was by-
itinerancy, as in the case of the Wesleyan body ;
but for some time a settled ministry has been deemed
preferable. The Liturgy of the Church of England
is generally used, while the ministers are also in the
habit of otl'ering extemporary prayers. Although
the term " Coimexion " is appUed to the body, they
do not exist in the form of a federal ecclesiastical
union. The Congregational mode of church govern-
ment is practically in operation among them ; and of
late years several of the congregations have joined
the Co'-'egationalist communion. The number of
chapeU ..urned in the Census of 1851, as belong-
ing to Lad^- Huntingdon's " Connexion," or described
H8"Engli8l Calvinistic Methodists," was 109, con-
taining accommodation for 38,727 persons. See
SlETiiomsTs (Calvinistic).
HUNTIXGTOXIAXS, a class of Antinomians
(wliich see) in England, towards the close of the
eiglitecnth century. They were followers of Wil-
liam Huntington, or rather Hunt, who, though ori-
ginally a coal-heaver, aaid the victim of dissipated
habits, was rescued by the gi-ace of God from his
^ieious propensities, and was for many years the
popular minister of Providence Chapel, Gray's-Inn-
Lane, London. His writings, which obtained a large
circulation among his admirers, form twenty octavo
volumes. To the crowds who statedly waited on
his ministry, as well as to muhitudes who flocked to
hear him, as he travelled on preaching tours through-
out the country, he taught the most extravagant
Ajitiuomian opinions. He maintained that the elect
are justified fi-om all eternity, an act of which their
justification in this world by faith is simply the
manifestation ; that God sees no sin in believers,
and is never angry with them ; that the imputation
of our sins to Christ, and of His righteousness to us,
was actual, not judicial ; that faith, repentance, and
hol\' obedience, are covenant conditions on the part
of Christ, not on our fiart ; and finally, that sanctid-
cation is no evidence of justification, but rather
renders it more obscure. The sentiments of the
Huntinr/tonians, indeed, were little more than a revi-
val of the sentiments of the CklspiTES (which see)
in the seventeenth centuiy. In a number of chapels,
jjarticularly in Sussex, these doctrines contiime still
to be taught.
HURDWAR, a place of unequalled sanctity
among the Hindus. To its temples pilgrims resort
from all parts of Hindustan; the water of the
Ganges being considered as so holy at tliis particu-
lar spot, that even the most notorious criminal will
be cleansed by a single ablution ; provided only that
suflicient gold be given to the gods. The gold must
be dropped in the river at the time of prayer, and
the Brahmans as the reward of their services have
alone the pri\ilege of searchijig for the treasm'e. At
the Mela or annual grand festival of Hurdwar, the
pilgi-ims amomit in number to from 300,000 to
1,000,000 souls, who resort to this sacred place in
tlie hope of washing away in the waters of the
Ganges all their numberless transgi-essions.
HUSCANAWER, a ceremony which was an-
ciently practised among the Norlli American Indians
of Virginia, when they wished to prepare those wdio
aspired at the dignity of the priesthood, or who
sought to be enrolled among the number of their
great men. The principal men of the place where
the ceremony was to be performed, made choice of
the handsomest and sprightliest youths to be their
Hmcanmcers. They shut them up for several
months together, giving them no other sustenance
than the infusion or decoction of certain roots, which
strongly affected the nervous system. They conti-
nued for some time under the inllucnce of this mad-
dening draught, during which they were enclosed in
a strong place, built in a conical fonn, and provided
.1 '
! m
m
i
HUSSEYITES— HUSSIT ES.
89
with numerous air lioles. Here these novices, sup-
plied witli quantities from time to time of tlie stupe-
fying liquor, quite lost their memory; they forgot
their possessions, parents, friends, and even their
language, becoming at length deaf and dumb. The
Indians pretended that tlieir sole motive for resort-
ing to this singular practice, was in order to free
their yoiuig people from tlie dangerous impressions
of infancy, and from all those prejudices which they
contracted before reason was capable of gaining the
ascendant. They alleged further, that being then at
liberty to follow the dictates of nature, they were no
longer liable to be deceived by custom or education,
and were thereby the better enabled to administer
justice uprightly, without having any regard to the
ties of blood or friendship. The ceremony now de-
scribed cannot fail to remind the classical reader of
the Eleusinian Mysteries (wldch see).
HUSSEYITES, the followers of Mr. Joseph
Hussey, a learned but eccentric divine, formerly of
Cambridge, wdio, besides other peculiarities of opin-
ion, held the Antinomian views of Dr. Crisp.
(See Crispites.) He maintained also the pre- ex-
istence of Christ's hmnan soul, or rather of a spiritual
or glorious body in which he appeared to Adam,
Abraham, and others ; this body being the image of
God in which man was created. On the subject of
the divine decrees, he was a supra-lapsarian Calvi-
nist, and he published a treatise, entitled ' Operations
of Grace, but no Offers,' in which he objected in the
strongest manner to all offers of salvation, or invita-
tions to the unconverted. See Antinomians.
HUSSITES, the foUowersof John Huss, the cele-
brated Bohemian reformer and martyr, who lived in
the end of the fourteenth and the beginning of the fif-
teenth century. The kingdom of Bohemia, though small
in point of geographical extent, occupies a very pro-
minent and conspicuous place in the religious history
of Europe. It is probable that Christianity was fii'st
introduced into the country about the time of Char-
lemagne, who reduced it under his subjection, and
contpelled it to pay tribute. The successors, how-
ever, of tliat illustrious Emperor, were unable to re-
tain the conquered province, which vindicated its
independence of Germany, and placed itself under
the protection of Sviatopluk, king of Great IMoravia,
where Clu'istianity had been established by the apos-
tolical labours of Methodius and Cyrillus. Bohemia
was thus brought completely within the range of
Clu'istian instruction and influence, which operated
so effectively that Borivoy, duke of Bohemia, was
baptized by Methodius, and the celebration of divine
woi'ship in the national language, along with the
rites and discipline of the Greek church, was intro-
duced into the country. The kingdom of Moravia
was destroyed A. D. 907 by the Pagan Magyars or
Himgarians ; and when these conquerors were con-
verted to Christianity, the Latin service was intro-
duced, and the national Slavonic litiu'gy disappeared.
Bohemia seems to have enjoyed the privilege for sev-
II.
eral centiunes of retaining the liturgy in her own
tongue, for L'Enfant relates upon the authority of
Spondanus, that Pope Innocent IV. allowed the
Bohemians about the middle of the thirteenth cen-
tury to perform divine service in the national lan-
guage. Such an arrangement must have had a
powerful effect in diffusing a knowledge of Divine
truth among the people, and accordingly, though the
Bohemian church acknowledged the supremacy of
the Pope, and thus fonned as yet a bnuich of the
Romish churcli, we find that numbers of those who
were persecuted for tlieir re.sistance to Roman domi-
nation, sought a refuge in Bohemia. This was the
case with many of the WaJdenses when compelled
to flee from France, and it was the case even with
the gi'eat reformer of Lyons, Peter Waldo lumself.
Thus the Protestant Bohemian wi-iter Stranski,(iuoted
by Count Krasinski, says : " As the purity of the Greek
ritual was insensibly becommg coiTupted amongst the
people, either through the remains of Paganism, or
by the influence of the Latins, there arrived in
Bohemia in 1176 several pious individuals, disciples
of Peter Waldo, very commendable, not only on ac-
count of their piety, but also by their knowledge of
the Scriptures, and who had been expelled from
France and Germany. They settled in the towns of
Zatec and Lani. They joined the adherents of the
Greek ritual whom they fomid there, and modestly
corrected by the Word of God the defects which
they discovered in their worship. Another Protes-
tant writer, Francovich, better known under his
assumed name of lUyricus Flaccius, relates that he
had an account of the proceedings made by the In-
quisition of Poland and Bohemia about 1330, wdiich
positively stated that it had been discovered that
subscriptions were collected in these countries, and
sent to the Waldensians of Italy, whom the contri-
butors regarded as their brethren and teachers, and
that many Bohemians visited these Waldensians, in
order to study divinity. The Roman Catholic writer
Hagec says, — ' In the year 1341, heretics called
Grubenhaimer, i. e., inhabitants of caverns, again
entered Bohemia. We have spoken of them above,
under the year 117G. They settled in towns, but
particularly at Prague, where they could better con-
ceal themselves. They preached in some houses,
but very secretly. Although they were known to
many, they were tolerated, because they knew how
to conceal their wickedness under a great appearance
of piety.' "
Tlie fact that Bohemia thus afforded shelter to
many from Roman oppression, shows that she hei-
self, though nominally subject to the authority of
the Papal see, was disposed to some extent to
assert her own independence. And it is not un-
likely that the Waldcnsian pastors and people, who
found a home in Bohemia, may have tended to
foster that love of religious libert)', which afterwards
shone forth as so consjjicuous a feature in her bold
and undaunted peasantry. It is no wonder, there-
30
HUSSITES.
(wi, that jEiieas Sylvius, afterwards Pope Pius II.,
should liave asserted the Hussites to bo a branch of
the Walilousiaiis.
Sever,il important circumstances tended to prepare
the way for tlie apjicarance of tlie great Bolieuiiau
reformer, and the terrible commotions whicli are
conunonly known by tlie name of the Hussite wars.
Cliarles the First of Bohemia, and the Fourth of
Germany, had no sooner ascended the throne than
he sot himself to develope the resources, physical,
intellectual, and literary of the Boliemian kingdom.
He refonned many abuses ecclesiastical and civil;
repressed the exorbitant power and rapacity of the
nobles; extended the municipal hberties of the
tOOTis; encouraged commerce and industry, and
raised agriculture to a flourishing condition. To
this enlightened prince, Bohemia owes tlie founda-
tion of the University of Prague, A. D. 1347 ; and to
him also she owes the flrst solid development of her
national language and literature. Besides, Oliarles
did much to arouse the martial spirit of the Bohe-
mians, by introducing into the country a regular
military organization. Such was the state of Bohe-
mia in the end of the fourteenth century. " Tlie
country," to use the language of Krasinski, "was
rich, enlightened, and warlike ; but above all, the
national t'eeling of her inhabitants had acquired an
extraordinary degree of intensity, whicli I believe
was the mainspring of the energy which they dis-
played in the defence of their political and religious
hberty, and which I have no hesitation m saying,
has no parallel in the pages of modern history."
Before the gre.at Slavonic reformer entered on his
mission, tlie way had been paved for him by several
energetic ecclesiastics in the Bohemian church, who
sought to reform the corrupted manners of the age,
and protested against some of the errors of Rome,
particularly the doctrine of communion in one kind
only. Conrad Stiekna, John Milicz, and Matthew
of Janow, may be mentioned as preparing the way
for a reformation hi the church of Bohemia. But
to John Huss is due the merit of having oi'iginated
that great revolution which marks an important era
in the ecclesiastical history of Kurope.
The Bohemian refomier was born in l?iGd, at a
village called Ilussinetz. He was of humble paren-
tage, but his talents being of a high order, he was
sent to tlic university of Prague, with the view of
studying for the church. Here he distinguished
himself by his extensive attainments as a scholar.
By means of WycliH'e's works, which at that time
had spread as far as Prague, John lluss was
won over to the side of Augustin in theology, and
to realism in philosoph}-. His eyes began to be
opened to some of tlie most obvious errors of the
church, and he was not asliamed to avow his adhe-
rence to most of the doctrinal opinions of the English
reformer. The teaclicrs at the university, who
were chiefly Germans, were keen nominalists in plii-
losoiihy, and equally keen opponents of Wyclili'e in
tlieology. The young Reformer, therefore, was ex
posed to the frowns and tlie reproaches of both hii
professors and fellow -students. With one man,
however, who warmly sympatliized with 1 iin in liis
admiration of Wyclirf'e, he contracted a close friend-
ship, wliich afforded him no small comfort and en-
couragement. This individual was Jerome Faullisch,
commonly called Hieronymus Pragensis, or Jerome
of Prague.
Meanwhile Huss attracted great notice at the uni-
versity by the solidity and extent of his learning.
In 1.393, he was made both Bachelor and Master of
Arts, and hi 1-iOl, Dean of the Philosophical Fa-
culty, having previously been honoured with the ap-
pointment of Confessor to the Queen, on whom he
had a great influence. In the course of two years
more, lie began to preach in the national language,
but it was not before the year 1409 that he com-
menced his public attacks upon the established
church. The first abuse to which he called tlie at-
tention of the synods was the corrujition of the
clergy. On this subject he .spoke with the utmost
freedom, and all the more readily as he had en-
trenched himself in popular favour, not only by
preacliing in the vernacular tongue, but by introduc-
ing, in conjunction with his friend Jerome of Prague,
such alterations into the constitution of the uiiiver
sity that the Germans were compefled to quit it.
The decree which, through the iuHuence of Jolin
Huss, Wenceslav, king of Bohemia, was persuaded to
issue, was as follows : " Although it is necessary to
love all men, yet charity ought to be regulated by
the degrees of proximity. Therefore, considering
that the German nation, which does not belong to
this country, and has, moreover, as we have learat
from the most veritable evirlence, apjiropriated to
itself, in all the acts of the university of Prague,
tliree votes, whilst the Bohemian nation, the legiti-
mate heir of this realm, has but one; and con.^ider-
ing that it is very unjust tliat foreigners should enjoy
tlie privileges of the natives of the country, to the
prejudice of the latter, we order, by the present act,
under the penalty of our displeasure, that the Bohe-
mian nation should, without any delay or contradic-
tion, enjoy henceforward the privilege of three votes
in all councils, judgments, elections, and all other
academic acts and di.'ipositions, in the same manner
as is practised in the university of Paris, and in those
of Lombardy and Italy."
The result of this decree, which tended so much
to establish the popularity of Huss, was, that besides
the professors, most of whom were Germans, no
fewer than Ave thousand students, according to the
statement of iEneas Sylvius, emigrated from Bohe-
mia to Germany, where for their accommodation it
was found necessary to establish a university at
Leipsic, as well as other similar institutions at other
places. Tlie poiiularity which Huss liad thus ob-
tained contributed more than anything else to spread
las doctrines in Uoliemia. He was now elected
HUSSITKS.
01
rector of the university of Prague, and the high
position whicli he had reached as a theologian and a
popular preacher, gave him no common influence
over the people. He translated several of the works
of Wycliffe, and sent them to the principal noblemen
of Bohemia and Moravia. It was not to be expected
that such a course could be followed without calling
forth the most determined opposition from the
clergy. Sbinko, archbishop of Prague, in 1410,
caused a number of the \vi-itings of Wyclitl'e to be
publicly burnt ; and still farther to work the over-
tlu'ow of lluss, he procured from Pope Alexander V.
full powers to forbid preaching in private chapels, or
in any other places, except in parochial, conventual,
and episcojial clun-ches. This blow was aimed at
the Reformer, who at that time preached in the
Bethlehem cliapel. This bull was no sooner pro-
claimed accordingly, than Huss was summoned to
appear before the court of the archbishop on a
charge of heresy. An exconnnnnication was forth-
with issued, but the king and queen, the nobility, and
university took up and obtained a reconsideration of
the matter. Meantime Huss continued to preach,
defending the doctrines which he taught by a refer-
ence to the Woixi of God, and besides his sermons,
he and his friends held public disputations in support
of the writings of Wychff'e. At length, in conse-
quence of the universal sympathy manil'ested in fa-
vour of the persecuted Reformer, the archbishop
Sbinko felt himself compelled to revoke his accusa-
tion of heresy.
The opposition to the doctrines which Huss
preached seemed now to be al>anduned, but in a few
short months circumstances occurred which kindled
anew the flames of religious contention in Bohemia.
The Pope, John XXHI., proclaimed a crusade
against l^adislaus, king of Naples, promising a ple-
nary indulgence to all who should take part in it,
either personally or by pecuniary contributions. On
this subject a papal legate was despatched from
Rome to Bohemia, where he succeeded in obtaining
from many of the people considerable sums of money.
Huss and his friend Jerome of Pi'ague, now publicly
and solemnly protested against jjapal indulgences
and other ecclesiastical abuses. Tliis bold exposure
of Rome's misdeeds called forth immediate fuhni-
uations from the Vatican ; the writings of Wyclifl'e
were condemned in a synod at Rome ; John Huss
was exconmiunicated, and the place of his residence
laid under an interdict.
Bohemia was now the scene of the most bitter
contentions, and although the king attempted to al-
lay the disturbances by convoking a synod for the
discussion of the disputed points, all his etiorts were
mefJectual. The Reformer was called upon to quit
the capital, and accordingly, he retired to his native
village of Hussinetz, continuing however to preach
in the national language, and to expose the abuses
of the church both from the pulpit and the press.
tn the agitated and convulsed state of the king-
dom, the Emperor Sigismund applied to the Pope
lor a general council, wliieh was accordingly sum-
moned to meet at Constance on the 1st November
1414. A message was sent to Huss, inviting him toap-
])ear and defend himself and his doctrines in person.
Provided, tlierefore, with a letter of safe-conduct from
the Emperor, he arrived at the appointed place of
meeting. His entry into Constance was no sooner
knomi, than his enemies began to take steps for, if
possible, effecting his destruction. False accusations
of every kind were drawn up, and witnesses induced
to come forward and establish them. In this way a
long list of charges was preferred against him, and
laid before the council. In the meantime, at the
instigation of his enemies, particularly the Bohe-
mian clergy, Huss was seized on the 28th of No-
vember, notwithstanding his safe - conduct, and
thrown into prison, on a charge of heresy. De-
nied all opportunity of defending himself, he was
called upon to make an unconditional recantation ;
and on his refusing to do this, he was committed to
the flames on the 6th of July 1415. The council ol
Constance, in order to pacify the Emperor Sigis-
mund for their flagrant breach of honour in disre-
gai-ding his safe-conduct, passed a decree that no
faith ought to be kept with heretics. The associate
and friend of Huss, Jerome of Pi'agne, soon after
met a similar fate. The ashes of both the nuirtyrt
were carefully collected and thrown into the Rhine.
The death of Huss gave impulse and energy to the
actings of his friends and followers. No sooner did
the tidings of his bloody martyrdom reach Bohemia,
than a universal cry of indignation rose against the
|ierpetrafors of the murder. The university of
Pragr.e came boldly forward to vindicate the memory
of the Reformer, and addressed a manifesto on the
subject to the whole of Christendom. A medal was
struck in honour of the martyr, and a day in the
calendar of saints, the 6th of July, was consecrated
to him. His ibllowers began now to be called Huss-
ites, and their number was daily on the increase.
One of the chief peculiarities for a time was, their
demand for communion in both kinds. The coun-
cil of Constance had sanctioned the ordinary usage
of the church on this point, and pronounced all
who were oppo.sed to it to be heretics. But this
decree, followed by the execution of Huss, roused
the most violent ferment in Bohemia. Jacobellus,
as he was commonly called, or James of Misa, a
priest of Prague, defended the doctrine of commu-
nion in both kinds against the decree of the coun-
cil, and a league was formed among the Bohe-
mian and Moravian nobles for six years in sup-
port of purity of doctrine. The council of Con-
stance, which was still sitting, summoned the nobles
before them, but in vain. All this only added to
tlie number and the influence of the Hussites. Un-
fortunately, however, they began to difler among
themselves, siime of the body going so far as to set
aside entirely the authority of the church, and to
92
HUSSITES
admit no other rule than the Holy Scriptures, whilst
others were contented with communion in both kinds,
the free preaching of the gospel, and some reforms
of minor importance. Tlie former party afterwards
took the name of Taboiutes (which see), and the
latter of Cai.ixtines (which see").
The adherents of the Roman Catholic Clun-ch were
a powerful minority at this time in Bohemia, and
had the advantage of being backed by the authority
of Rome, and also of the Emperor Sigismund, who
liad declared against the Hussites. Besides, the
comicil of Constance thought it necessary to adopt
the most stringent measures in order to quell the
Iieretics of Bohemia. They summoned to their pre-
sence, therefore, about four hundi-ed chief men of the
Hussites, ofi'ering them a safe-conduct. But the
example of Huss was too recent to permit his fol-
lowers to put any conlidenee in promises of protec-
tion coming from such a quarter. The summons
accordingly was disregarded ; and the council issued
a declai-ation against them extending to twenty-four
articles, in the course of which they called upon
king Wenceslav to make strenuous efVorts to extir-
pate the heretics from his kingdom. A papal legate
was sent to Bohemia to fulfil the wishes of the
council, and carrying with him a bull from the new
Pope, Martin V., addressed to the clergy of Bohe-
mia, Poland, England, and Gennany, which ordered
that all the followers of Huss and Wyclifle should
be examined, judged, and given over to the secular
powers for summary punishment. To this papal
bull were appended forty-five articles of WycliHe,
and thirty of Huss, which had been condemned by
the council of Constance. On the an'ival of the
Pope's legate in Bohemia, he endeavoured to strike
terror into the minds of the heretics by the execu-
tion of two Hussites, in a town called Slan ; but
such was the indignation which this act ai'oused
against tlie papal emissaiy, that he found it neces-
sary to quit the country, addressing a letter to the
Emperor Sigismund, declaring that the Bohemians
could only be reconciled to the church by iii'e and
sword.
The whole kingdom of Bohemia was now in a state
of indescribable ferment, and particularly the capital
city, Prague. The Hussites felt that the time had
come when they were imperatively called upon to
take arms in defence of their religious liberties.
All they wanted was a leader capable of regulating
and directing their movements, and that leader they
found in .John Troeznowski, known in Europe by the
name of Ziska, or the one-eyed, a Bohemian noble-
man of extraordinary talents, an<l the most indomi-
table energy. Along with Nicholas of Ilussinetz, an-
other liohemian noble of gi'eat wealth, he put himself
at the head of the Hussite army, which was equi|i-
ped foi self-defence. They conunenced with occu-
pying a strong mountainous position, to which they
gave the name of Tabor, and which they fortified in
ihe most skilful maimer. There thousands attended
for the celebration of the Lord's Supper in both
kinds, and on that eminence they afterwiirds founded
the city of Tabor.
Ziska, in commencing the war, issued a pi'oclama-
tion to the Bohemians, which he caused to be circu-
lated throughout the whole country. It ran as fol-
lows : — " Dearest Brethren, — God grant, through his
grace, that you should return to yom- tirst chajity,
and that, doing good w-orks, like true children ot
God, you should abide in his fear. If he lias chas-
tised and punished you, I beg you, in his name, that
you should not be cast down by affliction. Consider
those who work for the faith, and suli'er persecution
from its adx'ersaries, but particularly from the Ger-
mans, whose extreme wickedness you have your-
selves experienced, for the sake of Jesus Christ.
Imitate your ancestors the ancient Bohemians, who
were always able to defend the cause of God and
their own. For oiu-selves, my brethren, having al-
ways before our eyes the law of God and the good
of the country, we must be very vigilant ; and it is
requisite that whoever is capable to wield a knife, to
throw a stone, or to lift a cudgel, should be ready to
march. Therefore, my bretlu-en, I inform you that
we are collecting troops from all parts, in order to
fight against the enemies of truth and the destroyers
of our nation ; and I beseech you to inform your
preachers, that they should exhort, in their sennons,
the people to make war on the Ajiticlu-ist, and tlmt
every one, old and young, should prepai'e himself for
it. I also desire, that when I shall be with you
there should be no want of bread, beer, victuals, or
provender, and that you should provide yourselves
with good arms. It is now time to be armed, not
only against foreigners, but also against domestic
foes. Remember your fii-st encounter, when you
were few against many, — imarmed agamst well-
armed men. The band of God has not been short-
ened. Have courage and be ready. May God
strengthen you ! — Ziska of the ChaUce, in the hope
of God, chief of the Taborites."
Multitudes of the Bohemian peasantry flocked to
the standard of Ziska, and entering Prague he was
gladly received by the population generally. His
first assault was upon the Roman Catholic churches,
and the civil authorities having interfered, a fierce
riot ensued, in which several of the magistrates were
killed, and many churches and convents pillaged.
Tliis turbulent outbreak so affected King Wenceslav,
that he died in a fit of apoplexy. The kingdom now
devolved upon his brother, the Emperor Sigismund,
who, being engaged at the time in a war with the
Turks, found it difficult to adopt measures for re-
pressing the Hussites, who conunitted in conse(pience
the most deplorable excesses, destroying churches
and convents, and murdering Romish priests, monks,
and nuns. Besides, the Bohemians were nujst un-
willing to submit to the rule of Sigismund, whom
thev hated, and a complete anarchy ensued. The
new sovereign conunenced his reign by ofl'ering a
HUSSITES.
93
complete pardon to the Hussites, on condition tliat
they should return to the church ; and this oft'er
being rejected, lie prepared to reduce the heretics
by force of arms. The city of Prague was in the
hands of the Hussites ; but the castle of that city
was occupied by an imperial garrison. Twice in the
course of the year H20 did the emperor attempt, but
in vain, to wrest Prague from the Hussites. They
continued to hold the capital against the enemy,
fighting with all the enthusiasm which a war on re-
ligious grounds is fitted to excite. In the front of
the Hussite army, as it marched, were priests bear-
ing chalices in token of their adherence to the doc-
trine of communion in both kinds, while the warriors
followed singing psalms, and the rear was brought up
by the women, who wrought at the fortifications and
took care of the wounded.
The hatred which the Bohemians bore to the now
reigning sovereign tended to combine political with
religious motives in their proceedings. A diet was
assembled to deliberate on the afiairs of the country,
when they declared Sigismund unworthy of their
jrown, and resolved to ofl'er it either to the King
of Poland, or to a prince of his dynasty. At this
meeting, also, they drew up four articles, to which
they re.solved to adhere in all their negotiations, both
with the government and the church. These cele-
brated articles, which occupy a conspicuous place in
the history of the period, were as follows :
" 1. The Word of God is to be freely announced
by Christian priests throughout the kingdom of
Bohemia and the niargraviate of Moravia.
"2. Tlie venerable sacrament of the body and
blood of Jesus Christ is to be given in two kind.s to
adults as well as children, as Jesus Christ has insti-
tuted it.
" 3. The priests and monks, of whom many med-
dle with the afiairs of the state, are to be deprived
of the worldly goods which they possess in great
quantif)-, and which make them neglect their sacred
office ; and their goods shall be restored to us, in
order that, in accordance with the doctrine of the
gospels and the practice of the apostles, the clergy
should be subject to us, and, living in poverty, serve
as a pattern of humility to others.
" 4. All the public sins which are called mortal,
and all other trespasses contrary to the law of God,
are to be punished according to the laws of the
country, by those who have the charge of them, with-
out any regard to the persons committing them, in
order to wipe from the kingdom of Bohemia, and the
margraviate of Moravia, the bad reputation of toler-
ating disorders."
This diet, at which several Roman Catholics at-
tended, established a regency, consisting of nobles
and burghers, at the head of which was Ziska. Sigis-
mund made proposals with a view to conciliate the
diet ; but all were rejected, and he accordingly en-
tered Bohemia with an army composed chiefly of
Hungarians, but in several successive engagements
the imperial forces were repulsed by Ziska and his
army. Not contented with repelling the invading
army, the Hussites made aggressive incursions into
the adjacent German territoiy. Flushed with suc-
cess, the Hussites, though by no means united either
in their political or religious views, Bohemia being
then divided into three parties, nevertheless agi-eed
in their hatred of the emperor, and now that he had
taken the field against his own subjects, they dis-
owned his authority, and offered the crown to the
King of Poland. Vladislav Jaguellon, who then oc-
cupied the Polish throne, was flattered by the offer,
and while, from his advanced age as well as other
motives, he declined to become the sovereign of the
Bohemians, he despatched his nephew Coributt with
five thousand cavalry, and a sum of money, to aid
them in defending their country against the assaults
of Sigismund. The arrival of Coributt was hailed
by the Hussites with great satisfaction, and a strong
party wished to elect him king ; but the project was
defeated by Ziska, who declared that he would not
submit to a foreigner, and that a free nation had no
need of a king. On further reflection, howe\er, he
acknowledged Coributt as regent of Bohemia, and
marching with him into Moravia, which was partly
occupied by the imperialists, he was seized witli
the plague, which cut him ofl' on the 11th October
1424.
The death of their leader excited great consterna-
tion in the Hussite army, which now divided into
three parties. " One of them," says Krasinski, " re-
tained the name of Taborites, and chose for their
chief Procop Hobj, i. e., the Tonsured, whom Ziska
had pointed out as his successor. Tlie second de-
clared that they would have no commander, as there
was not in the woi'ld a man worthy to succeed Ziska ;
and took, on that account, the name of Orphans.
These Orphans elected, however, some chiefs to com-
mand them ; and they always remained in their
camps, fortified by waggons, and never went into
towns, except on some unavoidable business, as, for
ii}stance, to purchase victuals. The third party were
the Orcbites, who had taken this name from a moun-
tain upon which they had assembled for the first
time, and to which they had probably given the
biblical appellation of Horeb on that occasion. They
always followed the standard of Ziska with the Ta-
borites, but now chose separate leaders. Yet al-
though the Hussites were thus divided into several
parties, they always united whenever it was neces
sary to defend their countrj-, which they called the
La ltd of Promise, giving to the adjacent German pro-
vinces the names of Edom, Moab, Amalek, and the
country of the Phili.stines."
The war continued, and in almost every encounter
the imperialists were defeated. At length the Em-
peror Sigismund endeavoured to obtain by negotia-
tion what he despaired of accomplishing by force ot
anns. In this, however, he was as unsuccessful as
he had been in the field. The Hussites of all parties
94
HUTANGI.
coriiially accodeil to tlie proposal of Procopius to
iiivack Geniiaiiy. lie entered that country, laying
waste Saxony, Brandenburj;, and Lnsatia, and re-
turned to Bohemia laden with s])oil. Encouraged
by success he collected a still larger army, and the
following year (1431) lie ravaged Saxony and Frau-
conia. These successful invasions spread constcrna-
ti(m throughout Germany, and on application the
Pope proclaimed a third crusade against the liohe-
mians, which, however, failed as signally as the two
fomier had done. It was now plain to botli the em-
peror and the Pope, that nothing could be effected
against the Hussites by force ; and hence the coun-
cil of Basle, at the suggestion of Julii.s Cesarini, the
papal legate who had accompanied the last crusade,
resolved to open negotiations with tlie heretical
Bohemians. After some delay, Hussite ambassadors,
to the amount of three hundred, appeared at Ba.sle,
and an unsuccessful disputation was held at the
council, almost exchisivelj' founded upou the cele-
brated four articles, the concession of which the de-
legates declared to be the point on which all nego-
tiations in reference to peace inust turn. After
residing three months the deputies returned to Bo-
hemia without accomplishing the object of their
mission. The council, however, were unwilling to
suiTender all hope of an amicable settlement, and
they despatched, therefore, an embassy to Prague to
renew the negotiation. On the arrival of the am-
bassadors a diet was sunnnoned to meet them, and
the result of the conference was, that the Bohe-
mians agreed to receive the four articles of Prague,
with certain moditications, which the council con-
tinued under the name of the Cotnpadata ; and their
acceptance was followed by the acknowledgment of
the Emperor Sigismund as legitimate king of Bohe-
mia. Tliis mut ual compact was agreed to on tlie .^Oth
No^■ember 1433, and solemnly ratified at Iglau,
though the extreme Hussites, including the Tiihor-
ites, the Orphans, and the Orehites, were much dis-
satisfied with the arrangement, being still unwilling
to reoogm'ze Sigismund as their king.
A deadly feud now arose between the Calixtines,
who were the main instruments in obtaining the Com-
pactata, and the extreme Hussite parties, headed by
Procopiu.s. The two armies met in morlal combat
on the plains of Lipau, about four miles from Prague,
when Procopius was defeated and slain. With this
unhappy battle between two divisions of the Huss-
ites themselves may be said to have ended the
Hussite war, in which the comparatively small king-
dom of Bohemia, for fifteen years, withstood the
armies of Germany and Hungary, and even laid
waste large provinces of these hostile countries.
Tin: Calixtines and the Roman Catholics now re-
ceived the Enijicror Sigismund as tlieir lawful mon-
aich, and he, on his jiart, swore to maintain the
Coviprirttita and the liberties of the country. The
Taboritos silently, though sullenly, acquiesced, and
no longer mingling in public alliiirs, they sought
peacefully to discharge their duties as private citi-
zens. About 1450 they dropped the name of Ta-
borites, exchanging it for that of the Bohemian Breth-
ren, and in the course of a few years more they
began to form themselves into a separate religious
community distinct from that of the rest of the Huss-
ites or Calixtines. They were, for a number of
years, exposed to severe persecution, not only at the
hands of the Roman Catholics, but of their former
associates the Calixtines. In the face of all oppo-
sition, however, they established themselves as a
regular Clu-istiau denomination, being the first Pro-
testant Slavonic church which was ever formed.
The organization of the body only brought upon
them more determined opposition, and the church
was compelled to hold its synods, and to perform
Divine worship in dens, and caves, and forests,
while its members were loaded with the most oppro-
brious epithets, being termed Adatuites, Picardians,
and robbers. Notwithstanding all the sufferings
which they were called to endure, so rapidly did the
Bohemian Brethren increase in numbers, that, in
1500, they were able to reckon two Inmdrcd places
of worship. Again and again did the Romish clergy
excite severe persecutions against them, but the zeal
of the Brethren continued unabated. In 150G they
published a version of the Bible in their own lan-
guage. The succession of the Austrian dynasty to
the Bohemian throne proved fatal to tlie interests of
these Slavonic Protestants. In 1544 the diet of
Prague enacted rigorous laws against them ; their
places of worship were shut up, and their ministers
imprisoned; and in 1548 Ferdinand the First issued
an edict, enjoining the Brethren to leave the coun-
try umler the most severe penalties in forty-two
days. A great number of them, including their
chief ministers, emigrated to Poland, where they be-
came the founders of flourishing churches. See Po-
land (Protestant Ciiuucii of).
Some remnants of the Brethren were scattered in
Moravia, which afterwards gave rise, in the eighteenth
century, to the sect of the Moravian BRiiTfiUEN
(which se«). The further history of the moderate
Hussites is detailed under the ai'ticle Calixtines
(wliich see).
HUTANGI, an apartment which is generally
found in the houses of the wealthy Cliinese, and de-
voted to Ancestor- WoRsiiH' (which see). On
entering the Hidanr/i there is seen on a large table
set against the wall an image, which is generally that
of the most illustrious ancestor of the family, and
there are also several small boards on which the
names of all the men, women, and children of the
family are arranged in order. Twice a-year, gen-
erally in spring and autumn, the relations hold a
meefing in this room, when rich presents, of various
kinds of meats, wines, and perfumes, wiih wax ta-
pei-s, are laid upon the table with great ccremoriy as
git'ts to their deceased ancestors. Where the cir-
cumstances of the family do not admit of a separa\*
HUTCHINSOXIAXS— IIYACIXTIIUS.
96
Hiifangi, lists of their ancestors are hung up in some
conspicuous place in the house.
HUTCHINSONIANS, a school of English di-
vines which arose in the early part of the eighteenth
centurj'-, deriving its origin and name from Jolm
Hutchinson, Esq., a learned layman, who published
various works containing peculiar philosophical and
philological opinions. The fundamental principle of
the mode of Scripture interpretation adopted by the
Hutchinsonians was, that the Hebrew language con-
tains in its construction and radical terms certain
concealed trutlis ; being not only the primitive lan-
guage of the human race, but expressly revealed to
them from heaven. The Hebrew Scriptures, accord-
ingly, were interpreted by tliis school as by the
COCCEIANS (which see) of Holland in a typical sense.
The Hebrew roots were considered as having each of
them an important meaning, which ran througli all
tlieir various derivative forms. Thus, by a carefid
and minute study of the original language, discard-
ing, however, its points and accents as of human in
vention, this school of philological theologians ima-
gined tliat they had found the true key of the mean-
ing of Scripture. For example, the Hebrew name of
God in the Old Testament, Elohiin, which they pro-
nounced Alcim, was not only considered as a plural
noun, thereby indicating a plurality of I'ersous in the
Godhead, and in its connection with a singular verb
as indic.Hting the unity of the Divme essence under
a plurality of Persons ; but it was supposed, in its
radical meaning, to denote Covenanters, in allusion
to the covenant entered into by the Three Persons
in the Godhead, for the redemption of man. Mr.
Hutchinson, in a work which he published in 1724
and 1727, endeavoured to show that the Scriptures
contained a complete system of physical science,
which, in his view, was wholly at variance with the
Newtonian system of the universe. The Hebrew
word slicmim, the heavens, he regarded as, in its ra-
dical meaning, denoting "names" or "representa-
tives," and tliat, therefore, the heavens, in their
threefold condition o^ fire, light, and sinrit, were thus
framed in order to be an emblematic representation
of the Trinity in Unit)'. Another word of myste-
rious signification in this system, is that of Clieru-
him. In the cherubic form, the ox, the lion, and the
eagle, Mr. Hutchinson saw a typical representation,
first, of tlie trinity of nature, fire, light, and air; and,
secondly, of the Trinity of Persons in the Godhead ;
while the junction of the lion and the man in this
emblematic figure, he understood as pointing out
the union of the human nature of the Sou of God,
who is called "the Lion of the tribe of Judah."
On the publication in 1748 of the philosophical
and theological writings of Mr. Hutchinson, several
English divines openly avowed their partiality for
his peculiar mode of Scripture interpretation, and
among these were several Oxford heads of houses.
A formidable opponent of the system, however, ap-
peared in the person of Archdeacon Sharp, who, in
1750, published a treatise assailing, with great abi-
lity and learning, those points which formed the
main props of the system. Several Ilutchinsonian
divines replied to Mr. Sharp, and the controversy
was carried on for a few years with considerable t.a-
lent on both sides. Among the leading defenders ol
the new .system, were Mr. Spearman, Mr. Parkhurst,
the lexicographer, Bishop Home, Lord President For-
bes, and Mr. Catcott of Bristol, who wrote a defence
of Hiitchinsonianism in Latin, which was afterwards
translated into English, with a valuable Introduction
and Notes by Mr. Maxwell. Various other writers
of eminence i"anged themselves on the same side ;
but although not a kvi Scripture interpreters and
expositors have, from time to time, a]ipeared, evinc-
ing a decided leaning towards the peculiar scheme of
interpretation followed by the Hutchinsonians and
Cocceians, the system itself has now given way to
hermeneutical principles of a more solid and acciu'ate
description.
HUTTERIANS, the followers of Ilutter, an Ana
baptist leader in Moravia in the sixteenth century.
See ANAB.\PTrsTs.
HVERGELMIR, in the ancient Scandinavian
cosmogony, a spring of hot water from which issue
twelve rivers. It is located in Niflchcim, a region of
ice, and night, and mist.
HYACTNTHIA, agreat national festival anciently
celebrated annually at Amycho in Greece. Some
writers aflimi that it was instituted in honour of
Annjchi'us Apolh, others, o{ Hi/acinthtis, and others
of both together. The festival lasted for three days,
on the first and last of which sacrifices were offered
to the dead, and lamentations were held for the death
of Hyacintiius (which see), all the people laying
aside their garlands and partaking only of simple cakes,
with every sign of grief and mourning. The inter-
mediate day, however, between the first and the last
was spent in mirth and rejoicing, pwans being sung
in honour of Apollo, and the youth spending the
day in horse-racing, games, and other amusements.
Sacrifices were otfered and splendid processions took
place. Much importance was attached to this festi-
val by the Amyclaeans and Lacedemonians, who were
careful in no circumstances to neglect it.
HYACINTIH DES, the daughters of Hyacintiius
(which see), who suffered themselves to be sacri-
ficed, some say to Athena, others to Persephone, that
Athens might be delivered from famine and the
plague, to which it was exposed in the war with
Minos. According to some traditions, the Hijacin
iJu'dea were daughters of Erectheus, and derived their
name from a village called Hyacinthus, where they
were sacrificed. But this confounds them with the
Hyades (which see).
HYACINTHUS, a Lacedemonian, who is said to
have been commanded by an oracle to sacrifice his
daughters for the deliverance of Athens from the
two direful calamities of plague and famine. See
preceding article.
96
HYADES— HYLE.
IIYADES (Gr. the rainy), a class of nyiiiplis in
the mythology of ancient Greece, daugliters of Atlas
and j-Et/ira. Aiitliors difler both as to their number.
and their names. In return for their kindness in sav-
ing the life of the inlant Dionysus, Zeus is said to have
raised tliem to the heavens, wliere they form a con-
stellation of stars, live in number. Wlicn tlie Hy-
ades rose along with the sun, it was considered as
betokening rainy weather, and hence their name.
HY^EN^E, a name applied by Porphyry to the
priestesses o( Milhnis or the sun.
IIVDRA, a fabulous serpent in tlie lake Lerna,
which, according to ancient heatlien mythology, had
a hundred heads ; and when any one of these heads
was cut ofl', another presently sprang up in its place,
unless the blood which issued from the wound was
stopjied by tire. Ilercides destroyed the monster
by stauncliing the blood of each head as he cut it otf.
HYDUIAPHOKIA (Gr. hudur, water, andy(e;-o,
to carry), a ceremony in which the married alien wo-
men carried a vessel with water for the married fe-
males of Athens as they walked to the temple of
Athena in the gi'eat procession at the Panathen^a
(which see).
HYDROMANCY (Gr. Imdor, water, and manteia,
divination), a species of divination practised by the
ancient heathens, in which, with tlie employment of
certain incantations, tliey imagined that they beheld
the images of the gods in the water. " Numa," says
Augustin, " unto whom neither prophet nor angel
was sent, was obliged to have recourse to Ilydro-
raancy to get siglit in the water of the images of those
gods, or rather illusions of demons, to be instructed
by them wliat ceremonies and what sort of religious
worship he was to introduce among the Romans."
This kind of divination, according to Varro, was
brought from Persia, and practised by Numa and
Pythagoras, who, after having offered certain sacri-
fices, used to inquire of the infernal demons. See
Divination.
IIYDROPARASTATiE. See Aquarians.
HYEMAXTES, a name given by tlie Latin Fa-
thers of the Christian church to demoniacs, as being
tossed about as in a winter storm or tempest. The
council of Ancyra, in one of its canons, orders certain
notorious sinners to pray in the place allotted to
the Ilijeiaautes ; in other words, in that part of the
church where the demoniacs stood, which was a place
separate from all the rest. See Eneugumens.
HYETIUS, a surname of Zeus as sending rain,
and thereby softening the earth, and rendering it
fruitful. Under tliis name Zeus was woi'slii|ipe(l at
Argos, jind had a statue in the grove of Trophonius
near Laljadcia.
IIVGIKIA, the ancient Grecian goddess of healtli.
She was the daugliter of Asclepius, and was wor-
shipped along with him in various cities of Greece.
She liad a statue also at Rome in the temple of Con-
cordia. \ lygieia was, besides, a surname of Athena.
IIYLATUS, a surname of Apollo, derived from
the town of Hyle in Crete, which was sacred to tliia
god.
IIYLE, matter, or tlie material principle of the
universe, which, in the philosophy of Plato, was
self-existent, and, therefore, from all eternity out of
God. In thus explaining the existence and conti-
nuation of evil by the introduction of a Dualistic
system which recognized God and Hijle or matter,
as equally eternal and self-esistent, Plato wished to
avoid the necessary consequence of referring the
principle of evil, as matter was considered to be, to
God, viz. that it destroyed the purity of the divine
essence. The notion of Plato was, that evil exists
necessarily in the Htjle, or the material principle,
only so far as it is not informed by the divine ideas.
In acting upon it, God tends to destroy evil by
bringing the Hijle into subjection to the proper laws
of idea, and the creation, throughout its whole dura-
tion, is nothing but the development of this divine
conflict. This Platonic notion of the nijle was
adopted into the Gnostic system of the second cen-
tury, and the predominance of this notion formed, in
fact, the characteristic of the Alexandrian, as dis-
tinguished from the Syrian, Gnosis. " This Hi/le"
says Neander, " is represented under various images
— as the darkness that exists along with the hglit ;
as the void in opposition to the fulness of the divine
life ; as the ■ liadow that accompanies the light ; as
the chaos, the stagnant, dark water. This matter,
dead in itself, possesses by its own nature no active
power, no iiisus. As life of every sort is foreign to
it, itself makes no encroachment on tl;e divine. But
since the divine evolutions of life (the essences de-
veloping themselves out of the progressive emana-
tion) become feebler the further they are removed
from the first link in the series ; since their connec-
tion with the first becomes more loose at each suc-
cessive step, hence, out of the last step of the evo-
lution proceeds an imperfect, defective product, which
cannot retain its comiection with the divine chain of
life, and sinks from the world of .lEons down into
the chaos ; — or — which is the same notion somewhat
diti'erently expressed — a drop from the fulness of the
divine life spills over into the bordering void. Now
first, the dead matter, by commixture with the living,
which it wanted, receives animation. But at the
s.inie time also, the divine living particle becomes cor-
rupted by mingling with the chaotic mass. Exist-
ence becomes multiform; there springs up a subor-
dinate, defective life. The foundation is laid for a
new world ; a creation starts into being beyond the
confines of the world of emanation. But since now,
on the other hand, the chaotic principle of matter
has acquired a sort of life, hence there arises a pure
active opposition to the godlike — a barely negative,
blind, ungodly nature-power, which obslin.ately re-
sists all plastic influence of the divine element :
hence, as products of the spirit of the Ilyle, Satan,
malignant spirits, wicked men, in all of whom no
reasonable, no moral principle, no principle of a ra-
HYMENiEUS— HYMIR.
97
tional will, but blind passions only have the ascen-
dancy. There is the same conflict here as in the
scheme of Platonism, between the sold undei' the
guidance of divine reason, and the soul blindly re-
sisting reason — between the divine principle and the
natural."
From this view arose the Gnostic notion that a class
of men represented by tlie Pagans, suft'ered them-
selves to be so captivated by the inferior world as
to live only a hylic, or material life of which the Ilijle
or matter is the principle. The hjjJic principle was
viewed as subject to death, and according to many
Gnostics those who remain under its control through-
out their lives will then be completely anniliilated.
According to the Valentinian Gnostics, from the
mixture of the mundane soul with the Halt:, springs
all living existence in numberless gradations, higher
or lower, in proportion to the extent of their freedom
from contact with the Hyle. This sect regarded
Satan as the representative of the Iliile. Tatian and
the Eiicmtite-f derived the evil or hiiUc spirits, as he
called them, from the hypothesis of an ungodlike
spirit of life wedded to its kindred matter. They
regarded the human soul as a hjUc spirit, and, there-
fore, by its own nature mortal ; but they held that
the first man living in communion with God had
within him a principle of divine life, which enabled
Iiini to rise above the influence of the hylic spirit,
and that this constitutes the divine image by which
man is rendered immortal. The tiill made him sub-
ject to matter and mortality. See Dualism, Gnos-
tics.
HYLOBIANS. See Gymnosopiiists.
HYMEN/EUS, the god of marriage in the ancient
Greek poets, and thought by many to be a personi-
fication of the Hymeneal or marriage song. (See
Epitii.vl.\mium.) This deity was said to be the son
of Aijollo, and one of the Muses ; others considered
him to be the son of Dionysus and Aphrodite. He
was worshipped by newly married women, and it was
customary, during nuptial ceremonies, to sing a hymn
to Hyineiimus.
HYMNIA, a surname of Artemis, under which she
was worshipped in Arcadia. The priestess of this
goddess was at first a virgin, but afterwards a mar-
ried woman.
HYMIR, a giant referred to in the records of the
ancient Scandinavian mythology, in connection with
the Midgard serpent. The Prose Edda thus speaks
of him : " Tlior went out of Midgard under the sem-
blance of a young man, and came at dusk to the
dwelling of a giant called Hymir. Here Thor passed
the night, but at break of day, when he perceived
that Hymir was making his boat ready for fishing,
he arose and dressed himself, and begged the giant
would let him row out to sea with him. Hymir an-
swered, that a puny stripling as he was could be of
no great use to him. ' Besides,' he added, ' thou
wilt catch thy death of cold if I go so far out and re-
main so long as I am accustomed to do.' Tlior said,
that for all that, he would row as far from the land
as Hymir had a mind, and was not sure which of
tliem would be the first who might wish to row back
again. At the same time he was so enraged that he
felt sorely inclined to let his mallet ring on the giant's
skull without further delay, but intending to try liis
strength elsewhere, he stifled his wrath, and asked
Hynnr what he meant to bait with. Hymir told him
to look out for a bait himself. Thor instantly went
up to a herd of oxen that belonged to the giant, and
seizing the largest bull, that bore the name of Him-
inbrjot, wi'ung off his head, and returning with it to
the boat, put out to sea with Hymir. Thor rowed
aft with two oars, and with such force, that Hymir,
who rowed at tlie prow, saw, with surprise, how
swiftly the boat was driven forward. He then ob-
served that they were come to the place where lie
was wont to angle for flat fish, but Thor assured him
that they had better go on a good way further.
They accordingly continued to ply their oars, until
Hymir cried out that if they did \wt stop they would
be in danger from the great ilidgard serpent. Not-
withstanding this, Thor persisted in rowing further,
and in spite of Hymir's remonstrances was a great
while before he would lay down his oars. He then
took out a fishing-line, extremely strong, furnished
with an equally strcjng hook, on which he fixed the
bull's head, and cast his line into the sea. The bait
soon reached the bottom, and it may be truly said _
that Tlior then deceived the Midgard serpent not a
whit less tlian Utgard-Loki had deceived Thor when
lie obliged him to Uft up the serpent in his hand :
for the monster greedily caught at the bait, and the
hook stuck fast in his palate. Stung with the pa n,
the serpent tugged at the hook so violently, that
Thor was obliged to hold fast witli both hands by the
pegs that bear against the oars. But his wrath now
waxed high, and assuming all his divine power, he
pulled so hard at the line that his feet forced their
way through the boat and went down to the bottom
of the sea, whilst with his hands he drew up the ser-
pent to the side of the vessel. It is impossible to
express by words the dreadful scene that now took
place. Thor, on one hand, darting looks of ire on
the serpent, whilst the monster, rearing his head,
spouted out floods of venom upon him. It is said
that when tlie giant Ilymir beheld the serpent, he
turned pale and trembled with fright, and seeing,
moreover, that the water was entering his boat on all
sides, he took out his knife, just as Thor raised his
mallet aloft, and cut the line, on which the serpent
sunk again under water. Thor, however, launched
liis mallet at him, and there are some who say that
it struck off the monster's head at the bottom of the
sea, but one may assert with more certainty that he
still lives and lies in the ocean. Thor then struck
Ilymir such a blow with his fist, nigh the ear, that
the giant fell headlong into the water, and Thor,
wading with rapid strides, soon came to the land
again."
98
II YPATUS— HYSSOP.
HYMN'S. See Misir (Sackud).
HY1'AI'.\NTE. See Candlemas-Day.
HYPATUS (Gr. the Most Higli), an epithet
Hoinetiines applied by tlie Greek poets to Zeiis, and
under this surname lie was worshipped at various
places throughout Greece, more especially at Sparta
and Athens, in the latter of which places he had an
altar on which only cakes were allowed to be
o.Tered.
HYPERCHEIUIA (Gr. hicpcr, over, and cheir,
a hand), a surname given to Hera at Sparta, where,
at the command of an oracle, a sanctuary was built
to her, when the country was laid waste by the over-
flow of the river Eurotas.
HYPERDULIA (Gr. hqKr. over or beyond,
and doulia, service), one of the three species of Ado-
ration (which see), maintained by Koniish divines.
This degree of worship was first devised by Thomas
Aquinas, and ascribed by him to none but the Vir-
gin Mary. To her alone, accordingly, Romanists
still consider this deji'ee of worship as due.
HYPERENOR, a hero-god worshipped at Thebes,
as having been one of the men who sprung from the
dragon's teeth sown by Cadmus.
HYPERION, one of the Titans or Giants, a
son of Uranua and Ge, and according to Hcsiod, the
father of Hdios, Selene, and Eos by his sister Tliein.
HYPEROCHE, one of two maidens, who, accord-
ing to Herodotus, were liououred with certain reli-
gious rites at Delos, in consequence of having been
commissioned by the Hyperboreans to carry to that
{jlace sacred offerings enclosed in stalks of wheat.
HYPOPSALMA. See Abecedarian Hy.mns.
HYPORCHEMA, the sacred dance around the
altar, which, especially among the Dorians, was wont
to accompany the songs used in the worship of
Apollo. Botli men and women were engaged in it.
The Hyporchema was practised in Delos, apparently
down to the time of Lucian, who refers to this spe-
cies of religious dance.
HY'POUCHEMATA, the songs which were sung
in the worship of Apollo in Delos, aiul were accom-
panied by the sacred dance called Hijporcliema (see
preceding article).
HYPOSTASIS, a theological term, brought into
use more especially in the controversies on the Tri-
nity, which took place in the fourth century. This
word w.as for a time rather doubtful in its moaning,
and contending theologians used it in two dificrent
senses indiscriminately, first, as denoting an indivi-
dual particular substance, and secondly, a conunon
nature or essence. Two dilierent significations being
thus attached to the word Hypoxtiin!.'!, some confu-
sion was liable to be introduced into theological dis-
putes, in which IhipmUisis and Oima were not sufii-
cicntly distinguished from each other. At length,
chiefiy through the inlluencc of Angustin, it was
agreed that the term 0>i.iw should be u.<ed to denote
what is common to the Father, the Son, and the
Holy Spirit, or the abstract; and the term lliiposta-
sis should be used to denote the individual, the con-
crete. Before a distinct understanding was come to
on the subject, some theologians asserted that there
were three Hi/pontases in the Godhead, while others
refused to make such an assertion. The former
meant simply to declare that there were three Per-
sons in the Godhead, while the latter understanding
the word Hi/postasis to mean the e.'ssence of the God-
head, were afraid of being charged with the belief of
Three Gods.
HYPOSTATICAL UNION, an expression used
in speaking of the constitution of the person o(
Christ, to denote the union of his human and divine
natures, so as to form two Natures in one Person,
and not, as the Nestorians assert, two Persons in one
Nature.
HYPOTHETICAL BAPTISJI, an expression
sometimes employed to denote baptism administered
to a child of whom it is uncertain whether he has
been previously baptized or not. The rubric of the
Church of England states, that " if they who bring
the infant to the church, give such uncertain an-
swers to the priest's questions .as that it cannot ap-
pear that the child was bajitized with water, in the
name of the Father, and of tlie Son, and of the Holy
Ghost," the priest in baptizing the child is to use
this form, " If thou art not already baptized, N — ,
I baptize thee in the name of the Father, and of the
Son, and of the Holy Ghost."
HYPOTHETICAL UNIVERSALTSTS, a name
soinetimes applied to the A.mykaldists ("which
see).
HYPSISTARIANS (Gr. hipsistos, the Highest),
a small heretical sect which arose in the fourth cen-
tury, who, like the Eupiiemites (wliicli see), with
whom Neander thinks, they may have been identi-
cal, woi'shipped oidy the Supreme, tlie Almighty
God. Gregory of Nazianzum, \vlios6 father at first
belonged to the sect, charges them with combining
Jewish with Pagan elements, worshipping fire with
the Pagans, and observing the Sabbath and absti-
nence from meats with the Jews. Ullniann, in a
monograph upon this sect, explains their origin, from
a blending together of Judaism and Parsi-sm ; Biili-
iiier, who has also devoted a separate treatise to the
subject, regards them as identical with the Mcisa-
liinifs, and perceives in them tlie remnant of a mono-
theism, derived from primitive revelation, but after-
wards disfigured by Tsaljai.b-m. Gesenius classes
them with the Ahelkn}n, a sect of the same century.
HYSSOP, a plant much used in the ancient He-
brew ritual for ceremonial sprinklings. Tims when
the Israelites came out of Egypt, they were com-
manded to take a bunch of liys.sop, to dip it in the
blood of the paschal Iamb, and to sprinkle with it
the lintel and the two door-posts of their houses. The
same plant was used also in the solemn ceremony
followed for the purification of lepers, -vlien the Jew-
ish priests dijiped a bunch of vegetable and animal
matter, composed of hyssop, the brmichcs of cedar,
TACCHAGOGT— lALDABAOTH.
'JO
and red wool, in water, and mingling with it tlie
blood of a bird, sprinkled the leper. David, in Ps.
li. 7. speaking of spiritual pnritication, pays, " Pursre
me with hyssop, and I shall be clean." Great ditfi-
culty has been experienced by commentators in iix-
ing upon the precise plant to which reference is made
in Scripture. In 1 Kincjs iv. ,3.3, the sacred historian,
in speaking of the wisdom and extensive learning of
Solomon, says, " he spake of trees, from the cedar
tree that is in Lebanon even unto the hyssop that
.springeth out of the wall : he spake also of beasts,
and of fowl, and of creeping things, and of lishes."
This passage would seem to indicate tliat it was one
of the smallest of plants, and moreover, grew out of
a wall. Hasselqnist, followed by Linna?ns and Sir
James Smith, declared the ht/ssnp of Solomon to
be the Gi/inno^tomnm fn-'rin/l<i)-e, because he found
that minute moss growing in profusion on the
walls of the modern Jerusalem. A passage, how-
ever, occurs in the New Testatnent, which seems
completely to upset this idea. The Apostle John,
in describing the details of the crucifixion of Christ,
says, xix. 29, " Now there was set a vessel full of
vinegar : and they tilled a spunge with vinegar, and
put it upon hyssop, and put it to his mouth." This
statement would seem to imply, that the hyssop
here spoken of could not be a small and feeble plant
of the muscl. tribe, such as is referred to in the pas-
.sage already quoted in reference to the wisdom of
Solomon. Bochart, in his erudite ' Hierozoicon,'
discusses the claims of no fewer than eighteen ditler-
ent plants. Dr. Kitto, in the Pictorial Bible, states
his preference for the PhyfnJacca (kaindra, and cer-
tainlv the length and siraightness of the stem which
form a characteristic of the various species oi phjto-
lacca. seem to explain why the Roman soldier at the
crucifixion jilaced a spunge filled with vinegar upon
hvssiip in order to raise it to the lips of the Savi(uir
upon the cross. And another circumstance which
makes it not lujlikely that some plant of the Pliyto-
lacca genus, corresponds to the hyssop of Scripture,
is the fact that all the species of this geiuis have
peculiar detergent qualities, containing as they do a
considerable quantity of potash, so thiit a hundred
pounds of its ashes ali'ord ferty-two pounds of pure
caustic alkali. Thus such plants are obviously suit-
able for purification or cleansing. The Pliytolncca
usuallv grows to about a foot and a half in height,
but in Palestine it sometimes exceeds two feet.
HYSTEROPOTMI. See Deuteropotmi
I
lACCIIAGOGI, those whose office it was to
carry the statue of Iacchus (which see), in solemn
procession at the celebration of the Eleusinmn Mys-
teries. When thus engaged tlieir heads were crown-
ed with myrtle, and they beat drums and brazen in-
struments, dancing and singing as they marched
along.
IACCHUS, the n.ame apjilied to the mystic Bac-
clnis in the Eleusinian Mysteries (which see).
He was regarded as a child, the son of Demeter and
ZeuSj and is by no means to be confounded with
Dionysvs the son of Zeus and Semele. The name
of Iacchus was evidently given to the Phrygian god,
because of the festive song of that name, which was
sung in honour of him.. The sixth day of the Eleu-
Sinia was specially dedicated to him, and on that
day which bore his name, the statue of the god of
vintage carrying a torch, and crowned with a myrtle
wreath, was carried triumphantly from the Cerami-
cos to Eleusis. Then it was that the famous torch
procession was held, the people who took part in it
being decorated with vine leaves, and marching to
llie melody of instrnniental music, while a numerous
procession of the initiated carrying mystic baskets,
chaunted in a most tumultuous manner the festive
song of Iacchus. Then, moreover, the votaries
paused on the bridge of the Cephissus, to ridicule
those who passed underneath, and on re-entering the
sacred precincts by a gateway, called the mystical
entrance, were admitted during the night to the most
solemn of all the rites, being themselves thereupon
designated the epopta: or the fully initiated.
lALDABAOTH, the name given by the Ophite
sect of Gnostics in the second century to the De-
miurge (which see), or world-former. In opposing
the Judaizing sects of Gnostics, the Ophites evi-
dently inclined to the side of Paganism. The dis-
tinction in regard to the Demiurge, between the
classes of Gnostic sects, is well pointed out by Nean-
der: "The Ophitic system," says he, "represented
the origin of tlie Demiurge, who is here named lalda-
baoth, in altogether the same way as the Valeuti-
nian ; moreover, in the doctrine of his relation to the
higher system of the world, it is easy to mark the
transition-point between the two systen.s. 'I'he Va-
lentinian Demiurge is a limited being, who in his
limitation imagines he acts with independence. The
hisher .system of the world is at first tmknown to
him ; he serves as its unconscious nistrnment. In
the ph.enomena, or appearances coming from that
100
lAPETUS— IBIS.
higher world, he is at first bewildered and tlirown
into amazement ; not, however, on account of his
malignity, but his ignorance. Finally, be is attracted,
however, by the godlike, rises from bis unconscious-
ness and ignorance to consciousness, and thereafter
serves the higlier order of the world with joy. Ac-
cording to the Opbitic system, on the other hand, be
is not only a limited being, but altogether hostile to
the higher order of world, arid so remains. Tbe
higher hgbt be is possessed of in virtue of his deri-
vation from tbe Sophia, be only turns to tbe bad
purpose of strengthening bis position against tbe
higher order of tbe universe, and rendering liimself
an independent sovereign. Hence tlie purpose of
'Wisdom' is to deprive bim of tbe spiritual natures
that have flowed over into his kingdom, and to draw
them back into itself, that so laldabaoth with bis
entire creation, stripped of every rational nature,
may be given up to destruction. According to tbe
Valentinian system, on tbe contrary, tbe Deiiiinrge
constitutes through eternity a grade of rational,
moral existence, of subordinate rank indeed, but still
belonging to tbe harmonious evolution of tbe great
whole. Yet here again we can trace a relationship
of ideas in tbe two systems ; inasmuch as tbe Ophites
represent tbe Demiurge as unconsciously and invo-
luntarily subservient to Wisdom, working towards
the accomplishment of its plans, and ultimately
bringing about bis own downfall and aniiibilation.
But if laldabaoth is, without willing or knowing it,
an instrument to tbe purposes of divine wisdom, yet
this gives him no distinction, as in the Valentinian
system, but in this be is even put on a level with
absolute evil : — it does not proceed from tbe excel-
lence of bis nature, but from tbe almighty power of
the higher order of world. Even the evil spirit —
the serpent form that sprang into existence when
laldabaoth, full of hatred and jealousy towards man,
looked down into tbe Ilyle, and imaged himself on
its surface, must against bis will serve only as an
instrument to bring about tbe purposes of wisdom."
According to tbe system of tbe Ophites, tbe em-
pire over which laldabaoth rules is tbe starry world,
and through tbe influence of the stars he holds tbe
spirit of man in bondage and servitude. laldabaoth,
and tbe spirits begotten by bim, are tbe spirits
of tbe seven great planets, tbe Sun, tbe Moon, Mars,
Venus, Jujiiter, Mercury, and Saturn; and to assert
nis authority as tbe self-sub.-istent Lord and Crea-
tor, be gives orders to tbe six angels under bis com-
mand to create man after their own common image.
The order is obeyed, and man is created a huge cor-
poreal mass, but without a soul, until laldabaoth
animates it with a living soul, a portion of himself.
Thus, to the amazement and indignation of lalda-
baoth, in man was concentrated tbe light, the soul,
the reason of the whole creation. Jealous of the
newly fonned man, he endeavours to reduce In'm to
a state of blind unconsciousness, and thus of abject
submission ; but tbe mundane soul employed tbe
serpent to tempt man to disobedience. Thus the
eyes of the first man were opened, and be passed
from a state of unconscious limitation to a state
of conscious freedom. Man now renounced allegi-
ance to laldabaoth, who, to punish bim, thru.'^t liim
down from tbe region of tbe upper air, where until
now lie bad dwelt in an ethereal body, into tbe dark
earth, and banished bim into a dark body. Man is
now in a perilous situation, exposed to the evil in-
fluences not onl}' of the seven planetary spirits, but
of tbe purely wicked and material spirits. Wisdom,
however, never ceases to sujiport man's kindrei?
nature by fresh supplies of tbe higher spiritual in
fluence, and thus there is preserved in every age a
race in which tbe seeds of the spiritual nature are
saved from destruction.
lahlahaoth, the god of the Jews, was said by the
Ophites to have brought about the crucifixion ot
Jesus, because by tbe revelation of the unknown
Father be sought to subvert Judaism. After his
resurrection, they alleged .Tesus remained eighteen
months upon tbe earth, during which time he ac-
quired a clearer knowledge of tbe higher truth which
be communicated to a few of bis disciples. Upon
this he is raised by the celestial Christ to heaven,
and sits at tbe right band of laldabaoth, unobserved
by bim, for tbe purpose of receiving to himself every
spiritual nature that has been emancipated and puri-
fied by tbe redemption, and in proportion as Jesus
becomes enriched by tbe attraction to himself of
kindred natures, laldabaoth is deprived of all bis
higher virtues. The end is by means of Jesus to
procure tbe enlargement of tbe spiritual life, con-
fined in nature, and bring it back to its original
fountain, tbe mundane soul, from which all has
flowed.
lAPETUS, a Titan, a son of Uramts and Ge, and
tbe father of Prometheus. Hence he was regarded
by tbe ancient Greeks as tbe ancestor of tbe human
race.
lASO, a daughter of Asclepiiis, aiid sister of Hy-
f/eia, and worshipped among tbe ancient Greeks as
tbe goddess of recovery from sickness.
lASOXIA, a surname of Athena at Cyzicus.
IBEKIAN CHURCH. See GEonc!i.\N Church.
IBIS, a bird bold in tbe highest veneration among
the ancient Egyptians, being consecrated to Tliotb,
who is generally represented with tbe bead of an Ibis.
This bird is known in natural history as tbe Ardea
Ibif, and belongs to tbe order of birds called tbe Gnd-
latores or Waders. Its colour is entirely black ; its
beak remarkably crooked ; its neck long and flexible.
In general appearance it considerably resembles the
stork. By destroying the serpents, frogs and toads
which bred in tbe miry ground and slimy pools after
the ebbing of the Nile, it became noted for its use-
fulness ; and so higlily were its services valued, that
to kill one of these birds was a cajiital crime. Ilas-
selquist, Savigny, and others, consider tbe Ibis as
identical with the Nitmeuius albu)s of Cuvier. They
IBUM— IDEALISTS.
101
admit that it devoured the worms and insects whicli
lay scattered over the muddy nitrous precipitations
of the overflowed fields of the Egyptians ; and affirm
tliat it was held sacred, not on account of its useful-
ness in this respect, but simply as being a hierogly-
phical symbol of the Nile. It was regarded as pre-
siding over all sacred and mystical learning of the
Egyptian hierarchy, and accordingly it was often
embalmed; hence many skeletons and mummies of
this bird ai'e found in the British Museum. Tlie
Nuinenius albus was considered by Cuvier as identi-
cal with tlie Abouhaunes, a species of curlew which
was frequently seen bv Bruce on tlie banks of the
Nile.
IBUM, the marriage of a Jew with the widow of
his deceased brother, according to the arrangement
of the Law of Moses. Thus in Deut. xxv. 5, it is
expressly conunanded, " If brethren dwell together,
and one of them die, and have no child, the wife of
the dead shall not marry without unto a stranger :
her husband's brother shall go in unto her, and take
her to him to wife, and perform the duty of an hus-
band's brother unto her." See Levirate.
ICELANDERS (Religion of). See Scandina-
vians (Religion of Ancient).
ICELUS, the son of Somnus, and the brother of
Morpheus, a god believed by the ancient Romans to
preside over dreams. Ovid says that this deity was
called Icehis by the gods, but Pliohctor by men.
ICHNiEA, a surname of the ancient Greek god-
dess Themis^ derived probably from Ichnre, where
she was worshipped. Ichnaia was also a surnar''° ot
Nemesis.
ICHTHUS (Gr. a fish), a technical word some-
times used among the early Clu-istians to denote
Christ, because the initial letters of his names and
titles in Greek, Jesus Christ, the Son of God, our
Saviour, technically put together make up the name
Ichthus. This is alluded to by Tertulliau and Op-
tatus, the latter of whom alleges that from this cir-
cumstance the font in Christian churches was termed
Piscina or fish-pool. A curious allusion to this sub-
ject occurs in the work of Tertullian on Baptism,
where he says, " We fishes are born in water, con-
formable to the name of our Lord Jesus Christ,
Ichlhus, a fish ; " and Optatus, when speaking of
this technical name, says, " Tliis is the Fish," mean-
ing Christ, " which is brought down upon the waters
of the font in baptism by invocation and prayer."
ICHTIIYOCENTAURI, fish-centaurs, fabulous
beings in the ancient heathen mythology, having the
upper part of their bodies of human sliape and the
lower in the form of a fish ; besides a peculiarity
which distinguished them from Tritons, was that the
place of the hiinds was supplied with horses' feet.
ICONOCLASTS (Gr. eikon, an image, and khizo,
to break), image-breakers, a name which was given
to those who rejected the use of images in churches,
on account of tlie zeal which they occasionally dis-
played in destroying them. It was particularly ap-
plied in the eighth century to Leo the Isaurian and
liis followers, who sought in many ca.ses by deeds
of violence to show their abhoiTence of Image-Wok-
SHIP (which see).
ICONODULI AND ICONOLATRI (Gr. eikon,
an image, and diilia and lutriii, worship), terms ap-
plied to those in the eighth century whofavou.ed
the worship of images.
ICOXOSTASIS, the screen in Greek churches
which separates the holy table, prothcsis, and vestry
from the nave or body of the church. Within this
screen the clergy alone are permitted to enter;
there are even express canons to prohibit women go-
ing within it. This screen is called leonostasii, be-
cause several ikons or pictures of a sacred character
are usually painted upon it. The idea of this screen
or vail seems to have been taken from the vail which
separated the holy place from the holy of holies in
the Jewish temple.
ICOXUS, a sect of religionists in Japan, originat-
ing from an individual so esteemed for his sanc-
tity, that his devotees celebrate his festival every
year. On that occasion multitudes assemble from
all parts of the empire of Japan, imagining that he
who first sets foot in the temple is entitled to pecu-
liar blessings. The excessive anxiety of every one
to obtain this privilege sometimes leads to fatal con-
sequences from the pressure of the crowd.
IDA, a sacred mountain in Crete, celebrated
among the ancient Romans as being the nursing-
place of Jupiter. There was a mountain also, or
rather a chain of mountains, in Troas, famed as hav-
ing, according to Homer, been frequented by the
gods diu'ing the Trojan war.
\T)MA MATER, a name sometimes applied to
the goddess Cybele (which see).
ID^I DACTYLI. See Dactyli Id^i.
IDALIA, a surname of Aphrodite, derived from
the town of IdaUon in Cyprus,
IDE, one of the Idsean nymphs, to whose care
Rhea intrusted the infant Zeus. This was also the
name of one of the Idrean nymphs by whom Zeus
became the father of one of the Idcmn Dactyls.
IDEALISTS, a class of philosophic thinkers,
which has chiefly arisen in modern tiines. They
may conveniently be divided into two classes, the
subjective idealists, who absorb every thing in the
subject, the me; and the objective idealists, who re-
duce everything to the one infinite, unchangeable,
objective substance or being, of which, and in which
all things consist. The first in modern times who
laid the foundation of idealism in philosophy was
Des Cartes, who derived some of our most impor-
tant notions from the inward activity of the mind,
without any reference whatever to sensation, or to
the material world around us. By thus removing
the notion of matter to a distance, and concentrating
the whole attention of the mind upon its own innate
ideas, he brought out into peculiar prominence the
notion of the infinite and all-perfect Being. Male-
102
IDEALISTS.
bianche, pushing to its legitimate conclusions the
idealism of Dos Cartes, taught that tlie lunnaii mind
sees evei'ytliing in the Divine, and tliat Gud him-
self is our intelligible world. All secondary causes'
were thus merged in the one intinite cause, and
human liberty was lost in a continued succession of
Divine impulses. It was Spinoza, however, who de-
veloped the ultimate residts of the Cartesian princi-
ples. He absorbed both man and nature in God,
our whole individu.ality being absorbed in tlie Divine
substance, luniian freedom giving place to the most
absolute fatalism, and God being deprived of all per-
sonality, becoming synonymous with the universe,
embracing in himself alone all its endless pheno-
mena.
In England, Herbert, Cumberland, and Cudworth
came forward as advocates of the idealist system,
declaring certain connate principles or laws of na-
ture as being at the foundation of the whole social
nature of man, as well as the framework of society.
The "connate principles" of Cumberland are the
"pure conceptions" of Cudworth, and are no other
th,au the eternal truths of Plato, which existed from all
eternity in the mind of God, and towards which the
mind may ever strive to attain. With Locke com-
menced a reaction against idealism, and tlie intro-
duction of a system of sensationalism which struck
at the root of tliose fundamental principles which
are so important to the interests of morality and re-
ligion. Lord Shaftesbury was the first to point out
the dangerous intiuence of the sensiitional system of
Locke. Clarke and Butler followed with powerfid
arguments in favour of God and revealed religion
drawn from the mental and moral constitution of
man. So far all was moderate and useful. But
Bishop Berkeley appeared, setting forth a system of
extreme idealism, whicli went far to ignore the exist-
ence of an external world, and to make man live only
in a world of objectless ideas. The idealistic .system
of Berkeley, combined with tlie idealistic scepticism
of ilmne, threw tlie utmost discredit upon tlie whole
speculative philosophy of the idealists, and led to the
formation of a school of Scotch philosophy, which,
by a combination of all that was good in both the
sen.sationalist and idealist systems, tended to recon-
cile the two contlicling philosophies on the ground
of common sense.
It is Germany, however, that may properly be
considered as the native soil of Idealism. The Ger-
man mind is naturally prone to idealistic views,
which, accordingly, form the staple of tlieir most
profound philosophical systems. Previous to the
days of Leibnitz it had been a recognized axiom,
that "all that exists in the understanding, previously
existed in sensation," and to that illustrious philoso-
pher belongs the higli merit of having first made tlie
important remark, " except the understanding itself."
Hence he drew the inference that there are necessary
truths, the certainty of which is founded not on ex-
perience, but on intuition. He saw plainly that the
idealism of Des Cartes, Malebraiiclie, and Spinoza
went to deprive the universe of a cause, and to ren-
der all created things nothing more than modes of tlie
one infinite and unalterable existence. To obviate
this ditfieulty he supposed material objects to be all of
them of a compound character, consisting of monads
or ultimate atoms, eacli of them containing an inward
energy, by virtue of wliich they develop themselves
spontaneou.sly. The absolute, the original monad, is
God, from whicli all other monads have their origin,
both the conscious atoms of soul, and tlie unconsciou
atoms of matter. The atoms are all of them inde-
pendent of one another, and, therefore, can have no
mutual action and reaction. To explain this, Leib-
nitz devised the doctrine of a pre-existent harmony
whereby all the monads, thougli acting separately
and independently, act nevertheless in complete uni-
son and harmony, so as to accomplish the great pur-
pose of their creation. Thus, in the view of Leib-
nitz, God has brought into actual operation the best
possible order of tilings. "Hence again," says Mr.
Morell, " his theory of metaphysical evil, as consist-
ing simply in limitation ; of physical evil, as the re-
sult of this limitation ; and of moral evil, as being
permitted for the sake of a greater ultimate good.
Hence, lastly, his support of the doctrine of philoso-
phical necessity, as being the only kind of liberty
which is consistent with the pre-established order of
the universe. In the view, therefore, which Leili-
nitz took of the innate faculties of the human mind,
as opposed to the empiricism of Locke ; in his dy-
namical theory of matter, making it ultimately homo-
geneous with .spirit ; in his denial of the mutual
influence of the soul and the body, thus destroying,
to say the least, the necessity of the latter in account-
ing for our mental phenomena ; in all this we see
the fruitful seeds of idealism, which only needed to
be cast into a congenial soil, to expand into a com-
plete and imposing system."
But the eminent German thinker, who gave a
decided form and shape to the Idealist philosophy,
was Iinmanuel Kant. He set himself to discover
the primary elements of consciousness, and to lay
down with simplicity and clearness the possibility,
value, and extent of A jiriuri notions or intuitions.
Tlie true tests of such ajn-iori conceptions were, ac-
cording to Kant, universality and necessity, and by ap-
lying these tests we discover two universal and neces-
sary ideas attached to every perception, namely time
and ■■jxjce. Our knowledge, then, is strictly phenome-
nal under the two fixed forms of time and space ; and
all investigations into the essence of things must ne-
cess.arily be fruitless. We are furnished, according to
the philosophy of Kant, with another faculty, that of
nndvrxlamUng, which gives form and figure to the
material furnished by sensation. He discovered,
also, certain necessary forms of our understanding,
which he called categories, or fixed relations. Thus
by a close analytical investigation, he was able tc
unfold the quantity, quality, relation, and mode of ex
IDEALISTS.
nib
istence of all objects wliatever. The sensitive faculty
aftbnis the matter of a notion, ami the undei'standing
the form. That which connects the two, and which
forms the schema of oiu- notions, is Tivie. Tlie high-
est faculty in the Kantian philosophy is pure reason,
which aims at the tinal, the absolute, the uncondi-
tioned in human knowledge. " But now the best,"
to quote the language of Morell, " the most satisfac-
tory, and by far the most useful part of the Kantian
philosophy is to come, that, namely, in which he
sets aside the results of speculative reason by those
of the p?'(7ri/('a? reason. The immortality of the
soul, the freedom of the will, the existence of CTod,
and all such supersensiial ideas cannot, it is true, be
demonstrated ; but, says Kant, our reason has ncjt
only a speculative movement, it has also a prac-
tical movement, by which it regulates the conduct of
man, and does this with such a lofty bearing and
such an irresistible authority that it is impossible for
any rational being to deny its dictates. (Categori-
cal imperative.) Ideas, therefore, wiiich in theory
cannot hold good in practice are seen to have a real-
ity, because they become the cause of human actions,
an effect which could ne\'er take place if there were
not some real exi.stence to produce it.
"That man has indi.sputably a moral nature, and
that he is imperatively commanded to act according
to it, no good man will deny. But what does this
moral nature and this command to action imply ?
Manifestly it implies the freedom of the will, for
otlierwise action on moral principles is impossible ;
it implies also the existence of God, otherwise there
were a law without a lawgiver; and it implies, lastly,
a future state as the goal to which all human actions
tend. In this part of his philosophy, therefore, Kant
rendered good service to the true interests of mora-
lity; neither can we too much admire the force with
which he repels all the low, sellish, and utilitarian
grounds of morality, basing it all upon the categori-
cal imperative, the authoritative voice of the great
Lawgiver of the universe, as its everlasting founda-
tion. It is true that all these matters lie beyond the
region of actual science, but nevertheless they are
within tlie bounds of a rational faitli {vernunft-glauhe),
the dictates of which every good, virtuous, and reli-
gious mind will readily admit."
Thus Kant laid a new foundation for philosophy
upon the twofold gi'ound of the ^j!«-c 3.nilh^ practknl
reason, making scientific knowledge almost entirely
subjective.
The modern German school of philosophy is in its
true character essentially idealistic. It concerns it-
self little with the ever-changing phenomena, whe-
ther of the internal or the external world, but directs
its whole energies to the solution of the great prob-
lems which relate to the existence and the nature of
God, of the universe, and of human freedom. It
passes from the finite and the conditioned to find a
solid found.ition for all its imniiries in the intinite
and unconditioned. " The philosophy of the abso-
lute," says one of the most recent historians of mo-
dern philosophy, " that which seeks to penetrate
into the. principles of things, — although it may seem
strange to our modes and habits of thought, yet has
played a great part in the scientific history of the
world. It formed the basis of the early speculations
of tlie Asiatic world. It characterized some of tlie
most remarkable phases of the early Greek philoso-
phy, particularly that of the Eleatic school. Plato,
with all tlie lofty grandeur of his sublime spirit,
sought for the absolute, in the archetypes existing
in the Divine mind. The Alexandrine philosophers
aimed at the solution of the same problem ; ming-
ling their theories with the mysticism of tlie East,
and calling, even, to their aid, the lights of the Cluis-
tian revelation. In inore recent times Spinoza origi-
nated similar investigations, which were soon moulded
into a system of stern and uutlinchiug pantheism ;
and in him we seethe model, upon which the modern
idealists of Germany have renewed their search into
the absolute ground of all phenomena. It is, in fact,
in the various methods, by which it is supposed, that
we are coriducted to the absolute, whether by faith,
intuition, or reason, that the different phases of the
Gerinan metaphysics have originated ; and, conse-
quently, it is by keeping our eye upon this point,
that we shall possess tlie most ready key to their in-
terpretation."
Kant led the way in Germany towards subjective
idealism, but Fichte went fivr beyond Ids master in
the same direction, making self or tlie Ego the abso-
lute principle of all philosophy both intellectual and
moral. The outward universe was, in his view, no-
thing more than the reflex of our own activity. All
reasoning being thus necessarily limited within the
narrow circle of our own conscious existence, it was
plainly impossible to arrive at any .satisfactory con-
clusion in reference to the existence of God. Nature
and God alike disappeared in the system of Fichte ;
and self, or the Ego became the sole existence in the
universe. At this point the idealism of Germany
reached its climax and consummation. In his later
years, Fichte felt the dilTiculty, if not the impossibil-
ity, of maintaining the position in which he had tit
first entrenched himself. If self is the sole absolute
existence by which the whole universe is constructed,
the question naturally arises, What is the foundation
of tills activity of the Ego, which we terni mind ? Is
there not something real at the foundation of these
subjective phenomena? Questions of tliis kind led
to a modification by Fichte of his philosophical sys-
tem, by introducing another absolute principle be-
sides the Ego or self. Hence the philosophy of
Identity, which, though originating with Fichte, was
afterwards matured and systematized by Schelling.
Self was no longer viewed as the one absolute exist-
ence, but the one absolute existence was now as
serted to belong both to the subject and the object,
the me and the nnt-me, self and the universe, both of
which are identical, being alike manifestations of one
104
IDEALISTS.
mid tlio same absolute Divine mind, or actual modili-
cations of the Divine essence. God and tlie uni-
verse, as well as God and self are pronounced to be
identical : " This intiuite Bdni], containing every-
thing in itself potentially which it can afterwards
become actually, strives by the law which we have
above indicated after self-development. By the first
movement (the potence of reflection) it embodies its
own infinite attributes in the finite. In doing this,
it produces finite objects, i. e. finite reflections of it-
self, and thus sees itself objectified in the forms and
productions of the material world. This first mo\e-
ment then gives rise to the philosophy of nature.
The second movement (potence of subsumption) is
the regress of the finite into the infinite; it is na-
ture, as above constituted, again making itself abso-
lute, and reassuming the form of the Eternal. Tlie
result of this movement is mind, as existing in man,
which is nothing else than nature gradually raised to
a state of consciousness, and attempting in that way
to return to its infinite form. The combination of
these two movements (the potence of reason) is the
reunion of the subject and object in divine reason ;
it is God, not in his original or potential, but in his
unfolded and realized existence, forming the wliole
universe of mind and being."
According to this extreme idealistic system, there
is no dirterence between God and the Universe.
Tlie system was as completely as that of Spinoza, a
system of absolute pantheism, and the whole uni-
verse, both of nihid and matter, was made one neces-
sarily acting machine. Schelling felt that his philo-
sophy was liable to this serious and even fatal
objection, and after revolving the whole subject more
maturely, he gave to the world his Positive Fhih-^o-
phy, as he called his new system, in opposition to his
former views, which he termed his Negative Philoso-
phy. The one system was not intended to contradict,
but to complete and perfect the other.
The following admirable resume of Schelling's new
or positive philosophy is given by Morell : " In
order to rise above the pantheistic point of view, we
must distinguish between the Absolute, as ground of
»11 things, and Godhead, as one particular manifesta-
tion of it. The primary form of the Absolute is will
or self-action. It is an absolute power of becoming
in reality wliat it is in the germ. The second form
in wliicli it appears is that of being ; i. e. the realiza-
tion of what its will or power indicated to Ije pos-
sible. But as yet there is no personality, no Deity
properly so called. For this we must add the further
idea of freedom, which is the power tliat the Abso-
lute possesses of remaining either in its first or its
second potence, as above stated. In this unity,
whieh contains the three ideas of action, of e.xistence,
and of freedom, consists the proper idea of God. God,
before the existence of the world, is the undeveloped,
imiiersonal, absolute essence, from which all things
proceed; it is only «/to- this essence is developed^
and has passed successively into the three states of
action, of objective existence, and of freedom, that
he attains personalit}', and answers to tlie proper no-
tion of Deity.
" With regard to creation, we can now explain the
existence of the world witliout identifying it with
Deity, as is done in the ordinary pantheistic hypo-
thesis. The absolute is the real ground of all things
that exist, but the absolute is not yet Deity. That
element in it, which passes into the creation and
constitutes its essence, is not the whole essence of
Deity ; it is not that part of it which, peculiai-ly
speaking, makes it divine. The material world
then, is simply one form or potence in which the
absolute cliooses to exist; in which it freely deter-
mhies to objectify itself, and consequently is only
one step towards the realization of tlie full concep-
tion of Deity, as a Divine Person.
" Man is the summit of the creation — he is that
part of it in which the absolute sees himself most
fully portrayed as the perfect image or type of tlie
hifinite reason. In him, objective creation lias taken
the form of subjectivity ; and hence he is said, in
contradistinction to everytliiug else, to have been
formed in the image of God.
"To solve the problem of moral evil, we must
keep in mind, that man, though grounded in the ab-
solute, still is not identified with Deity ; since the
divine element, namely, the unity of the three poten-
cies of the original essence, is wanting to him. Still,
man bears a perfect resemblance to God, and there-
fore must be fee, and fully capable of acting, if he
choose, against his own destiny. This actually took
place, inasmuch as he attempted, like God, to create,
.separating the three potencies, which were shadowed
forth in him as the image of Deity, and not being able
in doing so to retain their unity. Hence the will of
man was removed from the centre of the divine will,
attempted to act independently, and brought confu-
sion and moral obliquity into his nature. Man would
become like a God, and by attempting to do so, he
lost the very image of God which he did possess."
The idealist views of Fichte and Schelling, though
agreeing in some respects, start from two different
and even opposite points ; the former setting out
from the subjective, and the latter from the objec-
tive, the one regarding self as the absolute, the other,
the infinite and eternal mind. Hegel, however, has
cjirried to its extreme limit the idealism of Germany.
He denies the existence alike of the subject and the
object, self and the universe, and considers the only
real existence to be the relation between the two,
and the universe tlierefore to be a universe of rela-
tions. God, instead of being an absolute and self-
existent reality, is a constantly developing process,
manifesting itself in the progress of the human con-
scioiisne.ss. He is an eternally advancing process oi
thinking, going onward in a threefold movement, the
first, being thought simply considered in itself, the
second, thought in its objective aspect, which is na-
ture, and ihe lliird, thought returning to itself, which
IDENTITY (Philosophy of)— IDOL.
IOd
is mind. Tluis witli Ilegel, God is not a person, but
a series of tlioughts of an eternal mind.
Gei-many, during the last quarter of a century, has
been the scene of an almost uninterrupted struggle
between Bible theologians and Atheistic or rather
Pantheistic Idealists. Nowhere else has the perni-
cious influence of Idealism upon the religion of a
country been felt so sensibly as in Germany. Tliere
we find a class of writers terming themselves Ra-
tionalists, and carrying with them a large body of
intelligent and thouglitful men, who have reasoned
themselves into a rejection of the whole objective
element of Christianity, leaving nothing but the a
priori religious conceptions of the human mind. And
even these original conceptions are not left intact by
tliis baneful philosophy. The belief in the existence
of a God, for example, what does it become in tlie
hands of a German idealist, who has arrived at the
conviction that God is one with the universe itself?
Such a natural theology is nothing less than pure
unblushing infidelity in a ditlerent form from that
which it was wont to assimie. The infidel has often
declared that God is the universe, and the modern
German Idealist affirms that the nni\erse is God. In
both cases alike, the one personal God is lost in a
vague abstraction which can neither attract oiu" love
nor awaken our fears.
For a time, in consequence of the extreme views
put forward by Strauss and the Tubingen school, a
reaction took place, and idealism began to lose its
prestige and influeuce, but between 1844 and 1848,
in Northern Germany more especially, the system
was revived in its worst forms by the Friends of
Lifjht, headed by Uhlich of Magdobm-g, and the Ger-
man CallioUc', headed by Konge. This movement,
though it excited a gi-eat sensation while it lasted,
was fortunately only temporary in its diu-ation ; and
for some years past Idealistic Infidelity has been
giving place throughout almost every jjart of Ger-
many to a practical Christianity, which, by means
of Young Men's Associations, Inner Missions, and
other religious and philanthropic movements, is rap-
idly dlii'using a love of evangelical truth among all
classes of the people. See Hegelians, Infidels,
Intuitionists.
IDENTITY (Philosophy of), that system of
philosophical belief which originated in Germany in
the present century witli Fichte, and was carried out
to its full extent by Schelling, whereby an entire
identity was maintained to ex.ist between God and
the Universe. See Ide.\lists.
IDINI, the term used to denote sacrifice among
the Kafirs. This rite is performed to their ancestors,
not to the Supreme Being. They seem to think that
by burning fiu or rather bones to them, they can
appease their anger. The Idini was rarely prac-
tised, and only in cases where they wished to avert
some apprehended evil.
IDIOTjE (Gr. private men), a name applied by
some of the early Christian writers to the private
II.
members of the church as distinguished from the
clergy and those who held public office in the church.
The same term was applied by the Jews to private
judges or arbiters, chosen by private parties to settle
disputes, and they received the name of Idiotcc, be-
cause they weie the lowest rank of judges, and not
settled as a standing court by the Sanhedrim.
IDMON, a son of ^-l|)o?to and Asteria, worsln'pped
by the Megarians and Boeotians at Heracleia as the
protector of the place.
IDOL, a fancied representation of a heathen god.
According to the popular traditions of ancient
Greece, there never was a time when the gods had
not a visible representation of one fomi or another.
It is probable indeed, that for a long period there
existed in Greece no other statues than those of the
gods. According to Eusebius, the Greeks were not
worshippers of images before the time of C'ecrops,
who first of all erected statues to Minerva. Plu-
tarch informs us, that Numa forbade the Romans to
represent the deity under the form of a man or an
.inimal. Lucian says that the ancient Egyptians
had no statues in their temples, and Herodotus af-
firms that the ancient Persians had no images of
their gods, while Caesar alleges that the Gennans
had few. Tacitus, speaking of the last-mentioned
people, says, "Their deities were not immured in
temples, nor represented under any kind of resem-
blance to the human fonn. To do either, were in
their opinion to derogate from the majesty of supe-
rior beings."
Idols were probably at fii-st of the rudest form,
being nothing more than shapeless blocks of wood or
stone. TliePhceiiicums indeed in very remote times
worsliipped the B.etylia (which see), or large me-
teoric stones which had fallen from the atmosphere,
and which were believed to be sent down by the
gods themselves as their images. Hence the.se
stones were sometimes called heaven-stones. Tlie
worship of the Bietylia, however, was not hmited to
the Phoenicians ; a holy stone was lield as sacred to
Cijheh in Galatia; another to the sxm-goA Helioga-
haliis in Syria; and another still to Apollo at the
temple of Delphi. Jablonski also declares that the
jirincipal idol among tlie ancient Arabians was a square
black stone, four feet high, and two feet broad, to
which they gave the name of Dysares. In the same
category may be classed the Kaaba of the modem
Mohammedans.
From the barbarous and uncouth aiipearance of
the idols of many heathen tribes, it m.ay be inferred
that the earliest ellbrts of the theopoioi or god-makers
must have been sufficiently unartistic. And yet
from several passages in the Iliad of Homer, we
learn, that both temples and statues of tl'» gods ex-
isted in the early ages of Grecian histt v. The
lonians of Asia Minor were more especially remark-
able for their sculptured representations o' the gods.
Tlie first ertbrts at statuary, both in the C( .onies and
in the mother country of Greece, were undoubtedly
K
106
IIWL.
Bt.itues of tlicir di\ inities. For private and domes-
tic devotion, ratlier I lian pnljlic worship, idols were
constructed of baked clay. Tliose whicli were de-
signed to be i)laced in temples were composed more
generally of wood, but afterwards of marble and
bronze, executed in what is called the archaic or
hieratic style, which was so scrupulously followed for
a long period that Greek art in this department was
stationary. The ancient forms of the gods were
strictly preserved, even when improvement had taken
place in the material of which they were composed,
wood being exchanged for marble, bronze, ivory, and
even gold. In one class of statues of the gods, those
namely which were dedicated in the temples as ana-
tlieinata, no such rigid adherence to traditionary cus-
tom was demanded, and here, accordingly, artists gra-
dually I'ose to a higlier style of art. When Athens,
however, in the end of the fifth and beginning of the
fourth century before Christ, became the centre of
the tine arts in Greece, statuary became emancipated
from its ancient restrictions, and the representations
of the gods were executed in a style of surpassing
beauty approaching even to the sublime. The sta-
tue of Pallas by Phidias, and much more that of the
Olympian Zeus by the same artist, were universally
admired. After the Pelopounesian war, the school
of Scopas and Praxiteles arose, which was for a time
considered as superior even to that of Phidias ; but
though their female statues were probably unrivalled,
the productions of this school, generally speaking,
failed to atiect the mind of the spectator with those
pure and ennobling feelings Vhich were excited by
the contemplation of the statues which came from
the hand of Phidi.as. In the \arious kingdoms which
arose out of the conquests of Alexander the Great,
statues of the gods were seldom made, and the arts
both of painting and statuary finding ample scojie in
secular objects, ceased to direct their exclusive or
even their happiest efl'orts to representations of pa-
gan deities. Nay, the vanity of kings tended to in-
troduce a new kind of statues, the bust of a king
being sometimes placed upon the body of a statue of
a god. Etruscan art combined the Grecian style of
st.-ituary with the old Asiatic or Babylonian, which,
while it constructed idols of a colossal size, formed
them of a composite cliaracter of beasts and men,
being intended rather as typical and emblematic
figures than statues of gods.
The Romans are believed to have had no images
of the gods before the time of the first Taivpn'n ; and
for a long time after that period they were indebted
to Ktruscan artists for their statues of wood or clay.
The earliest metal statue of a deity is asserted by
Pliny to liave been a statue of Ceres, about B. C.
485. Livy, however, mentions a metal colossal
statue of Jupiter Capitolinus, as having been made
about B. c. 490. During the Empire, artists some-
times flattered the Emperors by representing them
in statues umier a deified character, and the ladies of
the imperial family as goddesses.
The introduction of Chri.stianity, and more espe-
cially its establishment in the Roman Empire in the
fourth century of our era, proved the destruction of
pagan idols, however skilfully and elegantly formed.
This crusade against the statues of the gods com-
menced in the latter part of the reign of Conslantine,
and continued gradually to advance, until under
Theodosius the Younger it pervaded all j.arts of the
Empire. Not that the Christians despised the arts,
or were incapable of appreciating aesthetic excellence
whether in painting or in sculpture, but their hos-
tility to pagan idols was wholly of a religious nature.
Tliey detested idolatry, even though decorated with
the most attractive charms of artistic beauty. It is
enough to point to the remarkable progress of art in
the middle ages, in order to vindicate Christianity
from the charge which has sometimes been ignorantly
brought against it, that the spirituality of its charac-
ter has rendered it the enemy of the fine arts.
Idols, in the early ages, were usually coloured not
so much from a love of ornament as to convey em-
blematic truths. On this subject Mr. Gross makes
the following judicious remarks : " The colours of
the images of the gods were usually of symbolical
import, and tliey seem to reqm're a brief notice
in this place, as they are a constituent element of
iconology. According to Winckelmann, ' On Alle-
gory,' Bacchus was clad in a red or scarlet robe,
the emblem of wine, or as some .suppose, of the
victory which the jolly god achieved over man-
kind when he introduced among them many of the
arts and comforts of life. Pan, Priapus, the Sa-
tyrs, etc., were likewise painted red, and Plutarch
assures us that red was originally the prevailing col-
oiu' of the idols. Osiris — the personification of t!ie
solar year of the Egyptians — was represented in a
painting of vast dimensions, with a blue face and
blue arms and feet, and resting on a black ground ;
symbolical of the sun in its subterrestrial orbit.
Black and blue also distinguished the portrait of tlie
planetary god Saturn, and were tyi)ical of the sun in
Capricorn, or its southern declension to the zone of
sable Etliio))ia. As the king of the lower regions,
Serapis was painted black among the Egyptians,
while the image of Jupiter among the same people,
was ash-grey or scarlet ; that of Mars a red stone,
anil Venus's dyed with the same colour ; that of
AjioUo shone in the lustrous hue of gold, and Jler-
cury's was covered with the modest blue. The
natural colours of the stones of which the images of
the gods were formed, were often selected on ac-
count of their allegorical significance. Thus that
indefatigable traveller, Pausanias, informs us that the
river-gods of the ancients were made altogether of
white marble, and that only for the statue of the
Nile, a black stone was chosen to denote the Ethio])ic
origin of the fluviatile divinity : a Nilic bust in the
Napoleon-museum confirms this statement. Agree-
ably to their cosmogony, the Hindoos selected the
dark-blue colour to typify water as the primordial
IDOLATERS.
lOi
element of creation. Hence this colour also desig-
naterl Narajan, tlie mover of the primitive waters.
Accorrliiig to Jones' Disserlations rehitiiir/ to Asia,
a handsome image of (his god wronglit in blue niar-
lile, might be seen at Catmandii, the principal city
of Nepal, in a reclining attitude, and in the act of
swimming. On the first of January, the lloman
consul, clothed in a wliite toga, and mounted upon a
wliite horse, rode up to tlie Capitol : it was in honour
of Jupiter, who — as we learn from Pherecydes, was
adored there as the sun-god of the Romans, as also
in commemoration of the victory of that deity over
the giants, when the many-eyed and many-handed
Briareus — winter, as the mischievous leader of tlie
rebellions host, was himself most signally defeated.
This consular ceremony presented the living image
of the solar deity, imbued with the hue of hglit.
Finally, Ceres was the black or the ret\dgent god-
dess, accordingly as she spent her time in the hadean
or supernal regions ; and Vesta, as the earth, was
green, wliile in her capacity of fire-goddess, the col-
oiu' of flame defined and illustrated her divinity."
The idea which heathens generally have formed
of idols is, that after they are consecrated with
certain ceremonies the gods come down and take
up tlieir abode in them, so that the images are
honoured as the mansions of tlie gods. And Au-
gustin, giving an accoimt of the opinions of the
Egyptian Hermes Trismegistus, says, " He main-
tained images to be, as it were, the bodies of the
gods ; certain spirits had their residence in them,
having been invited thither by their worshippers,
and had great power in granting tlie prayers and
bringing about such things as were requested of
them. This uniting of invisible spirits with images,
and forming them into one animated Ijody, he termed
the making of gods: and held that there were people
who were masters of that great and wonderful art."
Tliis was tlie common opinion among the heathens.
Dr. Pococke asserts, that the adoration wliich the
ancient Ai-abs paid their gods was founded on this
indwelling principle ; and he informs us from their
writers that when Mohammed and his followers
destroyed their idols at Mecca, they believed tlie
spirits wliich dwelt in them were to be seen in tears
bewailing and lamenting their condition as being de-
prived of their earthly abodes.
n)OLATERS, worshippers of idols, or persons
who ascribe to created objects qualities and attrilxites
peculiar to the Creator. It is difficult to ascertain
at wliat precise period mankind began to swerve
from the worship of the only true God into idolatry.
There is some reason to believe that the Antedilu-
vian world was not altogetlier free from this heinous
sin. In Gen. vi. 11, we are told that " the earth
also was corrupt before God," which is interpreted by
the Jewisli doctors as referring to the prevalence of
impurity or idolatry. And when it is said, in refer-
ence to the days of Enos, llie son of Seth, " Then
began men to cdl upon the name of the Lord,"
Maimonides and tlie Raljbis generally translate the
passage thus: " Tiien was there profanation by in-
voking the name of the Lord," imiilyiug in their
view tliat the name of God was given to creatures.
But whetlier such a rendering of this jjassage be
allowable or not, a comparison of Gen. vi. .5, with
Rom. i. 23, seems to favour the notion that idolatry
was practised before the Flood. And Sanchoniatho,
one of the oldest of profane writers, states, tliat the
snn came to be worshipped in the second generation
from Adam, and pillars or rude stones in the fifth
generation, and statues and eminent persons in the
ninth.
Soon after the Deluge we find idolatry prevailing
in the world. The family of Abraham wonsliipiied
idols beyond the river Euphrates in Ur of the Chal-
dees, and Laban of Mesopotamia had teraphim or
idols, which Rachel secretly carried with her when
she left her father's house. The Egyptians were
given to idolatry before Jacob and his sons went
down thither ; and from Josh. xxiv. 14, it appears
plain that the Israelites served idols in the land of
Egypt. On their departure from the land of bond-
age, we find them worslii]i])ing idols, and when they
liad settled in the land of Canaan, they adopted va-
rious deities, which were worshipped by the Canaan-
ites and other neighbouring nations.
The first of the Jewish kings who introduced
idolatry as a national worship was Solomon, who
not only himself served strange gods, but caused
temples to be erected throughout the country in
their honour, and burnt incense to them. Jero-
boam, who headed the rebellion of the ten tribes, set
up the worsliip of two golden calves, one at Bethel,
and the other at Dan. Nor was the king of Judah
guiltless of this gross sin ; on the contrary, his peo-
ple excelled their fathers in the homage which thev
paid to false gods, for we are told 1 Kings xiv. 23,
that " they also built them high places, and images,
and groves, on every high hill, and under every
green tree." Many of the kings f Judah were
idolaters, but Aliaz surpassed tliem all. He walked
in the ways of the kings of Israel, made molten
images of Baalim, and it is related of him in 2 Kings
xvi. 3, " But he walked in the way of the kings of
Israel, yea, and made his son to pass through the
fire, according to the abominations of the heathen,
whom the Loi-d cast out from before the children of
Israel." The brazen serpent which Moses had made
at the command of God liad been converted into an
idol, and incense was burned to it, but Ilezekiah, in
his zeal for the worship of the true God, broke it in
pieces, and called it Neluishtan, a mere piece of
brass. The succeeding princes vied with each other
in their attachment to idols with the honourable ex-
ception of good king Josiah. After the return of
the Jews, however, from their seventy years' ca]iti-
vity in Babylon, they wholly renounced idolatry by
the advice of Ezra and Nelicmiah.
The earliest form of idolatry was that which ii
lOS
IDOLATiCnS.
known by tlie name of Tscihaitmi, or the worsliip of
tlie heavenly bodies, namely, the sun, moon, and
stars. This seems to liave prevailed among the Ba-
bylonians, Chaldeiuis, and Assyrians. To that may
have succeeded the worship of the elements, particu-
larly of tire, which was practised at an early period
in Chaldca and Persia. " Each element," says Mal-
let in his Northern Antiqiuties, " was, according to
the faith of primeval man, under the guidance of
some being peculiar to it. The earth, the water, the
lire, the air, the sun, moon, and stars, had each their
respective divinity. The trees, forests, rivers, moun-
tains, rocks, winds, thunder, and tempests, had the
same ; and merited on that score a religious worship,
which at iii-st coidd not be directed to the visible ob-
ject, but to the intelligence with which it was ani-
mated."
An idea has prevailed among almost all heathen
nations, that the authority and inllueuce of the
gods were limited to particular localities. Hence in
2 Kings xvii. 26, tlie colonists sent by the king of
Assyria to Samaria, attributed a severe calamity with
which they were visited to their ignorance of the
manner of the local deities. " Wherefore they spake
to the king of Assyria, saying. The nations which
thou hast removed, and placed in the cities of Sama-
ria, know not the manner of the God of the land :
therefore he hath sent lions among them, and, be-
hold, they slay them, because they know not the
manner of the God of the land." And again, 1 Kings
XX. 23, we find the servants of the king of Syria en-
deavouring to persuade their master that the gods of
the Israelites were gods of the hills oidy, and not of
the plain. The same notion seems to have per\aded
the whole mythology of Greece and Rome ; for
while the higher deities were regarded as having a
more extensive range of authority in every separate
department of nature, e\ery city or single locality
had its owii special authority who presided o\er it.
The greater deities also were imagined sometimes
to clothe themselves in the bodies of men, and
quitting Olympus for a time, to hold converse with
the hihabitants of earth. Hence the exclamation in
Acts xiv. 11, "The gods are come down to us in the
likeness of men." In any great emergency it has
been the custom of all heutlien nations to seek to
propitiate the favour of one or other of the gods ;
and any sudden deliverance or special event, whether
wearing a good or evil aspect, has been generally
ascribed to the interposition of their deities.
In the early Christian church, idolatry was ac-
counted one of the great crimes which were punished
with excommimication. There were several degrees
of the sin. Some went openly to the heathen tem-
ples, and there oU'ered incense to the idols, and were
partakers of the sacrifices. Cyprian often stylus
such persons uicrificuti and t/iiinjiatii ; and he
draws a distinction between those who not only
themselves sacrificed, but compelled their wives and
children and servants to go and sacrilicc along witli
them; and those who, to deliver their famiUes and
friends from persecution, went to sacrifice themselves
alone. The latter he considered as less aggravated
tnuisgressors. In the same view of the case, the
council of Ancyra, in its fourth canon, orders, " that
they who were compelled to go to an idol temple, if
they went with a cheerful air, and in a festival habit,
and took share of the feast with unconcenieilness,
should do six years' penance, one as hearers only,
three as prostrators, and two as co-standers to hear
the prayers, before they were admitted to full com-
munion again. But if they went in a mourning habit
to the temple, and wept all the time they eat of the
sacrifice, then four years' penance should be sufficient
to restore them to perfection." The eighth canon of
the same council order.s, "Those who repeated their
crime by sacrificing twice or thrice, to do a longer
penance ; for seven years is ajipointed to be their
term of discipfine." And by the ninth canon, " If any
not only sacrificed themselves, but also compelled
their brethren, or were the occasion of compelling
thetn, then they were to do ten years' penance, as
guilty of a more heinous wickedness." The seventh
canon, however, assigns only two years' penance to
those who neither sacrificed nor eat tlungs offered to
idols, but only their own meat on a heathen festival
in an idol temple. In extreme cases, where a pro-
fessing Christian lapsed into idolatry voluntarily, and
without compulsion, severe punishment was indicted.
By one of the Nicene canons, they were appointed
to undergo twelve years' penance before they were
perfectly restored again to full commiunon. The
council of Valence in France goes farther, and obliges
them to do penance all their lives, and only to re-
ceive absolution in the hour of death. The council
of Eliberis goes beyond even this, and denies such
deliberate apostates communion in the very last ex-
tremity; declaring, "That if any Christian took
upon him the office o( Jiaineii or Koman priest, and
therein ofi'ered sacrifice, doubling and trebling his
crime by murder and adidtery, he should not be re-
ceived to commimion at the hour of death."
i^iothcr class of professing Christians who lapsed
into idolatiy, and were in consequence charged with
renouncing the faith, received the name of LihcUaticl,
from certain libels or writings, which they either
gave to the heathen magistrates or received from
them, in order to be excused from doing sacrifice in
public. Some of this order of idolaters gave a writ-
ten statement subscribed with their own hands, de-
claring themselves not to be Christians, and profess-
ing their readiness to sacrifice wdien allied by the
magistrate to do so. Others, in order to screen
themselves from an open avowal of apostasy, sent a
heathen friend or servant to sacrifice in their names,
and tlius to procure a written testimoniid, which
nnght make them pass for heathens. Others, still,
confessed openly to the heathen magistrates that
they were Christians, and could luit sacrilicc to idols,
but at the same time they ofi'ered a bribe to obtain
IDUNA— IFAYS.
109
a libel of security. Cases actually occuiTed of Chris-
tians who feigned madness to avoid being called
upon to oiTer sacrifice, and it sometimes happened
that individuals would go forward to the heathen
altar as if to offer sacrifice, and would fall down sud-
denly, as if in an epileptic fit, in order to excite the
compassion of the magistrate, and lead him to ex-
empt them from the performance of tlie heathen rite.
This wa.s of course looked upon by tlie church as an
act of dissimulation, and by the penitential rules of
Peter, bishop of Alexandria, the perscuis who were
guilty of it were subjected to penance for six months.
And not only those who were directly chargeable
with sacrificing to idols, but all who in any way pro-
moted or encouraged or even connived at idolatrous
practices, were visited more or less severely with
ecclesiastical censures. Tims the trade of making
idols for the heatlien was accounted by the early
Christians a scandalous profession, and no man who
lived by such a calling could be admitted to bajitism,
luiless he promised to renounce it. Tertullian
charges it as a great crime upon Hermogenes, that
he followed the trade of painting images for idola-
trous worship. From the remarks of Tertullian in
his book on Idolatry, it would appear that in his
time the discipline of the church in regard to idol-
makers was so lax, tliat such ofi'enders were permit-
tod not only to communicate, but to take orders in
the church. The same Fatlier considers those in-
volved in the cliarge of idolatry, who contributed
toward the worship of idols, eitlier by erecting altars,
or building temples, or making shrines, or bcaiitify-
ing and adorning idols. He denounces also those
whom he terms purveyors for idolatry, among whom
he includes all merchants selling frankincense to the
idul-temples, and all who made a trade of buying and
selling tlie public victims.
At a very early period in the history of the
Christian church, a dispute arose as to the lawful-
ness or unlawfulness of eating meats offered in sacri-
fice to idols. The apostle Paul, in 1 Cor. viii.,
places the question in a clear and convincing light.
lie admits that an idol is nothing, and that which is
offered in sacrifice to idols is nothing, or of no im-
portance, absti-actly considered. But much depends
upon the circumstances in whioli the action is per-
formed. If a Christian man enters an idol temple,
and there sits down with idolaters, partaking of their
feast upon tliat which has been sacrificed to idols, he
is plaiidy guilt}' of an abuse of his Christian liberty,
a direct encouragement of idolatry, and an offence
against the conscientious scruples of his Christian
brethren. In the Acts of Lncian the martyr, he is
said to have chosen rather to die with hunger than
to eat things ofl'ered to idols, when his persecutors
would allow him no other sustenance in prison. In
doing so Lucian acted on clear Christian principle,
well knowing tliat his heathen enemies wished to in-
volve him in what they considered a connivance at
dolatry. And Baronius, in his Annals, gives a simi-
lar instance in the case of the Christians of Constan-
tino])le, who, when Julian the Apostate had ordered
all the meat in the shambles to be polluted wUh
idolatrous lustrations, firndy and resolutely abstained
from purchasing the polluted food, and used boiled
corn instead of bread, thus defeating the intention of
the Emperor. It was regarded even as a breach of
Christian duty to be present at an idol-sacrifice
through mere curiosity, although no active part was
talcen in it, — an indirect encouragement of idolatry
which was forbidden by the council of Eliberis, under
the penalty of ten years' penance. And the council
of Ancyra made a decree, that such as feasted with
the heathen upon any idol festival, in any place set
apart for tliat service, though tliey carried their own
meat and eat it there, should do two years' penance
for it. Among the Apostolical canons there is one
which forbids Christians to carry oil to any heathen
temple or Jewish synagogue, or to set up lights on
their festivals, under the penalty of excommunication.
Every kind of idolatry was visited in the primitive
ages with the censures of the church. Thus the
Anrjdici were accounted heretics for worshipping
angels ; the Smoiuan.<i and Carpocraiuins for wor-
shipping images ; and the Colhjrklians for worship-
ping the Virgin Mary. Nay, so far does Tertullian
carry his views of this suliject that he determines it
to be a species of idolatry for a schoolmaster to
teach the names of the heathen gods to his scholars,
or for a Christian to bear arms or fiy in times of per-
secution. But while sucli Citreme opinions are no-
where found in the writings of tlie earlier Christian
fathers, one great principle pervades tlie whole, that
no creature, of whatsoever excellence, was to be wor-
shipped with religious worship except the Living
and the True God. Idolatry of every kind was viewed
with the utmost abliorrence, and called down the
heaviest spiritual censures which the Church could
inriiet.
IDRIS. See Edris.
IDUNA, the wife of Bragi, (whicli see) in the
Scandinavian mythology. She is alleged to keep in
a box the apples which the gods, when they feel old
age approaching, have only to taste to become young
again. Thus they are kept in renovated youth.
IDYA, the knowing goddess among the ancient
Greeks, the daughter of Oceanus !av\ Tctliys, and the
wife of .(Eetes the king of Colchis.
IFAYS, wooden tablets among the Japanese of a
peculiar shape, containing inscriptions commemora-
tive of the dead, mentioning the date of his decease,
and the name given to him since that event. The
ifays are carried in the funeral procession along
with the body to the grave, and one of them is
placed over it, remaining there for seven weeks,
when it is removed to make way for the gi-ave-stone.
Another of the ifays is set up during the period of
mourning in the best apartment of the house of the
deceased. Sweetmeats, fruits, and tea are placed
before it, and morning, noon, and night, food is of
110
IGLAU (Treaty of)— ILAIII.
fered to it, served up as to a living ]ierson. Two
candles, fixed in candlesticks, burn before it, niglit
and day, and a lighted lantern is luing up on eitlier
side. The whole household of both sexes, including
the servants, praj' before it morning and evening.
This is kept up for seven weeks, and diu-ing each
week a priest attends each day and reads hymns for
an hour before the Ifmj. He is each time supplied
with ornaments and paid a fee of from five to six
mas.
IGLAU (Treaty of), a celebrated compact rati-
fied at Iglau in Bohemia, whicli closed the long pro-
tracted war between the Hitusite-: and the Roman
Cittholic.'!. The date of this treaty is the 30th No-
vember 1433. See Hus.sites.
IGNATIUS (St.) Festival of, a festival ob-
served by tlie Greek church on the 20th December
annually, in honour of Ignatius, the Christian mar-
tyr, who peri.slied in the reign of Trajan, in the be-
ginning of the second century.
IGXISPICIUM, a species of divination practised
by the ancient Romans, consisting of observations
m.ade on the flames ascending from the sacrificial
altar. See Divination.
IKONOBORTSI, a small sect of dissenters from
the Russo-Greek Church (wliich see), who are so
violently opposed to images, that they will not suffer
even pictures in their places of worship ; and re-
nounce all superstitious reverence for the buildings
themselves, declaring their steadfasj adherence to
the scriptural statement, that the Almighty dwelleth
not in temples ni.ade with hands. They rest tlieir
rejection of pictures ,and images on the second coni-
niandinont.
IKO-SIU, the sect of the worshijipers of Amidas,
(which see), the most numerous and powerful ecclesi-
astical body in Jap.an. See Japan (Religion of).
ILAIII (.\rab. the divine) OF Akbar, a system of
philoso])hic Deism introduced by Akbar, the em-
peror of Delhi, who ascended the throne in 1556,
and reigned for the long period of fifty-one years.
His desire was to found a new creed on the basis of
universal toleration, so as to combiue in one religious
body the Hindus, Mohammedans, and Chri-stians,
along with the followers of Zoroaster. Ilis object,
in establishing a new creed, was both political and
religious ; he was the oidy one of the Delhi emperors
who regarded India as his country, and who sought
to efl'ace from tlu! memory of the Hindus that they
were a conquered people. He hoped that the adop-
tion of a new and common creed would efface the
distinction between the concjuerors and the con-
(piered ; but the task w.as too mighty for even impe-
rial resources, and his project perished with him, the
Mohammedan .system being revived under the aus-
pices of Jehangln'r, Akbar's son and successor.
By means of the connnercial establLshinents of
the Saracens in the Indian Ocean, a knowledge
of the Mohannnedan faith had, even in the ninth
century, been diffused anu)ng some minor tribes
on the coasts of the Indian peninsula. The creed
of Islam, however, though extensively prevalent
in the northern provinces, lias never penetrated
to the soutliern parts. About A. D. 1000, the
Sultan Mahmiid, the fir.st great mon,arch of the
Ghizui dynasty, entered India, and effected a per-
manent establi.shment in the north-west, destroying
the Hindu temples and idols, and erecting mosques
in all the chief towns of the district. At first the
usual warlike measures were adopted to compel the
people to renounce the Brahmanical creed, and adopt
that of Islam. Soon, however, a system of niutu 1
toleration was adopted, which continued to be main-
tained after the Mongolian conipiest, the effect of
which was, that a mixture to some extent of the two
creeds took place, the Jlohammedans, on the one
hand, adopting some Brahmanical practices, and
many of the prejudices of caste, and the Hindus, on
the other, learning to speak with respect of Moham-
med and the propliets of Isl.im.
When Akbar mounted the throne of tlie Mogul
emperors, in the sixteenth century, he was only
fourteon years of age ; but being of an active in-
quiring mind, he was early led to forsjike Mohain-
medanism, and although ignorant of the pure Chris-
tian faith, lie was still disposed to favour the Gos-
pels rather than the Koran. It did not escape his
observant eye that the adlierents of two religions
so essentially different as Brahmanism and Islamism
lived, nevertheless, in harmony and peace, as they
had done for nearly six hundred years before, to-
lerating, and even apparently respecting, one an-
other's faith. In these circumstances, with a mind
natin-ally inclined to liberality, or rather latitudi-
n.irianism, he bethouglit himself of framing a new
religion, which might combine his whole subjects
in one religious connnuuity. The materials thus
proposed to be amalgamated were by no means of
a promising kind, including, as they did, Moham-
medan.s, Hindus, the followers of Zoroaster, and even
Jews and Christians. Nevertheless, the difficulty of
the task, and the discouragements which he was
sure to encounter in seeking to accomjolisli it, did
not prevent Akbar from making the attempt.
Ihi/ii, or the di\ ine system, as its founder proposed
to call it, was essentially eclectic in its character, its
elements being drawn from different religions. In
accordance with the Moh.ammedan views in which
he had been educated, tlie fundament.al point on
which Akbar insisted v, as the great doctrine of the
Divine Unity, which he declared was but obsciu'ely
revealed to the prophets. But while he thus .adojitcd
a Mohammedan basis for his creed, he took care
at the same time to declare his entire disbelief of
the divinity of the Koran. And the circumstances of
the limes peculiarly favoiu'cd him in doing .so. It so
happened th.at in 157.5, a dispute arose anmng Mo
hannnedan doctors as to the number of wives that a
Moslem might legally maiTV. The Koran stiys
" two, or three, or four," but the conjunction (ynu^
ILAIII.
in
which is translated " or," aJmits also of being trans-
lated "and," in which case the followers of JVFo-
hainmed would be authorized in taking " two, and
three, and four," or, in all, nine wives. The dif-
ficulty as to the real meaning of the passage was felt
to be great, and, besides, it involved various other
questions connected witli marriage, which it seemed
impossible satisfactorily to explain. Much both of
learning and ingenuity was expended in the discus-
sion of these disputed points, and the opinions of
tliose versed in the Mohammedan law were so va-
rious, that the whole subject was thrown into inex-
tricable confusion. Akbar availed himself of this
opportunity to avow his scepticism, declaring that no
religious system could assert a valid claim to be
divine which involved such plain and palpable con-
tradictions. From this time the emperor professed
himself to be an impartial inquirer after truth, and,
accordingly, he openly conversed with the teachers of
every religion. The spirit by which he was actuated
may be discerned in the following extract from a let-
ter addressed in 1582 to the king of Portugal:
" Vour majesty knows that the learned and divines
of all nations and times, in their opinions concerning
the world of appearance and the intellectual, agree
in this, that the former ought to be of no considera-
tion in respect to the hitter; yet the wise men of the
times, and the great ones of all nations, toil much in
perfecting themselves, as to this perisliable and
showy state, and consume the best of their lives, and
the choicest of their time, in procuring apparent de-
lights, being swallowed up and dissolved in Heeling
pleasiu-es and transitory joys. Tlie most High God,
merely through his eternal favour and perpetual
grace, notwithstanding so many obstacles, and such
a world of business and employment, has disposed
my heart so as alw.ays to seek him ; and though he
has subjected the dominions of so many powerful
princes to me, which to the best of my judgment I
endeavour to manage and goveiii, so as that all my
subjects are contented and happy ; yet, praise be to
God, his will and my duty to him is the end I pro-
pose in all my actions and desires. And as most
people, being enchained by the bonds of constraint
and fashion, and regarding the customs of their
ancestors, relations, and acquaintances, without exa-
mining the arguments or reasons for it, give an im-
plicit faith to that religion in which they have been
brought up, and remain deprived of the excellency
of the truth, the finding of which is the proper end
of reason ; therefore at times I converse with the
learned of all religions, and profit by the discourses
of each."
Akbar being earnestly desirous to arrive at some
settled conviction on matters of religion, passed
much of his time, and particularly the evening of
Friday, the Mohammedan Sabbath, in conversing
with learned men in reference to the nature and dis-
tinctive tenets of different religions. It fortunately
happens that the substance, if not the exact words,
of these discussions have been handed down to us in
the Dabistan or School of Manners, an extraordinary
work, containing much valuable information in ref-
erence to the principal religions of Central and
Western Asia. An extract from the translation of
that work published by the Oriental Translation
Committee, probably aflbrds as accurate a view as
can be found anywhere of Ihihi of Akbar. A philo-
sopher is introduced thus developing " the divine"
creed: "Know for certain, that the accomplished
apostle and perfect messenger from God is the illus-
trious Akbar ; that is the imperial wisdom, on whom
be the blessings of God ! Nor can you require a
stronger proof than this, his being from his own
essence skilled in all knowledge, and that his pre-
cepts are such as are intelligible to the understand
ings of all men. And since reason proves that a
wise and almighty Creator has formed this world,
and has showered many blessings on the inhabitanis
of this temporary abode, which are deserving of
praise and thanksgiving, let us, as far as the light
of our understandings will enable us, meditate on
the mysteries of his creation, and render praises unto
him according to the extent of our knowledge of his
sublime perfections. Then when we have obtained
such knowledge, and have been led into the right
path, should we deny his unity and become unmind-
ful of his benefits, shall we not deservedly incur
punishment? Since such is the case, why should
we pay obedience to any man, who was a mortal
like ourselves, and was subject to anger, and lust,
and covetousness, and pain, and joy, and love oi
rank and power, even more than ourselves. For ii
this mortal should teach knowledge and thanks-
giving, we have been already made acquainted with
these by the assistance of our own understandings;
and if he should teach what is contrary to reason,
this would alone be a sufficient proof of his false-
hood. For reason assures us, that the Creator of
this world is wise, and a wise being would not
prescribe to the created any worship which would
appear to their reasons to be evil, since what appears
evil cannot remain permanent. Now, all religions
are founded on circumstances which must be con-
sidered as evil, such as believing in the conversations
of God, the incarnation of the incorporeal essence in
a human form, and his reascension info heaven in a
human body; the ascension of men into heaven;
the pilgrimage to particular edifices, and the cere-
monies attending it ; the throwing of stones, and
running between two hills, and kissing the black
stone. For if it be said, that it is impossible to
adore God without some visible medium, and that it
is therefore necessary to have some fixed point to
which the mind can attach itself, it is e\ident that,
for remembering and praising God, no medium nor
particular place is at all requisite. But if they
should be admitted to be necessary, the sun and
the planets deserve the preference. Vet neither can
be considered as exempt from a resemblance to
J12
ILTCET-^ILLUiMINATED.
Pag.'inism. though the devout ft'spcct paid to parti-
cnUif ediiiccs is most objectionable, as their being
called the lioiise of God may induce the ignorant to
ascribe a corporeal form to God; and as also dif-
ferent propliets have conferred a sanctity on ditVcrent
places, such as the Kaaba and Jerusalem. Since
therefore a resemblance to Paganism exists in all
worship of stone, earth, and corporeal forms, the
most proper objects ou which to fix tlie mind are
fire, water, and the planets. If then any object be
necessary, let it be the sun and the planets."
Prom tlie view of his system thus given in the
Dabistan, which was written by Mohsan Fani, a
Persian, who arrived in Northern India wliile the
attempts of Akbar to found a new religion were still
fresh in the minds of the people, it appears that the
design of this Moliammedan reformer was to revive
the religion of Zoroaster in a moditied form ; lie was
atinn believer in astrology, and according to JMohsau
Fani, he borrowed this portion of his creed from
Jengliiz Khan, whom he claimed as his ancestor.
Having acquired sufficient influence over the tlieolo-
gians, doctors of the law, and learned men, to secure
their public recognition of him as tlie sole protector
of the faith, Akbar propounded his creed, which was
accepted by several Hindus and Mohainmedans.
Encouraged by his success, he now ordered the abo-
lition of tlie old confession of Islam, " There is no
God but God, and Mohammed is his prophet," and
the substitution of the following formula in its stead,
" Tliere is no God but God, and Akbar is the vicar
of God." Thus did this ambitious Mogul Emperor
boldly claim tlie place of tlie great Prophet of
Arabia.
Having succeeded so far in abolishing the creed
of Islam, he found little difficulty in ordering the
discontinuance of its outward forms and ceremonies.
He abrogated the five daily jirayers, the ablutions,
fasts, alms, and pilgrimages enjoined upon the faith-
ful. He abolished the religious services observed on
Fridays, and dismissed the Muezzins or criers of tlip
mosques. He ordered that that should be considered
as clean which was declared by the Koran to be un-
clean. He permitted the sale of wine, and tlie prac-
tice of games of chance. He forbade the marriage of
more than one wife, and enjoined the postponement
of the circumcision of buys until twelve years of age,
when even then the ceremony was to be entirely op-
tional. Tlie more effectually to abolish the memory
of the ancient religion, he ordered the era of his own
accession to the throne to be used instead of the
Hegira. In these innovations, Akbar was at first
supported by the S/iiik«, who thought thereby to
gain a triumph over the Sonnititu, but on perceiving
the tendency of the new creed wholly to destroy
Islamism, tliey withdrew the partial encouragement
they had given, and contended earnestly for the old
Mussulman faith. To gain over the Hindus to liis
system Akbar proceeded with the utmost caution,
knowing well the obstinacy with which they adhered
to ancient uistitutions. He issued no edict against
idolatry, but contented himself with ordering trials
by ordeal to be discontinued, and also the burning of
widows on the funeral pile of their liusbauds. The
abolition of Suttee, however, was violently opposed by
the Hindu community, so that in a short time he
was compelled to revoke his edict on that point.
Akbar had du-ected much of his attention to the
establishment of the doctrines of his new system of
religion, but he began soon to perceive that a ritual
was necessary as well a& h creed, and after much
careful consideration, he decided upon adopting the
forms and ceremonies of the religion of Zoroaster;
insisting much upon due reverence being paid to the
sun and planets as the most glorious symbols of
Deity. Among the innovations which the Emperor
introduced there was one which, simple though at
first sight it may appear, and even unimportant,
proved the death-blow of Ilalii. This was the edict
wliich he issued, — forbidding liis subjects to wear
beards. On this point the reforming monarch met
with determined resistance ; for several years he con-
tended with his subjects on this trifling matter; the
progress of his religion was now arrested, and when
the son of Akbar succeeded to the throne in 1G05,
Ilahi disappeared, and Islamism regained its wonted
ascendency. But though the Deistic system of Ak-
bar never obtained root in Hindustan, but perislied
with its foiuider, it has not been altogether barren
and unproductive of results, for to this source is to
be traced in a great measure the success which at'ter-
wards attended the labours of Nanak, the Sikh re-
former, as well as the rise and subsequent growth of
the principles of the Persian Sufis, and of the Vedanti
school of Hindu philosophy.
ILICET (Lat. ire licet, you may go), a solemn
word pronounced at the conclusion of the funeral
rites among the ancient Romans. It was uttered by
the prcvfica or some other person at tlie close of the
ceremony, after the bones and ashes of the deceased
had been committed to the urn, and tlie persons
present had been thrice sprinkled with pure water
from a branch of olive or laurel for the purpose of
purification. From the occasion on whidi the word
Ilicetwas employed, it is sometimes used proverbially
among Roman authors to signify, " all is over." See
FuNKUAL Rites.
ILLUMINATED, a title given sometimes in the
early Christian church to those who had been bap-
tized. Some commentators suppose that the Apostle
Paul refers to this use of the word in Ileb. x. 32,
'' But call to remembrance the former days, in which,
after ye were illuminated, ye endured a great fight
of afllictious." Justin Martyr says, that this name
was given because of the knowledge which the bap-
tized were understood to possess ; all the mysteries
being revealed to them which were concealed from
the catechumens. Others allege that the name arose
from a lighted taper being put in the hands of the
baptized.
ILLUJIINATI— ILLUMINATEN.
lUl
ILLUJIINATI, a Clu-istian sect wliidi iippeaj-erl
ill Sjiain in 1575, miiler tlie Spanish name Alunihm-
dos or enliglitened. They are charged with main-
taining a kind of peri'ection in religion ; and many of
them were banished or executed hy the Inquisition
at Cordova. Tliougli thus apparently suppressed for
a time, the sect appeared in 1623 in the diocese of
Seville. The Bishop Don Andreas Pacheco, In-
quisitor-General of Spain, having apjn-ehended seven
of tlie ringleaders, caused them to be burnt, and gave
their followers the alternative either of abjuring
their errors or quitting the kingdom. The doctrines
imputed to them were, — that by mean.s of mental
prayer and union with God they had reached such a
state of perfection as to stand in no need of good
works or the sacraments of the church, and that
whatever they might do, they could not possibly
commit sin.
After the suppression of the IlluniinaU in Spain,
another sect of the same description, and bearing the
same name, appeared in France. It sprung up in the
reign of Louis XIII., by whose orders its members
were so incessantly harassed and persecuted that the
sect totally disappeared in 1635. Among other ex-
travagant notions they are said to have held that one
Antliony Buquet, a friar, had received from heaven a
revelation of a certain system of faith and practice,
so complete that by means of it any one might anive
at a state of perfection equal to that of the Saints
and the Virgin Mary ; and that by going forward in
the same course their actions would become divine,
and their minds wholly under the constraining in-
fluence of the Almighty.
ILLUMINATKN, a secret society in Germany
professing philosophical Atheism, which was founded
in 1777 by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, professor of canon
law in the imiversity of Ingolstadt. The ostensible
object of the association was of a strictly philanthro-
pic character, embracing " the plan of diflusing light,
union, charity, aud tolerance ; of abolishing the
slavery of the peasantry, the feudal rights and all
those privileges which, in elevating one portion of
the community, degraded the other ; of disseminating
instruction among the people, of causing merit to
triumph, of establishing individual and political
liberty; and gradually and without a shock, of
meliorating tlie social order." But while these were
the open and avowed objects whicli the Illuminaten
had in view, they had also a secret or esoteric doc-
trine, and their wliole proceedings were conducted
on a plan of mysterious signs. Each individual, on
joining the society, assumed a new name, drawn
generally from Grecian or Roman history, Weishaupt,
the founder, taking to himself the name of Spartacus.
Tlie names of places also were changed, ancient
names being given to them ; thus Munich was called
Athens, and Vienna Rome. They adopted the
Persian calendar and gave new names to the months,
commencing their era in a.d. 630. They had a
secret alphabet of cyphers, in which the numbers
were reversed. They had also a mock priesthood,
and went through various ceremonies designed ob-
viously to ridicule Christianity. The real intention
of the association indeed was to abolish Christianity
and establish a propaganda for the difi'usion of Illu-
iHinism (which see). After a few years Weishaupt's
plan was combined by Knigge with Free-Masonry,
and in this form the institution received a large ac-
cession to its numbers. " In the many grades which
it contained," says Dr. Kahnis, " it aflbrded scope to
the various stand-points ; by a true Jesuitical system
of observance and guidance it secured the single in-
dividuals, and put into the hands of the heads, reins
which could be easily employed for the management
of the whole." Perthes, quoted by Kahnis, gives the
following detailed account of the construction of the
order : " At tlie head of it stood, as Primus or
National, the founder. Under him, the order was
organically divided into a number of inspections,
wdiich is differently stated ; the inspection was di-
vided into provinces ; and in the provinces were the
Illuminati meetings of the individual towns. At the
head of each division was a director, assisted by a
chapter. In order to secure the existence of the
order, and the emplo3nnent for one object of all the
powers of the order, manifold trials and solemnities
preceded the reception. The action of the consecra-
tion— so it was called — takes place either by day in
a solitary, retired, and somewhat dark place, e. g., in
a forest ; or by night, in a silent, retired room, at a
time when the moon stands on the sky. He who
was to be received, confirmed by an oath the declara-
tion that with all the rank, honours, and titles which
he might claim in civil society, he, at bottom, was
nothing else than a man. He vowed eternal silence,
inviolable fidelity, and obedience to all the superiors
and ordinances of the order ; he solemnly renounced
his private opinions, and every free use of his power
and faculties. In order afterwards, also, to keep
every member of the order in the most complete de-
pendence upon the order, every superior, not only
kept the most minute records of the conduct of all
his inferiors, but every inferior also was obliged, by
filling up certain prescribed schedules, to give infor-
mation about the state of the soul, the correspon-
dence, the literary employment, not only of himself,
but also of bis relatives, friends, and patrons. Of
those to be received, they preferred ' persons of from
eighteen to thirty years of age, who were wealthy,
eager to acquire knowledge, manageable, steady, and
persevering.' "
The AbW Barruel in France and Professor Ro-
bison in Scotland sounded a loud note of warning
against this secret society, as being a conspiracy
against all the religions and governments of Eu-
rope. Great was the alarm excited in many
minds by the startling revelations of these two au-
thors, derived as they were from the most undoubted
evidence, and collected from the most authentic
sources. But however formidable were the designs
114
ILLUAriNlSM— IMAGES.
of tlie '• Illuiiiiimtpii," tlie sociptv was of sliort tliira-
tinii, foi-, ill 17S5, it came to an enil, partly tliroiigli
the inacliinations of tlie ex-Jesuits in Bavaria, and
partly in conseipience of the accession of Frederick
William II. to the throne of Prnssia.
ILI^UMIXISM. the name given to that system of
Deism and Infidelity which prevailed so extensively
in Germany during the latter half of the eighteenth
century. It rejected all that is positive in religion,
and professed a philosophic Deism, which coniines
its belief to natural religion, or the religion of com-
mon sense. Whatever in Christianity, or any other
positive religion, cannot be reduced to natural reli-
gion, was, in tlie view of Illuminism, eitlier frivolous
or false. This svstem of infidelity was simply a
combination of French and English Deism ; the lat-
ter represented by Herbert, Hobbes, Toland, Tindal,
Chubb, Shaftesbury, Bolingbroke, and others ; the
former by Rousseau, Voltaire, Diderot, and Helve-
tius. The head quarters of Illuminism was Prussia,
under Frederick II., a monarch who contributed
much to the spread of deistic tendencies, especi.ally
among the higher classes. One of the ablest and
most powerful agents, however, indift'using the prin-
ciples of Illuminism, was Nicol.ai, the Editor of the
' AUgemeine Deutsch Bibliothek,' or the Universal
German Library. His periodical was commenced
in 1765, and during the first period of its existence,
it enjoyed unlimited authority in tlie literary world,
of which it most eti'ectually took advantage to sap
the foundations of the faith of the country, promul-
gating Deism .and Infidelity in a covert and insidious
manner. While the most pernicious principles were
thus being instilled into the minds of the literati,
Basedow and Campe were busily spreading them in
families and schools by means of tlicir imposing and
plausible Phihintliropmisin. (See Humanists.) Tlie
German people had before this time lost their relish
for systematic theology ; religion w.as reduced to a
mere code of morals, bearing onh' upon the present
comfort and well-being of man. The works of Wie-
land, besides, had no sm;ill influence in scattering
among the people deistic, and even immoral, princi-
ples. And to crown the whole, the association of the
Il.r.UMiNATRN (which see), formed by Weishaupt in
1777, and joined by great multitudes from all classes
of society, including the most eminent men of the
time, gave to IlluminUm an importance and an in-
fluence which it would never otiierwise have en-
joyed.
When Frederick William II. succeeded to the
throne of Prussia, he had sagacity enough to per-
ceive that if Illamhii.vn should gain the ascendency
in the country, both church and state would bo
ruined. He, therefore, issued an edict on the 9tli
July 17f(8, commonly called WoUncr's Kcligious
Edict, the preamble of which ran as follows : ' With
gi'ief it has been remarked that so many clergymen
have the boldness to disseminate the doctrine!, of the
Socinians, Deists, iind Naturalists under the name of
Ilhtniinism. As so\ereign and sole lawgiver in our
st.ate, we command and enjoin, under the penally of
immediate deposition and still severer punishment and
visitation, according to circumstances, that hence-
forth no clergyman, preacher, or teacher of the Pro-
testant religion, shall make himself guilty of the
indicated and other errors, by venturing to spread
such errors, in the discharge of his duty, or in any
other way, publicly or secretly." The king was too
late, however, in issuing bis edict ; the poison had
already diffused itself throughout all classes too ex-
tensi\ely to be arrested forcibly liy a royal edict.
Illuminism had become, to a great extent, the reli-
gion of Germany, just as Deism had become the
avowed religion of France. And the wide-spread
intliience of such principles soon produced its na-
tural results. The French Revolution broke forth
with a frenzied violence vvliich burst all barriers,
and covered the country with anarchy and bloodshed.
At the time when Wollner's religious edict was
issued, B.ahrdt conceived a plan whereby to propa-
gate Ilbniilnism secretly, and thus defeat the object
of the king. In conjunction, accordingly, with a
Leipzig bookseller, named Dagenhard Pott, he
formed a society called the German Union, the aim
of which was declared to be " to carry out the great
object of the sublime Founder of Christianity, viz.
the enlightenment of mankind, and the dethroning
of superstition and fanaticism." Though numbers
were ensnared by the plausible representations of
Bahrdt, the dangerous tendencies of the German
Union soon began to be suspected, and the Prussian
authorities, having apprehended the author of the
scheme, he was sentenced to two ye.ars' imprison-
ment in a fortress, which was mitigated by the king
to one year's imprisonment.
The publication of the Wolfenbiittel Fragments,
from 1774 to 1778, edited liy Lessing, gave great
impulse to the progress o( lUinnhthiv. The princi-
ple unifdrmly insisted on by all who held this spe-
cies of Deism was, that clearness was the test and
standard of truth. It was not likely that, in a spe-
culative age and country, this could form a resting-
place. Men pushed their inquiries farther, and hav-
ing thrown aside all belief in a positive written
revelation, they rushed onward in the path of error,
until from lUuminwts many of the most able theo-
logians of Germany became Rationalists (which
see).
IM.\GES, representations or similitudes in sculp-
ture or p.aiiifing of persons or things used as objects
of religious homage or adcu'ation. A distinction is
drawn by ecclesiastical writers between if/ols and
imai/cs ; the former being the representations of fic-
titious olijecfs, the latter of real and actually ex-
isting objects. But most commonly the words are
used indill'erently to signify one and the .same thing.
Among the early Cliristlans religious images were
first introduced for private ornament rather than in
their churches. The Pag.ans, with whom they inin-
IMAGES.
\\f
gled in tlie onlinai-y intei'coiirse of every dav life,
were acciistDiiied to liave ima,a;es of tlieir gnrls in
tlieir Iioiises aiul shops, and even to wear tliem about
their persons. The sight of such objects, therefore,
became familiar to the Chri.<;tians, and they naturally
thought of supplanting these tokens of a false and
idolatrous worship, by emblems more in accordance
with their own pure religion. The dove as a repre-
sentation of the Holy Spirit, the fish as a sign of the
IcHTiius (which see), or anagram of Christ's name,
a ship as a symbol of the church, or an anchor as a
symbol of hope, were sometimes engraven on their
rings, or otherwise used as personal or domestic or-
naments. It was not, however, till the end of the
tliird century that images of this kind were found in
Christian cliurches. In the year .W3 the council of
Elvira passed a decree forbidding " the objects of
worship and adoratiim to be painted on the walls."
Before this time prob.ably visible figures of the cross
came to be used both in houses and churches, this
being regarded as the most signiticant emblem of
that faitli in Cliri.st crucified which they gloried in as
their peculiar distinctive doctrine. But even in the
fourth century we have a striking evidence of tlie
hostility manifested to the use of images in cliurches,
by a remarkable letter from Epiphanius to John of
Jerusalem, in which he says, " Having entered into
a church in a village of Palestine, named Anablatha,
I found there a veil, which was suspended at the
door, and painted with a representation, whether of
Jesus Christ, or of some saint, for I do not recollect
whose image it was, but seeing that, in opposition to
the authority of Scripture, there was a Imman image
in the church of Jesus Christ, I tore it in pieces, and
gave orders to those who had care of that church, to
bury the corpse with the veil." From this letter, it
is plain, that in the end of the fourth century, when
it was written, the use of images in churches, even
for ornament alone, was regarded as unscriptural,
and therefore unlawful.
Some of the Christian Fathers, for example Ter-
tulliau, Clemens Alexandrin\is, and Origen, carried
their opposition to all sorts of images to such an ex-
tent, as to teach tliat Scripture forbids the practice
of both statuary and painting. "It is an injin-y to
God," says Justin Martyr, " to make an image of
him in base wood or stone." Augustine says, that
" God ought to be worshipped without an image ;
images serving only to bring the Deity into con-
tempt." The same Father says, that "it would be
impious in a Christian to set up a corporeal image of
God in a church ; and tliat he would be thereby
guilty of the sacrilege condemned by St. Paul, of
turning the glory of the incorruptible God into an
image made like to corruptible man." " The primitive
Christians," says Mr. Gibbon in his Decline and Fall
of the Roman Empire, "were possessed with an un-
conquerable repugnance to the use and abuse of
images, and this aversion may be ascribed to their de-
Bcent from the Jews, and tlieir enmity to the Greeks.
The Mo.saic law had severely proscribed all repre-
sentations of the Deity, and that precept was firmly
estalilished in the principles and practice of ihe
cho.sen people. The wit of the Christian apologists
was pointed against the foolish idolaters, who liad
bowed before the workman-hip of their own hands ; —
the images of brass and marble, which, had tliei/ been
endowed with sense and motion, should have started
rather from the pedestal to adore the creative powers
of the artist. The public religion of the Christians
was uniformly simple and spiritual ; and the fir>t no-
tice of the use of pictures is in the censure of the
council of Illiberis, three hundred years after the
Christian era. Under the successors of Constantine,
in the peace and luxury of the triumphant church,
the more prudent bishops condescended to indidge a
visible superstition, for the benefit of the multitude,
and, after tlie ruin of Paganism, they were no longer
restrained by the apprehension of an odious parallel.
Tlie first introduction of a symbolic worship was in
the veneration of the cross, and of relics. The
saints and martyrs, whose intercession was implored,
were seated on tlie right hand of God ; but the gra-
cious, and often supernatural favours, which, in the
jiopular belief, were showered round their tombs,
conveyed an unquestionable sanction of the devout
pilgrims, who visited, and touched, and kissed these
lifeless rem.ains, the memorials of their merits and
suflerings. But a memorial, more interesting than
the skull or the sandals of a departed worthy, is a
faitliful copy of his person and features, delineated
by the arts of painting or sculpture. At first the ex-
periment was made with caution and scruple, and
the venerable pictures were discreetly allowed to in-
struct the ignorant, to awaken the cold, and to gra-
tify the prejudices of the heathen proselytes. By a
slow, though inevitable progression, the honours of
the original were transferred to the copy, the devout
Christian prayed before the image of a saint, and the
pagan rites of genuflexion, luminaries, and incense,
again stole into the Catholic church."
The intense love of art which prevailed among the
Pagan Romans, and which led them to construct the
statues and images of their gods with s.'.thetic retine-
ment and skill, took an entirely dit'erent direction
on the introduction of Christianity as the established
religion of the Empire. Art no longer exhausted
its resources on a false, but sought to embellish and
adorn the true religion. In place of the remains of
old pagan art, Constantine substituted on the monu-
ments with which he embellished the imperial city,
figures and scenes taken from tlie Old and New Tes-
taments. Abraham ofi'ering up Isaac, Daniel in the
lions' den, the good Shepherd, and similar scenes,
were at this time favourite subjects of Christian art.
Constanti.a, the sister of Constantine the Great, ap-
plied to Eusebius, bishop of Ca-sarea, for an image
of Christ. Images of martyrs, monks, and bishops,
were often engraven on the seals of Christians, and
painted on their cups and goblets, and the walls of
f~"
llf>
IMAGE WOlISIIir.
their ai>arlments. Their very garmeuts were in
many cases embroidered with Seriptiu-c scenes, wliich
they considered as an evidence of remarkable [liety
in the wearer. No better instance could be selected
from the writers of the fourth century, of determined
opposition to images, than is afforded by the letter
of Eusebius, in a reply to the application of Constan-
tia for an image of Cluist. " What do you under-
stand, mav I ask, by an image of Christ?" says he.
"You can surely mean nothing else but a represen-
tation of the earthly form of a servant, which, for
man's sake, he for a short time assumed. Even
when, in this, his divine majesty beamed forth at the
transtiguration, his disciples were unable to bear the
sight of such glory ; but now the figure of Christ is
become wholly deified and spiritualized, — transfi-
gured into a form analogous to his divine nature.
Who, then, has jiower to draw the image of such a
glory, exalted above every earthly form ? Who, to
represent in lifeless colours the splendom' which
radiates from such transcendent majesty? Or could
you be satisfied with such an image as the Pagans
made of their gods and heroes, which bore no resem-
blance to the thing represented? But if you are not
seeking for an image of the transfigured godlike
form ; but for one of the earthly, mortal body, so as
it was constituted before this change, you must have
forgotten those passages in the Old Testament,
which forbid us to make any image of that wliieh is
in lieaven above or on the earth beneath. Where
have you ever seen any such in the church, or heard
of their being there from others ? Have not such
things (images, therefore, of religious objects) been
banished far from the cluirches over the world?"
And in the close of the letter he beautifully remarks :
" But we, who confess that our Lord is God, wo must
let the whole longing of our hearts be directed to the
intuition of him in his divine character; we nnist
therefore cleanse our hearts with all earnestness,
since none but the pure hi heart can see God. Still,
should any one be anxious to see an image of the
Saviour, instead of beholding him face to face, what
better could he have, than that which he himself has
drawn in the sacred writings?"
Asterius, in the same century, objected as strongly
as Eusebius to all images designed to represent
Cln-ist, but at the same time he expressed his ap-
proval of the pictures of suffering martyrs. In the
sermons of Chrysostom, not the sliglitest allusion is
made to images in the churches. In tlie fourth cen-
tury, however, the custom seems to have gradually
crept in, of adorning the churches with images, but
it did not become general till towards the close of
the century. Tliose churches, more especially, which
were built in memory of particular martyrs, were
frequently adorned with pictures representing their
sufferings, and with striking scenes drawn from the
Bible. To this practice, both at its first introduc-
tion, and for some time at'ter it, many pious Chris-
tians objected in the strongest manner; but in spile
of all remonstrances, the use of images in churches
became more and more common, and thus an inlet
was alibrded to that flood of idolatry which in the
course of a few centuries swept away every vestige
of true spiritual Christian worsliip. See next article.
IMAGE-WORSHIP. On the first introduction
of images and pictures into Christian churches, which
took place in the course of the fourth century, the
only design of such a manifest deviation from the
simplicity of primitive Christianity appears to have
been in order to decorate and thus do honour to
buildings erected specially for divine worship.
Cliurches were sometimes built at the sole expense
of wealthy men, who sought not only to rear sub-
stantial and even elegant fabrics, but to embellish
them with the rich and attractive adornments ot
images and pictures. And be^ides, it was alleged,
that these artistic ornaments served a most import-
ant purpose, inasmuch as they both entertained and
instructed the ignorant and uncultivated among the
Christians, who had no opportunity of receiving in-
formation through the medium of books. Pictures
of saints and martj'rs, and even of the Redeernei
himself, under the emblem of a lind and careful
shepherd, naturally attracted the unlettered masses,
who learned to gaze upon them with delight and ad-
miration as works of art, and with veneration for the
sacred persons and objects thus presented ^^vidly
before the eye. The slightest knowledge of human
nature will moderate our surprise, that the reverence
paid to saints should be transferred to their pictures.
As early, accordingly, as the end of the fom-th cen-
tury, we find Augustin complaining that many wor-
sliippers of images were to be found among the rude
Christian multitude ; and so far had this practice
gone, that the Moiitanists charged it upon the wliole
church.
In tlie Eastern church, as niiglit have been ex-
pected from the warm imaginations of the Orientals,
and their love of pictorial representations, image-
worship spread with great rajiidity, and was CNen
defended by the clergy with much acuteness and
plausibility. In the course of the sixth century, it
had already become a universal custom in the Greek
church for persons to prostrate themselves before
images as a token of reverence to those represented
by them. This formed a plausible ground of accu-
sation on the part of the Jews against the Christians
as being guilty of idolatiy, and a palpable breach of
the Divine commandments. It was argued in de-
fence of the Christians, that the images were m t
their gods, but simply representations of Chri.vt and
his saints, which are venerated for their sakes, and
in honour of them, but not adored with Divine hom-
age. There were not wanting many, however, w!io
endeavoured at the outset to resist, even in the East,
the introduction of the dangerous innovation of pros-
tration before images; some of the clergy, indued,
to prevent tlie evil, causing the images to be re
moved from the churches.
IMAfiE-WORSHIP
117
Not in the East alone, bnt in the West also, ima-
ges were in general use in the chnrches in tlie sixth
century, not however for purposes of worship, but
as helps to the memory, and books to instruct the
ignorant. "With tliis view, Gregory the Great, in
the beginning of tlie seventh century, allowed the
barbarian Franks, on their conversion to Cliristianity,
to continue tlie use of images in tlieir churches, that
they miglit not be suddenly and without due pre-
paration withdrawn from their idolatrous practices.
The Western churches took advantage of this in-
cautious proceeding on the part of tlie Pope, and be-
fore the commencement of the eighth century image-
worsliip had become general throughout the whole
of Christendom. In A. D. 713, the Pope Constan-
tino issued an edict pronouncing an anatliema upon
all who " deny that veneration to the holy images
which is appointed by the church." Both in the La-
tin and the Greek churches, the practice of thus
adoring images was now fully established ; but more
especially among the membei'S of tlie Greek church
it had come to be mi.>;ed up, not only with their pub-
lic worship, but with their social and domestic cus-
toms. " Not only," says Neander, " were tlie churches
and chiu'ch-books ornamented with images of Christ,
of Mary, and the saints, but the same images were
employed to decorate the palaces of the emperor, the
walls of private houses, furnituie, and even clothes.
Tlie artists, many of wliom were monks, emulated
each other in framing these images, sometimes of the
most costly materials, and at other times of wax.
Tiie reverence for images was closely connected with
the excessive veneration entertained for Mar}' and
the saints. Tliat which relics were hi the "Western
church, images were in the Eastern. On various
occasions of necessity, people threw themselves pros-
trate before the figures of saints, and many images
were celebrated for effecting miraculous cures. It be-
ing believed that the saints were themselves present
in tlieir images, these latter were often employed as
witnesses to baptisms, and children were called after
their names. In that uninquiring age, many popu-
lar sayings were allowed, without further proof, to
be taken as sufficient evidence of the honour due to
images. Tliere were some to which epithets were
applied sigriifying that they were not made with
hands, and which were regarded as especially de-
serving of respect, and most valuable as amulets.
Of these, some derived tlieir supposed worth from
the belief that they had been miraculously made by
Christ himself; others were treasured because their
origin was utterly unknown."
Tlie evil had now come to a height. Jews, JIo-
hammedans, and heretics of every kind, were loud
in tlieir reproaches against the Christian church, as
violating the Divine law, by bowing down before
gi'aven images. The extensive prevalence of this
idolatry attracted the notice, and impressed the mind
of the Greek Emperor Leo, the Isaurian. He re-
Bohx'd, therefore, to check if possible this growing
superstition, and to restore the primitive simplicity
of Cliri.stian worship. In A. D. 726, accordingly,
he issued an edict forbidding any worship to be paid
to images, but without ordering them to be demo-
lished or removed from the churches. This edict
was no sooner issued than a commotion arose of the
most serious and alarming description. Leo was de-
nounced by his subjects as a tyrant and a persecu-
tor. Germanus, bishop of Constantinoiile, declared
his determination to oppose the emperor, and without
delay he made application for aid to Gregory II., the
then reigning Pope. From this time commenced
a controversy between the Greek emperors and the
Popes of Rome on the subject of image-worship,
wliieh lasted for more than half a century. The
proceedings of Leo, in the commencement of the
struggle, were marked by the utmost prudence and
moderation. He set out with summoning a council
of senators and bishops, and with their approval is-
sued an order that all the images in the churches
should be removed to such a height on the walls,
that though they might be seen, the people could not
fall prostrate before them. This attempted compro-
mise of the matter was productive of no good, but
only excited greater hostility against the emperor;
and even his fi-iends urged him to adopt the decided
conduct of Hezekiah, who broke in pieces the bra-
zen serpent which had become an object of idola-
trous worship to the Jews.
The emperor, wishing to act with mildness and
moderation, endeavoured to win over Gerniaiius, the
bishop of Constantinople, to his views ; but finding
all liis attempts ineffectual, he deposed him from his
see, putting in his place Anastasius, who was op-
posed to the worship of images. In A. D. 730, an
imperial edict was issued, authorizing and enjoining
the destruction of images, or their removal from the
churches. On news of this edict reaching Rome, the
statues of the emperor were pulled down and trod-
den under foot. All It.aiy was in a state of ferment,
and the Pope issued an injunction to his people not
to pay tribute any longer to Leo. In the midst of
this excitement and turmoil, the life of Gregory came
to a close a. d. 731, and he was succeeded iu his
office by Gregory III., who was an ecclesiastic of a
kindred spirit, and of similar sentiments. On his
elevation to the chair of St. Peter, the new Pope
addressed an insolent letter to the emperor, calling
upon him to cease to persecute images. All hope
of conciliation was now entirely excluded. Gregory,
in a council held in A. D. 732, formally excommuni-
cated all who should remove or speak contemptuously
of images. And to show his utter disregard of the
imperial edict, he expended immense sums on pic-
tures and statues to adorn the churches at Rome.
Keen was the hostility, and bitter the contention be-
tween Gregory and Leo; but their dissensions were
arrested by the death of both, which happened about
the same time, in A. D. 741. The Emperor Leo was
succeeded by his son Constantiue V., snrnamed Co
113
IMAGE-WOKSHIP.
pronymus, and Pope Gregory, by Zachary, a native
of Greece.
The new emperor followed in the steps of his fa-
ther, using all the means at his command for the ex-
tirpation of image-worship. His exertions, however,
to rid the land of idolatry were for a time interrupted
by the usurpation of his brother-in-law, Artahasdus,
wlio, taking advantage of the absence of Constantine
on an expedition against the Saracens, stirred up tlie
people to insurrection, and took possession of the
tlirone, restoring the worship of images, and forbid-
ding any one to que^tion its lawfulness upon pain of
exile or of death. The usurpation of Artabasdus,
however, was of short duration. In a few months
Constantine recovered his tlu'one, and renewed
tiis former edicts against image-worship, at the
same time pronusing to the people that as soon
as possible he would refer the whole matter to
a general council. In fulfilment of tliis promise,
the emperor, in A. v. 754, during the pontificate of
Stephen II., summoned a council at Constantino-
ple. This council, the largest that had ever yet
been known in the history of the church, consisted
of 388 bishops. It met on tlie 10th of February,
and continued in session till the 17th of August,
when with one voice the assembly condemned ihe
use and the worship of images, declaring " that to
worship them or any other creatm-e is robbing God
of the honour that is due to him alone, and relapsing
into idolatr}'." This council is reckoned by tlie
Greek church the seventh general council, but its
title to this name is disputed by the Romish church
on account of its prohibition of image-worship. The
Emperor tinding his views supported by so numer-
ous a council, proceeded to burn the images, and to
demolish the walls of chiu'ches on which were painted
figures of Christ, of the Virgin and Saints.
On the death of Constantine, in .4.D. 775, the
throne of the Greek empire passed to his son, Leo
IV., who, like his father and grandfather, was a de-
termined iconoclast ; while his wife, Irene, was an
equally determined favourer of image-worsliip. The
reign of Leo was brief and liis end sudden, caused, as
some writers believe, and JMosIieim plainly asserts,
by poison administered by his wife in revenge for his
opposition to her proposal to introduce the worship
of images into the palace. The natural successor to
tlie throne was Constantine VI., the son of the de-
ceased Emperor; but to obtain the govenmient for
lierself, Irene, with a barbarity and cruelty almost
unparalleled, caused the young man to be seized and
his eyes to be put out. " In the mind of Irene,"
says Gibbon, "ambition had stilled every sentiment
of humanity and nature, and it was decreed in her
bloody council, that Constantine should be rendered
incapable of the throne, lier emissaries assaulted the
sleeping prince, and stabbed their daggers with such
violence and precipitation into his eyes, as if they
meant to execute a mcrtal sentence. The most
bigoted orthodoxy hasjuKtly execrated the unnatural
mother, who may not easily be paralleled in the his-
tory of crimes. On earth, the crime of Irene was
left tive years unpunished, and if she could silence
the voice of conscience, she neither heard nor re-
garded the reproaches of mankind."
Irene had now establi.shed herself on the throne
by the murder, if not of her husband, at all events ot
her son, and her great anxiety now was to undo all
that for several reigns past had been done in the
matter of image-worship. In conjunction with Pope
Adrian she summoned a council to be held at Nice
in support of the worship of miages. This famous
council, which Romanists call the seventh general
council, while the Greek church disowns it, met at
Nice A.D. 787. The number of bishops who attend-
ed on this occasion was 350, and the result of their
deliberations was, as might have been expected from
the combined influence of Irene and the Pope,
ftivourable to the complete establishment of image-
worship. The decree of the council was to tlie fol-
lowing effect : " That holy images of the cross should
be consecrated, and put on the sacred vessels and
vestments, and upon walls and boards, in private
houses and in public ways. And especially that
there should be erected images of the Lord God, our
Saviour Jesus Christ, of our blessed Lady, the moth-
er of God, of the venerable angels, and of all the
saints. And that wdiosoever should presume to think
or teach otherwise, w to throw away any painted
books, or the figure of the cross, or any image or
picture, or any genuine relics of the martyrs, they
should, if bishops or clergymen, be deposed, or if
monks or laymen, be excommunicated. They then
pronounced anathemas upon all who should not re-
ceive images, or who should ajiply what the Scrip-
tures say against idols to the holy images, or call
them idols, or wilfully communicate with those who
rejected and desjiised them, adding, according to cus-
tom, ' Long live Constantine, and Irene, his mother —
damnation to all heretics — damnation on the council
that roared against venerable images — the holy
Trinity hatli deposed tliein.' " Thus w-as image-
worship at length establislied by law and sanctioned
by the second council of Nice, which reveised the
decree of the council of Constantinople, pronouncing
it to be an illegitimate council. This decree, how-
ever, decided and explicit though it was, did not
long remain undisputed either in the west or in the
east. In a.v. 794 Charlemagne assembled a council
at Frankfort, consisting of 300 bishops, who reversed
the decision of the second Nicene Council, and unani-
mously condemned the worship of images. And in
A.D. 814 the Greek Emperor, Leo, imitating Charle-
magne, summoned another council at Constantinople,
which declared the reversal of the decree of the
second council of Nice and the aboUtion of image-
worship in the Eastern churches. Still anothei
council, however, was called at Constanlinojilc, in
A.I). 842, by the Em|)icss 'Iheodora, who held the
reins of governnient during the minority of her sou;
IMA'M.
iiy
and this atsemlily, in confoniiity with the imperial
wislies, restored the decreeb of tlie second Niceiie
council, and re-establislied image - worship ui the
East. To confirm tliis decision an additional synod
was held at Constantinople, in a.d. 879, wliicli rati-
fied and renewed the decrees of the second Xicene
council. So much delighted were the Greeks with
the decision of this synod that a festival was insti-
tuted in commemoration of it, which received the
appropriate name of the feast of Orthodoxy.
In the West also, the decision of the council of
Frankfort, in opposition to image-worship, tliough
confirmed by a synod assembled at Paris A.D. 8-4, by
Louis the Meek, has been entirely thrown aside by
the church of Rome and her firm adherence given to
the decrees of the second council of Nice. Thus tlie
coimcil of Trent, by whose decisions she acknow-
ledges herself to be implicitly bound, decreed in its
twenty-fifth session : " Images are not only to be
placed in temples but also to be worshipped ; as if
the persons represented thereby were present." The
creed of Pope Pius IV. which, among Romanists,
is equally authoritative with the decrees of tlie Holy
Synod of Trent, declares in its ninth article : " I
most fu-mly assert that the images of Christ and of
the Mother of God, ever Virgin, and also of other
Saints, are to be had and retained ; and that due
honour and veneration are to be given to them."
Romish divines are by no means agreed as to the
nature of the worship which ought to be rendered
to images. Some think, and tlie idea is borne out
by the Tridentiue decree, that tliey ought to be wor-
shipped with the same degree of worship which the
parties whom they represent would have received had
they been present ; others would yield to all of them
the Latvia or the highest degree of worship ; while
otliers would assign them only the Dulia or lowest
degree of worsliip, tliat namely which is paid to
saints and angels.
In the Greek church not images but pictures of
saints are used in the churches, and the worship paid
to them is alleged to be merely a secondary or rela-
tive, not a primary and absolute worship. The fol-
lowing definition on this subject given by the
second Nicene or seventh general council, to whose
decisions tliey profess to adhere, shows what was the
nature of the worship which that important synod
considered to be warrantably due to the images of
the saints. " We define, with all accuracy and dis-
tinctness, that the venerable and holy images, fitly
pi-epared with colours and inlaying, or any other
matter, according to the fashion and form of the
venerable and life-giving Cross, are to be dedicated
and placed and kept in the sacred temples of God ;
on sacred vessels and garments also, on walls and
tables, in private houses and in public ways : but,
chiefly, the image of the Lord and God our Saviour
Jesus Christ ; next, that of our unspotted Lady, the
Motlier of God, those of the venerable angels, and
all lioly and pure men. For, as often as these
painted images are looked at, they who contemplate
them are excited to the memory and recollection
and love of the prototypes, and may offer to tlieiu
salutation and an honorary adoration : not that
which, according to our faith, is true worship, latria,
and which pertains to the Divine Nature alone; but
in like manner as we reverently approach the type
of the venerable and life-giving cross, and the Holy
Gospels, and the other sacred things, with oblations
of censers and lighted tapers, according as this cus-
tom was piously established by the ancients. For
the honour done to the image redounds to the pro-
totype ; and he who does obeisance to the image,
does obei.sance through it likewise to the subject re-
presented."
Altliough only pictures are allowed to be used in
Greek churches, this rule is sometimes transgressed,
and in Russia particularly, carved images are some-
times foimd. Tlie same degrees of worship which
are recognized in the Romisli church, are also main-
tained among the Greeks. Thus they consider that
the Virgin Mary ouglit to be worshipped with hy-
perdulia ; saints and angels by direct dulia, referring
both to their relation to God and their own sanctity ;
and tlie pictures and relics of the saints, and holy
places, and articles such as crosses and sacramental
vases, by indirect dulia ; while latria is to be exclu-
sively reserved for the Divine Behig. The writer,
whose sentiments on the subject of image-worship
are most in accordance with those of the Greek
church, is John of Damascus, one of the most acute
and able champions of what they term orthodoxy on
this point. ''The Lord called his disciples hajjpy,"
says this acute controversialist, '■ because their eyes
had seen and their ears heanl such things. The
apostles saw with bodily eyes Christ, his sufl'erings,
his miracles ; and they heard his words. We also
long to see and hear such things, and so to be ac-
counted happy. But as he is not now bodily pre-
sent, and we hear his word by books, and venerate
those books, so we also, by means of images, behold
the representation of his bodily form, of his miracles
and sufl'erings ; and we are thereby sanctified, and filled
with confidence and delight. But while we behold the
bodily form, we reflect as much as possible on the
glory of his Godhead. Since, moreover, our nature
is twofold, — not spirit merely, but body and spirit, —
we cannot attain to the spiritual without sensible
aids ; and tlius as we now hear with the ears, and
by means of sensible words learn to think of what is
spiritual, so by sensible representations we attain to
the view of what is spiritual. Thus, too, Christ as-
sumed a body and a soul, because man consists of
both ; and baptism, and the Lord's Supper, and
prayer, song, lights, incense, all, in short, are two-
fold, and are, at the same time, corporeal and spiri-
tual."
IMA'JI, or Imau.m, a minister among the Moham-
medans, who conducts the services of a mosque or
phice of worship. They correspond to our parisli
120
IMA'M— IMA'MS (The Twelve).
ministers, and are generally chosen from the Miiez-
ting or criers, wlio call the people to prayers. The
only (lualiticatioiis reiinirud for an Imam are a good
moral character and ability to read the Koran. Tlie
Moslems of the vacant mosque recommend to the
Vizier tlie person whom tlicy consider as bept fitted
to midertake the office of Imam ; on which tlie Vi-
zier orders him to read some verses of the Koran,
and he is forthwith admitted to the position of a
Moliammedan priest witliout any farther ceremony.
The Im^ms do not pretend to any indelible sacred-
ness of character, and may become laymen, and lay
aside their priestly character witliout any formality.
They say the prayers aloud at the appointed time.
Every Friday they read some verses of tlie Koran in
the mosque. They sometimes preach, but on great
festivals this duty is performed by the Hadjis, who
are at once doctors, preachers, and lawyers. The
people when in the mosque are bound to repeat all
that the Im^m says, as well as to imitate all his
movements. To pass by the Iniilm during his pros-
trations renders their prayers ineffectual.
IMA'JI, a name applied by way of excellence to
each of the chiefs or founders of the four principal
sects of the Mohammedan religion.
IMA'MATE. the office of an Ima'm (which see),
or Mohammedan [iriest.
IMA'JIS (The Twelve), the twelve chiefs of the
faith of IsLlm, according to the Persian Mohamme-
dans, who belong to the Schiite sects. They reckon
Ali (which see) the first Imitm, and the immediate
successor in spiritual dignity, of the Prophet, and in
this view they take no account of the usurpations of
Abubeker, Omar, and Othman. So higli is the esti-
mation, indeed, in which Ali is held by the Schiites,
that a number of them consider him as superior to
the Prophet himself, alleging that he was chosen
by (rod to propagate Islamism, but that the angel
Gabriel by mistake delivered the letter to Moham-
med. Others again pretend that JNIohammed was
commanded to deliver his revelations in the name of
Ali, but that from motives of pride and ambition he
falsely proclaimed himself to bo the chosen apo.stle
of (Jod. Hass.\n (which see), the eldest son of Ali,
was the second Imim, a pious but feeble-minded
prince, who was persuaded to surrender his caliphate
or civil dignity into the liands of his rival Moau-iyah,
but of course retained his Im;imate, which was con-
sidered inalienable. At his death, which happened
from poison, administered by his wife J;uulah, he was
Buccecded in his spiritual office by his brother Hos-
8EIN (which see), who is accordingly reckoned the
third Imiim, and held in such estimation by the
Schiites, tliat tlie anniversary of his marlyrdom in the
month Mohnrrum is celebrated with great pomp and
ceremony both in Persia and India. The fourth
Imiim was Ali, the son of Ilosseiii, who, from his
constancy in prayer, has been named " the Im.'tm of
the Carpet," because Mussulmans, when the)' jjray,
iibually kneel on a square piece of carpet. lie is aUo
termed " the gloiy of p!ous men," and his body having
become deformed tlirou-;h his frequent devotional pros-
trations, he has sometimes received tlie name of '• the
possessor of callosities." Athisdoath, whicliliappened
A. D. 712, lie was succeeded by his son Jlohammed, the
tiftli Im.'lm, who is called by the Scliiites tlie "pos-
sessor of the secret," because he spent much of his
time in the study of magic. He is also termed '• tlie
director," because in an age wliicli peculiarly abound-
ed in heresy, he directed the Mohammedans in the
right way. During the period tliat Mohammed held
the Imamate, the Budliistic notion was introduced
among the Persian Mohammedaiii, that the soul of
one Im&m passed into that of his successor. This
idea gave additional strength of course to the house
of Ali, and in jealousy the Caliph Hesham cansed
Mohammed to be poisoned. Some of the Schiites
liowever believe that he is not yet dead, but that he
wanders secretly over the earth.
The sixth Imam was Jaafar, the son of Moham-
med, v.-Iio was believed to be scarcely if at all infe-
rior in learning to Solomon. It is alleged that he
wrote a supplement to the " Book of Fate," origi-
nally composed by Ali. So highly is the memory of
tills Imam esteemed, that an entire sect received the
name of Jaafarites, from the respect whicli they en-
tertain for him. When Xadir Shah wished to com-
bine into one religion the Moh.ammedaiiism of Turkey
and that of Persia, and to render the Schiite system
a iifth orthodox sect, he propo.'ied that the Imam
Jaafar should be regarded as the head of the national
faith. His eflbrts, however, to combine the rival
systems of the Sonnites and the Schiites were utterly
ineffectual. To this day they continue in determined
hostility to each other.
Jaafar nominated his son Ismail his successor, but
the heir-apparent having prematurely died, he named
his second son Moussa his heir. Ismail, however,
had left children, and as a number of the Schiites re-
garded the office of Imam as hereditary, they denied
the right of iMoussa to the Im.'lmate. Hence arose
a new sect called the IsilAELlANS or Ismailiyaii
(which see), and Assassins (which see), or follow-
ers of the Old Man of the Mountain, whose name
was once an object of so much dread both in Europe
and Asia. The Sufiavean monarchs of Persia, claim-
ing to be descended from Moussa, have strenuously
advocated his claim to be the seventh Imam, and this
claim is now univer.sally admitted throughout Per-
sia. Ali, the sou of Moussa, was the eighth Imdm.
He is called by the Schiites " the beloved," and his
tomb, termed Mesclied Ali, is a favourite object of
pilgrimage. The ninth Imam was Mohammed, the
son of Ali, who lived in retirement at Bagdad, wliere
he died at an early age, leaving behind him so high
a character for charity and benevolence, that he has
received the name of '• the Generous." His son,
Ali, the tenth Imdm, was but a child wlien his fa-
ther died, and having been seized by the Caliph Mo-
tawakkel, who was a determined enemy of the
IMBRAMUS— IMMATERIAIJTY OF THE SOUL,
121
Schiites, he was confined for life in tlie city of As-
Icer; lience deriving the name of "the Aslcerite."
He was poisoned by order of the Caliph A. D. 8138.
His son and successor, Hassan, also pei'islied hy poi-
son, leaving the sacred office to his son, Mohammed,
the twelfth and last Imdm, who, at his father's death,
was a child of only six months old. He was kept
in close confinement by the Caliph, but at the age
of about twelve years he suddenly disappeared.
Tlie Soimites allege that he was drowned in the
Tigris, but the Schiites deny the fact of his death,
and assert that he is wandering over the earth, and
will continue so to wander until the appointed pe-
riod shall arrive wlien he shall claim and receive
universal empire. " The belief in the eternal ex-
istence of tlie last Imitm," says Dr. Taylor, "is com-
mon to several Schiite sects ; the Nosairians stop at
Ali the first Im^m, the Ismaelians at the seventh,
the Druses give the title to Hamza, whose descent
from Ali, however, is equivocal, but the great majo-
rity acknowledge twelve Im,<ms. They all say, that
the earth will not have a legitimate sovereign until
the re-appearance of the last Imim. The Persian
kings of the Sufiavean dynasty, or the Sopbis, as
they were anciently called in England, styled them-
selves ' slaves of the lord of the country,' that is of
the invisible Im^m; they always kept two horses
bridled and saddled in the royal stables at Ispahan,
one for the twelfth Imdm, whenever he should ap-
pear, the other for Jesus Christ, by whom they be-
lieved that he would be accompanied. Impcstors
have frequently appeared, who called themselves the
last Imitm or Im^m Mahdi. that is ' the directed,' or
' the director ;' the Fatimite Khaliphs of Egypt as-
serted that the sold of the last of the Imams ani-
mated tliem in succession, and made this pretext the
foundation of their authority. Some of the Oriental
Christians have adopted this curious superstition ;
they say, that the last Imi5.m became converted to
the faith of the Gospel, and that he and the prophet
Elijah are the two witnesses spoken of in the Book
of Revelations."
IMBRAMUS. a surname of Hermes.
IMBRASIA, a surname of Artemis and also of
Hera.
IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. See Con-
ception (Immacul-^te).
IMM.\NUEL (Heb. God with us), a name ap-
plied to Jesus Christ both in the Old and New Tes-
taments. It was first communicated to the prophet
Isaiah, when the people of Israel were in great dis-
tress, being beset by two powerful enemies. In
these circumstances it was revealed to them as a
sign of perfect security, and an earnest of their de-
liver.ance, that the Messiah was their omnipotent
Immanucl, or God with us, which is equivalent to
God in our nature, engaged in our behalf, and mani-
fested for our salvation. This name is also apiilied to
Clirist in Matt. i. 23, " Behold, a virgin shall be with
child, and shall bring fortli a son, and they shall
U.
call his name Emmanuel, which, being interpreted, is,
God with us," — a passage which clearly shows that
the prophecy of Isaiah on this subject was fulfilled
in Jesus Christ, who w,as possessed both of a divine
and a human nature.
IMMARCALIN, officers among the ancient Jews
whose precise duties have not been distinctly ascer-
tained. They were seven in number; they carried
the keys of the seven gates of the court of the Tem-
ple, and one could not open them without the rest.
It has been also alleged, that there were seven rooms
at the seven gates, where the holy vessels and vest-
ments were laid np, these seven men keeping the
keys, and havirtg the charge of them. The ofiice of
the Immarcalin was perpetual, like that of the high-
priest.
IMMATERIALISTS, a name applied to those
who believe the soul to be a spiritual substance dis-
tinct from the body — an opinion which forms a part
not of the Christian religion alone, but of all other
religions, Jewish, Mohammedan, .and Pagan, with
the single exception, perhaps, of the Biidhist faith.
The immateriality of the human soul is denied, in
deed, by a cla«s of infidels, who, from this article of
their creed, receive the name of Materialists
(which see).
IMMATERIALITY OF THE SOUL. That
the soul of man is not material, or composed of mat-
ter like his body, has been the general, nay, almost
universal, belief of the human race in all ages, with
the exception of a few atheists who, led astray by
the phantoms of a vain philosophy, have attempted
to account for every thing by matter and motion.
But the question meets us at the very outset. What
reason have we to believe that matter thinks ? All
that we know of m.atter is, that it is inert, senseless,
and lifeless. It is an entirely gratuitous assump-
tion, therefore, to maintain, th.at, in addition to those
qualities which we see it to possess, it is invested
with the quality of thinking. "It was never sup-
posed," says Dr. Samuel Johnson, " that cogitation
is inherent in matter, or that every particle is a
thinking being. Yet if any part of matter be de-
void of thought, what part can we suppose to think ?
Matter can differ from matter only in form, density,
bulk, motion, and direction of motion : to which of
these, however varied or combined, can conscious-
ness be .annexed? To be i-ound or square, to be so-
lid or fluid, to be great or little, to be moved slowly
or swiftly one way or another, are modes of material
existence all equally alien from the nature of cogita-
tion. If matter be once without thought, it can only
be made to think by some new modification, but all
the modifications which it can admit, are equally un-
connected with cogitative power." Thought is, in
its nature, simple and indi\isible ; but if each atom
were a thinking being, then millions of these think-
ing beings would go to constitute man. And mat-
ter being divisible, if thought be an essential qu.ality
of matter, thought must be divisible also. But that
L
122
IMMOLATION— IMMORTALITY OP THE SOUL.
this is not the case is plain from the fact,tlmt eacli par-
ticle of any one of the organs of sense does not pos-
sess the same rpialities which are possessed by the
entire organ. Neitlier does each particle of the
brain, whicli is helieved to be the organ of the mind,
possess the same cpialities which belong to the en-
tire brain.
Further, if the soul be material, then is it like the
body liable to deciiy, so that man, without a single
principle of identity being left him. changes all that
constitutes himself, soul and body, some ten or
twelve times during his life. Thus the moral re-
sponsibility of man is entirely destroyed, and he
ceases individually to be chargeable ■#itb sins, which
must necessarily have been performed by a plurality
of beings under the fiction of one name. Reason, in
short, in a thousand forms, proclaims the utter follv
and absurdity' of that philosophy which would ex-
plain all the actings of the human soul by mat-
ter and motion. "All that is pure in love," as
Mr. Godwin eloquently describes it in his Lec-
tures on the Atheistic controversy, " all that is ex-
alted in friendshi|), that is tender in maternal re-
gard, is only the result of some mechanical action or
chemical affinity. All the bright visions of glory
that stood before the mind of a Milton, were but the
dance of certain atoms in bis brain. — the enlarged
conceptions and tlie profound reasonings of Newton,
by which he generalized itmumerable insulated facts,
and discovered the great law of nature, was only a
lucky congregation of certain medullary particles,
that meeting together most appropriately, and in a
most fortunate i)Osition in his brain, kindled a light
that ditfused itself through the whole world of mind,
and commenced a new era in science. Every virtue
that adorns, every grace that beautities, and every
sublime trait of magnanimity that ennobles the hu-
man character ; — the daring of the hero, the devo-
tion of the palriot, the benevolence of the philan-
thropist, and the piety of the martyr, are nothing
but the properties of that food wliich, after having
existed in a vegetable form, entered into the compo-
sition of the animals on which man has fed; which
having been taken into the stomaeli and digested, aiul
received into the general mass of blood, after hav-
ing passed through all these parts and processes,
became all that was brilliant, and powerful, and lovely
in mind 1"
Hut while reason shuts us up to a belief in the im-
materiality of the human soul, the Scripture deter-
mines the point beyond debate. " Then," says So-
lomon, referring to the period immediately after
death, " shall the dust return to the earth as it was,
and the spirit shall return to G-od who gave it." In
this passage a clear distinction is established l)e-
tween the mortal body and the immortal sold. Tln^
one returns to the earth ; the otlier returns to (lod.
In Ps. xxxi. 5, David says, "Into tliine hand I com-
mit my spirit," and Stephen immcdialely before
death, prayed ia Christ in lli(!se words, " Lord Jesus,
receive my spirit." In Isa. xxxi. 3, the distinction
between the mat(!rial body and the immaterial eoul
is thus expressed ■ •' Now the Egyptians are men,
and not God; tnd their horses flesh, and not spirit."
Paul again, in 2 Cor. v. 6, says, " Therefore we are
always confident, knowing that, whilst we are at
home in the body, we are absent from the Lord."
Thus both reason and revelation alike declare,
that the soul of man is in its nature and constitution
immaterial, and therefore, as we are authorized in
concluding, immortal.
IMMENSITY. See Infinity.
IMMERSION. See Baptism.
IMMERSIONISTS. See B.\ptists.
IMMOLATION, a ceremcmy performed in offer-
ing sacrifices among the ancient Romans ; the head
of the victim before it was killed being generally
strewed with roasted barley meal mixed with. salt.
This composition was called mola saka, a salted
cake, and hence an entire sacrifice was often called
an immolation. See Sacrifice.
IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL. The doc-
trine of the soul's immortality is clearly taught in
the Word of God, and it is, besides, a prominent ar-
ticle in the religious creed of every nation on the face
of the earth. So nearly universal, indeed, has been
the belief in this tenet, that it seems as if it were a
natural deduction of human reason. Frequent allu-
sions to a state of existence allotted to man beyond
the grave, are found in the most ajiproved writers of
heathen antiquity, but withal so obscure and indis-
tinct as scarcely to convey to the mind of the cimdid
reader the impression that by any individual in these
remote ages the doctrine was steadily and undoubt-
ingly believed. Even Socrates, though a martyr to
the comparative purity of his doctrines, and held
forth by Bishop Warburton as of all the ancient
philosophers the only believer in a future state,
must needs in his last moments, when his view of
immortality might have been expected to have been
at the strongest, remiml his friend that he owed a
coek to .lEsculapius ; and Cicero himself, with all his
high notions of moral truth, could reach no further
in his belief of a future state, than the ardent longing
after immortality. " If I err," says he, " I willingly
err." That the doctrine of the immortality of the
soul is to some extent taught by human reason, is
capable of being proved by the whole analogy of
natural objects, by inmunerable facts in the past his-
tory of the human mind and by some of the noblest
aspirations of our intellectual and moral nature.
Tim immortality of the human soul may be proved
not only from the fact of the universal belief of the
doctrine prevailing in all ages and countries, but
from the equally extensive prevalence of a dread of
annihilation. The mind of man revolts at the very ]
idea of ceasing for ever to exist. The only approach
to a belief in such a dread negation of existence is lo
be found in the XiiiwANA (which see) of the Bud-
hists. which they are said to regard as the highest
IMMOiri'ALlTY OF THE SOUL.
123
object of human desire. With lliis strange unac-
countable exception, existence even in the very
depths of misery is less dreadfid to the human mind
than the thought of eternal non-exi.'itence.
Another argument in favour of the soul's immor-
tality is sometimes drawn from the capability of the
human mind progressively to advance in knowledge,
without reaching perfection in this world. The
brute creation soon arrives at certain limits, beyond
which generation after generation canntit pass ; but
no such limits are imposed upon the Innnan being.
He goes indefinitely onward from one degree of at-
tainment to another, investigating with ever-increas-
ing anxiety every department of inquiry in the realms
both of muid and matter. Can we .suppose that the
soul thus endowed with an insatiable thirst for know-
ledge, which it incessantly seeks to gratify, without
ever Iwing sated, will after tlie lapse of a few years
be arrested in its onward course and plunged into
eternal non-existence ? How much more rational is
it to suppose that when the body has mmildered in
the dust, the soul will still exist and advance pro-
gressively in the attainment of higher and higher
degrees of knowledge throughout the ceaseless ages
of eternity? The .same remark applies to the ami-
able affections and de-sires of the human heart ;
which both in their exercise and enjo)inent are evi-
dently fitted to last for ever.
Another argument in behalf of the immortality of
the soul, may be derived from a contemplation of the
attrilmtes of God, as the Creator and Moral (Gover-
nor of the world. He has endowed man with earnest
longings after immortality, and it cannot be that he
designs to mock us by rendering these desires utterly
fruitless. And what is the moral aspect which this
world presents? Vice often flourishes and triumphs,
while virtue is doomed to linger out a weary life of
affliction and disappointment and painful suH'ering.
Whence this apparent anomaly? Should we not re-
gard it as far more consistent with our conceptions
of the Moral Go^•ernor of the universe, that if there
is to be no hereafter, the righteous should be re-
wanled, and the wicked pimished on this side the
grave. To account, therefore, for the obvious dis-
crepancies which meet us everywhere in the survey
of God's providential deahngs with men, we are
forced to tlie conclusion that the soul of man will
exist in a future world, where the righteous will be
duly rewarded, and the wicked justly punished.
But while powerful presumptive arguments for the
immortality of the soul are discoverable by the light
of natural reason, it is in the Gospel of Christ that
life and immortality liave been clearly brought to
light. We cannot for a moment believe, however,
as Dr. Warburton, followed by Dr. Whately, has
taught, that the Jews under the law were entirely
unacquainted with this important doctiine. That
obscure intimations of a future state may be atforded
even by unassi.sted reason, is sufficiently obvious, we
think, from the fact that it has been in all ages a
matter of speculation and anxious discussion ; and if
so, can we believe that a system of policy so com-
plete as that of the Mosaic economy would have
contained not the remotest allusion to a matter of
paramount interest to the whole human family ?
This it may be said is the language which has been
currently adopted by the sceptic and the infidel,
when objecting to the Divine authority of the Jew-
ish law ; and yet it is language in which we would
cordially join. With all del'erence to the distin-
guished author of ' The Divine Legation,' we would
be far from thinking it necessary to change our
position, and endeavour to show his omission of the
doctrine of a future state, to have been any proof
that IVIoses was divinely inspired. It is giving no
undue advantage, as Dr. Whately would seem to
imagine, to the adversaries of our holy faith, should
we admit the doctrine to be set forth in the law not
prominently and directly but by implication. This
is precisely the mode in which a priori we should
have expected the revelation of a future state to have
been made to the Jews. As the motives of human
actions, founded on eternal rewards and punishments,
could not have been fairly urged without a clear and
explicit proclamation of all the pec^tor doctrines of
the gospel whicli are necessarily connected with it,
and it did not seem consistent with the purposes of
God to give such a clear and simple and spiritual
explanation of his will as was afterwards given ; was
it not more accordant with the obscurity which per-
vaded the other parts of the Jewish system, that
"life and immortahty" should be also covered with
an almost impenetrable veil of mystery and dark-
ness? If the infidel presses Ins objection from the
difficulty of finding in the law any allusion to a fu-
tm-e state, we would remind him that it is equally
difficult to discover in the law any of those peculiar
doctrines which are unfolded to us with such simpli-
city and clearness ii; the Christian Scriptures. It is
not cnouoh to affect surprise, that a truth discover-
able by human reason should have so rarely, if it all,
been mentioned by the Jewish legislator. We ad-
mit the doctrine, absolutely speaking, to fomi a part
of the religion of nature, but we unhesitatingly de-
ny, that in the form and connexion in which it is set
forth in revelation, it either has been, or even could
be discovered, by the most persevering eflbrts of hu-
man reason. It is this, then, which we allege to
constitute it a peadiarity oi the Christian system;
and in tlie same view we are warranted in expecting
a piriori. that it should share in the obscurity which
covers all the other pecidiar doctrines of Christian-
ity, in so far as they are mentioned in the law of
j\Ioses. The hour of full and unclouded revelation
was not yet come. To imagine, therefore, that any
other than the darkest reference would be made to
eternal rewards and punishments, is to indulge the
idea, that Moses, as a divinely inspired writer, would
liave imparted to the Jews a distorted view of the
divine arrangements. He nuist eitlier have simply
124
IMMOVEABLE FEASTS— IMPRECATIONS.
stated tlie fact, that such rewards and puiiisliments
would hereafter exist, without developing the princi-
ples of the Divine government on wliicii they wonld
be bestowed, and in tliis case he would have con-
veyed a false impression to the minds of the people
in reference to a subject of infinite moment ; or, he
must have stated the fact in connexion with tlui full
details of the Cln-istian scheme, which would have
been entirely subversive ol the end and design of
the ancient dispensation. Either the one mode of
acting or the other would, if .adopted, have been
alike unworthy of a divinely-commissioned legisla-
tor. Moses, however, on this as well as on other
points, has been completely consistent. He has re-
ferred to a future state of retribution just as fre-
quently, and with as much clearness, as to the other
peculia7-itie-t of the later and more spiritual dispen-
sation.
IMMOVEABLE FEASTS, those feasts kept in
various Christian churches which fall always on tlie
same day in the calendar in each j'ear. Thus the
saints' days are immoveable feasts. See Festivals.
IMMUTABILITY, an essential attribute of the
Divine nature. God is necessarily unchangeable,
there being no power external to himself which can
produce any chiinge on him. Nor could any change
in his own nature originate from himself, any change,
whether to a higher or a lower, a better or a worse
condition, being equally an impossibility. If God be
necess-trily what he is, then he cannot change, since
it would imply what God is to be necessary and not
neces.s.iry at the same time, which is impossible. See
God.
I JIPANATION (Lat. in pane, in the bread), the
doctrine that Christ's presence is in or with the
bread in the Lord's Supper. It is synonymous with
CoNSUBSTANTiATioN (whicli See), a doctrine adopted
bj' Luther and his followers.
IMPECCABLES (Lat. in, not, and peccalilis, ca-
pable of sinning), those heretics wlio believed that
they were incapable of sinning. This notion was
entertained by the Priscillianists and some of the
Gnostic sects.
IMPLICIT FAITH, an undonbting assent yielded
to all th.-it is taught by the church, as being the ora-
cle of religious truth. This is requii-ed by the Ro-
mish church from all within her communion. On
this great duty of Romanists, Dr. Newman thus
expresses himself in his Discourses to Mixed Con-
gregations : " And so, again, when a man has become
a Catholic, were ho to set about following a doubt
which has occurred to him, he has already disbe-
lieved. I have not to w.-irn him against losing his
faith, — he is not merely in danger of losing it, he
has lost it ; from tlie nature of the case he lias al-
ready lost it ; ho fell from gi-.aee at the moment when
he deliberately determined to pursue his doubt. No
one can determine to doubt what he is sure of; but,
if ho is not sure that the church is from God, he
does not believe it. It is not I who forbid him to
doubt ; he has taken the matter into Ids own hands,
when he determined on asking for leave ; he has
begun, not ended in unbelief: bis wish, his purpose,
is bis sin. I do not make it so ; it is such from the
very state of the case. You sometimes hear, for ex-
ample, of Catholics falling away, who will tell you it
arose from reading the Scriptures, which 0]iene 1
their eyes to the ' unscriptiiralness,' — so they speak
of the church of the living God. No. Scripture
did not make them disbelieve ; (impossible !) They
disbelieved when they opened the Bible ; they open-
ed it in an unbelieving spirit, and for an unbeliev-
ing purpose. Tliey would not have opened it had
they not anticipated, I might say hoped, tli.at they
should find things there inconsistent with Catliolic
teaching. They begin in pride and disobedience,
and they end in apostasy. This, then, is the direct
and ob\ious reason why the church cannot allow her
children the liberty of doubting the truth of her
word. He who really believes in it now, cannot
imagine the future discoveiy of reasons to shake
his faith ; if he imagines it, he has not faith ; and
that so many Protestants think it a sort of tyran-
ny in the chnrcli to forbid any children of hers
to doubt about her teaching, only shows they do
not know what faith is ; which is the case ; it is a
strange idea to them. Let a man cease to examine,
or cease to call himself her child." Cardinal Tole-
tus, in his instructions for priests, says, that " if a
rustic believes his bishop, proposing an heretical
tenet for .an .article of faith, such belief is meritori-
ous." Cardinal Cusanus affirms, thjit " irrational
obedience is the most consnnim.ate and perfect obe-
dleiice, when we obey without attending to reason,
as a beast obeys his driver."
IMPLUVIUM. See Atrium.
IMPOSITION OF HANDS. See Hands (Im-
position of).
IMPRECATIONS, prayers invoking the wrath
of God either upon the supphiint himself, or upon
others. These were sometimes so terrible, that
iimong the ancient Hebrews, a person, in t.aking ; n
oath, omitted the imprecation, .although it was suffi-
ciently well understood from his performing the ac-
tion by which it was usu.ally accompanied. We
find a fonn of imprecation mentioned in 1 Kings xx.
10, " And Ben-hadad sent unto him, and said. The
gods do so unto nie, and more also, if the dust of Sa-
maria shall suffice for handfuls for .all the people
that follow me." Among the heathen nations of
antiquity, im|irecafions were sometimes regarded as
so powerful that thoy occasioned the destruction, not
only of single persons, but even entire families and
cities. Tims the calamities which came upon the
family of tlie Atriihcv/cvc supposed to arise from tlie
imprecations pronounced by Myrtihis upon their an-
cestor Pelops, by whom ho w.as thrown into the sea;
or from the imprecations of Thyestes, the brother of
Atrcns. The most terrible imprecations were those
uttered by parents, priests, kings, or otlier sacred
IMPROPRIATION—IXABILITY.
1-25
persons. It was customary for men condemned for
any notorious crime an\ong the Greeks, to be cursed
by tlie prie<t=. This punishment was inflicted upon
Alcibiades, in addition to banishment and the confis-
cation of his property.
IMPROPRLATION, a term used in Canon Laic
to denote the possession of an ecclesiastical benefice
by a Layman who draws the secular fruits or profits
of it. The word is to be carefully distingui.shcd
from Appropki.\tion (which see).
IMPUTATION, a term used in theological lan-
guage to signify the legally or judicially putting down
to the account of another that whicli is not actually
his. Thus the first sin of .A.dam is said to be imputed,
or legally charged, to all his posterity ; and the right-
eousness of Christ is imputed judicially to all believ-
ers. Had Adam, as the Pelagians affirm was the case,
not been the representative of all his posterity, none
would have been affected by his sin but himself.
But Adam being the federal head of his natural de-
scendants, his sin became, in a sense, theirs, and all
its conse(iuences also became theirs. In virtue of
the covenant made with their first fatlier, all men are
viewed by God as in Adam, and involved in his
guilt. And on the same principle, in virtue of the
new covenant, or covenant of grace, all believers are
viewed by God as in Christ, and partakers of his per-
fect righteousness, which was wrought out in their
name. Hence the principle of impntation, in its
twofold aspect, is thus set forth in Scripture, "As in
Adam all died, even so in Christ shall all be made
alive." " .A.S by one man's disobedience the many
were made," or accounted, " sinners ; even so by the
obedience of one shall the many be made," or ac-
counted, " righteous."
Tlie doctrine of imputation, however, though plain-
ly laid down in the Bible, has given rise to occasional
controversy in the course of the history of the
church. In the fifth century, the Pelagians denied
the whole doctrine of original sin, without, however,
making any special objections to the doctrine of im-
putation. Placseus or La Place, a Fi'ench divine of
Saumur in the seventeenth century, the colleague
and friend of Amyraut, (see Amyr.\li>ists) was the
first who made a formal denial of the imputation of
Adam's first sin to his posterity, declaring that ori-
ginal sin is imputed to men not immediately but
mediately ; that is, not immediately by the sovereign
decree of God, but mediately, or by inward depravity
transmitted from Adam to all his natural descend-
ants. La Place was accused of heresy in 1G45,
before the national synod of Charenton, by Antony
Garissol, a divine of Montauban, and by his influence
the opinions of La Place were condemned in his ab-
sence. For a time he bore patiently this injurious
treatment, but at length, in 1655, he published a
new disputation on the subject of imputation, in
which he showed that his opinions had been entirely
misunderstood by the synod. This explanation,
however, did not satisfy his opponents, who continued
to assail him ; and at the instance of Francis Turre-
tin in particular, the church of Geneva was persuad-
ed in 1675 to adopt the doctrine of immediate impu-
tation as a settled article of their faith. This was
done in a work diawn up by John Henry Heidegger,
a divine of Zurich, under the title of the Formula
Consensus (which see). This document gave rise to
considerable discontent in the Helvetic churches,
but, nevertheless, contiinied in force for many years,
until it gi-adually fell into disuse.
Another controversy on the doctrine of impu
tation was originated in North America, by Dr.
Samuel Hopkins, towards the end of the eighteenth
century. (See Hopkinsi.\ns.) This learned divine
denied imputation both in the case of Adam's sin
and of Christ's righteousness, chiefly on the ground
that sin and righteousness being strictly personal,
cannot be transferred from one person to another.
The question was freely discussed by several Ameri-
can divines, and the controversy passed to Great
Britain, but has never attracted much attention.
One of the ablest works on the sidjject is a ' Con-
trast between Calvinism and Hopkinsianism,' by
Ezra Styles Ely, published at New York in 1811.
INABILITY, want of power sufficient for the
performance of any work or the accomplishment of
any design. It is generally regarded as of two kinds
natural and moral inability. These are very clearly
explained by President Edwards, in his ' Inquiry into
the Freedom of the Will.' Thus we are said to be
naturally unable to do a thing when we cannot do it
if we will, because of some impeding defect or obstacle
that is extrinsic to the will ; either in the faculty of
understanding, constitution of body, or externa] ob-
jects. Moral inability consists either in the want
of inclination, or the strength of a contrary inclina-
tion ; or the want of sufficient motives to induce and
excite the act of the will or the strength of apparent
motives to the contrary. "When Jesus Christ said
to the Jews, " Ye will not come unto me that ye may
have life," he refers not to a natural but to a moral
inability. President Edwards also points out an im-
portant distinction between two kinds of moral in-
ability ; — that which is general and liahltual, and that
which is 2>articular and occasional. " By a general,
habitual, moral inability," says he, " I mean an in-
ability in the heart to all exercises or acts of will of
that nature or kind, through a fixed and habitual in-
clination, or an habitual and stated defect, or want of
a certain kind of inclination. Thus a very ill-natured
man may be unable to exert such acts of benevo-
lence, as another, who is full of good nature, com-
monly exerts; and a man, whose heart is habitually
void of gi'atitude, may be unable to exert such and
such grateful acts, through that stated defect of a
grateful inclination. By particular and occasional
moral inability, I mean an inability of the will or
heart to a particular act, through the strength or de-
fect of present motives, or of inducements presented
to the view of the understanding, on this occasion. —
126
INACniA— IXCARXATION.
If it be BO, that tlie will is always deteniiiiied by tlie
strongest motive, then it must always have an in-
ability, in this latter sense, to act ottiei-wise than it
does ; it not being possible, in any case, that the will
should at present, go against the motive which has
now. all things consideivd, the greatest strength ,and
advantage to excite and induce it."
1N.\C1IIA, a siu-namc of lo, the daughter of
Inachi.i. (See next article.)
INACHU.S, the most ancient deity of Argos, a
river-trod, and son of Oceanus and Tcthys.
IN.\UGUR.\T10. the ceremony by wliich .among
the ancient Romans a person or a thing was conse-
crated to the gods. It was performed by the Au-
gurs (which see), who offered prayer to the gods,
asking them to show by signs whether the intended
consecration met with their sanction. If the signs
appeared favoiu-able, the inauguration was regarded
as completed. Though this ceremony properly be-
longed to the augurs, the inauguration of the flameiix
devolved upon the college of pontiffs. The kings of
Rome were inaugurated by the augurs as the high-
priests of the people. Magistrates, tribes, and even
the comitiuni came to be inaugurated, though no
priestly dignity was conferred by means of it.
IXCAXTATIOXS. SeeENCii.4NT.MKNTS,WiTCU-
CRAFT.
INCARNATION (Lat. in mnie. in flesh), a word
u.sed to describe that solenm mystery by which the
Son of God became man to accomplish our redemp-
tion. It is thus described in Luke i. .35: "And the
angel answered and said unto her. The Holy Ghost
shall come upon thee, and the power of the Highest
shall overshadow thee ; therefore also th.at holy thing
which shall be born of thee shall be called the Son
of God." Now the Divine Word in becoming incar-
nate took to himself a true body and a reasonable
soul. The reality of his body may be proved of
course by the same arguments by which we are ac-
customed to prove the reality of our own bodies. He
hungered and thirsted, he was weary and slept, he
was born and grew, he died and was buried ;■ thus
showing that his body was no phantom as the Doce-
tce taught, but truly flesh and blood. That he pos-
sessed a reasonable soul admits of equally easy and
satisfactory proof. He grew in wisdom as well as
in stature, be was sorrowful and deeply grieved, and
moreover he died, his soul thus being separated from
his body. But was he truly tlie son of Marv, did he
take his flesh of Iier sulxslance? Tliat this queslion
must be answered in the affirmative is ably and con-
clusively proved by Mr. Dods, in his work ' On the
Incarnation of the Eternal Word.' " If he took not
a body," says be, " of the substance of his mother,
I then was his whole life one continued scene of de-
ception. Not oidy did Mary call bim her son, but
lie called her his mother, — he was subject unto her,
and on the cross he manifested liis fdial duty to her
by providing for her a homo in the bouse of the be-
loved disciple. Now if Mary was not as truly his
mother, as any other woman is the mother of her
child, his recogniziug her as his mother, from the
begirming to the end of his life, was in reality a de-
ception. And, as TertuUian most justly remarks, if
the Marcionites considered it as a degradation of the
eternal Word, to suppose that he would submit to
be born of woman, it is surely a much greater degra-
dation of him to suppose that he would profess to
be her son, while in reality be was not. He would
much rather be the son of Mary in reality, than
falsely pretend to be so. Again, if he took not
flesh of Mary, then is he no brother, no kinsman ot
ours, and his right of redemption altogether fails.
In this ease, he not only is not David's son, but he
is not the son of inan at all, .as be almost uniformly
calls himself, — deceptively it must be admitted, un-
less Marv was truly bis mother. Neither in this
case could we with any truth be said to be ' members
of his body, of his flesh, and of his bones,' if in
reality his body was a different substance, and de
rived from a diflerent source from ours. Moreover
he could not call us ' brethren,' any more than we
can applj-tliat appellation to the angels that surround
the throne of God, or to the worm that creepeth in
the dust. Fellow-creatures they are. but. without
an entire community of nature, our 'brethren' they
are not. And when we are required to ' put on the
Lord Jesus Christ.' we are required to do what is not
merely a moral, but a physical impossibility, if there
lie between us and him, the utterly impassable barrier
of a diflerent n.ature. If he took not his fleshly
substance of the flesh of bis mother, then not being
as truly man as we are, he could not fairly meet and
conquer our oppressor, or at least his victory can
give no assur.ance of victory to us. For, to express
a verv common sentiment in the language of Irena'us,
' Had he not been man who conquered our enemy,
he would not have been fairly conquered ; and on
the other hand, had he not been God who gave ns
the victory, we could hold it upon no secure tenure.'
And finally, if he took not flesh of the substance of
Mary, then was he not truly the ' woniivn's seed,'
and the great original promise, upon which all sub-
sequent promises are built, remains as yet imfnifllled.
But it is not more esscnti.al that the serpent's head
should be bruised at all, than it is that it should be
bruised by the ' woman's seed.' Hence if Christ
was not truly and really the ' woman's seed,' then
the whole foundation of oiu' hopes fails. LIpon these
grounds we not only hold it most important to be-
lieve, but consider it to be most in-efragably proved,
that Christ was as truly 'made of a woman' as we
are, — that his body was truly a body composed of
flesh and blood, as ours is."
From this view of our Lord's humanity it seems
naturally to follow, as the late Mr. Edward Irving
taught, that the nature which our Lord took upon
bim was a fallen, sinful nature, it being acknowledi;ed
by all Protestant churches at least, that the Virgin
Marv was a fallen, sinful woman. 'I'he sinfulness oi
INCENSE— INDEPENDENCE.
127
Clirist's luiniiiii nature, liowever, does not necessarily
follow from his being born of a sinful woman ; for
neither is the body of man, viewed singly, a fallen
body, nor the soul of man, viewed singly, a fallen
soul, but the whole man consisting of botli soul and
body. The body of Christ, therefore, might partake
of the substance of his mother without involving any
necessity that he should be a fallen man. Again,
the guilt of Adam's first sin and the depravity of his
nature consequent upon the fall, could be propagated
only, as far as we know, by ordinary generation.
But as Jesus Christ descended from Adam in a
singular and extraordinary way, it is plain that he
was not at all involved in tlie guilt of Adam's sin,
nor tainted by the contagion of the fall. Hence be
is described as " holy, harmless, undeiiled, separate
from sinners;" "tempted in all things like as we
are, yet without sin." It must be observed, besides,
that the humanity of our Lord is termed " a thing,"
not a person, — " that holy thing which sliall be
born of thee;" and no wonder it is termed holy,
when we lind that it was generated by the Holy
Ghost, as the angel declared to iSIary, " The Holy
Gliost shall come upon thee, and the power of the
Highest shall overshadow thee."
INCENSE, a compound of sweet spices, which
was commanded in the Law of Moses to be ofi'ered
upon the golden altar. (See Altar of Incense.)
The spices are mentioned in Exod. xxx. 34, to have
been sfacte, onycha, and galbaniun, with ]iure frank-
incense, equal weights of each. Tliis incense was
offered twice every day, morning and evening, by the
officiating priest, the people remaining without in
solemn silence. On the great day of atonement, the
high-priest himself took fire from tlie great altar in a
golden censer; and having received incense from
one of the priests, he offered it on the golden altar.
(See Atonement, Day of.) Incense is the symbol
of prayer in Scripture. In the daily service of the
temple, the priest, whose lot it was to burn incense,
offered the incense of the morning sacrifice, between
the sprinkling of the blood and the laying of the
pieces upon the altar; and that of the evening sacri-
tiee, between the laying of the pieces upon the altar
and the drink-ol^'ering.
Incense is said to have been ofi'ered among the an-
cient Egyptians. Plutarch alleges that they ofi'ered
incense to tlie sun, resin in the morning, myrrh at
noon, and about sunset an aromatic compound, which
they called Kypi Accordingly, on the Egyptian
monuments are to be found representations of in •
cense-altars. The use of incense in connection with
the eucharist in the Christian church was unknown
until the time of Gregory the Great, in the latter
part of the sixth century. After this period it be-
came prevalent in the churches. Cardinal Bona, and
other Komish writers, attempt to trace the use of
incense as far back as the days of the Apostles. No
mention of it, however, occurs in the writings of
the llrst three centuries, with the exception of the
Apostiillcal Ctwom, which speak of incense in the
time of the oblatif)n. These canons cannot, liow-
ever, be proved to have existed before the third cen-
tury, and indeed, the first reference to them as an
entire collection is by the council of Nice A. D. 325.
We find no allusion to the use of incense in the
Ajmstolical Constitutions, which contain express ar-
rangements for conducting the worship of the church.
The use of incense has been discontinued in the
Church of England since tlie Reformation, but is still
preserved in the Church of Rome.
INCHANTiVIENTS. See Enchant.ments.
INCIPIENTES (Lat. beginners), a name some
times a|iplied to Catechumens (which see) in the
earlv Christian church.
INCOMPREHENSIBILITY, an attribute of the
Divine Being, having a reference to the limited
understanding of the creature, which must necessa-
rily be utterly unable to comprehend God. To
understand God, as has been well said, we must
needs be Gods. '•'^^'llO can by searching find out
God? "V\'ho can find out the Almighty unto perfec-
tion ?"
INC0RRUPTIC0LJ5. See Aphtiiartodo
CITES.
INCUMBENT, the present possessor of a bene-
fice.
INDELIBLE CHARACTER, a spiritual sign
alleged by the Romish church to be impressed upon
the soul by certain sacraments, which cannot there-
fore be repeated. The sacraments which convey
this indelible character are baptism, confirmation,
and orders. Romish divines differ considerably in
opinion as to the precise nature of this indelible
character ; some placing it in an external denomina-
tion, others in a real relationship ; some in an abso-
lute entity, and others in the initerability of the
sacrament itself. All of them agj'ee, however, in
classing it among their articles of faith. The pas-
.'iages of Scripture by which they allege it to be proved,
are 2 Cor. i. 21, 22, '• Now he which stablisheth us
with you in Christ, and hath anointed us, is God ; who
hath also sealed us, and given the earnest of the Spi-
rit in our hearts," and Kph. i. 13, "In whom ye also
trusted, after that ye heard the word of truth, the
gospel of your salvation : in whom also after that ye
believed, ye were sealed with that Holy Spirit of
promise." The councils of Florence and of Trent
lay down distinct definitions of sacramental charac-
ter; the one terming it a certain spiritual indelible
mark, the other a certain spiritual indelible sign ;
while both declare that the three sacraments which
impress this character cannot be repeated. See
Sacraments.
INDEPENDENCE, an essential attribute of the
Supreme Being. It implies his existence in and of
himself, without depending on any other being what-
ever. This indeed necessarily follows from the per-
fection of his nature as underived and uncommuni-
cated, and from his infinite superiority to all other
128
INDEX EXPU IIG ATOraUS— INDTTLGEXCE.
beings, which could not be asserted of him if he were
in the slightest degi-ee dependent on them.
INDEPENDENTS. See Congrkgationalists.
INDEX EXPURGATOUIUS, a cla-s of cata-
logues of authors and works censured and coiTected
chiefly by expurgation or erasure of passages. They
are issued from time to time by the Cluirch of
Rome, and publislied by authority of her ruling
members or .societies so empowered. During the
pontificate of Sistus lY., regulations were laid down
for preventing tlie printing of any work except such
as was pre\iously licensed by an officer appointed for
that purpose; and in the tenth session of the coun-
cil of Lateran under Leo X., it was decreed that no
one undei the penalty of excommunication should
dare to publish any new work without the approba-
tion either of the ordinary jurisdiction of the place
or of the Holy Inquisition. This class of Indexes
contains a particular examination of the works oc-
curring in it, and specifies the passages condemned
to be exDunged or altered.
INDEX PROHIBITORIUS, a class of cata-
logues of authors and works wholly condemned by
the Church of Rome. It specifies and proliibits en-
tire authors or works, whether of known or unknown
authors. This book has been frequently pidolished
with successive enlargements, down to the present
time, under the express sanction of the reigning Pon-
tilT. Tlie first regular Index was constructed after a
decree of the council of Trent, delegating that under-
taking to the Pope. Pius IV. lost no time in pre-
paring a catalogue, with certain rules prefixed, all of
which he sanctioned by the authority of a bull.
INDIANS (North American), Religion of.
See North .\MnRicAN Indians (Religion of).
INDIFFERENT THINGS. See Adiaphorists.
INDIGETES, a name, given among the ancient
Romans to those gods who had once lived upon
earth as ordinary mortals, but after their death Iiad
been exalted to the rank of deities. They were the
liero-gods of the Romans, and worshipped as the
protectors of their country. See Hero-Worship.
INDRA, one of the most ancient gods of Hindu-
ism (which see). He was the god of light, and was
one of the Triad of the Vaidic period. He is not
uufrequently styled "lord of heaven." The name
Indra is of doubtful origin, meaning either '• blue,"
or "the illuminator," or "the giver of rain." He
occupies a prominent place among the Vaidic gods,
and in the Rig- Veda, he is represented as the ofl-
ppring of A did, the mother of the universe. In the
next period of Hindu mythology, the same Indra
becomes a deity of tlie second order, and he occujiies
only the fom-fli heaven. In the Vedas he is " a per-
sonification of the plienomena of the firmament, par-
ticularly in the capacity of sending down rain." He
is the god of clouds and storms, and engages in
battle witli the demon Vrifra, who withholds the
periodical rains on which the countiy depends for its
fertility. He is reiiresented as young and hand-
some, with a beautiful nose or chin, wearing two
golden ean'ings, ever joyous and delighting in exlii-
larating draughts of the Soma juice. " One man,"
savs the Rig- Veda, " propitiates him with sacrifice,
another worships with mind averted : to the first he
is like a lake to a thirsty traveller ; to the other like
an ever-lengthening road." He is sometimes re-
cogin'zed in the .same Vi da as the Creator.
INDUCTION, in the Church of England a term
used to denote putting a minister in actual, or, as
tlie canon law calls it, " corporal," possession of the
church to which he is presented, along with all its
temporalities. A presentee, though admitted and
instituted by the bishop, is not complete incumbent
until he has been inducted. The bishop or ordinary
issues a mandate for induction addressed to the arch-
deacon, who either inducts in his own person, or
issues a precept for others to do it. The method of
induction is as follows :— The archdeacon or person
inducting takes the clerk by the haiul, and lays it up-
on the key, or upon the ring of the church-door, or
if the key cannot be had, and there is no ring on the
door, on any part of the wall of the church or church-
yard, and pronounces these words : " By virtue o)
this mandate I do induct you into the real, actual,
and corporal possession of tlie church of with
all the rights, profits, and appiu-lenauces thereunto
belonging." After making this declaration, the in-
ductor opens the door, and puts the person inducted
into tlie church, who usually tolls a bell to make his
induction notorious to the parish. Tlie archdeacon
or other inductor now certifies tlie induction, either
in a sep.arate document, or on the liack of the bish-
op's mandate. Tlie word Imhidiou is often employed
by Presbvterians to denote the ceremony by which
an ordained minister is admitted into a ministerial
charge by the Presbytery of the bounds within which
the charge is situated.
INDULGENCE, the remission, according to the
Romi.sh church, of the temporal punishment due to
sins, remitted as to their giult by the power of the
keys, without the sacrament, by the application of
the satisfactions which are contained in the treasury
of the church. This treasury is described by Dens
as the collection of the spiritual goods remaining in
the divine possession, the distribution of which is
intrusted to the church ; and the collection is made
from the superabundant .satisfactions of Christ, along
with the superfluous .satisfactions of the Virgin Mary
and of the other saints. On the subject of indulgences,
the creed of Pope Pius IV. declares, " I also affirm
that the power of indulgences was left by Christ to the
church, and that the use of them is most wholesome
to Christian people." Indulgences arc divided into
local, real, and jiersonal ; into plenary, non-plenary,
more plenary, and most plenary ; and into iierjietual
and temporal. The Pope, according to the view of
Romanists, is the sovereign dispenser of tlie church's
treasury, and this power he dispenses to bishops in
their respective dioceses. The power of granting
INDULGENCE.
129
plenary indulgences to all Christians is vested in the
Pojie ; but the power of a bishop to grant indul-
gences is limited to liis own diocese. It is b_v divine
riglit that the Pope claims to exercise this power,
wliile it is possessed by the bishops only by eccle-
siastical right. This distinction is denied by the
Galilean church, which holds that all bishops possess
this power on an equal footing witli the Pope him-
self. Indulgences are not only wont to be granted
to the living, but to souls already in purgatory, of
wliom Bellarniine says, that " the Pope applies the
satisfactions of Christ and the saints to the dead, by
means of works enjoined on the living. Tliey are
applied not in the way of judicial absolution, but in
the way of payment."
Tlie passages of Scriptiu-e which are usually ad-
duced by Romanists in support of indulgences, are
such as these. Matt. xvi. 19, " And I will give unto
thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven : and what-
soever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in
heaven : and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth
shall be loosed in heaven ;" John xxi. 15, " Feed my
sheep ; " Col. i. 24, " Who now rejoice in my sufi'er-
ings for you, and fill up that which is behhid of the
afflictions of Christ in my flesh for his body's sake,
which is the church;" 2 Cor. ii. 10, " To wliom ye
forgive any thing, I forgive also : for if I forgave any
tiling, to whom I forgave it, for your sakes forgave
I it in the person of Christ;" and John xx. 23,
" Whose soever sins ye remit, they are remitted un-
to tliem ; and whose soever sins ye retain, they are
retained." Some Romish writers, for example Du-
randus, deny that indulgences have any foundiilion
eitlier in Scripture or in the ancient Christian Fatlicrs.
Thomas Aijuinas tells us, that there were some in
the church who affirmed that the intention of the
church in indulgences was only, by a pious fraud, to
draw men to charitable acts, which otherwise they
would not have done. Indulgences being usually
expressed in large and general terms, the question
cairje to be discussed among the Schoolmen, whether
the power of indulgences extended as far as the
words implied. Some asserted that indulgences sig-
nified as much as the church declared, but with these
conditions, that there be sufficient authority in the
giver, and necessity in the receiver; that he believe
the church to have power to forgive him ; that he be
in a state of grace, and give a sufficient compensa-
tion. Some asserted that common indulgences were
efficacious only for sins of ignorance ; others for
venial sins ; others for penances negligently per-
formed ; others for the pains of pm-gatoiy. Some
maintained that indulgences extended no farther than
the canonical power of the church; others that tliey
included the judgment of God.
It is not easy to discover the precise period at
which indulgences began to be issued by the Romish
church. The earliest trace of them is probably to
be dated from the ninth century, when the Peniten-
tial Books gave lirections for substituting ahnsgiv-
II
ing instead of canonical punishments ; and these
exchanges appear soon to have degenerated into a
system of regular bargaining with penitents on the
part of the church. The first formal indulgence on
record seems to be that which was bestowed by
Pontius, archbishop of Aries, A. D. lOlG, on a new
conventual church. In the eleventh century, the
Popes too began occasionally to issue plenary in-
dulgences. This was done, for instance, by Bene-
dict IX., and Alexander II. After the time of
Gregory VII. the popes began to promise full par-
don in return for certain important services rendered
to the church. As early as the year A. D. 1 100, Ur-
ban II. granted a plenary indulgence and remission oi
sins to all such persons as should join in the Crusades
to liberate the sepulchre of Christ from the hands ol
infidels. It became customary, also, to grant indul-
gences to such as, without adventuring m their own
persons, should jnrovide a soldier for these expedi-
tions. According to Morinus, the French bishops
professed, during the twelfth century, to remit a
third or fourth part of penance to persons who should
contribute a certain sum of money towards the build-
ing or restoring of a place of worsliip. In this way
Mauritius, bishop of Paris, built the splendid cathe-
dral of Notre Dame, and four abl.<eys. Innocent III.,
in A. D. 1215, imposed restrictions on episcopal in-
dulgences on account of some abuses which had
arisen, for not only were indulgences bestowed by
the popes on those who took part in the successive
Crusades, but several orders of monks, with papal
sanction, oft'ered peculiar indulgences with trifling
demands. In A. D. 1300, Boniface VIII. proclaimed
the year of jubilee, in which the most complete for-
giveness of sin was to be guaranteed in return for
small contributions in money.
The doctrine of indulgences came now to be a re-
cognized dogma of the Church of Rome, and at
length Clement VI. first proclaimed it in his Jul:
lee-Bull issued in A. D. 1343, when he reduced the pe-
riod of Jubilee from one hundred to fifty years. Ur-
ban VI. altered the Jvibilee in 1389 to every thirty-
third year, and, accordhigly, Boniface IX. repeated
it in 1390, and not contented with the increased re-
venue wliich the indulgences of that year afibrded
him, he ottered the Jubilee-Indulgence for sale out
of Rome in the years following, and, besides, drove
a sordid traffic in indulgences under various names
Thus the system of indulgences prevailed more and
more extensively as time advanced, and although, in
consequence of its glaring abuses, tlie Council of
Constance sought to keep it within bounds, yet so
rapidly did indulgences midtiply, tliat they formed a
characteristic feature of the filteeuth century. The
Jubilee and Postjubilee years now returned at shorter
intervals, and at length in 1470, a standing ordinance
was determined on by Paul II. according to which
every twenty-fifth year was to be a jubilee year.
" General indulgences," says Gieseler, " were fre-
quently granted for taking part in warlike expeditions
M
130
INDULGENTIA.
against unbelievers, and enemies of the papal see, or
put up to sale lor the maintenance of sueli wars.
Other uidulgencos were conceded for other services
rendered to tlie church. Besides, various ecclesias-
tical associations, especially the monastic orders,
were provided with rich indulgences, not only for
tlieir own members ; but the later orders, particularly
the Mendicants, were suiiplied for a lucrative trade
with lavnien as well as with other orders. More-
over, the numerous resorts of pilgrimages were en-
dowed with large indulgences ; and at lengtli indul-
gences were ,gTante<l for certain festivals, for certain
prayers, even in honour of crowned heads. Tliat
the papal indulgence extended over purgatory too,
had been long ago maintained by some divines,
though impugned by others. Now, the doctrine,
that it availed there per modum siiffmgii, was the
one most generally held, and was even officially rati-
fied by Sixtus IV. in 1477. Henceforlh the Popes,
in their bulls of indulgence, continually issue decrees
in favour of souls in purgatory, and demean them-
selves, in spite of that mitigating fornuila, as holding
full authority over it, and as gate-keepers of lieaven,
and dispensers of everlasting blessedness. Persons
who denied this imiversal power of the Popes were
persecuted, and the Sorbonne alone curbed its ex-
travagant exaltation. Besides there were several
other graces connected with the Pope's indulgences,
some of whicli, as for instance the concessions with
regard to property unrighteously gotten, were open
perversions of morality. Others, such as the per-
mission to take milk diet in fasting times, contributed
at any rate still further to perplex all ideas of con-
science. As it was evident that this constitution of
indulgences could produce no other than the most
injurious effects upon morality : so these effects were
still further heightened by tlie universal frauds, which
were constantly intenningled witli the traffic in in-
dtdgences. Moreover at times forged indulgences,
which even outstript the real in stupidity, were often
believed by the common people : at times tlio Pope's
indulgence preachers overstept their commission,
and were ashamed of no method of turning their in-
dulgences, like common wares, to the best possible
account. Thus the papal sale of indulgences was
universally regarded as a mere money-speculation ;
and it happened more and more frequently that the
very act, which was announced as the dispensation
of the loftiest spiritual graces, was not allowed by
the secular nobles, or was regarded with suspicion,
or gave rise to the strongest remonstrances. Now
also men began to come forward in increasing num-
bers, whose zeal in the cause of religion and moral-
ity was especially directed against the system of
indulgences ; although persecution was usually the
reward of their labours."
The evils connected with the traffic in indulgences
had now become so manifest, that not a few earnest
men ]iublicly jirotested again.st the whole system as
uuscriptural in its character and inunoral in its
effects. In Germany, and in the Netherlands, in-
didgences were loudly denounced by many otherwise
warm friends of the church. In the face, however,
of the opposition to the system which was begin-
ning to be manifested in various parts of Europe,
Leo X., with an exhausted treasury, and earnestly
intent upon the completion of the immense fabric
of St. Peter's at Rome, which had been commenced
on so magnificent a scale by Julius II., issued a bull
granting plenary indulgences to all who should con-
tribute towards the accomplishment of his favourite
object. The right of promulgating these indulgences
in Germany, along with a share in the profits arising
from them, was granted to Albert, Elector of Sletz,
and archbisliop of Magdeburg, who, as his chief
agent for retailing them in Saxony, employed Tetzel,
a Dominican friar of great zeal and eloquence.
" The indulgence dealers," says D'Aubign^, " passed
through the country in a gay carriage, escorted by
three horsemen in great state, and spending freely.
One might have thought it some dignitary on a royal
progress with his attendants and officers, and not a
common dealer or a begging monk." For a time
Tetzel drove a lucrative trade, but at length the
princes and nobles were irritated at seeing their vas-
sals drained of so much wealth in order to replenish
the Papal treasury. Men of piety lamented the
credulousness of the people, and all began to wish
that an end were put to this shameful traffic, which
was injurious alike to the welfare of the community
and the interests of true religion. It was at this fa-
vourable juncture that Martin Luther first began to
call in question the efficacy of indulgences. An ear-
nest controversy now commenced, which ended in
the establishment of the Reformation in Germany,
whence it rapidly spread to other European countries.
In consequence of the withering exposure which
Lnther and the other Reformers had made of the
abuses practised in the sale of indulgences, the
council of Trent found it necessaiy to decree that
while the use of indulgences should be retained in
the church, "all wicked gains accruing from them
shall be wholly abolished." In the same spirit Pius,
in 15G7, revoked all the indulgences which had been
granted for lucrative jnirposcs. Paul V., in 1606,
repealed all those which were granted by his prede-
cessors to the Regulars of every Order, and gave
others in their place. Innocent XI. in 1678, also
withdrew many indulgences as false, forged, and
apocryphal. Indulgences have continued, neverthe-
less, down to the present day to be issued by the
Roman see, more particularly on the occasion of a
jubilee.
INDULGENTIA (Lat. indulgence), a name
sonu'tinies applied to bapti.sm in the early Christian
church, as being attended, when blessed by the Spirit,
with absolution or the remission of sins. This ordi-
nance was always esteemed the most universal abso-
lution and grand indulgence in the ministry of the
church.
INDULTS— INFALLIBILITY.
131
INDULTS, a term used in the Church of Rome
to denote the jjower of presenthig to benelices
granted to certain persons by the Pope. Sometimes
indnUs have been given to kings and sovereign
princes. In 1424, Pope Martin V. presented an
indidt to the parliament of Paris, whicli, however,
they refused to accept. The cardinals likewise have
an indidt granted them by agi'eement between Pope
Paul IV. and the sacred college in 1555, which is
always confirmed by the Popes at the time of their
election. Thus the cardinals have the free disposal
of all the benelices depending on them, without be-
ing interrupted by any prior collation from the Pope.
By this indult they may also bestow a benefice in
commendam.
INDWELLING SCHEME, a hjTiothesis of very
high antiquity, which alleged the pre-existence of
Christ's human soul in union witli the Deity, thus
constituting, as some have supposed, the Logos, the
wisdom and power of God, by whom the worlds
were made, and the whole dispensation of Provi-
dence has been since administered. The Jews have
ever been wont to assert that the soul of the Messiah
was made before all creatures. Tliis opinion was
strongly maintained by Dr. Tliomas Goodwin and
Bishop Fowler, but more especially bv Dr. Isaac
Watts, in his ' Glory of Christ as God-Man.' The
Indwelling Scheme appears to be founded, both in
name and in reality, on Col. ii. 9, " In whom dwell-
eth all the fulness of the Godhead bodily." It sup-
poses the human soul of Clu-ist not to have been
created at his conception in the womb of the Virgin
Mary, but to have existed previous to his incarna-
tion in union with the Godhead. See Pre-Exist-
ENTS.
INFALLIBILITY, a privilege claimed by the
Cluirch of Rome, in virtue of which she declares
that she cannot at any time cease to be pure in her
doctrine, nor fall into any destructive error. This
prerogative she alleges she has received from Cln-ist
as the true Catholic church, and, therefore, she re-
quires and expects that the whole Christian world
should bow to her decisions. In proof of the infalli-
bility of the church, Romanists are wont to adduce
various passages of Scripture, such as these : iMatt.
xvi. 18, " And I say also unto tliee, That thou art
Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church ;
and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it ; "
John XX. 2,% " Whose sins ye remit, they are remit-
ted unto them;" Matt, xxviii. 20, " Lo, I am with
you alway, even unto the end of the world ;" John
xvi. 13, " Ilowbeit when he, the Spirit of truth, is
come, he will guide you into all truth : for he shall
not speak of himself; but whatsoever he shall hear,
that shall he speak : and he will shew you things to
come;" 1 Tim. iii. 1.5, "The church of the living
God, the ]iillar and ground of truth."
In addition to the support which Romanists sup-
pose the doctrine of infallibility to derive from Scrip-
ture they are aocustomed to argue, that the Catho-
lic church cannot eiT in her doctrines, because they
have regularly descended to her, link by link, in an
unbroken chain from the apostles themselves, whose
inspired infallibility was univer.>ially acknowledged.
But considerable difference of opinion exists in tlie
Romish church as to the precise seat of this infalli-
bility. Some suppose it to be seated in the univer-
sal church scattered over the whole world ; others
allege it to reside in the Pope ; others in a general
council independent of the Pope ; and others still, in
a general council with a Pope at its head.
The opinion which places infallibility in the Pope is
held by the Jesuits, and almost without exception by
the Italian clergy, who, above all others, are under
papal influence. It has been embraced, also, by the
councils of Florence, Lateran, and Trent. Accord-
ing to Bellarmine and Dens, however, the Pope is
liable to error in a personal and private capacity, and
as some allege, may even be guilty of heresy and
infidelity. The Jesuits and Canonists in general,
extend infallibility both to questions of right and of
fact. Tills was claimed by Leo himself in the La-
teran council.
The Italian school, while they vest infallibility in
the Roman pontiff, vary with respect to the fonn
which this prerogative assumes. They limit his in-
falliljility to his official decisions, but they difTer as
to the time when he is to be understood as speaking
with official authority. Some allege that he does so
only when he decides in council ; others when he de-
cides according to Scripture and tradition ; and others
still when he decides after mature and diligent exa-
mination. The most general opinion, however, on
this subject is, that the Pope is infallible when, in
his public and official capacity, as head of the church,
he gives forth his instructions on points of faith and
morality. But even on this view of the matter great
variety of opinion exists in the Romish church
Some say that the Pope speaks in his official capa-
city when he enacts laws, and others when he issues
rescripts. A large jiarty in the present day hold,
that the question as to the infalhbllity of the Pope
is a point not of ftiith but simply of opinion.
In opposition to the Italian, or, as it is sometimes
called, the Ultramontane party, the Galilean church,
or Cisalpine part}', has always held that infallibility is
seated in a general council lawfully assembled ; and
that the Pope, as distinct from the council, is liable
to error, and in case of disobedience, is subject to de-
position by the council. The Pontifl''s liability to
error, even in matters of faith, has been maintained
accordingly by the ablest French divines, and con-
ceded by many of the popes themselves. The Gal-
ilean view of infallibility was held by the general
councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basil.
A third party differ on this quastion from both the
French and Italian schools. This party mav be con-
sidered as represented by Dr. Milner, who, in his ' End
of Controversy,' thus defines infallibility : "A general
council," he says, " with the Pope at its head, or the
182
INFANTICIDE.
Pope Iiiniself issuing; a floctiinat decision wliicli is
received by tlie .tp'Rat body of Catliolic bishops, is
secure from error." According to tbis tlieoiy, a
Pope or a council may .sini;ly fall into error ; but
when united they arc infallible. This opinion of
course f,'oes to overthrow the decisions of the first
and second councils of Nice, the council of Ephesus,
and that of Constantinople, in all of which the Pope
presided neither in person nor by proxy. And, again,
several general councils were not sanctioned, but, on
the contrary, resisted by pontifical power.
Another, though a very small section of the Ro-
mish community, considers infallibility as lodged in
the church universal, comprehending the assembly of
all the faithful. But even this parly, small though
it be, is divided into two sections ; the one holding
that the cluu-ch universal implies only tlie clergy
scattered throughout all Christendom; the other al-
leging that it includes both the clergy and the laity,
who form collectively the church Catholic. Such
are the varied opinions existing in the Komish church
as to the precise seat in which the infallibility of the
church resides. The church has not given her au-
thoritative decision on this much vexed question, and,
therefore, the utmost diversity of sentiment is allowed
to prevail upon the subject. It is also doubtful bow
far this infallibility extends. Some limit it to arti-
cles of faith and precejits of morality ; others make
a distinction between ni.itters of rirjht and fact-i, and
also between facts simjily, and facts connected with
faith. The united opinion of all Protestant churches
is, that infallibility resides not in tlie church, but in
the Bible; and, therefore, to its decisions all must
implicitly bow. Tliis is the standard, the only true,
infallible .standard to which all the opinions both of
individuals and of churches must ultimately be re-
ferred. And if any person or community of persons
wisli to be guided into all the truth, they must look
for the aid of the infallible heavenly Teacher, even
the Spirit of the Living God, who, while he makes
use of the word as his instnmient, gives light along
with the truth, and thus teaches .savinglyand to profit.
INFAXT-B.\PTISM. See Baptism.
INFANT-COMMUNION. See Co.mmiinion (In-
fant).
INFANTKMDK, the pr.actice of destroying in-
fants. This barbarous and inhuman custom has pre-
vailed among almost all he.athcn nations, .showing
very strikingly the trutli of the seriptur.-d statement,
" The dark places of the earth are full of the habita-
tions of horrid cruelty;" and the correctness of tlie
apostolic riescriplion of the heathen, as being "with-
out natural all'ection." The Cana;inites, in ancient
times, sacrificed their sons and their daughters to
devils or demons. (See Human SAruii'icus.) The
.lews also were guilty of this crime, having learned
it from the heathen nations around thoin. Kven
among the ancient (ireeks infanticide was not un-
known. The Spartans, for instance, permitted only
oromising children to be reared, all the others being
without remorse put to death. But in modem hea-
thendom this hon-id custom has been exiensivelv pre-
valent. In the Sandwich islands, it was estimated, liv
the foreigners who first visited them, that two-tliir Is
of the infants born were destroyed by their own
parents. Mothers would cast their children into a
hole dug in the earth, and covering them up, would
trample upon them with their feet, and thus stifle
their cries. In the Georgian and Society Islands, it
is almost incredible to what an extent tliis practice
was carried. On this subject we may adduce the
testimony of the Rev. John Williams, a.s given in
his ' Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South
Sea Islands:' "Generally, I may .state that, in the
Society Islands, I never conversed with a female
that had borne children prior to the introduction of
Christianity, who had not destroyed some of them,
and frequently as many as from five to ten. During
the visit of the deputation, our respected friend, G.
Bennett, Esq., was our guest for three or four
montiis ; and, on one occasion, while conversing on
the .subject, he expre.ssed a wi.sh to obtain accurate
knowledge of the extent to which this cruel system
had prevailed. Three women were sitting in the
room at the time, making European garments, under
Mrs. W.'s direction; and. after replving to Mr. Ben-
nett's inquiries, I said, ' I have no doubt but that
eacli of these women have destroyed some of their
children.' Looking at them with an expression of
surprise and incredulity, Mr. B. exclaimed, ' Impos-
sible ! such motherly respectable women could never
have been guilty of so gi-eat an atrocity.' 'Well,'
I added, 'we'll ask them.' Addressing the first, I
said to her, ' Friend, how many children have you
destroyed?' She was startled at my question, and
at first charged me with unkindness, in harrowing up
her feelings by bringing the destruction of her babes
to her remembrance ; but, u|ion hearing the object
of my inquiry, she replied, with a faltering voice, ' I
have destroyed nine.' The second, with eyes suf-
fused with tears, .said, ' I have destroved seven ;' and
the third informed us that she had destroyed five.
Thus three individuals, casually selected, had killed
one-and-twenty children ! — but I am happy to add,
tliat these mothers were, at the time of tliis conver-
.sation, and continued to be so long as I knew them,
consistent members of my church.
" On another occasion, 1 w.as called to visit the
wife of a chief in dying circumstances. She had pro-
fessed Christianity for many years, had leanit to read
when nearly sixty, and was a very active teacher in
our adult school. In the prospect of death, she sent
a iiressing request that I would visit her immedi-
ately ; and. on enlering her apartment, she exclaim-
ed, ' O, servant of God ! come and tell me what I
must do.' Perceiving that she was suflering great
mental distros.s, I inquired the cause of it, when she
rejilied, ' 1 am about to die, I am about to die.'
' Well,' I rejoined, ' if it be so, what creates this
agony of mind ?' ' Oh I my sins, my sins,' she cried
I
Jivhimtiirildf m
\t
INFANTICIDE.
133
' I am about to die.' I then inquired wliat the par-
ticular sins were wliich so greatly distressed her,
when she exclaimed, ' Oil my children, my murdered
childreri ! I am about to die, and I shall meet them
all at rhe judfjinent-seat of Christ.' Upon this I in-
quired how many cliildren she had destroyed, and, to
my astonishment, she replied, ' I have destroyed
sixteen ! and now I am about to die.' As soon as
my feelings would allow me, I began to reason with
her, and urged tlie consideration that she had done
this when a heathen, and during ' the times of igno-
rance, which Clod winked at;' but this afforded her
no consolation, and again she gave vent to her ago-
nized feelhigs by exclaiming, ' Oh my children, my
children ! ' I then directed her to the ' faithfid saying,
which is worthy of all acceptation, that Clirist Jesus
came into the world to save sinners.' This imparted
a little comfort; and after visithig her frequently,
and directing her thoughts to that blood which
cleanseth from all sin, I succeeded, by the blessing of
God, in tranquillizing her troubled spirit ; and she
died, about eight days after my first interview, ani-
mated with tl\e hope ' that her sins, though many,
would all be forgiven her.'
" The modes by which they perpetrated this deed
of darkness were truly affecting. Sometimes tiiey
put a wet cloth upon the infant's mouth ; at others,
they pinched their little throats until they expired.
A third method was to bury them alive. And a
fourth was, if possible, still more brutal. The mo-
ment the child was born, they broke the first joints
of its fingers and toes, and then the second. If the
infant survived this agonizing process, they dislo-
cated its ancles and the wrists ; and if the powers of
endurance still continued, the knee and elbow joints
were then broken. This would generally terminate
the tortures of the little sufferer ; but if not, they
would resort to the second method of strangulation.
We had a servant in our employ for fifteen years,
who previously performed infanticide as her trade ;
and we have many times listened with feelings of the
deepest agony, while she has described the manner
in which she perpetrated the horrid deed."
Ini'anticide prevails also in China. Mr. Barrow
computes from authentic data that not less than nine
thousand children are exposed in tl;e streets of Pe-
kin every year, and as many more in the provinces.
He states that it is part of the duty of the police to
carry away in carts every morning those that have
been exposed during the night, some of them still
alive ; but they are all carried to a pit without the
walls, and buried promiscuously. In some parts of
Hindustan, particularly in Orissa, and the eastern
parts of Bengal, the people frequently offer their
children in sacrifice to Ganga, by drowning them in
the river. At one time the revolting crime of infanti-
cide was extensively practised in Benares, and the
adjoining districts. " The gre.it supporters of this
iniquitous practice," as we are informed by one who
was long resident in India, " were formerly the Rajh-
poots, the Rajhkoniars, and the Rajhvansis, among
whom a single female infant was never permitted to
exist, nor did they consider their destruction as au
act of sin or cruelty, though I am unable to believe,
as many have afiirmed, that they regarded the sacri-
fice as an acceptable offering to the gods. It appears
ratlier to have originated in convenience, (m account
of the ruinous expense attending their mamage, and
to have been practised without fear of offence to the
deities, for their belief is, that the souls of those
daugliters who were thus destroyed were eventually
returned to them iu tlie persons of sons ; and when
this did not appear to be borne out by the birth of a
male child, it only followed that Siva was displeased,
and conciliation was resorted to, until a son should
really be boin to them. In these cases it was usual
to seek propitiation by placing the next female in-
fant in the hands of the Brahmins, to be solemnly
sacrificed in the temjile of Ganesa, whereby that god
might be moved to compassion for the babe, and be
induced to intercede with Siva for the future birth of
male children to the parents. It is easy to perceive
whence this delusion had its conmiencement, since a
handsome douceur to the immolating priests was an
indispensable part of the ceremony, which in all re-
spects differed from the method of destruction pri-
vately used. In the latter place the operation was
perf(U-nied with very little form or expense, by wliat
the Hindoos call drinking milk. No sooner had the
sex of the infant been ascertained, than a cauldron of
warm milk was brought into the apartment where
the mother lay, and after prayers for the child's
return in the form of a S(m, the little innocent was
immersed in the milk, and held down until life be-
came extinct, and tlien it was carried to the Ganges
and thrown into the stream. When, however, the
deed was committed to the Brahmins to be executed
by way of sacrifice to Ganesa, tlie poor babe was
carried to the temple, and, being laid upon its back,
was, after certain diabolical ceremonies, destroyed
by the club of tlie inhuman yniAiV."
In some districts of India, the inhuman parents
have been known to bury their living children up to
the throat in the earth, leaving the head exposed to
the attacks of the wild beasts and birds of prey ;
others have bound the poor innocents by the feet to
the branch of a tree, there abandoning them to the
nio.st horrible of deaths ; others have hurled them
from a height into the waters of a sacred river. In
Madagascar, the fate of the infant depends on the
calculation of lucky and unlucky days. Should the
destiny of the child be declared by tlie astrologer to
be evil, the poor helpless babe is doomed to destruc-
tion. The practice of infanticide has been long preva-
lent in Madagascar ; and .ahhough, during the reign of
Radama, it was abolished, the inliuman custom has been
again revived with all its attendant circumstances of
barbarity. From Mr. Mofi'at we learn that the Bush
men in South Africa will kill their children without
remorse on various occasions, as when they are ill-
134
INFERI— IXriDELS.
shaped, when they are in want of food, when tlie
father of a child has forsaken its motlier, or wlien
obliged to tlee from the farmers or others ; in which
case they will strangle them, smother them, cast
tlieni away in the desert, or bury them alive. There
are instances of parents throwing their tender off-
spring to the hmigry lion, who stands roaring before
their cavern, refusing to depart till some peace-olfer-
ing be made to him. Many other instances of the
prevalence of infanticide among lieathen nations
might be mentioned, but those which we have ad-
duced are sufficient to show that wherever men are
unenlightened and nninfluenced by gospel truth,
cruelty and inliumanity characterize the human heart.
INFERI, the gods of the lower world among the
ancient Greeks and Romans, as distinguished from
the gods who dwelt in the high or heavenly regions.
The Greeks, however, more generally applied the
term iiiferi to the inhabitants of the infernal regions,
including both gods and the souls of the departed.
See Hell.
INFERI.(E, sacrifices which the ancient Romans
offered at the tombs of their deceased relatives at
certain periods. Tliey seem to have regarded the
manes of their ancestors as gods, and hence they pre-
sented to them oblations consisting of victims, wine,
milk, garlands of fiowers, and other things. See Fu-
neral Rites.
INFIDELS, unbelievers, a general term used to
describe all who subscribe to any of the diflerent
forms which unbelief has assumed. It comprises
those who deny the Divine existence, or, as they are
usually termed, Atheists; those who deny the Di-
vine Personality, and are called Pantheists; those
who deny the Divine Providential government,
and receive the name of Naturalijits ; those who
admit the existence and government of God, but
deny the authority and inspiration of the Bible,
and who are denominated Deists ; those who con-
sider human reason as the measure and test of
Divine Revelation, and who bear the designation of
Hatiimalists; and those wlio, like the Seculariits of our
own day, deny the possibility of establishing, by va-
lid argument, anything whatever whicli is beyond the
reach of our bodily senses ; or the adherents of the
religion of Humanitij, who ignore all written revela-
tion, and find religion only in the outward universe
and the inward man ; or the HamaniMs of the last
century in Germany, who sought to sink Christianity
in the elements of human nature. Infidelity assumes
the mo.st diversilied shapes and aspects, according to
the age and country in which it makes its appear-
ance. And yet in all its varied forms, by one dis-
tinctive feature it is uniformly characterized — its be-
ing strictly negative. It denies rather than affirms ;
it disbelieves rather than believes. Its creed is com-
prised in one single article, brief but comprehensive :
" I believe in all unbelief." At one time it assails
the being, the attributes, the Personality, the Provi-
dence of God; at another it seeks to demolish the
arguments for the genuineness, the authenticity,
the inspiration, the exclusive authority of the Won]
of God ; at another it controverts the soul's immor-
tality, and a judgment to come. At one time it i.s
metaphysical ; at another, physical ; at another mo-
ral, in its character and bearings. The rapid advance
which the natural sciences have made during the
last quarter of a century, particularly in the depart-
ment of geology, has tended, in no slight degree, to
alter the whole aspect of the infidelity of our day. It
affi>cts to wear the appearance of a regular scientific
argument, which, by the introduction and plausible
explanations of the development hypothesis, would
seek to destroy our confidence in the statements of
the Bible. Such is the decided tendency of the
' Vestiges of Creation,' and works of a similar kind.
But if v. e have a physical school of infidels, we have
also a metaphysical school, who endeavour, by the
most profound subtleties, to undermine the authority
of the Bible. To this latter school belong the Emer-
sons and Theodore Parkers of our own day, who at-
tempt to discredit the outward and objective revela-
tion of the Scriptures, by substituting in its place an
inward and subjective revelation in tlie conscious-
ness of the human being. '■ Recent theories," savs
Dr. Bannerman, " on the subject of inspiration have
left us in doubt as to what, in the volume of S rip-
ture, is tlie wisdom of God, and what tlie foolishness
of man. It is not now merely the ancient form of
the error that meets us in regard to the difierent de-
grees and kinds of inspiration attributed to the dif-
ferent parts of tlie Scriptures of God. But the very
distinction itself between what is of God and what is
of man has been done away with ; the objective re-
velation is confounded, or, to a great extent, identi-
fied with the subjective belief; and the spiritual
intuition or convictions of man are made to occupy
the place, and mimic the authority, of an inspiration
by God. In the same manner, recent tendencies of
religious speculation and feeling have served to re-
vive, in all its former interest and importance, tlie
question of the sole and supreme authority of the
written and inspired Word of God. On the one
side, we have the claims put forth on behalf of the
intellectual powers or inward intuitions of man to be
the judge of truth apart from the Word and autho-
rity of God, and to receive the communications of
that Word only in so far as tliey commend tliem-
selves to his reason or spiritual apprehensions ; and,
on the other side, we have dangers to the truth no
less imminent. To find an infallible interpreter for
the infallible Word of God; to find rest from the
conflict of doubt and unbelief, without the resjioiisi-
bility or the pain of the exercise of private judg-
ment and personal inquiry ; to enter the haven of
undisturbed faith, without passing through the storm
of conflicting opinion — this is a desire at all times
most natural to the human heart, and especially so
in an age like the present of reviving earnestness in
religion ; — and hence an approximation to the views
INFINITY— IXGIIAMITES.
135
and tenets of the Pojiisli cIiiutIi, oh the subject of
ecclesiastical authority and tradition, is a state of
feeling extensively prevalent in tlie midst of us."
It is wonderful to wliat an extent a change of
name may sometimes be successful in removing old
prejudices, which may have been connected with a
system. Infidels in this country have, of late years,
attempted by this paltry subterfuge to insinuate
themselves into the confidence of the public. They
are no longer Alhcishi and Iujidels,as in former d;iys,
but simply Secularists, who allege that " precedence
should be given to the duties of this life over those
which pertain to another;" and that "there exist, inde-
pendently of Scriptural authority, guarantees of mor-
als in human nature, intelligence, and utlhty." Thede-
sign of such statements is obviously to set aside the
Bible as the rule of human faith and duty, and to
substitute, as impelling motives of action, the things
wliich are seen and temporal for those things which
are unseen and eternal. See Intditiosists, Secu-
larists.
INFINITY, an essential attribute of the Divine
Being. He must necessaril}- be boundless ; we can
assign to him lu) limits either in duration or space.
The material universe cannot be otherwise than finite
or limited, form being essential to matter, and form
being necessarily finite or confined within bounds.
But we cannot conceive limits to Him who created
the imiverse. His necessary existence must, as far
as we can perceive, be necessary in every point of
space, as well as in every moment of duration. The
self-existent First Cause of all things must neces-
sarily be infinite, both in space and duration, other-
wise there might be a point in both the one and the
other, where his presence and power were alike
awanting. See Gon.
INFRALAP3AR1.\NS (Lat. infra, below, hpsiis,
the fall), a name applied to those Calviiiists who be-
lieve unconditional election, on the part of God, to be
subsequent to the foreseen apostasy of man. Ha-
genbach alleges that the synod of Dort approved of
the Infralapsarian scheme. The utmost, however,
that can be said upon the subject is, that its decrees
make no express mention of Supralapsarianism.
INFULj?!;. See G.vklands.
INGATHERING (Feast of), an ancient Jewish
festival observed on the day which immediately fol-
lowed the seven days of the Feast of Tabernacles.
Hence it is often called the eighth day of that feast,
although it was undoubtedly a separate festival in
token of thanksgiving for the safe ingathering of the
fruits of the groimd. After dwelling in booths for
seven days the people returned to their houses, and
on the day thereafter they observed the Feast of In-
gathering. No servile work was allowed to be done
on it, and praises were sung to God at the temple
witli trumpets and instruments of music. On tins
day they read the last section of the law, and began
the first lest they should appear to be more joyfid in
ending the law than willing to begin it. There was
no sacrifice of six bullocks as on the Feast of Ta-
bernacles, but of only one bullock. A peculiar bene-
diction was used on this festival, called the Royal
Blessing, in allusion to 1 Kings viii. 66, " On the
eighth day lie sent the people away; and they blessed
the king, and went unto their tents jo3'ful and glad of
heart." They observed the same solemnities, how-
ever, about the pouring out of water, as they had
done on the seven preceding days. This eighth day
festival came to be held in great veneration among
the Jews, and the Rabbis thus speak of it : '■ The
elglifh day shall be holy. Thou seest, 0 God, that
Israel in the Feast of Tabernacles offers before thee
seventy bullocks for the seventy nations for wliich
they ought to love ns ; but for our love they are our
adversaries. The holy blessed God, therefore, saith
to Israel, offer for yourselves on the eighth day."
INGEN, a hero-god of Japan, and a native of
China, who Uved about the year 1650. He was a
zealous Bitdsdoist or Budhiit, and looked upon as an
illustrious saint. But he was more especially vener-
ated because in answer to a Kitoo, or special praye»'
which he offered, a plentiful rain had fallen in a time
of drought.
INGHAMITES, the followers of Benjamin Ing-
ham, Esq. of Aberford Hall. Yorkshire. About the
year 1732, he left the Cliurch of England and joined
the Society of the first Methodists at Oxford. He
accompanied John and Charles Wesley on tlieir first
voyage to Georgia in North America ; and on his
return home, after a year's absence, he parted from
the Methodists, and attached hnnself to the United
Brethren. In a short time he set out on an itinerat
ing tour in the North of England, and established a
number of churches on the footing of the Indepen-
dents or CoNGKEGATiONALisTS (which See.) Mr.
Ingham was married to Lady Mary Hastings, daugh-
ter of the Countess of Huntingdon ; and in imitation
of that excellent lady, he devoted much of his wealth
to the advancement of the cause of Christ throughout
England. In 1760, Mr. Ingham, having met with
the writings of Mr. Glas and Mr. Sandeman, adopt-
ed some of their opinions, both in reference to
doctrine and discipHne ; and in consequence many
of liis followers abandoned him, but a great num-
ber still continued to adhere to him. The churches
which belonged to his communion admitted their
members by lot, like the Moravian Brethren, and
required them to declare their experience, that the
whole Society might judge of the gracious change
which had been wrought in tlieir hearts. The con-
gi'egations soon began to fall into confusion and dis-
order, and Mr. Ingham found it necessary to remo-
del them, laying aside some of those pecidiarities
which had given rise to contentions among the mem
hers. He contended very strongly for the imputed
righteousness of Christ ; but he objected to the lan-
guage usually adopted iu speakingof distinct persons
in the Godhead. He practised infant baptism, but
did not consider a plurality of elders to be necessary
136
iNiTiATi— i\ni:r mission.
for tlie dispensation of clinrch onlinances. He par-
ticularly iiiciilcjited upon his fol'owers the impro-
priety of eating tilings stranglLtl or partaking of
blood. Keniains of the Iiujhamitcs are still foniid in
ICngland, liut tliey are a very small body, only nine
congregations having been reported at the last cen-
sus in 1851.
INITl.VTI, a name applied to tlie faitlifid in the
early Christian church, as being initiated, tluat is ad-
mitted to the use of sacred offices, and to the know-
ledge of the sacred mysteries of the Christian reli-
gion. Hence Chrysostom and otlier ancient writers,
when speaking of any doctrines which were not ex-
plained to the catechumens, were wont often to say,
" The initiated know what is said." St. Ambrose
addresses a work expressly to the Initiati.
INLAGA, a class of spirits, the worship of which
forms the most prominent feature in the supersti-
tious practices of Southern Guinea. They are the
spirits of dead men; but whether good or 'evil
spirits, even the natives themselves do not know.
The sjiirits of the ancestors of the people are called
Abaniho ; but the Inldr/d are the sjiirits of strarr-
gers, and have come from a distance. Sick, and
especially nervous persons, are supposed to be
possessed with one or other of these classes of spi-
rits, and v.arious ceremonies are performed to de-
liver them from their power. In the first instance
the patient is taken to a priest or priestess, who ap-
plies certain tests in order to discover to which class
of spirits the disease belongs, and tliis being ascer-
tained, the patient is put under the care of the proper
priest. The ceremonies in both cases are \'ery simi-
lar. They are thus described by Mr. Wilson, who
was for many years resident in the country : " In
either ca=e a temporary shanty is erected in the
middle of the street for the occupancy of the patient,
the priest, and such persons as are to take part in
the cereinony of exorcism. The time employed in
performing the ceremonies is seldom less than ten
orfificcn days. During this period dancing, drum-
ming, feasting, and drinking are kept up without in-
termission day and night, and all at the expense of
the nearest relatives of the invalid. The patient,
if a female, is decked out in the most fantastic
costume ; her face, bosoin, arms, and legs are streak-
ed with red and white chalk, her head adorned with
red feathers, and much of the tiine she promenades
the open space in front of the shanty with a sword
in her hand, which she braiulishes in a very menac-
ing way against the by-stauders. At the saine time
she assumes as much of the maniac in her looks,
actions, gestures, and walk, as possible. In many
cxses (his is all mere afi'ectation, and no one is de-
ceived by it. But there are other cases where these
motions seem involuntaiy and entirely beyond the
control of the person ; and when you watch the wild
and imnatural stare, the convulsive movements of
the limbs and body, the imnatural ])ostiu-e into which
the whole frame is occasionally thrown, the gnash-
ing of the teetli, and foaming at the moulli, and the
supernatural strength that is put (brth when any
attempt is made at constraint, you are strongly re-
minded of cases of real possession recorded in the
New Testament."
The priests have certain tests by which it is known
when the patient is healed, and lie is required in
token of gratitude for deliverance to build a small
house or temple near his own, in which the s|iirit
may reside, to take occasional offerings to him, and
pay him all due respect, failing which, he is liable to
renewed assaults at any time. Certain restrictions
also are laid upon the dispossessed demoniac. He
must refrain from certain kinds of food, avoid certain
places of common resort, and perform certain duties;
otherwise the spirits will a.ssuredly recover their
power over him. See De.mons.
INNER MISSION, a scheme of operations de-
vised of late years in Germany, for elevating the
masses within the pale of the church from their
destitution and corruption by united eflbrts, espe-
cially in the form of societies, without being under
the management of organized Christian churches
Its objects and aims are thus .sketched by Dr. Kali-
nis, who, being himself a Lutheran of the High
Church party, is opposed to all eflbrts for the Chris-
tianization of the masses made by bodies not having
an organic connection with the church. "The Inner
Mission," says he, "opens to children, to whom the
parents cannot devote the necessary care and atten-
tion, its infant-schools and nurseries; to destitute
and demoralized children, its a.^ylums and reforma-
tory schools; and takes care of the sjurifual and
temporal improvement of the adults, iji Sunday
Schools and Young Men's Associations. It takes
care of the poor in relief associations, which not only
support, but also watch over the bodily and spiritual
welfare of their charge. It nurses the sick ; gets up
healthy and cheap lodgings; increases, in savings'
banks, the mite of the poor; seeks, by tlie power of
communion, to educate the intemperate to renuncia-
tion ; penetrates into the gaols of the criminals, and
takes care of those wdio have been dismissed; circu-
lates Bibles and Christian books, for awakening
Christian faith and love, and seeks to make the Sun-
day again a Sabbath, a day of rest and of elevation to
the Lord. It takes care of prostitute girls ; descends,
reproving and helping, into the abodes of filth ; oilers
to the travelling journeymen places of spiritual re-
creation; brings the AVord of God to the crowds of
labourers who do not find time to take care of their
souls ; endeavours to strengthen destitute and sunken
congregations, by itinerant preachers; educates
nurses, who not only attend to the bodies, but also
to the souls of the sick."
From this statement, though given by one who
looks ujion the Inner Mission with a jealous eye, it
is quite plain that it has reference chiefly to domes-
tic lieatlienisni, which has crept into Genn.an Pro-
testantism to such a fearful extent, and it propo.H's
INNOCENTS (Festival of the)— INQUISITION.
137
by all legitimate means to reclaim the heatlien masses
to living Cliristiaiiity. Tlie originator ami the main-
spring of this noble work, which bids fair to infuse
new life into German Prutestantism, is Dr. Wichern,
one of the greatest and best men of the age. This
eminent Christian philanthropist was born at Hamburg
in 1808. He stndied at Berlin under Schleiermaeher
and Noander, and even wliile yet a student, he con-
ceived a strong desire to devote himself to tlie Chris-
tianization and moral elevation of the humbler classes.
In 1833, he opened a sort of ragged school under
the name of the ' Rauhe Ilaus,' or Rough House, in
tlie neighbourhood of the village of Horn, about three
miles from Hambm-g. " Tliis noble establishment,"
says Dr. Scliaff, " is a large garden full of trees,
walks, flowers, vegetables, and adjoining corn-lields,
with several small, but comfortable, wood-houses,
and a neat, quiet chapel. It embraces various work-
sliops for shoemaking, tiiiloring, spinning, baking,
&c., a commercial agency (Agentur) for the sale of
the articles made by the boys ; a printing and pub-
lishing department ; a lithograph and wood engrav-
ing sliop, !Uid a book-bindery — all in very energetic
and successtul operation. Many excellent tracts and
books are aimually issued from the Institution, also
a monthly periodical, under the title ' Flkr/ende
Blatter,^ Fly Leaves, which is, at the same time, the
organ of the central committee of the German Church
Diet for Imier Mission. The cliildren are divided
hito families, each about twelve in number, and con-
trolled by an overseer, with two assistants. These
overseers are generally theological students who pre-
pare themselves here tor pastoral usefulness. Many
of them have already gone out to su|ierintend similar
institutions in Germany, Switzerland, and Russia,
estabhshed on the plan of the Rough House. The
general management is, of coiu'se, in the hands of
Wichern, who is universally respected and beloved,
as a spiritual father."
After labouring for se\eral years in this private
work of faith and labour of love, Dr. Wichern con-
ceived the design of enlisting Christians of the dif-
ferent Evangelical denominations of German Protes-
tants in the great and tndy Christian scheme of the
Inner Mission. A noble opportunity presented it-
self in 1848 of calling the attention of bis fellow
Christians in Gernuniy to tlie grand idea which for
fifteen years had been occupying much of his time
And thoughts. The first Kirchentag (which see),
or Church Diet, met that year at Wittenberg, for
the purpose of consulting on tlie true interests of tlie
Evangelical Cliurch of Germany. Five liundred
Christian men, both clerical and lay, were assembled
from all jiarts of Germany. Dr. Wichern was pre-
sent at that deeply solenni and interesting meeting,
and liaving made a powerful and heart-stirring appeal
on the all-important and urgent work of tlie Inner
Mission, a resolution was passed, that one of the
leading objects which i-hould be kept in view in tlie
proposed confederation of the Evangelical German
Churches must; be the fiirtlierance of ecclesiastical
and social reforms, especially Inner Mission. From
the meeting of that great assembly over tlie gra\e
of Luther at Wittenberg, this benevolent Christian
enterprise has every year formed one of tlie chief
topics of discussion at the Kirchentag, which con-
tinues its sittings for four days, two of which are
devoted to the congress of Inner Mission. Tlie
cause has received a remarkable impulse from the
sanction of the Klrcheidog, and altliough strongly
opposed by the High Church Lutherans, it lias
spread since 1848 with nniisual rapidity all over
Germany and Switzerland, and at this day the Inner
Mission is looked upon by evangelical Christians as
one of the most important movements which has
ever been made by means of associations of private
Christians in any countiy.
INNOCENTS (Festival of the), a festival in-
stituted in memory of the murder of tlie children at
Belblehem, on the occasion of the birth of Christ.
This cruel massacre of tlie innocents is thus recorded
in Mat. ii. 16, "Then Herod, when he saw that he
was mocked of the wise men, was exceeding wroth,
and sent forth, and slew all the children that were in
Bethlehem, and in all the coasts thereof, from two
years old and under, according to the time which lie
had diligently eiupiired of the wise men." At an
early period in the liistory of the Christian cluirch,
these murdered children began to be spoken of as
Christian martyrs. Irenajus says, "Christ, when he
was an infant, made infants martyrs for himself, and
sent them before liim into his kingdom." Cyprian
speaks in similar language. Hilary declares that
Bethlehem flowed with the blood of the mai'tyrs, and
tliat they were advanced to heaven by the glory of
martyrdom. Augiistin also says, "These infants
died for Christ, not knowing it : their parents be-
wailed them, dying martyrs : they could not yet
speak, and yet for all that they confessed Christ :
Christ granted them the honour to die for liis name :
Christ vouchsafed them the benefit of being wa.shed
from original sin in their own blood." The same
Christian Father tells us, tliat the church received
them to the honour of her martyrs. Origen not only
calls them the first-fruits of the martyrs, but says
that their memorial was always celebrated in the
chiirdies after the manner and order of the .saints, as
being tlie first martyrs that were slain for Christ. It
is not unlikely that the festival of Epiphany
(which see), may at an early period have included ao
one of its objects the commemoration of the massacre
of the innocents. When this event came to have a
separate festival of its own does not appear. It is
observed now, however, on the 28th of December.
The Greek church in their calendar, and the Abyssi-
nian church in their offices, mention fourteen thou-
sand children as having perished at Bethlehem by
the inliuiuan decree of Herod.
INQUISITION, a sacred tribunal or court of jus-
tice, erected with Papal sanction in Roman Catholic
138
INQUISITION.
countries for the examination and punislniient of
heretics. Ili-storians are by no means agreed as to
the precise period at which the Inquisition was
founded. From the establisliment of Cliristianity
by Constantine, penal laws were both enacted and
executed against heretics, as being in the view of the
Christian Emperors enemies to tlie peace and pros-
perity of the commonwealth. Tlieodosius, however,
is generally allowed to have been the first of the
Roman Emperors who pronounced heresy to be a
ca|>ital crime (see Heretics), and the first sangui-
nary law which doomed heretics to death was passed
A. D. 382. About this time, we find officers, called
Inquisitors, employed to assist in the execution of
the bloody enactments, which visited with the sever-
est punishment the slightest deviation from what was
considered to be the orthodox doctrine of the church.
Tliese officers, however, were not like the Inquisi-
tors of the Romish church in after ages belonging to
the clerical order, but laymen appointed by the Ro-
man prefects.
Heresy was from early times viewed by the church
as a very heinous crime, incurring excommunication
in its severest form ; but so far were the clergy
from desiring the death of heretics, that Jlartin,
bishop of Treves, strongly remonstrated with the
Emperor Maximus against putting the heretic Pris-
cillian to death — a deed wliich he declared " all the
bishops of France and Italy regarded with tlie ut-
most abhorrence." And we find Augustiu protest-
ing to the proconsul of Africa, " that ratlier than see
the punishment of death inflicted upon the heretic-al
Donatists, both he and all his clergy would willingly
perish by their hands."
As centuries rolled onward, the proceedings against
heretics were marked by increasing severity, imtil
in the eleventh century capital punishment even in
its most dreadful form, that of burning alive, was
extended to all who obstinately adhered to opinions
differing from the received faith. It was not, how-
ever, until tlie thirteenth century, that the court of
the Inquisition was first established, its immediate
motive being the suppression of the alleged heresy
of the Albigenses (which see). At the Laterau
council in 1215, in the midst of the thirty years'
bloody crusade against these determined opponents of
the Church of Rome, the plan of an inquisition or sa-
cred tribunal for the punishment and extermination of
heretics was conceived by Innocent III., who then
occupied the Papal see. At a council held at Tou-
louse in 1229, it was ordered that a perm.anent In-
quisition should be established against the heretics.
It was not, however, until Pope Gregory IX. in
12.'!.'! had deprived the bishops of the power of pun-
ishing the heretics of their respective dioceses, and
intrusted that duty to the friars of St. Dominic, that
the Inquisition was erected into a distinct tribunal.
These Inquisitors of the Failh, as they were called,
held their first com-t in the city of Toulouse. This
dreaded tribunal was gradually introduced into all the
Italian States except Naples, into some parts o\
France, and into the kingdoms of Spain and Portugal.
The proceedings of the Inquisition, at its first estab-
lishment, were comparatively simple, and their exa-
minations were conducted much in the same way as
in ordinary courts of justice. Nor did the church,
in these trials for heresy, pretend at the outset to
assume any other than a merely spiritual authority.
Convicted heretics being excommunicated by the
spiritual tribunal of the Inquisition were handed over
to the secular power, which consigned them to the
fiames. Gradually the authority of the Inquisitors
was extended, and they were called upon to |)ro-
nounce judgment, not only upon the words and ac-
tions, but even upon the thoughts and intentions of
the accused. It was not sufficient that a man could
prove himself innocent of any expression or overt
act which could be considered as detrimental to the
Church of Rome ; if they could only, by the appli-
cation of cruel torture, extract from him a confession
of having wronged the church in thought, they forth-
with pronounced liim guilty of heresy. No sooner
did a man incur the suspicion of heresy than spies,
called Familiars of the Inqui.sition, were employed
narrowly to watch him with the view of discovering
tlie slightest possible excuse for handing him over to
the sacred tribunal of the Holy Office. The tortures to
which the accused were subjected, in order to obtain
such a confession as the Inquisitors desired, were ol
three kinds, which are thus described by Mr. Sho-
berl, in his ' Persecutions of Popery : ' " Tlie first,
called squassation, consisted in tying back the arms
by a cord, fastening weights to his feet, and drawing
him up to the full height of the place by means of a
pulley. Having been kept suspended for some time,
he was suddenly let down with a jerk to within a lit-
tle distance of the floor, and with repeated shocks
all his joints were dislocated ; for this species of tor-
ture was continued for an hour and sometimes longer,
according to the pleasure of the inquisitors present,
and to what the strength of the sufferer seemed ca-
pable of enduring. If this torture was not sufficient
to overcome him, that of water was resorted to. He
was obliged to swallow a great quantity, and then
laid in a wooden trough, provided with a lid tliat
might be pressed down as tight as the O])erators
pleased. Across the trough was a bar, on which the
suil'erers back rested, and by which the siiine was
broken. The torture by fire was equally painful.
A very brisk fire was made ; and, the prisoner being
extended on the ground, the soles of his feet were
rubbed with lard or some other combustible matter,
and placed close to the fire, till the agony extorted
from him such a confession as his tormentors re-
quired. Not .satisfied with their success, the judges
doomed their miserable victims to the torture a sec-
ond time, to make them own the motive and inten-
tion for the actions wliich they acknowledged to have
committed; aud a thiol time, to force Ihcm to re-
veal their accomplices or abettors.
INSACRATI— INSTITUTION.
ISO
" If these infernal cruelties failed to wring a con-
fession, artifices and snares were resorted to. Sub-
orned wretches were sent to tlieir dungeons : pre-
tending to comfort and assist them, or even to be
prisoners like themselves, they launched out against
the Inquisition as an insupportable tyranny and the
greatest of all the scourges with which God had ever
afflicted mankind. Their dupes fell the more readily
into the snare, as it is hard to withstand tlie services
of friendsliip and compassion performed for us when
in the extremity of misery. The inquisitors sec^'ided
these artifices to the utmost of their power. They
assured the sufterers that they sympathized with
them ; that all tliey aimed at was their conversion ;
that the slightest confession, which they might make
to them in private, and which they promised to keep
inviolably secret, would be sufficient to put an end
to their afflictions and to procure tlieir liberation.
■' The upshot was tliat, if the accused was held to
be convicted in the judgment of the inquisitors, or
by witnesses, or by his own confession, be was sen-
tenced, according to the heinousness of the ofl'ence,
to death, to perpetual imprisonment, to the galleys,
flogging, or some other punishment. After condem-
nation, the execution was deferred for one or perliaps
several years, that the sacrifice of a great number of
delinquents at once might produce a more striking
and terrible ofl^ect."
The cruel death by which the Inquisition closed
the career of its victims was styled in Spain and Por-
tugal an Auto-da-Fe' (which see), or Act of Faith,
being regarded as a religious ceremony of peculiar
solemnity. These wholesale executions in Spain were
for a long time of very frequent occurrence. The
Roman Catholic writer Llorente, who was for some
years secretary to the Spanish Inquisition, computes
that from 1481 to 1517, no fewer than 13,000 human
beings were burnt alive, 8,700 burnt in effigy, and
17,000 condemned to diflerent penances. Thifs, in
the short space of thirty-six years, 191,4"23 persons
were sentenced by the several Inquisitorial Tribunals
of Spain alone. The Jews and the Moors fonned
the great majority of the victims of the Holy Office.
It was not until the eighteenth century, that though
the Inquisition retained its original constitution al-
most unaltered, yet the horrors of that dark tribunal
began gradually to abate. The awful spectacle of
an anto-da-fe. was now more rarely exhibited. But
even during that century cases; from time to time,
occuiTed, in which, by the authority of the Inquisi-
tion, individuals were committed to the flames. The
Holy Office of tlie Inquisition in Spain, however,
was abolished by Napoleon Buonai)arte in 1808, and
its funds applied to the reduction of the public debt.
It was restored by Ferdinand Vll., in 1814, but
totally abolished by the constitution of the Cortes in
1820, and, on the recommendation of the chief Euro-
pean powers in 1823, its re-establishment was re-
fused. According to the calculation of Llorente, in
his ' History of the Spanish Inquisition,' compiled
from its own records, it appears, that from the year
1481 to 1808, this tribunal condemned in Spain alone,
341,021 persons.
The abolition of the Holy Office in Spain was
generally supposed to have been followed by the
extinction of similar tribunals in other parts of Eu-
rope, where they had existed and been in opera
tion. This, however, was not the case in regiird
to Rome at least. From the statements of M. Torn-
non, who was prefect of the department of Rome
from 1810 to 1814, it would appear that when tlie
French took possession of the eternal city in 1809,
they found the prisons of thelnquisition iiearlyempty,
and learned that they had been so for many years
before. But whatever may have been the state of
matters at the period referred to, it wa.«i at all events
found to be necessary in 182.5 to rebuild the prisons.
From that time till the revolution in 1848, when the
Pope fled from Rome, nothing further was lieard of the
Holy Office; but when the government passed into the
hands of tlie Constituent Assembly, that body sup-
pressed the Inquisition, and when the prisons were
thrown open, only a single ecclesiastic and a solitary
nun were found lodged there, the former being a bish-
op, who had been imprisoned for upwards of twenty
years. Skeletons of human bodies were found in the
vaults of the building, which, from the manner in
which they were placed, must have been deposited
there at a comparatively recent period. Since the
occupation of Rome by the French, tlie prisons of
the Inquisition appear to have been used for the con-
finement of criminals not amenable to the laws.
There is no evidence, however, that the atrocious
cruelties formerly perpetrated by the Holy Office,
either have been, or are likely soon to be revived.
Tliat the spirit of Rome is persecuting and intolerant,
her past history too plainly shows, but it is earnestly
to be hoped that in future, such is the intelligence
of the age and the refinement of advancing ci ■ ibza-
tion, as well as the progress of more enliglitened
views on the subject of toleration, that the Inquisi-
tion will never again be permitted to light its fires, or
to torture its victims under the hallowed name of
religion.
INSACRATI (Lat. unconsecrated), a name given
in the ancient canons to the inferior orders of the
clergy in the Christian church. Thus in the coun-
cil of Agde, the unconsecrated ministers are forbid-
den to touch the sacred vessels, or to enter into the
diaconicon or sanctuary.
INSTALLATION, the act in the Church of Eng-
land of givhig possession of his office to a canon or
prebendarj' of a cathedral, by placing Iiim in his
stall.
INSTITUTION, the act in the Church of Eng-
land by which the bishop commits to a clergyman
the cure of a church. No person can be instituted
to any benefice unless he be in priest's orders. If
he has been already ordained by a bishop, he must
present his letters of orders, and show a testimonial
140
INSPIRATION.
of previous good behaviour, if the bisliop sliall re-
quire it ; aiul furtlier, he must manifest himself, on
due examiiiatiiin. to be wortliy of his ministry. At
his institution, tlie presontee subscrilies, in the pre-
sence of tlie oniiuary, tlie Tliirty-Ntne Articles, and
also the following; three articles :
" 1. That the Iving's majesty, under God, is the
onlv supreme governor of thi.s realm, and of all otlier
his highness's dominions and countries, as well in all
spiritual or ecclesiastical things or causes, as tem-
poral ; and that no foreign prince, person, prelate,
state or potentate, hath, or ought to have, any juris-
diction, power, superiority, pre-eminence, or autho-
rity, ecclesiastical or spiritual, within his majesty's
said realms, dominions, and countries.
"2. That the Book of Common Prayer, and of or-
dering of bishops, priests, and deacons, containeth
in it nothing contrary to the Word of God, and tluit
it may lawfully so be used; and that he himself will
use the form in the said book prescribed in public
prayer, and administration of tlie sacraments, and
none other.
"3. That he alloweth the Book of Articles of re-
ligion agreed upon by the arclibishops and bishops of
both provinces, and the whole clergy, in the convo-
cation holden at London in the year of our Lord God
one thousand five hundred sixty and two ; and that
he acknowledgeth all and every the articles therein
contained, being in number nine-and-thirty, besides
the ratification, to be agreeable to the Word of God."
"An oath is taken against simony — 'I, A. B.,
do swear, that I have made no simoniacal pay-
ment, contract, or promise, directly or indirectly,
by myself, or by any other, to my knowledge,
or with my consent, to any person or persons
whatsoever, for or concerning the procuring and
obtaining of this ecclesiastical dignity, place, prefer-
ment, office, or living — [respectively and particidarbj
naming the same, irhemmto he is to be admitted, in-
stituted, collated, installed, or confirmecT] nor will at
any time hereafter perform or s^atisfy any such
kind of payment, contract, or promise, made by any
other without my knowledge or consent. So help
me God, through Jesus Christ.' Also the Oath of
Allegiance — 'I, A. B., do sincerely promise and
swear, that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance
to her Majesty, Queen Victoria. So help me God.'
And the Oath of Sovereignty — ' I, A. B., do swear,
that I do from my heart, abhor, detest, and abjure,
as impious and heretical, that damnable doctrine and
position, that princes excommunicated or deprived
by the Pope, or any authority of the See of Ilome,
may be deposed or murdered by their subjects, or
any other whomsoever. And 1 do declare that no
foreign prince, person, prelate, state, or potentate,
hath or ought to have any jurisdiction, power, supe-
riority, pre-eminence or authority, ecclesiastical or
sjiiritual, within this realm. So help me God.'
There is, likewise, the Oath of Canonical Obedience
to the bishop ; and every clergyman, on being either
licensed to a curacy, or instituted to a benefice, signs
the following declaration : — ' I, A. B., do declare tlMt
I will conform to the Liturgy of the United Chm-ch
of England and Ireland, as it is now by law estab-
lished;' which is subscribed in the presence of the
bishop, or of some other person appointed by the
bishop as his 'commissary.'" These various oaths
having been taken, a particular and distinct entry of
the institution, mentioning the d.ate, the name of the
jiatron of the living, and other circmnstances, is to be
made in the public register of the Ordinary.
INSPIRATION. It was the general" belief of
the ancient Christian church, that the prophets and
apostles wrote as well as taught under the insi)ira-
tion of the Holy Ghost, that is, they were unerringly
guided into all the truth, and their writings must
therefore be regarded as infallible. That such was
the belief of the Jews in regard to the Old Testa-
ment Scriptures in the time of Christ, is clear from
the statement of Josephus, who says, that his coun-
trymen universally believed them to have been writ-
ten by men, "as they learned them of God himself
by inspiration," and were justly regarded as divine.
" How firmly we have given credit," he says, " to
these books of our own nation, is evident from what
we do : for during so many ages as have already
passed, no one hath been so bold as either to add
anything to them, to take anything from them, or to
make any change in them ; but it is become natitral
to all Jews, immediately, and from their very birth,
to esteem those books to contain divine doctrines,
and to persist in them, and if occasion be, willingly
to die for them." In the New Testament also we
have decisive testimony as to the inspiration of the
Old. Thus Paul declares in 2 Tim. iii. 16, "All
scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is pro-
fitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for
instruction in righteousness." In Acts vii. 38, the
Jewish Scriptures are termed "the lively oracles,"
aiul in Rom. iii. 2, and Ileb. v. 12, they are described
as the " oracles of God." In John v. .39, our blessed
Lord ap])caled to the ancient Jewish Scriptures in
these words, " Search the scriptures ; for in them ye
think ye have eternal life : and they are they which
testify of me." And in regard to the New Testa-
ment, the Apostles received the distinct assurance
from the nujuth of Christ, that the Father should
send the Spirit, who should teach them all things,
and bring all things to their remembrance, whatso-
ever he had said unto them. " Howbeit," he adds,
"when he, the Spirit of truth, is come, he will guido
you into all truth : for he shall not speak of himself,
but whatsoever he shall hear, that shall he speak :
and he will shew you things to come." And Paid
declares in the n.anie of his fellow-apostles, 1 Cor. ii.
13, "Which things also we speak, not in the words
which man's wisdom teacheth, but which the Holy
(xhost teacheth: comparing spiritual things with
spiritual." John also speaks in the name of all his
brethren thus, 1 John iv. 6, "We are of God: he
INSPIRATION.
141
tliat knoweth God liuart'th us ; he tliat is nor of God
liearetli not us. Hereby know we the spirit of truth,
and tlie siiirit of error."
Not only the apostles, but the primitive clnirches
also recognized tlie Sacred Writings as inspired.
Thus Justin IMartyr, wlio was contemporary with
tlie apostle John, savs, that "the Gospels were writ-
ten by men full of tlie Holy Gliost." Irenajus, a
few years later, declares, that "the Scriptures were
dictated by the Spirit of God, and that, therefore, it
is wickedness to contradict them, and sacrilege to
alter them." The Fathers, however, dilVered in their
views of inspiration ; some took it in a more re-
stricted, others in a more comprehensive sense. But
thev were usually more inclined to admit serbal in-
spiration in the case of the Old tlian of the New Tes-
tament; and it was not till the canon of the New
Testament had been completed, that they adopted
concerning it the views which they had long enter-
tained concerning the verbal inspiration of the Old
Testament. Alany of the early writers held very
strong views on the subject of inspiration. Eusebiiis
of Csesarea considers it higlily improper for any man
to assert that the sacred writers could have substi-
tuted one name for another, for example, Abimelecli
for Achish. Chrysostom calls the mouth of the
prophets, the mouth of God, and Augustin compares
the apostles witli the hands which noted down that
which Christ the head dictated. Many of the Jews
held that in peiming the Old Testament, the inspired
m'iters were entirely passive.
The first of the ancient Christian writers who took
up the notion of ditlerent degrees of inspiration, was
Theodore of Mopsuestia, who on this account incur-
red the reprehension of the fifth a'cumenical synod.
The Jews were accustomed to speak of three difier-
ent degrees of inspiration. Moses, they alleged,
possessed the higliest degree, with whom God spake
mouth to mouth ; tlie second, according to their view,
was the gift of prophecy ; and the lowest, the inspi-
ration of the Holy Ghost, from which proceeded the
holy writings or Hagiogropha. The three degrees
of inspiration often spoken of by Christian writers,
are superintendence, elevation, and suggestion. This
distinction is framed on the supposition that in some
circumstances men would require a smaller portion
of the Spirit's intiuences than in others — a supposi-
tion which is altogether gratuitous and unnecessary.
Suffice it to .say, that " holy men of old spake as they
were moved by the Holy Ghost." All that thev
wrote was dictated by tlie express inspiration of the
Spirit of God. To admit, even in the sliglitest de-
gree, the unaided and uninspired exertions of erring
man, is dangerous in the extreme. It throws an air
of doubt and uncertainty over the whole of the sacred
record. Nor are we relieved by the admission, tliat
the sentiments are entu-ely of divine inspiration.
Such is the power of language in modifying the
thouglit intended to be conveyed, that even although
the additional concession is made, that "occasionally
a more proper word or expression is suggested," oiu
conlidcnce in the Bible must be somewhat shaken.
The sentiments are of divine origin, but tlie mode of
conveying them to us is, with a few slight exceptions,
of man's devising. Such an opinion is highly dan-
gerous. It is one of those unhallowed interferences
with the express declarations of God which are too
frequently to be charged upon speculative theolo-
gians. The Spirit of Christ hath led the .sacred
penman " into all truth," and if any man shall dare
to assert that they liave clothed "the truth" in any
case in such language as to convey an erroneous im-
pression to the mind of the reader, we unhesitatingly
accuse the cavillerofdenyingaltogetherthe inspiration
of tlie Bible ; since to have been guided in thought,
and to have been permitted to err in the expressioh
of it, is to charge absurdity upon the Spirit of God.
It is unnecessary to remark, that we speak not of
any other than the original communications made
from heaven. Krrors in the transcription of manu-
scripts, and in the translation of versions from one
language to another have been permitted, but our
present remarks are limited to that wliich forms the
ground-work of the whole. Our object is to main-
tain the entireness of the work of the Spirit in dic-
tating to men the sacred record. The objection
against this view of inspiration, founded on the diversity
of style wliicli may be observed in the books of Scrip-
ture, is scarcely worth a moment's notice; just as if
the Sjiirit, in operating upon the minds of men, must
necessarily destroy the whole of their mental frame-
work. There can be little doubt tliat, so far from
feeling the slightest constraint, the writers of the
sacred volume would carry forward their work to its
completion without being conscious of writing under
tlie influence of any supernatural impulse whatever.
Such is the usual mode of the Spirit's o])eration, at
least in the work of conversion. It is silent and un-
seen save in its effects, which are obvious and pal-
pable to all. The sinner has been "made willing"
in the day of the Redeemer's power, and in his whole
deportment throughout the future part of his life,
however difl'erent his actings may be from those of
his unregenerate state, tliey are eharacierizcd, in
reality, by as much freedom in thought and action
as before. Similar then, we are entitled analogically
to reason, would be the operations of the Spirit in
in.spiration. In exerting his power over the mind,
he acts, not by destroying the ordinary laws of
thought and emotion, but by employing these \ery
laws to accomplish his all-gracious purpose.
Various theories of inspiration have been proposed
with the view of reconciling the two ditlerent and
apparently conflicting elements of the Divine and the
human. Both are obviously in operation, but how
much is to be attributed to tlie one, and how much
to the other, it is difficult precisely to state. Some,
as Eusebius and Chrysostom, merge the human ele-
ment wholly in the Divine, man being entirely pas-
sive, and the Holy Spirit being the sole agent ill tlii.
142
INSPIRATION.
matter. But the more common view of the subject
is, that the Diviiio is fouiul in tlie contents of the
communicition and tlie lunnan in tlie cliannol through
which the communicatiun has Howed. Now the very
use and design of iiisi)iration, or the infallible guid-
ance of the Spirit of God, is to preserve tlie Divine
contents from being injured by the human, and,
therefore, imperfect channel through which they
are made , pass. The modern (rcrman school,
however, represented by Neander, Olshausen, and
Thokick, lose sight of the great end and advantage
of inspiration, and make a distinction between the
actual revelation from heaven, and the outward and
written record in which that revelation is contained.
They admit the infallibility of the former, but tliey
just as plainly and distinctly declare tlie fallibility
of the latter. Opinions of a similar kind were stated
by Soame Jenyns, in his ' View of the Internal Evi-
dence of the Christian Religion.' " I readily ac-
knowledge," says this professed champion of Chris-
tianity against the iiitidel, " that the Scriptures are
not revelations from God, but the liistory of them :
the revelation is derived from God ; but the history
of it is the production of men, and therefore tlio
trutli of it is not in the least aflected by their falli-
bility, but depends on the internal evidence of its
own supernatural excellence." Such sentiments go
far to discredit, and even to destroy the alleged in-
spiration of the Sacred Writings. It is impossible
for us to draw a practical line of distinction between
that which is actual Divine revelation, and that
wliicli is the mere human record of this revelation.
" There is an internal repugnancy," Mr. Gillespie
well remarks, " in the parts of this idea. That the
Most Wise Being should bestow a universal revela-
tion of himself upon man, and yet not provide suit-
ably for the communication of the revelation. That
such Being should reveal, for all time, a set of
doctrines about man's condition and destination,
as in relation to his Creator; and yet not make
provision, at the same time, for an unobjectionable
and perpetually valid vehicle for the revelation of
the doctrines : this seems plainly to amount to a
position the constituents of which are so repugnant
to each other that they must mutually destroy each
other. The internal inconsistency is so great that
nothing less than the destruction of the whole by
itself can be the result. Self-destruction were the
only end to which a whole compo-ed of such parts
could logic-illy attain."
Three dilferent classes of men in modern times
deny the doctrine of the inspiration of the S.acred
Scriptures. Some, as Priestley, Belsham, and other
Socinians of our own country, as well as Schleier-
m.acher, De Wctte, and other German divines, reject
all miraculous inspiration. "I think," says Dr.
Priestley, " tliat the Scriptures were written without
any pjirticular inspiration, by men who wrote accord-
ing to the best of their knowledge, and wlio from
their circinnstanccs could not be mistaken with re-
spect to the greater facts of whicn they were propel
witnesses, but, like other men subject to prejudice,
might be liable to adopt a hasty and ill-grounded
opinion concerning things which did not fall within
the compass of their own knowledge, and which had
no connection with any thing that was so."
Another class of writers, such as Michaelis, deny
the universality of the inspiration, confining it to a
part only of the sacred books, which they allow to
be from God, while the others they believe to be
from man. A third class of divines again, among
whom are to be ranked Dr. Pye Smith and Dr. Dick,
believe the whole Bible to be inspired, but not all
parts of it equally inspired, some passages being writ-
ten under one degree of inspiration, and others under
another. According to this theory, the Scriptures
may be considered as classed into the inspired, the
half inspired, and the uninspired. " One part of the
Bible," says Gaussen in his admirable ' Theopneustia,'
" is from man, people venture to s.ay, and the other
part is from God. And yet, mark what its own lan-
guage on the subject is. It protests that ' all
Scrijitiire is given h/ inspiration of God.^ It poinis
to no exception. What right, then, can we have to
make any, when itself admits none ? Just because
people tell us, if there be in the Scriptures a certain
number of passages which could not have been writ-
ten except under plenary inspiration, there are others
for which it would have been enough for the author
to have received some eminent gifts, and others still
which might have been composed even by a very
ordinary person ! Be it so ; but how does this bear
upon the question ? When you have been told who
the author of a book is, you know that all that is in
tliat book is from him — the easy and the difhcult,
the important and the unimportant. If, then, the
whole Bible ' is given by inspiration of God,' of what
consequence is it to the question that there are pas-
sages, in your eyes, more important or more ditBcult
than others ? The least among the companions of
Jesus might no doubt have given us that 5th verse
of the lltli chapter of St. John, 'Now Jesus loved
Martha, and her sister, and Lazarus ; ' as the most
petty schoolmaster also might have composed that
first line of Athalie, ' Into his temple, lo ! I come,
Jehovah to adore.' But were we told that the great
Racine employed some village schoolmaster to write
out his drama, at his dictation, .should we not con-
tinue, nevertheless, still to attribute to him all its
parts — its first line, the notation of the scenes, the
names of the dmnuitis pemomr., the indications of
their exits and their entrances, as well as the most
sublime strophes of his choruses? If, then, (lod
himself declares to us his having dictated the whole
Scriptures, who shall dare to say that that .'ith verse
of the 11th cliapter of St. John is less from (Sod than
the sublime words with which the Gospel begins,
and which describe to us the eternal Word? Inspi-
ration, no doubt, m.ay be perce|itible in certain pas-
sages more clearly than in others ; but it is not, on
INSUFFLATION— INTEPwDICT.
143
that account, less real in the one case than in the
other."
The most recent school of Absolnte Religionists,
or those who adhere to what they term the Religion
of Humanity (see Humanity, Religion of), allege,
that the pure instincts of our spiritual nature enable
us to determine what portions of the Holy Scriptures
aie divine, and really entitled to be called the Word
of God. The subjective revelation is declared to be
the test of the oI>jective, and man is made the judge
of the inspired Word of God. In this view the true
inspiration is that of human instinct, and the true
revelation is the Word of God written in the nature
of man, and the true design of the Spirit's mission is
to waken up a slumbering consciousness of Chris-
tianity already planted in the soul. Such doctrines
lead to the rejection of every kind of outward reve-
lation. Man is constituted his own Deity, and the
instincts of his heart his only Bible.
INSUFFLATION, a part of the ceremony of
Exorcism (which see), both in the Greek and Rom-
ish churches.
INTENTION (Doctrine of), a peculiar doctrine
of the Cliurch of Rome, which is thus stated by the
council of Trent : " Whosoever shall affirm that
when ministers perform and confer a sacrament, it
is not necessary that they should have at least the
intention to do what the church does : let him be
accursed." Intention on the part of a minister in
administering a sacrament, is defined by Dens to be
" the act of his will, whereby he wills the external
act of the sacrament under the profession of doing
what the church does." The intention is distin-
guished into four kinds : actual, virlual, habitual, and
intet-pretative. The two first are not considered as
sufficient to the perfecting of a sacrament ; but the
two last are sufficient to render a sacrament complete
and valid. The intention of doing what the church
does is alleged by Dens to be fourfold: " (1.) The
intention of doing merely an act of external cere-
mony, as it were formally undertaken, without any
personal will of solemnizing a sacrament, or of doing
what the church does. This intention is usually
called merely external. (2.) The intention can be not
only of exteiTially performing the outward rite, but
inwardly, and in the mind, of doing generally what
the church doeth, whatever, in the meantime, the
minister may think concerning the church itself.
This intention is called internal. (3.) The intention
of .administering a sacrament of the true name as the
Roman church does. (4.) The intention of confer-
ring sacramental effects." As, according to the doc-
trines of the Church of Rome, the effect does not re-
fer to the essence of a sacrament, the fourth of the
different species of intention just enumerated is not
absolutely necessary. It is enough if the minister
intends to do what the church does, even though he
may will not to confer the efl^ect. Accordingly, a Pro-
testant baptism is held by the Romish church to be
valid, although the Protestant churches do not believe
that grace is conferred by the sacraments. The mere
exteriuil intention, however, is not sufficient ; it must
be accompanied also by the internal. But according
to Dens, " a general, implied, and confused inten-
tion is enough, when it sufficiently determines to do
those things externally, which belong to the sacra-
mental action." It is in reference to this doctrine of
intention as taught by the Church of Rome, that the
Westminster Assembly's Shorter Catechism declares,
that the sacraments derive their efficacy "not from
any virtue in them, or in him that doth administer
them." The doctrine of intention makes the partaker
of a sacrament dependent for the benefits of it on
the administrator; and must render him utterly un-
certain wliether in any case it has or has not been
effectual.
INTERCESSORS, an appellation anciently given
to some bishops in the African coimcils. In the
African churches, on a bishopric becoming vacant, it
was usual for the primate to appoint one of the pro-
vincial bishops to be a sort of procurator of the dio-
cese, partly to exercise a temporary supervision over
the vacant see, and partly to promote the speedy
election of a new bi.shop. Hence he had the name
of Intercessor or Interrcntor. Such an office, from its
very nature and the circumstances attending it, was
very liable to abuse. In the fifth council of Car-
thage, accordingly, the African fathers passed a de-
cree that no intercessor shoidd continue in office
longer than a year, and the more eff'ectually to pre-
vent corruption, an intercessor was prohibited from
succeeding to the bishopric which he had temporarily
filled, even although he should happen to be the
choice of the people.
INTERCIDONA. See Deverr.4.
INTERCISI DIES, days among the ancient Ro-
mans, which were devoted partly to the worship of
the gods, and partly to ordinary business.
INTERDICT, a public censure sometimes pro-
nounced by the Church of Rome, whereby Divine
service is prohibited to be performed in some parti-
cular city, district or kingdom. During an interdict
the churches are closed, and no rite of religion is
allowed to be performed except baptism and ex-
treme unction. This strong ecclesiastical measure
was occasionally resorted to by bishops in ancient
times, in order to compel the delivering up of a
criminal, but it was always disapproved. Thus
Augustin blamed a bishop, called Auxilius, on ac-
count of a proceeding of this kind. The interdict
which Ilincmar, bishop of Laon, infiicted on his dio-
cese in 8G9 was much disapproved, and removed by
Ilincmar of Rheims. It was fir.st in the eleventh
century that the more regular employment of this
species of ecclesiastical censure commenced. Thus
in A. D. 1031, in the province of Limoisin, a synod
interdicted certain predatory barons, who refused to
take part in what was called the truce of God. " A
public excommunication," to quote the desci-iption of
Neander, " was pronounced on the entire province.
144
INTERMEDIATE STATES— INTROIBO.
No person, except a clergyman, a beggar, or a child
not above twelve years old, slioidd receive burial
According to tlic rites of tlie church, nor be conveyed
tor burial to aiiDther diocese. In all the churches
divine service sliould lie pert'onned only in private;
baptism should bi^ imparted only when asked; the
communion slionld be given only to the dying. No
person should be able to hold a wedding while the
interdict lasted. JIass should be celebrated only
with closed doors. A universal mourning should
prevail ; the dress and mode of living should wear
the appearance of a general penance, of a continuous
season of fasting."
Interdicts have been frequently inflicted in France,
Italy, Germany, and England. In 1170, Pope Alex-
ander 111. put all England under an interdict, for-
bidding the clergy to perform any part of Di\ine
service, except baptizing infants, taking confessions,
and giving absolution to dying penitents. In the
following century, in the reign of King John, Eng-
land was again laid under an interdict. The conse-
quences of this Papal censure are thus described by
Hume the historian: "The execution," says he,
" w.is calculated to strike the senses in the highest
degree, and to operate with irresistible force on the
superstitious minds of tlie peojile. The nation was,
of a sudden, deprived of all exterior exercise of its
religion ; the altars were despoiled of their orna-
ments ; the cro.sses, the relics, the images, the sta-
tues of the saints, were laid on the ground ; and as if
the air itself were profaned, and might pollute them
by its contact, the priests carefully covered them up,
even from their own approach and veneration. The
use of bells entirely ceased in all the churches; the
bells themselves were removed from the steeples, and
laid on the ground with the other sacred utensils.
Mass was celebrated with closed doors, and none but
the priests were admitted to that holy institution.
The laity partook of no religious rite, except the
communion to the dying ; the dead were not inter-
red in consecrated ground ; they were thrown info
ditches, or buried in common fields, and their obse-
(pnes were not attended with prayers, or any hal-
lowed ceremony. Marriage was celebrated in the
churcliyard, and that every action in life might b.ar
the marks of this dreadful situation, the people were
prohibited the use of meat, as in Lent, or times of
the highest penance; were debarred from all plea-
sures and entertainments, and were forbidden even
to salute each other, or so much as to shave their
beards, and give any decent attention to their appa-
rel. Every circumstance carried symptoms of the
deepest di.strcss, and of the most immediate appre-
hension of divine vengeance and indignation."
INTERIM. See Ar)i.\piioRi.sT.s.
INTKR.MEDIATE STATES, subteiTanean re-
gions believed by the scholastic theologians of the
middle ages to occupy a middle place between hea-
ven and hell. These intermediate localities are sub-
divided into 1. 1'l'Uuatouv (vvliich see), which is
nearest to hell. 2. The Lninus Infantum (which
see), where all those children remain who die unbap-
tized. 3. Tlie Li-MBUS Patrum (which see), the
abode of the Old Testament saints where Christ
went to preach to the spirits in prison. These inter-
mediate states have been adopted from the schoolmen
by the Church of Rome, but they are unanimously
rejected by the Protestant churches, and also by the
Greek theologians, who, however, some of them, ad-
mit the existence of an intennediate state of the
departed ; but the Greek church herself determines
n<ithiug dogmatically about the state of the dead.
The Jews believe that after death the soul is refused
admittance either into a place of hapjiiness or misery
until the body is committed to the grave. Many of
tlie Rabbis maintain, that all departed souls travel
between heaven and earth for the space of twelve
months ; that they often hover about the graves
where their bodies are interred; and that during this
time they are subjected to the powers of the air which
break their bones in the grave, and reduce them to
dust.
Some modern writers hold the doctrine of an inter-
mediate state, of a nature, however, altogether ditfer-
ent from the purgator)- of the Romish church. Thus
Jung Stilling, in his ' Geisterkunde,' says, " If the de-
parted spirit who has left this world in a state of im-
perfect holiness, carrieswith him some elements which
he is not permitted to introduce into the heavenly re-
gions, he must remain in Hades until he has put away
all that is impure ; but he does not sutler pain, ex-
cepting that of which he himself is the cause. The
true sufferings in Hades are the desires still adhering
to the soul for the pleasures of this world." Sweden-
borg maintains thai between heaven and hell there
is an intennediate place called the world of spirits,
into which every man goes immediately after death ;
and that the intercourse which there takes place be-
tween the departed spirits is similar to that which
men carry on upon earth.
INTERMENT. See Funeral Rites.
INTERNUNTIUS, a messenger or representative
of the Pope sent to small foreign courts. A papal
ambassador sent to kings or emperors is called Nim-
tiiia or KiDicio.
INTERPRETERS. See Hf.rmeneut^.
INTERSTITIA, a term used in ancient ecclesias-
tical law, to denote the degrees by which an eccle-
siastic might ascend to the higher spiritual offices.
INTONSUS (Lat. unshorn), an epithet apjilied
to Apollu and Bacchus, referring to their immortal
youth, as the Greeks never cut their hair till they
liad reached the years of manhood.
INTROIBO (Lat. I will go in), part of the lifih
verse of the forty-second P.^alm in the Vulgate ver-
sion, and the forty-third of the authorized version. It
is with this word that the Romish priest at the fo(it oi
the altar, after having made the sign of the ci-o.^s, be-
gins the mass, on which the servitor responds, by
repeating the rest of the verse. The whole Psalm
INTROIT— IiNTUlTIONISTS.
145
is then repeated alternately by the priest and the
servitor. In masses for the dead, and during pas-
sion week, this Psalm is not used.
INTKOIT. In the ancient clun-ch, and in t)ie
Churcli of England, in the time of Edward VI., it
was customary to sing or chant a psalm immediately
before the collect, eijistle, and gospel. As this took
place while the priest was entering within the rails
of the altar, it received the name oi Intro it or en-
trance. This name is also applied by Aquinas lo
the first part or prepai-ation of the Mass, beginning
at the Introilm, and ending with the Epistle exchi-
sively.
INTUITIONISTS, a name given to that modern
i;Iass of thinker.", both in Gennany and in England,
who are accustomed to put implicit faith in the pri-
mary intuitions, or intellectual and moral instincts
of the human soul, and to substitute tlie inward re-
velation of the heart for the outward revelation of
the Written Word. This peculiar species of infidel-
ity very early appeared in the Christian church, mi-
der the guise of a liigh spiritualism. Though exist-
ing for some time previously, it was th-st developed
plainly in the apocryphal book called the Clemen-
tines, or the eighteen Homilies, where all Divine
revelation is said to have commenced with the pri-
mal spirit of Humanity, which was the Spirit of God
in Adam ; and every future revelation has been sim-
plv a repetition, or rather a restoration of the prim'-
tive truth. The early Gnostics also boasted of the
name of spiritualists, and regarded themselves as
exalted by intuition far above the sphere of faith.
It is not a little remarkalile, that this \e\-y ground —
the raising of intuition above outward revelation —
was taken by Celsus and other early opponents of
Christianity, who strenuously maintained that no-
where without us could more enlarged or accurate
views of God and truth be obtained than by searching
the inward recesses of the human mind and heart.
Some of the Neo-Platonists were somewhat inclined
to adopt this sentiment.
It was after the Reformation, however, that a
class of intuitionists began to denounce boldly all de-
pendence on an objective revelation. Servetus and
others belonged to this school. But it was in the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries that an intelligent
and intluential body of Intuitionists appeared in Eng-
land desirous to put an end to Christianity, by lead-
ing men back to the religion of nature and the
fundamental teachings of the inward man. Lord
Herbert of Cherbury, in the reign of Charles the
First, led the way, and professed to foimd a univer-
sal religion, which the whole world would recognize
as true. He was followed by others, who made no
secret of their design to destroy the credibility of
the Bible, and to set up a religion of intuitions.
Tlius Tindal, in his ' Christianity as Old as the Crea-
tion,' attempts to show, that there neither is, nor
can be, any external revelation at all distinct from
the internal revelation of the law of nature in the
hearts of all mankind. To tho.se who were in favour
of an outward revelation, he gave the contemptuoiiH
name of Demonists. Various writers in England.
France, and Germany followed in the same track
until tlie Intuitionists became an intluential body.
But the champions of Christianity triumphed, and
infidelity, even though defended by men of high in-
telligence, such as Hume, Bolingbroke, and Gibbon,
was completely silenced.
A reverence for intuitions, however, and the in-
stincts of the human spirit, as forming the only true
revelation, has once more made its appearance both
in this country and in America. The most able re-
presentative of this modern school of Intuitiom'sts,
is Ralph Waldo Emerson, a man of undoubted ta-
lent, but with a genius of a dreamy, vague, unprac-
tical cast. He professes to be the cliampion of the
■soul of man against Cluistians and the Bible. " The
relations of the soul," says lie, "to the Divine Spirit
are so pure that it is profane to seek to interpose
helps. It must be that when God speaketh, he
sliould communicate not one thing, but all things ;
should fill the world with his voice ; should scatter
forth light, nature, time, souls from the centre of the
present thought ; and new-date and new-create the
whole. Whenever a mind is simple, and receives a
divine wisdom, then old things pass away — means,
teachers, texts, temples fall ; it lives now and ab-
sorbs past and future into the present hour. All
tilings are made sacred by relation to it, — one thing
as much as another. All things arc dissolved to
their centre by this cause, and in the universal
miracle petty and particular miracles disappear.
This is and must be. If, there'brc, a man claims to
know and speak of God, and carries yon backward
to the phraseology of some old mouldered nation in
another country, in another world, believe liim not.
Is the acorn better than the oak which is its fulness
and completion ? Is the parent better than the
child into whom he has cast his being? Whence
then this worship of the past ? The centuries are
conspirators against the sanity and majesty of tlie
soul. Time and space are but physiological colours
which the eye maketh, but the soul is light ; where
it is, is day ; where it was, is night ; and hi.story is
an impertinence and an injury, if it be anything more
than a clieerful apologue or parable of my being and
becoming."
With this apostle of intuitionalism, man is at once
a God, a Saviour, and a Bible to himself. Nouglit
else is necessary but man and his own inward
promptings. "In the soul," declares Emerson, ad-
dressing a class of students in theology, " let the re-
demption be sought. Wherever a man comes there
comes revolution. The old is for slaves. When a
man comes all books are legible, all things transpa-
rent, all religions are forms. He is religious. Man
is the wonder-worker. He is seen amid miracles.
All men bless and curse. He saith 3'ea and nay,
only. The stationariness of religion ; the assump-
N
146
INVENTION OF THE CROSS— INVESTITURE.
tion tluit tlie age of inspiration is past, tliat the Bible
is closed ; the fear of degraihiis; tlie character of
Jesus by representing him as a man ; indicate with
sufHcient clearness the falsehood of our theology.
It is the ofiice of a true teacher to show us that God
is, not w.as ; that he sjieaketh, not spake. The true
Clu-istianity— a faith like Christ's in the infinitude
of man — is lost. None believeth in the soul of man,
but only in some man or person old and dejiarted.
Ah me ! no man goeth alone. All men go in flocks
to tliis saint or that poet, avoiding the God who
seeth in secret. They cannot see in secret ; they
love to be blind in public. They think society
wiser than their soul, and know not that one soul,
and tlieir soul, is wiser than the whole world. See
how nations and races flit bye on the sea of time,
and leave no rijiple to tell where tliey floated or sunk,
and one good soul shall make the name of Moaes, or
of Zeno, or of Zoroaster, reverend for ever. None
assayeth the stern ambition to be the Self of the
nation, and of Nature, but each would be an easy
secondary to some Christian scheme, or sectarian
connection, or some eminent man. Once leave your
own knowledge of God, your own sentiment, and
take secondary knowledge, as St. Paul's, or George
Fox's, or Swedenborg's, and you get wide from God
with every year this secondary form lasts, and if, as
now, for centuries — tlie chasm yawns to tliat breadth
that men can scarcely be convinced there is in them
anything divine."
The intuitionists, led on by Emerson, are nearly
allied to, if not identical with, the adherents of the
Reliijkm of Hunmniti), headed by Theodore Parker.
The latter, perhaps, admit more of the objective
than the former. Emerson holds to man, and man
alone, but Parker combines the outward universe
with man. " Not in nature, but in man," cries
Emerson, " is all the beauty and worth that he sees.
The world is very empty, and is indebted to this
gilding, exalting sold for all its pride. Earth Alls her
lap with splendours not her own." " The Absolute
Religion," says Parker, '■ is derived from the real
revelation, God, which is contained in the universe,
this outward universe of matter, this inward universe
of man." Both systems are alike opposed to a writ-
ten revelation, as being in their view unnecessary.
But it unfortunately hap[iens, that all which is made
known to us either by (jiu- inward intuitions or the
outward universe, falls far short of what the Bible,
and tlie Bible ahmo reveals to us.
INVENTION OF THE CROSS (FESTiVAt, of
the), a festival of the Romish church, celebrated
annually on the .3d of May, in honour of the alleged
discovery of the true cross by Helena the mother of
the Emperor Constantino. This festival was insti-
tuted in the fit'th, or more probably in the sixlh
centiiry. See Clio.ss.
INVESTITURE, the rite in the Romis;, ■■hurch
of inaugurating bishops and abbots, by investing
them with the ring and crosier, or stafl', as the sym-
bols of office; the ring being a token of their es
pousal to the church, and the start' of their pastoial
duties as the shepherds of the flock. The cu.'^toni
seems to have been introduced in the seventh cen-
tury, of presenting the clergy on ordination with
the badges or insignia of their office, which varied
of course according to the ministerial functions
which they were bound to discharge. But the
mode of inaugurating bishops or abbots was first
practised probably towards the end of the tenth or
beginning of the eleventh century, when the em-
perors and kings assumed to themselves the power
of conferring, and even of selling, sacred offices. In
such cases they gave to the bishop or abbot whom
they appointed, written instruments, green twigs,
and other things. Then followed the practice of
giving a ring and a stafl". The clergy who claimed
by law the right of electing their bishops and abbots,
were of course unwilling to surrender their privilege
into otlier hands, and therefore, they resorted to an
expedient which they found to be most efi'ectual in
defeating the designs of the emperors and kings.
As soon as their bishop or abbot was dead, they
hastily elected another and consecrated him, and
thus the emperor orking was reduced to the necessity
of confirming the ecclesiastic who had already been
formally consecrated. Numerous cases of this kind
are to be found in the records of the tenth century.
To prevent the clergy from thus trenching on what
the sovereigns regarded as their right of investiture,
they required the insignia of the episcopal office,
namely, the ring and the start", to be transmitted to
them immediately after the death of a bishop. By
this means consecration was rendered impossible, as,
according to ecclesiastical law, official power is con-
veyed by delivering the stafl' and ring; and every
election till it had been ratified by consecration,
could be set aside without violation of ecclesiastical
law ; nor could a bishop, though elected, perform
any episcopal function till he was consecrated.
The whole power of a sovereign over his bishops
and clergy depended on his possessing the right of
investiture, which indeed was the universally recog-
nized sign of feudal sovereignty on the one side, and
of allegiance on the other. In the eleventh century,
accordingly, wlien Gregory VII., generally known by
the name of Hildebrand, wished to increase the power
of the clergy, and to diminish the power of temporal
princes, he could think of no better expedient for
accomplishing both purposes than the publication of
his celebrated decree, by which all clergymen were
forbidden under penalty of deprivation to receive in-
vestiture of a bishopric, abbey, or any ecclesiastical
oflice at the hands of a layman ; while all laymen
without exception were forbidden to grant investiture
to a spiritual person, under pain of exeommuiucation.
This decree Gregory sent into all kingdoms, espe-
cially into France, Germany, England, and Sjiain,
urging as his ostensible reason for prohibiting lay
i:}vestilures his desire to put an end to the practice.
INVESTITURE.
147
of simony. The real object of the ambitions Pontiff
was to render tlie Church entirely indepenilcrit of
the State, and to deprive tlie civil rulers of all intln-
ence, direct or indirect, in the affairs of the church.
From this decree of Gregory must be dated the
commencement of a coutiict on the subject of inves-
titure between the Popes and Emperors, wliich
lasted for half a-ccntury. The right which the Pope
thus invaded had belonged to temporal princes for a
long period, and had often been distinctly recognized
bv Popes themselves. It was not to be expected
that they would surrender so important a privilege
without a struggle. At tii'st they treated the decree
with the utmost contempt, taking no notice of it, and
proceeding with investitures as before. The wily
pontiff foresaw the opposition which his measures
would encounter both from temporal princes and
many of the clergy. But Gregory was not a man to
be easily frightened. Henry IV., the emperor of
Germany, having persisted in defiance of the papal
decree in appointing bishops and abbots, the Pope
summoned him to appear at Rome and answer to the
charges made against him. Instead of obeying the
pa|)al summons, however, the Emperor called a con-
vention of German bishops to meet at Worms, and
there proceeded to depose Gregory from his office as
Pope. No sooner did inteUigence of this bold act
reach Rome, than a bull was issued from the Vati-
can, excommunicating Henry, deposing him fron\ the
throne, and absolving his subjects from their oafh of
allegiance. It was unfortunate for Henry that a
considerable portion of his people, including the
Swabians and Saxons, in obedience to the papal de-
cree threw oti' their allegiance to Henry, who, alarmed
at the storm of disafiection which had thus been
raised in his kingdom, reiiaired to Rome to implore
the forgiveness of the pontiff. Gregory was then
residing at the castle of Canossa, and on the arrival
of the emperor, instead of affording him an imme-
diate audience, he kep* him standing for three days
together, in the depth of winter, barefooted, and
bareheaded, and meanly clad, within the walls of the
castle, professing himself a penitent. The humilia-
tion of the emperor was flattering to the pride of the
Pope, and, therefore, with the utmost haughtiness he
refused to deliver Henry from the ban of the church,
reproaching him with the utmost severity for resist-
ing the will of the earthly head of the church. At
length, on the fourth day, he admitted the king into
)iis presence, and gave him absolution on condition
tliat, in the meantime, he should renounce the gov-
ernment, and if he should ever obtain it again, that
he should support the Pope in everything requisite
for the maintenance of the ecclesiastical laws. Henry
broke his pledge, resumed the regal power, and, dur-
ing tl>e rest of Gregory's life, an incessant war was
maintained between the emperor and the Pope.
After the death of Gregory, who is venerated as a
saint by the Church of Rome, though he was never
Ibrmally canonized, the papal chair was occupied by
Victor III., who, after a brief pontificate, was succeed
ed by Urban II. This pontiff, animated by the spirit
of Gregory, not only renewed that Pope's deci'ee con-
ceniing lay investitures, but he proceeded to take
active steps to inflict punishment on those sovereigns
who dared to violate it. Henry I., who then sat
upon the throne of England, was one of the first to
incur the papal resentment, having banished An-
selm. Archbishop of Canterbury, from the kingdcjm,
because he insisted upon fetching his jiall from
Rome, and receiving it at the hands of the Pope.
Urban was indignant, and was only prevented from
publicly excommunicating the English sovereign by
the earnest entreaties of Anselm himself. Nay, not
contented with renewing the decree of Gregory, pro-
hibithig lay investitures, he advanced a step further,
and at the council of Clennout, he caused it to be laid
down broadly and nniversallyas a new law, that no ec-
clesiastic should take the oath of fealty to a layman.
This act completed what Gregory, doubtless, had in
view from the very commencement of the contro-
versy on investitures — the dissolution of all feudal
connection between the church and the .state.
Urban II. died in 1099, and was succeeded by
Raiuerius, a cardinal of the Gregorian party, who
took the title of Paschal II. The emperor of Ger-
many was still granting investitures as formerly in
utter defiance of the papa! decrees, and was living in
total disregard of the sentence of excommunication
which had been passed against him. To put an end
to this rebellion against the authority of the church,
the new Pope endeavoured to insfigate Henry's sub-
jects to renounce allegiance to their sovereign, and
so well did he succeed in his object, tliat Henry's
second son raised the standard of rebellion against
his father in 1105. From the manifesto which the
young prince issued in vindication of his conduct, the
only charge brought against the emperor wa.s, that
he had caused a schism in the church, and had re-
fused obedience to the Pope. The rebellion was
successful, the emperor having resigned, and his son
having been elected and crowned king.
Henry V. commenced his reign, by vowing sub-
mission to the Holy See ; and the Pope, to display
a clement and conciliatory spirit, while he confirmed
the election of the now king, coupled his renewed
sanction of the decree against lay investitures, with
the declaration of an universal amnesty for all past
offences. No sooner, however, had Henry ascended
his father's throne than he threw off the mask which
for his own selfish purposes, he had assumed, and
despatclied an embassy to the Pope, declaring that
he intended to proceed in future with the investiture
of bishops, notwithstanding his former promises. A
war now commenced between Henry and the Pope.
The emperor marched into Italy in 1110 at the head
of an army of 30.000 men, demanding the consent of
the Pope to crown him emperor, and formally to re-
cognize his right of granting investitures. Paschal
did not find himself in a situation to resist Henrj
148
INVESTITURE.
and liis forces; he tlierefore proposed to adjust mat-
ters by a compromise, agreeing to allow the emperor
to resume all those possessions and regalia with
which he had formerly invested the bishops and ab-
bots of his dominions. The proposal was accepted
by the king, and the compact was solemnly con-
firmed by oath, Heiiry agreeing to renounce the
right of investiture on the day of his coronation, and
the Pope agreeing to command all bishops and ab-
bots to restore whatever property had been granted
to them since the days of Cliarlemagne. Henry
now repaired to Rome, accompanied by a train of
German and Lombard bisliops, who, instead of giv-
ing their assent to the compact, attacked the Pope,
charging him with having helped himself in his
necessity at their expense. Tlie Pope, beset both by
the clergy and the imperial princes, was obliged to
consent to the coronation ; but having hesitated
about recognizing the emperor's right of investiture,
his holiness was seized as a prisoner, and carried
away ; whereupon he entirely yielded, and a new
compact was entered into granting to the emperor
in future full right of investitm-e. Paschal was ac-
cordingly set at liberty, and Henry returned in tri-
umph to Germany, having gained the point which
had been so long contested between the emperors
and the Popes.
After the departure of the emperor from Rome, the
Pope, in a Lateran council a. d. 1112, revoked all
the concessions which bad been extorted from him,
and aimuUed the compact which had been made be-
tween Henry and himself Yet even this step did
not satisfy tlie adherents of the Gregorian party, and
to allay their clamours, the Pope found himself, after
a time, compelled to pronounce sentence of excom-
munication against the emperor. The same sen-
tence was afterwards passed by Calistus II., who
gave a fresh sanction to the decrees against investi-
ture. The estates of Germany now became urgent
for a reconciliation between the emperor and the
Pope, and chiefly through their exertions the
celebrated concordat of Worms was agreed to on
the 23d of September 1122, and ratified in the
following year by a general council in the Lateran
[jalace at Rome. This was the first cccumenical
or general council held in the West ; it is reckoned
by the Church of Rome the ninth general council.
The nature of the treaty made at Worms between
the emperor and the Pope, is thus briefly described by
Mr. Riddle, in his ' History of the Papacy :' " liy
this concordat, the emperor bound himself to main-
tain perpetual peace wilh the popes, and to restore
to the Church of Rome and all tlie churches in his
dominions whatever [iroperty had been taken from
them, — promising also that there sliould be in future
no interference with the free elections of bi.shops and
abbots, — and undertaking not to grant investiture
with the crosier and ring. In return for this, the
Pope conceded the following particulars: 1. That
all elections of bishops and abbots in the German
empire should take ])lace oidy in the presence of the
emperor, or his deputies or commissioners, but with-
out simony ; in case of a disputed election, the em-
peror to decide in favour of the candidate who should
be declared duly elected by the metropolitans and
bishops of the province. 2. The elect to be invested
with his temporalities at the imperial court by the
sceptre only, without the crosier and ring, and to
pledge himself to fulfil all his obligations to the em-
peror and the state. 3. With reference to bishops
within the empire, but beyond the limits of Ger-
many, the same regulations should take place, but
with this limitation, that such investitures sliould be
performed within six months from the date of conse-
cration." Thus terminated the fifty years' struggle
between the popes and the emperors of Germany on
the right of investiture.
The contest, however, had not been confined to
Germany ; it was carried on also in other countries,
particularly in England and France. The first who
raised the standard of independence as a Churchman
against the sovereign in England was Anselm, arch-
bishop of Canterbury, who was sent into exile, but
after a time, at the earnest solicitation of the king's
sister, was permitted to return to England, and to
resume possession of his see. The controversy be-
tween Henry and the Pope was not of long con-
tinuance, as the king consented to forego his right of
investiture with crosier and ring, but insisted upon
his right to demand the oath of allegiance to be taken
Ijy all ecclesiastics. This practice, accordingly, was
from that period established as the law of England,
the king being recognized as having a right of
sovereignty over all persons ecclesiastical as well as
civil.
In the same manner, but after a shorter struggle,
the controversy was settled in France. The first
who refused the oath of fealty to the Fi'ench king
was Rodolpb, archbishop of Rheims, who, liaving
been elected to his ortice in HOG, proceeded to con-
test the matter with the king, Philip I. The Pope,
Paschal II., happening to be in France while the
controversy was raging, himself consecrated Rodolph
at a council which he held at Troves. In the fol-
lowing year Philip died, and wjis succeeded by Louis
VI., who agreed to recognize the election of Ro-
dolph, provided he would take the oath of allegiance,
a condition which was readily assented to, and the
dispute terminated. In a council at Rlicims in 1119,
the Pope, Calixtus II., insisted upon a renewal of the
decrees against lay investitures, but Louis with equal
firmness insisted upon a reservation of all the rights
which the king of France had hitherto exercised in
the case of bishops and their sees. Investitures with
crosier and ring had for some time fallen into disuse
in France, and the king made no ojiposition to its
final prohibition. Louis VI., and the succeeding
kings of France, distinctly recognized the freedom of
episcopal elections, renouncing the right of nominat-
ing to bishopries which had been formerly exercised
INVIDIA— IPHIGENEIA.
14&
by the French sovereign. But to the end of the
twelfth century, tlie custom remained unchanged of
asking the royal permission before proceeding to the
election of a bishop for any vacant see.
INVIDIA, the persouitication of Envy, a goddess
among the ancient Romans. She was considered to
be tlie daughter of Pallas and Styx.
INVISIBILITY, an attribute ascribed to God in
the Sacred Scriptures. Thus he is styled by the
apostle Paid, " tlie King eternal, immortal, invisible;''''
'• whom no man hath seen, nor can see." " No man,"
said Jesus, " halh seen the Father at any time."
He is therefore the iiwisihlc God. Were he the ob-
ject of sight, he must be Umited, confined to a cer-
tain, determinate portion of space ; in short, he would
cease to be the Infinite God.
INVISIBLES, a name given to those at the period
of the Reformation in the sixteenth century, who,
like Osiander, Schwenkfeld, and others, denied the
perpetual visibility of the church.
INVITATORY PSALM, a psalm, usually the
thirty-fourth, which was sung in the ancient Chris-
tian church before commencing the dispensation of
the Lord's Supper. It was an invitation to partici-
pate of the communion, and was a distinct psalm
from those which were sung afterwards while the
people were communicating.
INVOCATION OF THE SAINTS. See Saint-
Worship.
INWARD LIGHT. See Friends (Society
OF).
10, a priestes.s of Uera at Argos, wliose worship
is said to have been fintnded by her father Inachus.
Zeus is reported to have fixed his affections upon lo,
and on account of Hera's jealousy, to have changed
lier into a white cow. Hera sought the cow from
Zeus, and having obtained her, committed her to the
care of Argus, who, however, was slain by Hermes,
and lo delivered. Hera then despatched a gad-lly to
torment lo, who, after being driven through the
whole earth, found a resting-place in Egypt. She is
.said to have founded the worship of the Egj^itian
goddes.s Ms, and by some believed to be identical
with her, while her son Epaphus, by Jupiter, was,
according to Herodotus, an Eg'yptian deity, to whom
bulls were sacred. The ancients belie\ed lo to be
the moon, which indeed among the Argives received
the name of lo.
IONIC SCHOOL, the earhest of the schools of
philosophy in ancient Greece. It was founded by
Th.ales of IMiletum, who lived about B. c. 600. His
researches were more of a physical than a metaphy-
sical character, and were chiefly directed to the pri-
mitive formation of the universe. From observation
Tliales was led to believe in the existence of two
fundamental principles — a pre-existmg, uncreated
matter, and an intelligent principle or soul. The
primary matter he supposed to be in a state of fluid-
ity, and hence he is usually represented as teaching
that water is the original or elementary principle of
things. From the operation of the intelligent prin-
ciple upon matter, or the primary fluid, resulted the
formation of the iniiverse. Both Ritter and Cousin
charge Thales, who is well entitled to be called tlie
Father of Greek philosophy, with atheism, but in-
stead of considering this weighty charge as borne
out by his opinions, we would be inclined rather to
view the intelligent principle or nous, whidi he con-
sidered as necessary to the creation of the universe,
to be, if not a full recogintion of God, at all events,
" a feeling after him, if liaply he might find him."
The successors of Thales in the Ionic school were
Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Anaxagoras. Ana-
ximander seems to have deviated entirely from the
opinions of Thales, laying aside as unnecessary the
notion of an intelligent principle, and seeking only
to find a material explanation of the creation of all
things. With this view, instead of water or fluid
matter, he substituted what he called the infinite,
wluch by its eternal motion produced individual
things. Creation was with him the decompo-sition
of the Infinite ; the emanation of separate pheno-
mena from the all-comprehending Infinite. Anaxi-
menes made air, not water, tlie original of all things,
and in this notion he was followed by Diogenes of
Apollonia, who, however, gave it life and intelli-
gence. Anaxagoras, again, the philosopher of Cla-
zoniene, restored the views of Thales, maintaining
matter to be the subject of forms, and intelligence
the active principle of forms. The union of these
constituted in his opinion the first principle of the
universe. Thus Anaxagoras more clearly developed
and strictly demonstrated what Thales had only ob-
scurely hinted at — the idea of God. He also de-
veloped the primitive matter which he believed to
consist of primitive elements, called b}' him Iioniceo-
meriiE or similar parts. Not that he believed the
elements to be similar to each other, but similar to
the qualities which, by our senses, we discover in
ditl'erent sorts of bodies. The system of Anaxagoras
was to a certain extent an anticipation of the Atomic
theory of modern times, all phenomena being regarded
as the result of the combination in difi'erent degrees
and in various proportions of these original ele-
ments.
lODAMEIA, a priestess of Athena, who on one
occasion, as she was entering the temple of the god-
dess by night, was changed into a block of stone on
seeing the head of Medusa, which was worked in
the garment of the goddess. In commemoration of
this event, a fire was kindled every day up(m the
altar of lodameia, amid the exclamation, " lodameia
lives, and demands fire."
lONIDES, four nymphs possessed of healing
powers, who had a teinple reared in honour of them
on the river Cytherus in Elis.
IPHIGENEIA, a daughter of Agamemnon and
Clytenmestra. Her father having ofi'ended Artemis
from some cause or other, probably from failing to
fidtil a vow which he had made, was warned that the
150
IPHTHIME— IRELAND (Christianity in).
goddess would only be propitiated bv the sacritice of
Ipliigeiieia. Againeninon was most unwilling to dis-
ciiarge so painful a duty, but at length he was pre-
vailed upon to yield, but before the sacrifice was
pertbrnied, Artemis carried otf Iphigeneia to Tauris,
conferring upon her the honour of otficiating as a
priestess at her shrine. While thus engaged, her
brother had foniied the plan of sacrilegiously stealing
and carrying to Attica the statue of Artemis in Tau-
ris, which was believed to have fallen from heaven.
For this crime, Orestes was about to be sacrificed on
the altar of the goddess, but Iphigeneia recognizing
liim as her brotlier, saved him from death, and tied
■with him ,ind tlie statue of the goddess, to the Attic
town of Brauron near Marathon, where she continued
till her death to act as priestess of xirtcmls. Slie
was held in veneration after death, the garments
worn by women who died in childbirth being oti'ered
uji to her. Iphigeneia, under t!ie name of Artemis
Orlltia, was worshipped as a goddess in Attica and
Lacedamon. Both Pausanias and Herodotus say
that the Taurians offered sacrifices to Iphigeneia the
daughter of Agamemnon.
IPHTHIME, one of the Nereides, and the mother
of the Satyrs, m ancient Greek mythology.
IRELAND (Christianity in). Christianity is
supposed to have been introduced into Ireland in
the course of tlie fifth century by Patricias or St.
Patrick, who appears to have been the first instru-
ment of planting the Cliristian church in that coun-
try. Considerable obscurity, and even doubt, how-
ever, has been thrown over the labours, and even
the very existence, of this reputed apostle of the
Irish. From ancient Icgejids, it appears, that even
prior to the mission of Patrick to Ireland, Pope Coe-
lestinus had sent Palladius to that country, liaving
ordained him as a bishop to the Scots, by wliom may-
have been meant tlie Irish. The Romish missionary
being unacquainted with the language of the people,
did little or no good, and his labours besides were
brought to a close by his premature decease. Rom-
ish writers are wont to allege that Patrick obtained
his powers and authority as a Christian missionary
frum the Papal see, but this notion is rendered very
improbable by the well-known fact, that for a con-
siderable period of its early history, tlie Irish cluirch,
like the ancient British church, preserved an entire
independence of Rome.
Patrick, according to Usslier, was a native of the
West of Scotland, liaving been born in a village be-
tween Dumbarton and Glasgow, which has received
fr m him the name of Kilpatrick. Other and more
recent authorilifis make him a native of Boulogne in
ancient Brittany in (iaul. Wliile yet a youth, lie
was carried otV by pirates to the Morth of Ireland,
where he was sold as a bondman to a chieftain of the
district, who employed him in tending his Hocks.
During the six years wliich he spent in this service,
he became faniihar with the Irish language, and
deeply interested in the Irish people. Having ef-
fected his escape from bondage, he retumed to Scot-
land, or, as some allege, to Gaul. At a later period,
he was seized with an irrepressible desire to revisit
Ireland, and to consecrate his life to the service of
God among the Irish people. It would appear from
his published confession, that in his forty-fifth year
he was consecrated to the episcopal oflice in Britain,
and commenced his mis.sion to Ireland in A. D. 432.
The country had for ages been the seat of Pagan
idolatry, and the Druids (which see) exercised, in
virtue of their priesthood, an imlimited authority
and influence over the people. The old annalists, it
is true, tell us of Cormac O'Conn, one of their
princes in the fourth century, who first taught his
subjects to despise tlie pagan rites. But however
much the Druidieal order may have declined in
importance before the arrival of Patrick, his first
attempts to difi'use Christian knowledge among the
people met with the most powerful resistance from
these pagan priests. Yet amid all opposition, the
zealous devoted missionary relaxed not in his eflbrts.
Possessing an intimate acquaintance with the cus-
toms and the language of the country, he prosecuted
his great work with unwearied diligence, among all
classes of societ}-. Nor were his labours without
manifest success. Several of the Irish chieftains
became converts to Christianity, and in gratitude to
their spiritual instructor, they conveyed over to him
portions of their lands which he used as sites for the
erection of monasteries. These he designed to be
schools in which priests might be trained for the
evangelization of the Irish people. As a funda-
mental means of imparting knowledge, he is said to
have invented an alpliabetical character for the Irish
language. He preached to the people in their na-
tive tongue, and according to Archbishop Ussher,
tlie doctrines which he taught were free from the
errors of the Church of Home. In 472, he estab-
lished at Armagh the see of an archbishop.
The benefit of Patrick's labours in Ireland long
survived him. He left behind him at his death in
A. D. 492, a band of well-educated, devoted men,
who sought to follow in tlie footsteps of their master.
Drawing their own knowledge of the truth from the
Hoi}' Scriptures, they referred the people to the
same source of infallible teaching; and planting
throughout the country monasteries and missionary-
schools, the fame of Ireland as the seat of pure
Scri])tm-al teaching soon rose so higli, that it received
the honourable appellation of " the Isle of Saints."
And on the testimony of Bede, we learn, that about
the middle of the seventh century, many of the
Aimlo-S.-ixon nobles and clergy repaired to Ireland,
either for instruction or for an opportunity of living
in monasteries of a stricter discipline ; and the Scots,
as he terms the Irish, maintained tlicni. taught tlicni,
and furni.shed them with books without fee or re-
ward.
The labours of the Irish clergy, however, were not
confined to their own countrv, but missionaries were
IRELAND (CURISTIANITY IN).
151
dispatched both to Britain and the Continent, to
spread the knowledge of the gospel of Clirist. The
Cnldees of lona owed their origin as a Cliristian
community to the preaching of the Irish apostle
Columba. Burgundy, Germany, the Low Coun-
tries, and other parts of the Continent of Europe,
were mainly indebted to Irish missionaries for tlieir
first acquaintance with Divine truth. The Iri.sh
divines in the eighth century held a high cliaracter
for learning, and Cliarlemagne, emperor of Germany,
himself a man of letters, invited to his court various
eminent scliolars from dillerent countries, but espe-
cially from Ireland. For a long period, from its first
foundation, indeed, until the middle of the twelftli
century, the Cliurcli of Ireland continued to assert its
independence of Rome, and to maintain its position
as an active, living branch of the Church of Christ,
owning no earthly head, but faitlifuUy discharging
its heavenly Master's work, and obeying his will.
Various attempts were, no doubt, made by Roman
pontiifs to subject the Irish church to papal donfi-
nation ; but without success. At length, in 1155,
Pope Adrian IV., assuming to himself authority over
Ireland, published a bull, making a grant of it to
Heiuy II., king of England. The ground on which
the Pope rested his riglit to make this grant, was thus
expressed in the body of it : " For it is undeniable,
and your majesty acknowledges it, that all islands
on which Christ the Sun of Righteousness hath
shiued, and which have received the Christian faith,
belong of right to St. Peter and the most holy Ro-
man church."
From this period tlie Irish church came to be es-
sentially Romish in its doctrines, constitution, and dis-
cipline. At one time it was said to have been so flour-
ishing, that it had no fewer than three hundred bish-
ops ; but in a national synod, held in 1152, only
three years before the submission of the church to
the see of Rome, the number amounted to thirty-
four, and before the Reformation, in the sixteenth
century, a number of these had disappeared.
The interference of the popes with the Irish church
was limited, for half a century, almost exclusively to
tlie bestowing of palls on the archbishops as the sees
happened to become vacant. But at length, in 1172,
Henry completed his conquest of Ireland, when the
clergy in synod convened, directed that the divine
service in the Church of Ireland sliould, for the fu-
ture, be in all things conformable to that of the
Church of England. In 1177, an assembly of the
Irisli clergy was convened at Waterford, in which
IIenr3'"s title to the sovereign dominion of Ireland
was formally asserted and declared, with the most
dreadful denunciations of the severest censures of
the church against all who should dispute liis right-
ful authority. To maintain his sovereignty over the
Irish clergv, Henry tilled up the vacant sees mostly
with Englislunen favourable to his interests, and the
consequence w.is, that a spirit of jealousy, and even
of bitter hostility, began to be manifested between
the Englisli and the Irish ecclesiastics. At length,
when John succeeded to the throne of England, this
animosity, which had long been smouldering, burst
forth into a flame. The archbishopric of Armagh
being vacant, the king asserted his privilege, and
nominated an Englishman, Humphry de Tickhull,
to the see. But the suftragan bishops, and some
clergy of tlie diocese, proceeded, without regard to
t!ie royal mandate, to elect Eugene MacGiUivider,
one of their own countrymen. John, enraged at
this infringement of his prerogative, addressed an
appeal to the Irish legate against the irregular
election ; while Eugene, meanwhile, repaired to
Rome, and was confirmed by the Pope. Still more
incensed at this open defiance of his authority, the
king prohibited the reception of Eugene by the
clergy of Armagh. The contest was protracted for
a considerable time, the clergy adhering to the Pope
and Eugene ; the king insisting on his privilege, and
withholding the temporalities of the see. Through
the influence of a bribe, however, John was prevailed
upon to yield, and Eugene was formally invested
with all the rights of the see, and the Pope's autho-
rity fully conceded.
The Pope now occupied a firm vantage ground, in
so far as Ireland was concerned, and although the
king and the clergy were often at variance on the
subject of nominations to vacant sees, the Pope did
not fail to take advantage of his improved position
to settle all such disputes, by thrusting hi some crea-
ture of his own in utter disregard of the aUeged
claims of both the contending parties. The papal
encroachments were tamely submitted to, and both
the oi\il and spiritual rights of tlie Irish prelates
were at the entire disposal of the Roman pontifi'.
Henry III., with the concm-rence of the Pope, made
tlie most oppressive demands upon the Irish clergy,
exacting, in 1226, a fifteenth of all cathedral churches
and religious houses, and a sixteenth of all other ec-
clesiastical revenues. Attempts were also made to
overspread the kingdom with Italian ecclesiastics,
who, though luxuriously fattening upon the reve-
nues of the Irish church, refused to discharge their
clerical functions, or even to reside in the country
which they pillaged by their extortions. Besides,
the Irish clergy, who possessed the most exalted
views of the superior excellence of their own church,
were not a little ofl'ended by some of the most worth-
less of their English brethren seeking refuge in the
Church of Ireland. Indignant at the intrusion of
these aliens into a church which could look back up-
on a long catalogue of holy and devoted men, they
passed a strong ordinance that no Englishman should
be admitted or received into a benefice in any one
of the Irish churches. At the request of Henry,
the Pope interfered, commanding this ordinance to
be formally rescinded within the space of one month,
and in rase of a refusal threatening himself to rescind
it, and to declare it null and void. The constant ten-
dency of the clergy in Ireland, indeed, during the
152
IRIS— IRISH EPISCOPAL CHURCH.
tliirteentli century, was to encroacli on the juristlic-
fioii of the civil power, and to extend the aiitliority
of the spiritual courts over matters which rightt'iilly
belonged to tlie courts of civil and criminal law.
And even on points which were included witliin
the juri.<diction of the spiritual courts, it sometimes
happened that the canon law was at variance with
the law of the land. This was particularly the case
with tlie law of bastardy. According to the com-
mon law, a piM-son born before lawful wedlock was
incjipable of inlieriting projierty, whereas, according
to canon law, he po.sscssed all the privileges of a
regular heir. This was in great danger of leading
to a collision between the civil and spiritual courts.
But to prevent such an unhappy result, it was re-
solved to limit the spiritual courts to the investiga-
tion of the simple point of fact, whether the person
was or was not born before lawful wedlock, the legal
rights of the party being left exclusively in the
hands of the civil courts.
For two centuries before the Reformation inces-
sant contests were carried on between the Irish clergy
and the English sovereigns, both parties struggling
for supremacy in ecclesiastical matters. Not that
thev sought the spiritual independence of the church,
for, indeed, they sought nothing more than to transfer
their allegiance as churchmen from the sovereign of
England to the Pope of Rome. They were content to
bow implicitly in submission to tlie papal authority.
Tiie power of the church and the privileges of the
clergy were carried to an extravagant extent. Cleri-
cal debtors claimed to be exempted from arrest, and
their properties from being taxed, without their own
consent. The clergy exercised the right of pardoning
felons within their own dioceses, or conunuted their
punishment for money. They engaged in the most
unseemly disiutes witli one another, and sometimes
even settled their quarrels by single combat. The
church revenues were, in many cases, utterl)' inade-
(jiiate for the support of the clergy, and in propor-
tion to their poverty they were rapacious and oppres-
si\-e. Exorbitant demands were made for the per-
formance of religious offices. Ecclesiastical censures
were commuted for money. Indulgences were sold,
and every opportunity was seized of extorting money
from the people. Instead of being examples to their
Hocks of every good work, the priesthood almost
universally was notorious for the most shameless
profligacy. With a clergy both ignorant and disso-
lute, true piety was, of course, well nigh a stranger
in the land, while its place was occupied by the
grossest suiicrstition. Nearly six hundred mon.astic
establishments, belonging to eighteen dill'erent orders,
were scattered over the entire face of the couniry.
(jhostly friars, black, white, and grey, swarmed in
c'Untless multitudes, practising upon the credulity
o;'au ignorant and deluded peojile. Crowds of Irisli
pilgrims resorted to Italy, Spain, and other popisli
countries, many of whom perished by the way. At
home, also, immense numbers were persuaded an-
nually to visit St. Patrick's purgatory at Lough
Derg, in the county of Donegal, in the expectation
that penances performed at that privileged station
would purge away even the deadliest sins. Such
were the impositions practised by the priests at this
celebrated place, that the Pope ordered its demoli-
tion in the fifteenth century. In the face, however,
of a disthict prohibition from the Roman pontiff him-
self, tlie station at Lough Derg continues to this
day to be a place of favourite resort to the deluded
victims of Romish superstition.
To such a state of degradation was the Irish church
reduced before the light of tlie glorious Refonnation
dawned upon the once far-famed " Island of the
Saints." Darkness, indeed, covered the land, and
gross darkness the peo(ile. Both the clergy and the
laity had thrown od' not the lestraints of religion
alone, but even of morality and common decency.
No wonder, therefore, that tlie spirit of religious in-
quiry, which so rapidly spread throughout all the
other countries of Europe in the sixteenth century,
should have found a greater difficulty than anywhere
else in effecting a lodgment for itself in the minds of
the people of Ireland.
IRIS, mentioned by Homer as the minister of the
gods, who conveyed messages both to gods and men.
The rainbow received the name of Iris, and the god-
dess in all probability was a personification of that
brilliant phenomenon in tlie heavens. In the later
classics she generally appears as the attendant of
Hera. Little is known concerning the worship of
Iris, except that she was worsliijqied by the Delians
with offerings of wheateu cakes, honey, and dried
figs.
IRISH EPISCOPAL CHURCH. The Irish
clergy and peoj lie sunk, as we have seen in a pre-
ceding article, to the lowest state of intellectual and
moral degradation, were not in a condition to appre-
ciate the benefits likely to arise from the Lutheran
Refonnation. Since the twelfth century Romanism
bad held undisputed sway over the minds of the ig-
norant and nninquiring natives. A spirit of reli-
gious investigation had, indeed, for some time pre-
vious to the Reformation, forced its way into Ireland
by means of English settlers ; and, in the tenth year
of Henry VII., it had been found necessary to enact
statutes with the view of preventing the growth of
Lollardism and heresy. But such seeds of the
Reformation, introduced into Ireland by English
emigrants, seem to have fallen upon an ungenial soil,
and, tliercfore, speedily withered away. For while,
in the reign of Henry VIII., reformed princiides
met with a ready reccjition in England, a consiilera-
ble period elapsed before they could find a footing in
Ireland. " Prelates of the more eminent dioceses,"
says Dr. Leiaiid in his 'History of Ireland,' "slept
in monastic tranquillity, while all Europe resounded
with the tumult of theological disputes. It is ridi-
culous to find an Irish bishop renowned for the com-
position of a hymn in barbarous Latin rhymes in
IRISH EPISCOPAL CHURCH.
153
praise of a Saint Maoartiii, while lii.s brethren in
other countries were engaged in discussion of the
most important points of religion ; or others depend-
ing for salvation on being wrapt at their dying hour
in the cowl of St. Francis, when Rome herself had
confessed with shame the follies and enormities
which had disgraceil her communion."
No sooner had Henry VIII. secured the cordial
and prompt compliance of Jbis English subjects with
the principles of the Reformation than he resolved
to procure, if possible, a reception for the new doc-
trines in Ireland also Witli this view he dispatched
commissioners to confer with the clergy and nobility
of that country, and to obtain a general acknowledg-
ment of the king's supremacy as the earthly head of
the church. Instead, however, of the roj'al comniis-
sioners succeeding in tlie accomplishment of their
object, they were treated, to Henry's mortification
and disappointment, with the greatest iiidifierence
and neglect. The advocates of the Pope's supre-
macy, in opposition to tlie supremacy of the king,
were zealous and determined. They were headed
by Cromer, Archbishop of Armagh, a prelate of abi-
lity and learning, and who, being primate of all Ire-
land, possessed sufHcient influence to defeat the pur-
poses of Henry, and to retard the progress of the
Reformation in Ireland. The chief agent in for-
warding the royal designs was George Brown, who
had been a provincial of the friars of St. Angustin,
but wlio was the first Protestant prelate that held a
see in Ireland, liaving been appointed by Henry,
Archbishop of Dublin. He had attracted peculiar
notice by the zeal with which he preached doctrines
utterly opposed to the dogmas of tlie Romish church,
and being thus, for a long period, favourable to re-
formed opinions, he was tliought to be well adapted
for leading the way in jilantiiig a reformed church
among the bigoted Irish Romanists. His labours
in the cause of Protestantism met with the most vio-
lent opposition, and his life was frequently in im-
minent danger from the zealots of the popish ])arty.
He reportoil to the king the melanclioly position of
ecclesiastical affairs in Ireland, and strongly recom-
mended that an Irish parliament should be .sum-
moned without delay in order to enforce a general
acknowledgment of the king's supremacy. The
suggestion of Archbishop Brown was adopted, and
a parliament was convened at Dublin on the first of
May 153G, by which all opposition was silenced, and
the national religion was formally clianged, the Re-
fonned faith being established as the recognized
religion of the cotuitry. Various statutes were en-
acted witli the view of carrying out this great object.
The king was declared supreme earthly head of the
church of Ireland ; the king was invested with the
first-fruits of bishoprics, and other secidar promo-
tions in the Irish church, as well as the first-fruits of
abbeys, priories, colleges, and hospitals ; all appeals
to Rome in spiritual causes were forbidden : the au-
thority of the Pope was solemnly renounced, and all
who should dare to acknowledge it in Ireland were
made subject to pr^munire ; all officers of every kind
and degree were required to take the oath of supre-
macy, and the refusal to take it was pronounced, as in
England, to be high treason. Thus was Protestant-
ism declared to be the religion of Ireland by law
established. The religious houses were suppressed,
and their lands vested for ever in the crown.
The partizans of Rome in Ireland were indignant
at the spiritual authority assumed by the king; and
numbers of the old Irish chieftains avowed their
readiness to take up arms in defence of the ancient
religion. Archbishop Brown foinid the utmost diffi-
culty, even at the seat of government, in coimteract-
ing the secret movements of Cromer and the popish
party, who had sent a special emissary to Rome to
express their devotion to the holy father, and to
implore his interposition in behalf of his spiritual
authority in Ireland. Several incumbents of the
diocese of Dtiblin chose to resign their benefices
rather than acknowledge the king's supremacy.
Commissioners were despatched secretly from Rome
to encoin-age Cromer and his associates in their op-
position to the recent enactments, and to rouse the
Irish chieftains of the North to rise in defence of the
papal suin-emacy. A confederacy was soon fonned
for the suppression of heresy ; an army was raised
to do battle in defence of the Pope's authority ; but
the victory of Bellahoe, on the borders of Meath,
broke the power of the Northern Irish, and sent
them to their homes. After a while, recovering
from the consternation into which they had been
thrown, the Irish chieftains prepared once more to
draw the sword against the heretics. But the prompt
measures of the goveriunent frustrated this new
attempt at insurrection, .and the chieftains with their
tinnultuarv bands were dispersed in all directions.
These repeated defeats weakened the influence of the
Ulster nobles, and rendered the cause of the Pope moie
and more hopeless every day. Numbers of monasteries
were now resigned into the hands of the king, and
many of the warmest adherents of Rome submitted
themselves to the royal authority. From Connauglit,
from Meath, from Jlunster, tlie most turbulent of
the Irish lords vied with each other in professions of
reconciliation to the king's goveninient, and agreed
to their indentures being couched in the strongest
terms of submission. Henry gladly received tlie
most powerful of these chieftains at his court ; loaded
them with presents, constituted them peers of par-
liament and members of the Irish council, and con-
firmed to them by patent their hereditary posses-
sions to be held of the king by military service.
Thus peace was restored to Ireland, in so far as
the Irish chieftains w^ere concerned. The clergy,
however, were not so easily won over to the cause of
the Refonnation. During the lifetime of Hen-
ry VIII. they felt themselves under considerable
restraint, but the accession of Edward VI. to the
throne, and the proclamation of the new English
o
154
IRISH EPISCOPAL CHURCH.
liturgy, roused them to a bold and determined
opposition to the innovations introduced into the re-
ligion of tlicir country. Arclibisliop Brown had
removed the relics and images from the churches,
and this change, though submitted to with reluc-
tance, had given rise to no open manifestation of re-
sistance to the royal will. But no sooner was the
proclamation made, enjoining the acceptance of the
new liturgy, than the slumbering spirit of discontent
among the clergy broke forth into deeds of open
opposition. The new Uturgy was treated with the
utmost scorn, more especially as no law had yet
establislied it in Ireland. The court was insulted
witliout a power of vindicating its authority ; and
the people, strong in their attachment to the old
religion, sympathized cordially with the clergy in
their hostility to the reformed mode of worship. In
the midst of these distractions, the English govern-
ment embraced every o])portunity of advancing the
Protestant cause in Ireland, by the appointment of
reformed ministers to the vacant charges. These,
however, found no small dithculty in discharging
their sacred duties, in consequence of the prejudices,
and even enmity of their parishioners. A striking in-
stance of this occurred in the case of John Bale, who
was appointed to the see of Ossory, and whose zeal
for the cause of the Reformation was so strong, that
the people rose against him, and five of his domes-
tics were slain betbre his face, while his own life was
only saved by the vigorous interposition of the civil
magistrate.
The death of Edward the Sixth and the succession
of Mary to the throne, proved a grievous discourage-
ment to the friends of Protestantism in Ireland. The
Reformation, imperfectly though it had yet been car-
ried out in the Irish church, was for a time completely
arrested. A license was now published, as in Eng-
land, for the celelmition of mass without penalty or
con)pulsiou. The reformed clergy dreaded the ap-
proach of a time of persecution, and some of them
sought safety in flight, while others were ejected to
give place to ecclesiastics devoted to tlie Romish
communion. An Irish parliament was convened at
Dublin in 1550, for the purpose of re-establishing the
ancient faith and worship. A papal bull to that ert'ect
was read, the whole assembly of Lords and Connnons
listening to it on their bended knees, in token of
reverence and contrition ; after which, they adjourned
to the cathedral, where Te Deum was solenwily
chanted in thanksgiving to God for the restoration
of Ireland to the unity of the holy church of Rome.
The Roman Catholic faith and worship were now
once more established in Ireland as well as England;
all acts made against the holy see were repealed ; tlie
jurisdiction of tlie Pope was revived; the property
and emoluments vested in the crown were restored
to the church, with the exception of such lands as
had been granted to the laity, and which it might
have been dangerous to wrest from them. Matters
now returned to nearly the same state as before the
Reformation ; and the Protestants who had not (put-
ted the country, were permitted to enjoy their opi-
nions and worship in privacy without molestation or
hindrance ; the persecuting spirit which, during this
unhappy reign, raged in England, not having extend-
ed acro.ss the Irish channel.
On the accession of Elizabeth at her sLster's death,
the new queen's well-known adherence to the cause of
the Reformation revived the hearts of the Protest-
ants in all parts of her dominions. Agreeably to
the royal instructions, an Irish parliament was con-
vened in January 1560, with the view of establishing
anew the reformed worship. Not a few, both of the
Lords and Commons, assembled on that occasion, were
keen partizans of Rome, but after a session of onlv
a kvi weeks, and amid considerable opposition, sta-
tutes were passed reversing the whole ecclesiastical
system of Queen Mary, and establishing Protestantism
as henceforth the established religion of Ireland.
The ecclesiastical supremacy was now restored to
the crown ; all laws against heresy were repealed ;
the use of the Book of Common Prayer was en-
forced, and all the queen's subjects were obliged to
attend the public service of the church. The Rom-
ish party inveighed against the heretical queen and
her impious minisiers. The clergy who could not
coriscientlously conform, resigned their livings, and
as no reformed ministers could be found to supply
their places, the churches fell to ruin, and whole dis-
tricts of the country were left without religious or-
dinances. The Irish people generally had never
lost their ancient attachment to the Romish religion,
and finding the doctrines and practices of their fore-
fathers, since the time of the Second Henry, now set
at nought by the government, their clergy removed,
and no others substituted In their room, they natur-
ally conceived a bitter hatred against their English
rulers, and prepared themselves for the first oppor-
tunity winch should occur of vindicating their religion
even by force of arms against the heretics. Such
hostile feelings met with no small encouragement,
both from the Pope whose authority had been treated
with contempt, and from the king of Spain wlio hap-
pened at this time to be on no very friendly footing
with Ehzabeth.
Ireland continued to be exposed to constant in-
ternal commotions, caused by the ambition and jea-
lousy of the petty chieftains, who complained loudly
of the uncompromising firmness with which Elizabeth
maintained her royal prerogative In the matter of
pecuniary assessments. One of these discontented
nobles, by name Fitz-Maurlce, after urging In vain
upon the king of France an Invasion of Ireland, made
the same propo.sal to the Pope, and so cordially did
His Holiness enter Into the project, that he forth-
with issued a bull addressed to the prelates, princes,
nobles, and people of Ireland, exhorting them to
assist I'ilz-Maurice In contending for the recovery of
their liberty and the defence of the holy church.
Philip 11., king of Spain, aided in this enterprize,
IRISH EPISCOPAL CHUPvCH.
IS.*)
which, however, proved entirely unsuccessful, and
yet not before the flame of rebellion had been
kindled throughout the greater part of Ireland,
raised chiefly by the Earl of Desmond, whose death,
by the hand of violence, put an end to the insurrec-
tion in the meantime. One rebeUion after another
kept the country in a state of commotion, fomented by
the Popes of Rome, who were anxious to recover the
authority which they had so long claimed over the
church and people of Ireland. With the view of
accomplishing this object, they succeeded in orga-
nizing a strong popish party, which the vigour of
Elizabeth's government kept in some restraint ; but
on tlie accession of James I., they assumed a bolder
attitude than ever. Several cities of Leinster, and
almost all the cities of Munster, entered into a con-
spiracy to restore the Romish worship in open con-
temjit of the penal statutes of the realm. In fur-
therance of this design they proceeded to eject the
reformed ministers from their churches, they seized
such religious houses as had been converted to civil
uses, they erected their crosses, celebrated their
masses in public, and their ecclesiastics might be
seen marching in public procession clothed in the
habits of their respective monastic orders. The sedi-
tious spirit now pervaded the whole of the southern
counties of Ireland, and the government found it
necessary to take active measures for its suppres-
sion ; and so prompt, as well as energetic, were these
measures, that the insurrection of the Southerns,
alarming though it appeared for a time, was brought
to a .speedy termination.
There is no doubt that tlie undecided and vacil-
lating conduct of James led the Irisli Romanists to
believe that he was not unfriendly to their commu-
nion. Presuming on the tenderness of the king
towards tlieir church, the Romish ecclesiastics de-
nounced from the altar all who ventured to attend
on the established worship. Abbeys and monaste-
ries were repaired, and the rites of the ancient faith
were celebrated openly in difi'erent parts of the coun-
tiy. But though James might seem to be somewhat
indulgent to the erroneous tenets of the Church of
Rome, no monarch could hold in greater abhor-
rence all attempts to trench upon the royal prero-
gative, by maintaining the ecclesiastical supremacy
of the Pope of Rome. With such feelings, he had
published a proclamation in England, commanding
all Jesuits and other priests who had received orders
from any foreign power to depart from the kingdom ;
and to maintain his consistency, he issued a similar
proclamation in Ireland, ordering all the Romish
clergy to quit the country within a limited time,
unless they consented to conform to the laws of the
land. This latter proclamation, instead of frighten-
ing, only enraged the popish party, who represented
it as an act on the part of government of the most
wanton injustice and oppression. A remonstrance
and petition was immediately got up, demanding the
free exercise of their religion, but this document
having been laid before the council, on the very day
when intelligence reached Dublin of the Gunpow-
der Plot, the chief petitioners were seized and im-
prisoned in the castle, while Sir Patrick Barnwell,
their principal agent, was sent in custody into Eng-
land, by the command of the king. The dissatisfac-
tion and discontent which prevailed among the Ro-
manists in every part of Ireland, kept the government
in a state of perpetual suspicion and uneasiness, and
gave weight to every report of insurrection and con-
sjiiracy. Nor were the fears of the king and his
ministers altogether without foundation. The North-
ern chieftains, followed by numbers of the native
Irish, were imprudent enough to fonn the plan of a
new rebellion, which was speedily brought to an end,
however, by the vigilance of the government. The
consequence was, that a vast tract of land amounting
to 500,000 acres in six northern counties was forfeited
to the crown. This led to the plantation of Ulster,
the benefits of which are felt at this day. A large
population of loyal and industrious inhabitants,
chiefly Protestants, settled in the northern counties,
the lands were cultivated and improved, a number
of flourishing towns were established, and the pro-
vince of Ulster became the most prosperous and
thriving district of Ireland.
To enforce the royal authority, and put an end
to the religious dissensions and animosities which
still prevailed in various parts of the coimtry, James
resolved to summon an Irish parliament. The
recusants, who formed a large and powerful party,
were alarmed lest some additional enactments were
contemplated against those who refused to abandon
the Romish communion. To prevent any further
penal statutes being passed, every exertion was made
to strengthen the popish faction. The priests ha-
rangued the people on the dangers of the present
crisis ; excommunication was threatened against
every man who should vote in opposition to tlie in-
terests of holy mother church. But notwithstanding
the extraordinary eflbrts made to increase their num-
bers, the recusants were mortified to find, on the
assembling of parliament, that a considerable majo-
rity of the members were Protestants, and theretbre
friendly to the govermnent. The recusants, how-
ever, were sutficiently numerous to render the de-
bates violent and. disorderly, more especially as they
claimed to form a majority of members legally elect-
ed. At the very outset an animated and even angry
discussion arose on the election of a speaker, and
Sir John Davis, who had been recommended by
the king, having been chosen to the office, the re-
cusants refused to sit or to take any share in the
proceedings of an assembly so illegal, so violent, and
arbitrary. In this state of matters it was deemed
prudent to prorogue the jiarliament. The recusants
laid their complaints against the validity of many of
the elections before the king, who succeeded in
quieting their scruples, and prevailing upon them to
take part in the deliberations of the parliament.
156
IRISH EPISCOPAL CHURCH.
directed, as these were, cliieriy to tlie civil affaiis of
the country.
While the parliament was sittin.cr, a convocation
of the clergy was directed to be held in Dublin, for
the jiurpose, chiefly, of framing a public confession-
of faith for the established cliurch of Ireland. This
confession appears to have been drawn up in 1G15 l)y
Archbishop Ussher, one of the most able and learned
men of his day. The document, when completed,
consisted of no fewer than one hundred and foiu' ar-
ticles, including the nine Calvinibtic Articles of
Lambeth (which see), prepared in 1595; and hav-
ing been submitted to the convocation, it was ap-
proved by that body, and ratilied by the lord- de-
puty of Ireland.
At the death of James I., and the accession of )iis
son Charles I., England being involved in foreign
wars, and embarrassed by domestic dissensions, the
Irish recusants gladly availed thenis;lve.s of the
opportunity to fan the flame of discontent among
their own countrymen. In this they were aided as
usual by Rome, a bull having been issued by Urban
VIII., calling upon them rather to lose their lives
than to take that wiel<ed and pestilent oath of supre-
macy, whereby the sceptre of the Catholic church
was wrested from the hand of the viciir of God Al-
mighty. Such an a|ipeal coming from the Pope
himself, could not fail to exert a powerful influence
upon an ignorant and supen-ititious people. Charles,
however, by the advice of the Irish council, provided
against the apparently impending danger by making
a large addition to his army in Ireland. Hopes were
held out to the popish party of obtaining some fa-
vourable concessions from the king, and reports were
industriously spread that they were to be gratifled
with a full toleration of their religion. The Protes-
tant clergy forthwith took tlie alarm, and at tlie
instigation of the archbishop of Armagh, hastened to
lay before the government a firm but resjiectful
protest against all toleration of Popish worsliip and
ceremonies. '■ The religion of the papists," said
they, " is superstitious and idolatrous ; their faitli
and doctrine, erroneous and heretical; their church,
in respect of both, apostatical. To give them there-
fore a toleration, or to consent that they may freely
exercise their religion, and profess their faith and
doctrine, is a grievous sin, and that in two respecis;
for, first, it is to make oursidves accessary not only
to their superstitions, idolatries, and heresies, and,
in a word, to .all the abominations of popcr}-, but
also, (which is a conse(|uence of the former) to the
perdition of the seduced pecjple, which jierish in the
deluge of the Catholic apostacy. Secondly, to grant
them a toleration, in respect of any money to be
given, or contribution to bo m.ade by them, is to set
religion to sale, and with it the souls of the people,
whom Christ hath redeemed with his blood. And
as it is a great sin, so it is also a matter of most
dangerous conse(pience : the consideration whereof
we conunit to the wise ai.d judicious, beseeching the
God of truth to make them who are in authority,
zealous of God's glory, and of the advancement of
true religion ; zealous, resolute, and courageous,
against all pojiery, superstition, and idolatry."
The pul|iits of the Irish church now resounded
with strong condemnation of the errors of Popery,
while the Romanists themselves, encouraged by the
expectation of full toleration, publicly professed their
rehgion, and practised its rites in all parts of the
country, to the great oflence of the Protestant people
and clergy. Nor were the hopes wliicli they were
led to entertain of receiving some marks of royal
indulgence doomed to be disappointed. Various
concessions of a very favourable kind were granted
by government to the recusants, and among others,
instead of the oath of supremacy, an oath was sub-
stituted by which they professed to acknowledge
and promised to defend Charles as the lawful and
rightfid king of the realm. Encouraged by the in-
dulgence which had been shown by government to
the professors of the Romish religion, their priests
urged them to the most imprudent excesses. "Their
religious wor.ship," says Leland, " was once more
celebrated with public solemnity, and with the full
parade of their ostentations ritual. Churches were
seized for their service ; their ecclesiastical jurisdic-
tion was avowedly and severely executed ; new
friaries and nunneries were erected ; and even in the
citv of Dublin, under the immediate notice of the
state, an academical body was formed, and governed
bv an ecclesia.stic of some note, for the education of
popish youth. The clergy, by whose influence these
violent proceedings were directed, were by their
numbers, and by their principles, justly alarming to
government. They swarmed into the kingdom from
foreign seminaries; where they had imbibed the
most inveterate prejudices against England, and the
most abject and pestilent opinions of the papal au-
thority. Seculars and regulars alike had bound
themselves by solemn oath, to defend the papacy
against the whole world ; to labour for the augmen-
tation of its power and privileges; to execute its
mandates, and to persecute heretics. Their whole
body acted in dangerous concert under the direction
of tlie Po]ie, and sid)ject to the orders of the congre-
gation tie projwiiaiida Jidr, lately erected at Rome ;
and many of them, by their education in the semina-
ries of Spain, were peculiarly devoted to the interests
of that monarchy ; habituated to regard the insur-
rections of the old Irish in the reign of Eliz.tbcth as
the ino.st generous exertions of patriotism, and taught
to detest that power which had quelled this spirit,
and established a dominion on the ruins of the an-
cient dignity and pre-eminence of their country-
men."
Lord Faulkland was at this time lord deputy Oi
Ireland, and though himself disposed to moderation in
religious ni.atfers of controversy, he felt that it was
impossible for him to shut his eyes to the turbulent
conduct of the recusants, which threatened seriously
IRISH EPISCOPAL CHURCH.
157
to disturb the peace of the country. Supported by his
council, therefore, he is.sucd a proclamation to the
efl'ect that " the late intermission of legal proceedings
against pojiish pretended titular archbisliops, bishops,
abbots, deans, vicars -general, Jesuits, friars, and
others, deriving tlieir pretended authority from the
see of Rome, in contempt of his majesty's royal
power and authority, had bred such an extravagant
insolence and presumption in them, that he was
necessitated to charge and command them in his
ma.jesty's name to forbear the exercise of their popish
rites and ceremonies."
This proclamation was treated with tlie utmost
contempt, and popish worship was maintained as
openly as formerly. But neither the inclinations
nor instructions of the lord -deputy allowed him
to adopt more stringent measures. Perceiving his
weakness and timidity, the popish party began in
a discontented spirit to utter loud complaints of
the oppressive weight of the public burdens. The
government now resolved to adopt a more active
course of proceedings. Accordingly, having re-
called Lord Faulklaiul, and committed the admin-
istration of the affairs of Ireland in the meantime
to two lords justices. Lord Ely, and the Earl of
Cork, who witliout waiting for instructions from the
king, proceeded to act with the utmost iirnniess,
threatening all absentees from the established wor-
ship with the penalties of the statute enacted in the
second year of Queen Elizabeth's reign. This seve-
rity, however, was soon checked by an announce-
ment from the government, that such stringent
measures were not acceptable to the king. The re-
cusants, delighted with the royal interference in their
favour, were more insolent than before. A band of
Carmelite friars, dressed in the habit of their order,
made their appearance in one of the most public
thoroughfaves of Dublin, and openly celebrated their
religious rites. The arclibishop of the diocese, and
tlie chief magistrate of the city, called upon the
military to disperse the assembly ; but the friars and
their congregation opposing force to force, put the
soldiers to flight. Tidings of this incident reached
the English government, who, to maintain their own
authority, and overawe the recusants, ordered lifteeii
religions houses to be seized and appropriated to the
king's use ; and the popish college which had been
erected in Dublin, to be given over to the university,
which forthwith converted it into a Protestant semi-
nary.
It is lamentable to observe how far the Irish church
and clergy had degenerated in the divided and dis-
tracted state of the country. Many of their places
of worship were in a ruinous and dilapidated state ;
the church revenues were to a great extent alienated ;
many of the rural clergy were in a state of extreme
poverty, and some of them characterized by the most
deplorable ignorance and immorality. The Romish
hierarchy, on the other hand, with a large and
powerftd body of adherents, was not slow to take
advantage of the depressed state of the Established
Church, and in some places had actually taken pos-
session of the church lands. A convocation of the
Irish clergy accordingly was held, and the melan-
choly state of ecclesiastical aft'airs having been repre-
sented to the king. Lord Wentworth, who was at
this time lord-deputy, received instructions to take
immediate steps for rendering the Establisiied Church
more efficient and better provided. He began, there-
fore, with erecting churches, and supplying them
witli sintable ministers. Laws also were passed for
the restitution of the rights of the clergy, and provi
sion made to prevent all future alienations. Mea-
sures were adopted for the better education and
training of candidates for the ministry in connection
with the Irish church. The university of Dublin
was placed upon a better footing, its statutes re-
vised, and an elBcient governor placed over it.
One point wduch the king, as well as Archbishop
Laud and the lord-deputy, had much at heart, was
the complete union of the churches of England and
Ireland, by establishing the English articles and
canons in the latter kingdom as the rule of doctrine
aiul discipline. LTssher, and a considerable portion of
the Irish clergy, were by no means favourable to this
proposal, being desirous of maintaining the thorough
independence of the Irish church, and the authority
of its own articles which had been adopted in convo-
cation diu'ing the late reign. To reconcile LIssher,
who had been the compiler of the Irish articles, to the
projected reformation, it was agreed that no censure
should be passed on any of tliese articles, but that they
should be virtually, not formally, abrogated by the es-
tablishment of the articles of the Church of England ;
and further that the English canon.s should not be
ado|)ted in a body, but a careful selection made from
tlieni to form a code of discipline for the Irisli church.
Cliiedy through the influence of the lord-deputy,
and in deference to the wishes of Charles and his
ministers, the English articles were accordingly re-
ceived and the canons established. This important
alteration in the ecclesiastical system of the Church
of Ireland was followed by the establishment of a
High-Commission court in Dublin on the same mo-
del and with the same tremendous powers as the
court of the same name in England. This court,
however, seems not to have taken the strong steps
which might have been expected from so powerful
an engine of tyranny and oppression.
The whole conduct of Charles I. in his govern-
ment of Ireland was so vacillating and insincere,
that the people were every day more and more alien-
ated from the English government. The people
generally were devoted to the Church of Rome, and
the feelings of bitter hatred which they entertained
towards tlieir English rulers, were fostered and
strengthened by their clergy, who, having beeneducat
eil in foreign seminaries, particularly 'hose of France
and Spain, returned to Ireland thoroughly ultramon-
tane in their sentiments and unpatriotic in their
158
IRISH EPISCOPAL CHURCH.
attachments. Round by solemn allegiance to the
Pope, they felt no obligation of submission to the
king. These men, thus estranged from the English
government, held consultation with its enemies at
liome, maintained secret correspondence with its ene-
mies abroad, and formed schemes of insurrection for
the purpose, as they alleged, of promoting the inter-
ests of mother church. In these circumstances a
rebellion commenced, led on by Roger Jloore, the
head of a once powerful family in Leinster. Appeal-
ing to the prejudices, and rousing the passions of ihe
native Irisli, tliis man speedily gathered around liim a
large and enthusiastic band of conspirators. A con-
siderable number of the old Irish chieftains flocked
to his standard. Money, arms, and annuunition were
supplied from foreign parts. The Romish clergy
entered into the plot with the greatest cordiality,
hoping to be able to expel the heretics from Ireland,
and establish once more the ancient faith as the re-
ligion of the country. When the rebellion was at
its lieight, accordingly, a general S3-nod was con-
vened at Kilkenny, in which the war was declared to
be lawful and pious ; an oath of association was pro-
posed as a bond of union, and a sentence of excom-
munication was denounced against all who should
refuse to take it. The clergy, also, at this synod,
proposed to dispatch embassies to foreign potentates,
and to soUcit the emperor of Germany, the king of
France, and the Pope, to grant assistance to tlicir
cause.
The melancholy and protracted civil war which
now raged in Ireland rendered it a scene of desola-
tion and bloodshed. The extermination of the here-
tics and the annihilation of the Irish church were the
nuiin objects of the movement; and dining the life
of Charles I. the rebels met with powerful though
secret encouragement from Henrietta his queen.
Oliver Cromwell, by his stern and inflexible resolu-
lion, succeeded in extinguishing the rebellion, and
restoring Ireland, for a time at least, to some mea-
sure of tranquillity. Charles II. was a covered and
concealed friend of the Romish jiarty in Ireland ;
but his brother, James II., who succeeded him, was
an open and avowed Romanist. Tlie accession of a
popish prince to the English throne naturally ex-
cited the most extravagant expectations in the minds
of the Irish people. They anticipated now the full
and final triumph of their religion over all its ene-
mies. The hearts of the Protestants, on the other
hand, were tilled with the most melancholy appre-
hensions. For a time Ja-nies sought to allay the
fears of the Protestant clergy; but as soon as he had
fully matured his plans, he made no secret of his
ultimate design. Orders were now issued by royal
authority that the Romisli clergy should not be dis-
tiu-bed in the exercise of their duties ; and this per-
mission was followed by an announcement that it
was the pleasure of the king tli.at the Roman Catho-
lic prelates should appear publicly in the habit of
tlicir order. The Protestant clergy were at the same
time forbidden to introduce points of religious con
troversy into the pulpit ; and the .slightest allusion
to the errors of popery was regarded as an act of se-
dition. Such marks of favour shown to the friends
of the old faith strengthened their hands and cheered
their hearts. Almost the whole army was at this
time composed of Irish Romanists, and a number of
Protestant oflicers were deprived of their commis-
sions, and driven from the kingdom. It was the evi-
dent wish of James to invest the popish partv with
the whole authority and influence of the kingdom,
and especially the power of controlling all future
parliainents.
Protestants were now heavily discouraged. Their
clergy were reduced to extreme destitution ; tlieir
churches were, many of them, seized by thfe popish
priests both in rural districts and in the towns, while
such acts of spoliation and injustice were connived at
by the magistrates. The anxiety of the king was to
make Ireland a Catholic kingdom. An order was
issued that no more than five Protestants shoidd
meet together even in churches on pain of death.
But these acts of tyranny and oppression were only
to last for a short jieriod. James was driven from
his throne by his indignant English subjects, and the
Revolution of 1G88 rendered it imperative that hence-
forth the sovereign of Great Britain should be a Pro-
testant, and bound to uphold Protestantism as the
established religion of the realm. William, prince
of Orange, who was called to the throne on the flight
of James II. after the battle of the Boyne, com-
menced his reign by assuring the Irish Protestants
that he had come to Ireland to free them from Po-
pish tyranny, and that he doubted not, by the Divine
assistance, to complete his design. After a some-
what protracted contest, the war was brought to a
close, and peace restored.
The Protestant church having been fully reinstated
in all its privileges as the Established Church of
Ireland, now addressed itself to its great work, the
evangelization of that benighted country. Through-
out the whole of the eighteenth century, though some
men of great ability, fervent piety, and unwearied
activity, were found among the Episcopalian clergy
of Ireland, yet the cause of Protestantism made lit-
tle jirogress. At the close of the century Ireland
numbered a population of nearly 5,000,000, while
the members of the Established Church did not ex-
ceed 000,000. According to the Report of the Com-
missioners of Public Instruction issued in 18.')4, the
adherents of the Established Church had, in the in-
terval, increased to 853,004.
The Act of Union, which passed in 1801, united
the Church of Ireland with that of England in all
matters of doctrine, worship, and discipline, thus
forming " the United Church of England and Ire-
land." But though the liish church has been incor-
porated with the Church of England she is not sulr-
ject to the English canons. Neither is the Irish
church represented in the Convocation of the English
IRISH ICnSCOPAL CHURCH.
159
clergy. In Knjjlancl subscription of tlie Tliirty-Nine
Articles is reqiiirfd from e\ery candidate for holy
orders or presentee to a beneliee ; but in Ireland
sucli subscription is dispensed with, altliough the
Act of Uniformity passed in tlie reign of Charles II.,
in so far as it applies to the Irish church, imposes
upon all its clergy subscription to tlie Tliirty-Xine
Articles of the Church of England.
From the date of the Uniou, tlie Irish branch of
the Church of England has made rapid progress in
all that goes to constitute the usefulness and effi-
cienc}' of a Cliristian church. Her position is one
of peculiar difficulty, her clergy being called to labour
in a land where ignorance and Romish superstition
prevail to a lamentable extent. But in the midst of
much discouragement they have sought faithfully to
discharge their duty, not only to their own people,
but to all around them. Engaged in a constant
struggle with Romish error, they are almost to a
man strangers to High Church or Puseyite princi-
ples. One of tlie principal agencies which the Irish
church employs for the evangelization of the Irish-
speaking population, is the Irisli Society, which was
established in 1826. and employs 59 readers and 719
teachers, whose labours are of great importance,
there being, according to a calculation made before
the famine in 1846, no fewer than 3,000,000 of Irish-
speakiug Roman Catholics in the country. Another
valuable missionary institution connected with tlie
Established Church is the Irish I.sland Society, which
employs about 25 readers and teachers on the islands
and coasts, and has brought tlie gospel within reach
of about 1.3,000 souls. For the instruction of the
young, the Irish church supports the Church Edu-
cation Society for Ireland, which in 1851 had 1,882
schools, and 108,450 scholars on the roll, with an
average attendance of 64,647.
Two of the most interesting colonies in Ireland are
Dingle in the county Kerry, and the island of Achill
in the county Mayo ; both connected with the Es-
tablislied Church. " In the year 1831," says Dr.
Dill, in his ' Mystery Solved,' " the Rev. George
Gubbiiis was appointed curate of Dingle. At this
time there was in the district neither church nor
school-house ; and this excellent man lived in a cabin
at one shilling per week, and had stated services in
the private dwelhngs around. In about a year after
the district was visited and fearfully ravaged by the
cholera. There being no physician to apply to, Mr.
Gubbins became physician-general to the poor; and
his kindness during a crisis so awt'ul won the peo-
ple's affections, and prepared the way for the harvest
which soon followed. In 1833, the Rev. Charles
Gayer arrived in the district ; the following year
several of tlie inhabitants, including two Popish
priests, renounced the Romish feith ; upwards of 150
families liave since followed their example. Some
time ago, the colony consisted of 800 converts ; and
notwithstanding the brutal persecution to which its
present excellent missionary, Mr. Lewis, has been
subjected, and the extensive emigration of the peo-
ple of that district, it now consists of 1,200. Amongst
the many cheering instances of the Divine blessing
on the labours of these missionaries, we may mention
that of Mr. Moriarty, the present curate of Ventiy,
who was once a bigoted Romanist, and went on one
occasion into a congregation on piirjwse to disturb
them ill their dcrotiom ; and who, while waiting for
the moment when he should commence his interrup-
tions, received such impressions from the truth he
heard, as ultimately led to his conversion.
" Achill is the largest island on the coast of Ireland.
It stands on tlie extreme west of i\Iayo, is washed
by the billows of the Atlantic, and consists of moun-
tain and bog, interspersed with small patches of cul-
tivated land. Being visited with famine in 1831, the
Rev. Edward Nangle took charge of a cargo of po-
tatoes sent to its relief. Having found the people
willing to listen to the truth, he conceived the design
of founding amongst them a colony on the Moravian
plan ; aud, with the full countenance of the principal
proprietor of the island, and the cordial aid of numer-
ous Christian friends, he soon after founded 'the
Colony of Achill.' A wild tract of moor has now-
been reclaimed, and a number of cottages ha\e been
erected upon it for the colonists ; a neat church and
school-house stand in the interesting Httle village ;
several families and individuals have renounced the
errors of Pojiery ; the young generation are growing
up a ditferent class of beings from what their proge-
nitors were ; the sides of the once barren mountain
are now adorned with cultivated fields and gardens ;
most of the island has lately been purchased by the
friends of the colony, at a cost of £17,000 ; and thus
the gospel will in future have ' free course and be
glorified' in the spot which for ages has slumbered in
the midnight of Popery ! "
The activity and zeal of the Irish church, as well
as the success which attended their efl'orts, led the
Romanists, headed by O'Connell, to make strenuous
efibrts for the overthrow of the national church.
Through their efl'orts, accordingly, the payment of
tithes and church cess was for a time withheld, and
many of the Protestant clergy were in great pecu-
niary difficulties. At length the government found
it necessary to introduce various moditications of the
ecclesiastical system, with a view to remove alleged
abuses. An act was passed accordingly in 1833,
which was considered by many as a heavy blow and
sore discouragement to Protestantism in Ireland. By
this measure payment of first-fruits to the crown was
abolished, and in its place was substituted a yearly
tax on a graduated scale of from 2J to 15 per cent,
on benefices ; and from 5 to 15 per cent, on episco-
pal revenues. Another act was passed reducing by
25 per cent, the tithes payable throughout Ireland.
The incomes of the sees of Armagh and Derry were
reduced; ten bishoprics and two archbishoprics
were suppressed ; and tlie deanery of St. Patrick's
was united to that of Christ Church, Dublm. The
1 00
IRISH PRESBYTKRIAN CHURCH.
funds realized by these alterations were appointed to
be expended by an ecclesiastical commission in " the
buildins and repairing of churches, the angmentation
of small livings, and such other purposes as may con-
duce to the advancement of religion."
In consequence of tlie combined operations of fa-
mine, disease, and emigration, the population of Ire-
land, as the census of 1851 demonstrates, has under-
gone a veiy remarkable diminution, amounting to
nearly one-third of the whole inhabitants of the
country. Great numbers have for some years past
left the Romish church, so that the Protestants of all
denominations are computed to amount to 2,000,000,
while the Romanists are supposed to amount to
somewhere about 4,500,000. For some years past,
the Irish Episcopal Church lias been blessed to do
a good work in Ireland. Among her clergy are to
be found nmny Laborious servants of Christ, who,
amid much discouragement and neglect, have been
honoured to advance the cause of truth and right-
eousness iu that benighted land.
IRISH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. In tra-
cing the origin of this important section of the Chris-
tian Church iu Ireland, it is necessary to revert to
an event already noticed in the preceding article — •
the plantation of Ulster by James I. Dui-ing the
latter years of the reign of Elizabeth, as well as the
early part of the reign of her successor, the northern
provinces had been the scene of incessant conspira-
cies and insurrections fomented chiefly by the old
hereditary chieftains who held estates iu that part of
the country. Tlie active part which these nobles
took in successive plots against the government led
to the forfeiture of their estates ; and thus, in the
course of a few years after James I. had ascended
the throne of England, about half a million of acres,
and nearly six whole counties in the province of Ul-
ster, reverted to the crown. The acquisition of so
large an extent of land allbrded James an admirable
opportunity of making an experiment with the view
of discovering the best means of promoting both the
religious and civil reformation of Ireland. He re-
solved, accordingly, to plant the greater part of the
territory which had fallen into his hands with Eng-
lish and Scottish colonies. By this step the king
hoped that an improved system of agriculture would
be introduced, a spirit of industry and connuercial
activity would be developed among the people, and a
central point would be secured, from which the Pro-
testant faith might be speedily disseminated through-
out the country generallv.
At the period when this wise and sagacious pro-
ject w.a» devised by James, the province of Ulster
had sunk to the lowest stage both of physical and
moral degradation. The country was almost de|iopu-
lated, and its resources wasted by a long protracted
series of exterminating w.ars. Its towns and villages
were in ruins, the l.-mds uncultivated, and the thinly
scattered inhabitants in a stale of utter wretchedness.
Its religious condition also was scarcely less deplor-
able. The nobles and their retainers were devotedly
attached to the old religion, and the refonned faith
had scarcely found a footing among the people. In
this melancholy state of matters, the scheme for the
colonization of Ulster commenced in 1G05, the chief
management of the enterprize being intrusted to Sir
Arthur Chichester, the lord-deputy of the kingdom.
In distributing the forfeited lands among the settlers,
the king took care to make suitable provision for the
support of the church. The ecclesiastical revenues
which had been alienated by the nobles were restored
to the clergy ; parish churches were repaired ; and
for the encouragement of learning, a free school was
endowed in the chief town of every diocese.
The majority of the original settlers were from
Scotland, owing to the vicinity of that country to
Ulster, and these being of hardy constitutions and
an enterprising spirit, were well fitted to encounter
the difficulties attendant on the first plantation of a
colony. A few English immigrants also came over,
who occupied the southern and western parts of the
province. In 1(310, the lands were generally occu-
pied, and amid all the hindrances to which such an
enterprize was necessarily exposed, it flourished be-
yond expectation, more especially in the counties of
Down and Antrim. To imjiart additional confidence
to the new settlers, a parliament was summoned,
which gave the sanction of law to the various ar-
rangements of the colony. The emigrants from
Scotland had brought over with them some of their
own ministers, but the writers of the time give no
very flattering account of the piety of either the
ministers or people. The Irish Episcopalian church,
however, was in as favourable a position as it had
ever been during any period of its history. The
sees were all filled with Protestant prelates, and such
was the stability of the cluirch, that a convocation
was summoned in 1G15, which fr.anicd a confession
of faith of its own, independently altogether of the
Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England,
which some of the prelates wished to adopt. And
so great was the peace and security which the Irish
church at this time enjoyed, that a number of the
English Puritan ministers wlio were unable consci-
entiously to conform fled to Ireland, and rose to
places of influence both in the university and the
church. These, along with the Scottish clergy, who
had also obtained ecclesiastical promotion, seem to
have exercised considerable influence iu the first con-
vocation ; and thus we may .satisfactorily account for
the readiness with which the Irish Articles were
adopted, notwithstanding the strong Calvinistic spi-
rit by which they were pervaded.
Encouraged by the result of the convocation, and
the trancpiillity which prevailed throughout the
country, but more especially in Ulster, several failh-
ful and pious ministers repaired thither from both
England and Scotland, and were instrumental in
founding the Presbyterian cluirch. One of the inosl
able and efficient of these ministers was the tele-
TRIi^ll PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
161
brated Robert Blair, who, having been invited over
by Lord Claneboy, settled at Ban:^or, county Down.
It was a curious circumstance, tliat as lie demurred
to ordination by the bishop singly, as in his view
contrary to Scripture, Dr. Knox, then prelate of
the diocese in which Bangor was situated, consented
to act as a presbyter along v.itii some of the neigh-
bouring ministers in the act of ordination. This put
an end to .Mr. Blair's objections, and he was solennily
ordained by the laying on of the hands of the pres-
bytery.
About this period an awakening took place in
various parts of Ireland, particularly in Antrim,
Down, and other northern counties. To this season
of revival in the Presbyterian chm-ches, Mr. Blair
signally contributed by his individual exertions, and
by rousing other ministers to increased zeal and
activity in tlie service of the Lord. The good
work which liad commenced, chiefly by the instru-
mentality of Mr. Blair's exertions, in various parts
of Ireland, was promoted to a considerable extent by
the arrival of several devoted ministers from Scot-
land. Among these was Mr. Josiah Welsh, son of
the famous Mr. John Welsh, who married one of the
daughters of John Knox. In the progress of Christ's
cau.se, under the ministry of the Presbyterians,
x\rchbishop Usslier, then primate of Ireland, took a
deep interest. It was a matter of great rejoicing to
his truly Christian heart that these godly men were
labouring tluis zealously in the advancement of the
Redeemer's kingdom. The utmost anxiety was
manifested by the people to hear the Word of life,
and accordingly, not merely on Sabbaths, but at the
monthly meetings and the sacramental occasions,
crowds attended, and eagerly hung on the lips of
these men of God as they declared the heavenly
message with which they had been intrusted. Their
success, however, as might have been expected, soon
called forth the jealousy and malignant hatred of
their enemies. Knowing their abhorrence of every
ceremony whicli savoured in the least of Popery,
snares were laid for them by many of the conformist
clergy. But in vain. The cause of God adxanccd,
the numbers of their adherents increased daily, and
the Presljyterian Chureli flourished amid the prayers
and the exertions of its faithful pastors.
The hour of trial and sore persecution at lengtli
came. Mr. Blair having gone to visit his friends hi
Scotland, assisted at a commimion along with Mr.
John Livingston at the Kirk of Shotts. Mr. Max-
well, one of the ministers of Edinburgh, an ambitious,
time-serving individual, brought an accusation against
both, as if they had taught the necessity of bodily
ati'ections in the process of the new birth. This
groundless and foolish charge reached the ears of
Ecklin, the Bishop of Down, who had been for
some time waiting for an opportunity of silencing
two such ert'ective and popular ministers. Without
delay, therefore, he suspended both Mr. Livingston
and Mr. Blair from the duties of the ministry. A
punishment so summary, and that, too, founded on a j j
mere allegation which had never been proved, they
felt to be oppressive and unjust, and accordingly they
lost no time in complaining to Archbishop Ussher,
who immediately ordered the decree of suspension
to be withdrawn until tie charge in question was
fidly proved.
Nor did Bisho]) Ecklin's malignity stop here. He
cited several of the obnoxious ministers before him,
among whom was Blair, and having in vain urged
them to conform, lie solemnly deposed tlieni from
the office of the lioly ministry. This cruel and ty-
rannical act, which took place in May 16.32, was re-
ported to the worthy archbishop, who had formerly
interfered in their behalf; but though himself anxi-
ous for their restoration, he declined interfering, as
an order bad come from tlie King to the Lords Chief
Justices concerning them. The brethren, finding
that they had no other resource, came to the resolu-
tion of making an application directly at court. Mr.
Blair was, accordingly, dispatched on this important
eiTand, and having obtained recommendatory letters
from several nobles and gentlemen, both in Scotland
and Ireland, he set out for London. Tlie deepest
anxiety pervaded the breasts of multitudes as to the
result of his application, and many a prayer was of-
fered up for his success. The brethren were not a
little afraid that the mind of the king might be
wrouglit upon by the pernicious influence of Arch-
bishop Laud. In the providence of God, however,
it so happened that, when Mr. Blair's petition was
put into the king's hands, lie not only granted a gra
cious answer to its request, but with his own hand
inserted a clause to the etlect, " That if the informa-
tion made to him proved false, the informers should
be punished." The royal condescension and kind-
ness was most gratifying to Mr. Blair, and he hastened
home to Ireland, carrving the glad tidings to his
bretliren that the Lord had answered their prayers.
It was a considerable disappointment to the de-
posed brethren to And that, although the king had
i;ranted their petition, the noblemen to whom the
royal decree was intrusted did not arrive in Ireland
for nearly a year after Mr. Blair's return. At length,
in May 1634, six months' liberty was permitted to
those persecuted men of God, and they gladly em-
braced the opportimity to declare the Gospel with
the utmost zeal and diligence. At the expiry of the
six months, they received a continuance of their
liberty for six months longer. This, however, at the
instigation of Bishop Bramble of Derry, was with-
drawn, in so far as Mr. Dunbar and iMr. Blair were
concerned, and, accordingly, having closed their brief
respite with the celebration of the Lord's Supper,
they committed their people to the care of the great
Bishop of souls, and submitted to the harsh treat-
ment to which they were exposed. In November
1634 Mr. Blair was summcned a third time before
the bishop of his diocese, and formally deposed fiom
the sacred office.
1G2
IRISH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
'I'lie state of matters in Ireland being unsettled,
and the deposed ministers tliinking it improbable
that they would soon be restored to the exercise of
their otfice, resolved to cross the Atlantic and settle
in New England. Having received a kind invitation
from the governor of that colony, they built a ship
for their accommodation, to wliich they gave the
name of Eagle-Wings. This vessel, with about one
hundred and forty passengers, among whom were
Messrs. Blair, Living.ston, and several others of the
persecuted ministers, set sail from Lochfergus on the
9th September 163(5. Tlie emigrants had not pro-
ceeded far on their voyage when a violent storm
arose, and they were every moment in danger of
being shipwrecked. Thus discouraged at the out-
set, and conceiving that to proceed farther, in the
face of what appeared to them evidently the will of
the Almighty, would be .sinful, they returned without
delay to the harbour from which they had sailed.
The deposed ministers had not remained above a
few months, however, in Ireland, when a warrant was
issued for their apprehension. It was evident that
new trials were preparing for them, and with the
utmost dispatch they fled to Scotland, where they
were kindly received and hospitably treated by some
of the most eminent ministers of the time, particu-
larly by Mr. Dickson of Irvine, and Mr. Cunning-
ham of Holywood.
A few years elapsed when an alarming rebellion
burst forth among the Papists in Ireland, and the
Protestants in the northern counties were inhumanly
massacred in immense numbers. The survivors of
this awful persecution, being chiefly Scotchmen who
had emigrated, made application to the General As-
sembly of the Clnu-ch of Scotland in 1642, for a
supply of ministers. Among those who were sent
over to Ireland to assist in ordaining young men
over the diti'erent parishes, and in otherwise encour-
aging the poor persecuted remnant, was Mr. Blair,
who, from his former connection with that unhappy
country, felt a peculiar interest in the distressed
l're>byterians. During the three months he spent
in Ireland, he generally preached once every day and
twice on Sabbath, chiefly in the open air, as no church
could contain the crowds who waited on liis ministry.
The rebellion and massacre were the means of
bringing out a very important change in the eccle-
giaslical condition of Ulster. The Episcopal church
was now in an enfeebled and prostrate state. Pew
of her clergy and not one of her prelates remained
in the province ; and of the Protestant laity, few
were con.scientiously attached to prelacy. Hence a
large majority of the Protestant inhabitants of Ul-
ster were in favour of a church founded on Presb)-
terian principles. A number of Scottish regimenls
were sent over to Ireland at this time, and being ac-
companied by chaplains who were ordained I'resby-
tcriau ministers, the foundations of the I'resbyterian
church were once more laid in Ulster, conformed in
all respects to the jiarent church in Scotland. The
army chaplains formed in each of the regiments ses-
sions or elderships ; and by their means also the first
regularly constituted presbytery held in Ireland, met
at Carrickfergus on Friday the 10th of June 1G42. No
sooner was it known in the surrounding country that
a presbytery had been formed in Carrickfergus, tlian
applications poured in from the adjoining parishes
for iidmission into their communion, and for a supjdy
of ministers. This was the origin of the Irish Pres-
hyterian Church, which has since earned for itself a
deservedly high place among the faithful churches
of Christ for usefulness and efficiency.
Many of the Episcopal clergy now came forward
and joined the presbytery. Before admission, how-
ever, they were called upon to profess repentance in
public for their former conduct. The nundjer of con-
gregations was daily on the increase, and another
a|)plication was made by the presbytery in 1643, to
the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland for
an additional supply of ministers. This petition was
intrusted to the Rev. John Scott, one of their num-
ber, who, on his appearance in the Assembly, was
duly recognized and admitted as a member of the
court. This meeting of the supreme ecclesiastical
court of Scotland is noted in history as having been
that on which the important document, commonly
kno^vll by the name of the Solemn League and Cove-
nant, was formally discussed and agreed to.
While the negotiations in regard to the Solemn
League and Covenant were carrying on both in
England and Scotland, the neiglibom-ing kingdom of
Ireland was still agitated by religious and civil dis-
sensions. For a time the Romanist party appeared
to be completely disconcerted by the success which
attended the Scottish forces under JIunro, and the
British regiments under Sir William and Sir Robert
Stewart ; but their courage revived on the arrival of
O'Neill, an experienced officer, who had distinguished
himself in the Spanish and Imperial service. In
preparation for the coming of this distinguished
leader, steps had been taken, chiefly through means
of the clergy, to establish a formal confederacy among
all the Roman Catholics of the kingdom. For the
accomplishment of this object, a General Assembly
of Romanist lords and bishops, with delegates both
lay and clerical from the provinces and priiu'ipal
towns, was summoned to meet in Kilkenny in Octo-
ber 1642. At this convocation the Romish faith
was declared to be again established, and the eccle-
siastical estates of the kingdom were ordained to
be the possessions of the Romish clergj'. An oath
of association was at the same time adopted, and
appointed to be administered by the prie.-thood to
every parishioner, binding him to consent to no
peace except on the following conditions :
"1. That the Roman Catholics, both clergy and
laity, have free and public exercise of the Roman
Catholic religion and function throughout the king
dom, in as full lustre aiui s[)lendour as it was in ihe
reign of King Ilemy the Seventh.
IRISH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
163
"II. riiat the secular clergy of Ireland, viz., pri-
mates, archbishops, bishops, ordinaries, deans, deans
and chapters, archdeacons, prebendaries, and other
dignitaries, parsons, vicars, and all other pastors of
the secular clergy, shall enjoy all manner of juris-
diction, privileges, immunities, in as fidl and ample
a manner as was enjoyed within this realm during
the reign of the late Henry the Seventh.
"III. That all laws and statutes made since the
twentieth year of King Henry tlie Eighth, whereby
anv restraint, penalty, or restriction, is laid on the
free exercise of the Roman Catholic religion within
this kingdom, may be repealed and declared void by
one or more acts of parliament.
"IV. That all primates, archbishops, bishops, deans,
&c., shall hold and enjoy all the churches and church-
livin'^s in as large and ample a maimer as the late
Protestant clergy respectively enjoyed the same, on
the first day of October 16il, together with all the
profits, emoluments, perquisites, liberties, and rights
to their respective sees and churches."
When this assembly had closed its sittings in
January 1643, it was resolved to prosecute the war
with increased vigour, and the conduct of military
operations in Ulster was intrti.sted to General O'Neill.
Charles, being involved in a contest with liis own par-
liament in England, was disposed as soon as possible
to come to terms with the Romanists in Ireland. To
. carry out this object he held secret correspondence
with the leaders, and even appointed commissioners
to treat with the .-upreme council of the confeder-
ates. At the very outset, however, the success of
the negotiations was frustrated by the influence of
the lords justices and the Iri.sh privy council. But
the Earl of Ormond, who was a ready tool in the
liands of the king, at length obtained a cessation of
hostihties between the royal forces and those of the
confederacy ; the Roman Cathohcs engaging to pay
the king £.30,000, and Ormond guaranteeing to thera
andtotheirclergy the undisturbed possession of all the
towns, castles, and churches in those parts of the king-
dom which were occupied by their forces at the time
of signing the treaty. This arrangement, instead of
being generally ap'proved, was the means of spread-
ing a very unfavourable impression, botli in England
and in Scotland, as to the feelings of the king. lie
was now looked upon as decidedly fiivourable to the
Roman Catholics. The parliament were indignant
at the cessation of hostilities in Ireland, and they re-
solved to impeach Ormond as a traitor. The con-
duct of Charles in his management of Irish afTairs,
and the concessions wliich had been made with his
sanction to the Romanists in Ireland, while at tliis
critical period it indicted a deep injury on the royal
cause, led both the Englisli parliament and tlie
Scottish estates to take a still deeper interest than
before in the success of the covenant.
Nowhere was the cessation more unpopular than
among the Presbyterians in Ulster. It had weak-
ened their strength by atJbrding the king an excuse
for withdrawing the English regiments in Leinster,
and thus gone far to coimteract the encouraging ad-
vantages they had gained by their successful strug-
gles against the enemy. Amid these depressing
events, the people of Ulster gladly hailed the arrival
of Captain O'Conolly in November 1643, bearing a
copy of the covenant and letters recommending it .to
the commanders of the British and Scottish forces.
In vain did the lords justices issue a proclamation,
which they commanded to be read to every regi-
ment, denouncing the covenant as treasonable and
seditious. Such was the feeling in favour of the
sacred bond among both officers and men, that the
commanders durst not publish the proclamation.
Meantime two measures were adopted, both of
which were most obnoxious to the Irish Presbyterians.
The first was the promotion by Charles of Ormond
to the dignity of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and
the second was the removal of the Scottish forces
from Ulster, by order of the Scottish estates. So
strong was the alarm which the very proposal of the
withdrawal of the Scottish army excited, that the
Presbyterians threatened to abandon the country.
Their apprehensions, however, were speedily set at
rest by the arrival of the intelligence, that the Scot-
tish estates, taking into view the critical state of
matters in Ireland iienerally. but more especially in
Ulster, had agreed to countermand 1 1 eir order for the
removal of the Scottish army.
On the 16th of October 1643, the English parlia-
ment requested the Scottish commissioners to see that
the covenant " be taken by all the officers, soldiers,
and Protestants of their nation in Ireland." The
matter was ultimately intrusted to the Scottish min-
isters, who were deputed by the General Assembly
to visit Ireland. In the summer, accordingly, of
1644, the covenant was subscribed with great solem-
nity throughout every part of Ulster, both by the
military and the masses of the people. And the bene-
fit of this holy bond of union was soon extensively
felt, in the increased feeling of attachment which
was everywhere manifested to the Presbyterian
cause, as well as in the revived interest which began
now to be taken in the cause of piety and vital god-
liness. From this period, according to Dr. Reid, the
able historian of the Presbyterian Church in Ire-
land, may be dated the Second Reformation with
which the province of Ulster has been favoured.
The conflict between Charles and the paviiament
of England was keen and protracted. The parlia-
ment had, on their own authority and in direct oppo-
sition to the royal views, abolished prelacy, convoked
the Westminster Assembly, enforced the solemn
league and covenant, and substituted the Directory
in room of the Book of Common Prayer. After a
time, a general desire was felt in the country that
the unseemly collision between the king and the
houses of parliament should, if possible, be brought
to a close. Commissioners were appointed on both
sides, but on the subject of Ireland, as well as on
t64
IRISH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
that of clmrch goveniment and tlic signing of the
covenant, the negotiations were completely unsuc-
cessful. It was proposed by tlie parlianionlary com-
missioners, that the king shonld join with tliem in
declaring the cessation to be void, tliat tlie war against
the Irish insurgents shonld be carried on tuider tlieir
direction, and should not come to a close without
their consent. Hut Charles refused to allow a sin-
gle concession t" be made, and the treaty of Ux-
bridse was suddenly broken off. This infatuated
procedure, on the part of the monarch, evidently
arose from the expectations which he had formed of
concluding a peace with the Irish Romanists. In-
tent upon tliis object, he dispatched the Earl of
Glamorgan privately to Ireland, with full powers to
negotiate with the confederates in the king's name.
Without delay a secret treaty was concluded at Kil-
kenny. Glamorgan engaging, on the part of the king,
not only that the penal laws against jiopery slinuld be
entirely repealed, bat that the Romish church sliould
be re-established and endowed throughout the greater
part of Ireland. Tlie Lord- Lieutenant Ormond,
wholly ignorant of this secret treaty with the
popish party, m.ide strenuous efforts to detach tlie
northern Presbyterians from the cause of the parlia-
ment, and to induce them to espouse the cause of
the king. On learning this movement on the part
of Ormond, the parliament took instant steps for
redressing the grievances of which the Ulster Pro-
testants complained, and thus preventing them from
joining the royalist party. Such a nnion, however,
was rendered hopeless, not by the efforts of the par-
liament, but by the accidental discovery of a full and
authentic copy of the private treaty which Glamor-
gan had, in the name and with the perfect sanction
of the king, concluded with the confederates. This
unexpected disclosure of the real designs of Charles,
followed by tin' arrival in Ulster of commissioners
from the parliament with supplies of money, provi-
sions, and clothing, turned the whole current of po-
pular feeling in that quarter against Ormond, and
in favour of the parliamentary party.
The interests of religion in general, and the cause
of Presbyterianism in particular, received considera-
ble impulse at this time throughout the North of
Ireland. By the exertions of the presbytery, aided
and encouraged by the commissioners from the par-
liament, immorality was repressed among all classes,
and arrangements were made for the regular adminis-
tration of religious ordinances and the faithful exer-
cise of church discipline. These beneficial measures
were not a little .-ulvanced by the timely arrival from
Scotland of a deputation of nunisters from the (ien-
eral Assembly, whose counsel and advice were felt
by the i)resbytery to be peculiarly valuable. It was
a critical time, more especially as the universal fa-
vour in which the Presbyterian form of clun-ch gov-
ernment was held by the people of Ulster had led
several episcopal ministers, particularly in the county
of Antrim, to act a disingenuous part, by conform-
ing to Presbyterian usa,'e?, so far as might be suffi-
cient to retain the confidence of the people. Several
ministers, adopting this dishonourable line of con-
duct, formed themselves into an association, which
they called a Presbytery, though it wanted the
characteristics of a true Presbytery. This misnamed
court, which was composed of ministers only, with-
out the presence of elders, held no correspondence
with the regularly constituted Presbytery, which sat
statedl)- at Carrickfergus, and whose proceedings
they looked upon with jealousy, as likely to coim-
teraet their own secret design of restoring prelacy
as soon as a fitting opportunity occurred. The
army-presbytery understood the object of this mock-
presbytery, and they resolved either wholly to sup-
press it, or to reconstruct it on a proper and more
orderly footing.
Commissioners were sent in 1G45 as formerly, to
the Scottish General Assembly, with a petition from
" the distressed Christians in Ulster for a further sup-
ply of ministers." The aijplication was cordially
granted, and several ministers were appointed " to
repair unto the North of Ireland, and there to visit,
comfort, instruct, and encourage the scattered flocks
of Christ." At the same meeting of Assembly an
aiiplication was favourably entertained from the Pres-
byterians of Deny and its vicinity, and three addi-
tional ministers commissioned to labour in that dis-
trict. The arrival of the brethren thus commissioned
by the Assembly to visit Ulster, gave great encou-
ragement to the arduous work of the Presbytery in
seeking to instruct their own flocks, and to convert
those of the Roman Catholics to whom they had ,ac-
ce.ss. In the discharge of this latter [lart of their
duty, it is painful to notice that they proposed to in-
flict civil pen.ilties upon tliose Romanists who ad-
hered to their errors notwithstanding all exertions
made for their conversion ; and an act of Presbytery
to this effect was publicly read in the several parish
churches.
At this period, the province of Ulster received a
large accession to its preshyterian popidation by the
emigration from Scotland of great numbers, who
sought shelter in flight from the evils of civil war,
and the cruel and devastating operations of the Earl
of Montrose. A peace had now lieen concluded be-
tween Ormond in behalf of the king, and the supreme
council of the Irish confederates at Kilkenny. But
instead of allaying, this peace only increased the
commotions witli which the country was agitated.
The Pope's nuncio had exerted himself to the utter-
most to prevent the jjeace from being concluded,
and his opposition having proved fruitless, he \)nt
himself at the head of a new party consisting of the
extreme Romanists, thus rendering the state of m.at-
ters in Ireland still irun-e complicated. The extreme
jiarty w.as joined by O'Neill and the Ulster Irish,
who were averse to the peace ; and the coalition thus
eli'ected enabled O'Neill to descend ui)On Ulster with
a large army, where he obtained a complete victory
IRISH PRESBYTKRIAN CHURCH.
165
over the Bi-ititli and Scottish forces at Benburb near
the Blaekwater. This sad calamity threw tlie pres-
bytery into no small distress and alarm, but it did
not prevent them from labouring with the utmost
assiduity for the diffusion of the gospel all around
them. About this time the parliament of England
passed an enactment which gave great offence to the
Ulster Presbyterians, namely, that lay courts of ap-
peal should be instituted in which the decisions of
ecclesiastical courts might be reviewed. Theotheracts
of this pei-iod, however, were received with the utmost
satisfaction by the friends of presbytery in Ireland.
Prelacy was abolished; the directory substituted for
tlie Common Prayer Book; the govenniient of the
church was declared to be vested in congregational
elderships, classes or presbyteries, provincial synods,
and National or General Assemblies ; and tlie power
of these courts to license, ordain, suspend, or depose
ministers, and to pass ecclesiastical censures, was
contirmed. These enactments in favour of Presby-
terianism were rendered somewhat unsatisfactory by
the introduction of several restricted provisions, in
deference to the views of the Independents on the
one hand, and the Erastians on the other. The dis-
cussions which, in consequence, arose in England,
did not extend to the North of Ireland, where the
principles of the Presbyteriaji polity were fairly and
fully carried out. To till the vacant charges, young
men were invited over from Scotland, and in tliis way
the number of Presbyterian ministers in Ulster
rapidly increased.
The victory of Benburb gave the opponents of the
peace which Ormond had concluded with the con-
federate Romanists a complete ascendency in Ireland,
and the Pope's nuncio, supported by General O'Neill,
pronounced the highest ecclesiastical censures upon
all who had negotiated with Ormond. He impri-
soned the members of the supreme council, formed a
new council, placed himself at its head, and re-
modelled the army at his pleasure. Not contented
with adopting these decided steps in maintenance of
the interests of the Romish church, he took upon
himself the office of '• commander-in-chief of all Ire-
land, under the sovereignty of the Pope." The first
act of the nuncio in this new capacity was to direct
O'Neill to blockade Dublin, into which Ormond had
retired. After holding out for a time, the city was
surrendered to the parliamentary forces in Ulster,
who took possession of it in March 1(J47, and in the
course of a few months a treaty was concluded when
Ormond retired to England.
On obtaining possession of the metropolis of Ire-
land, the parliament took steps for the removal of
the Scottish forces from Ulster, having requested
the estates of Scotland to issue an order for their
recall. The British regiments in Ulster were put
under the command of Colonel George Monck,
who having tixed his hp.ad-quarters at Lisburn, was
empowered by parliament to execute martial law
within his quarters. Remarkable for dupliciiy and
cunning, this military officer endeavoured to conci-
liate the presbytery, deluding them with the assur-
ance that the parliament was devotedly attached to
the presbyterian government, and tirmly adhered to
the covenant. In the end of 1047, a treaty was
hastily concluded by the Scottish commissioners
without due authority from their estates. This treaty
was usually known by the name of the Engagement,
and by it Charles bound himself to establish the
presbyterian church - government and worship for
tlu'ee years, stipulating, however, that in doing so,
he was neither obliged to desire the settling that
government, nor to present any bills to that effect.
The commissioners from Scotland, on the other hand,
engaged to support Charles against the army and the
parliament ; and, if necessary, to provide an adequate
military force to secure an honourable peace. Such
a force it was difficult to collect, and in this emer-
gency commissioners were despatched to the Scottish
forces in Ulster to induce them to return and declare
for the engagement. The presbytery caused a pub-
lic protest against the engagement to be read from
their pulpits, and sent a commissioner to the Gen-
eral Assembly in Scotland to express their cordial
concurrence with the parent church in opposing this
attempt to restore the king to the throne. After
the execution of Charles by bis subjects, the presby-
tery of Ulster openly declared tlieir abhorrence of
the murder of the king, and the overthrow of lawful
authority in England. On this subject they ch-ew
up a representation, which was read from all their
pulpits, and tlie Solemn League and Covenant was
formally renewed by the people. Application was
made to General Monck to have the covenant re-
newed by the army, but both the crafty commander
and the council of war dechned to take any stejis in
the matter. Soon after the general retired to Eng-
land, from which he never retimied again.
In l(j49, Oliver Cromwell made his appearance in
Ireland in the capacity of general, and by his vigor
ous conduct of the war, soon put an end to the brief
ascendency of the prelatical party, and completely
changed the aspect of allairs in Ulster, rendering the
republicans masters of the province, of which they
held uninterrupted possession until the Restoration.
The jiresbytery meanwhile persevered in protesting
against tlie power of the usurpers, and in favour of a
limited monarchy in the person of Charles H. These
views of the Presbyterian church in Ireland were in
complete accordance with tho>e of the parent church
in Scotland, which sent over ministers to Ulster to
encoiu'age the presbytery in their adherence to the
king, who had pledged himself to support the cove-
n;mt. Now that the republican party bad obtained
the ascendency in Ireland, the Independents, to
whom Cromwell belonged, sought to spread their
principles in that countiy ; but though for ten years
they received a state endowment, and enjoyed the
fidl patronage of goverimient, they never succeeded
in establishing themselves as a religious sect in the
166
IRISH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
kingdom. So slight was the liold indeed which tliey
had got of the alTeetions of tlie people, that the Re-
storation of Charles had no sooner taken place, than
almost all their ministers tied, and their congrega-
tions dispersed, so that in the course of a few years
the Independents or Congregationalists had almost
disappeai'fd from the country.
One of the first steps which was taken by Crom-
well and his party in England after the execution of
Charles I., and the abolition of the House of Lords,
was to frame an oath called the Engagement, in w-hich
all persons were required to swear to be faithful to
the commonwealth of England as now established
without a King or House of Lords. The Engage-
ment was introduced into Ireland, and pressed upon
all classes of the people, and heavy penalties threat-
ened against all who refused to take the oath. Many
of the Presbyterian ministers in consequence were
compelled to abandon the country, and the few who
chose to remain were forbidden to preach, and had
their stipends taken from them ; notwithstanding
which they contiimed in the disguise of rustics to
wander up and down in their own parishes, as well as
in other places, embracing every opportunity of in-
structing the people in Divine truth.
The severity thus exercised towards the Presby-
terian ministers in Ulster was somewhat relaxed
when Cromwell assumed the title of Lord Protector
of the Commonwealth. Having dispatched his son
Henry to ascertain the state of parties in Ireland,
the beneficial effects of his visit were soon manifest
in the improvement which took place in the religious
condition of Ulster. The Presbyterian ministers
were permitted freely to officiate, and those who had
either fled to Scotland, or been banished to that
country, were allowed to rettu'n to their flocks. The
church began now to exercise the utmost caution in
the admission of ministers, and various acts were
passed by the presbytery bearing upon this subject.
The number of congregations rapidly increased in all
parts of the north of Ireland, and it was found
necessary no longer to confine the meetings of
presbytery to one place, but to have three different
meetings in different districts of the province. These
meetings were not constituted into presbyferie.s,
strictly so called, but they acted by commission of
the presbytery. They met at Down, Antrim, and
Route with Ijagan. In IG.'iT, another division of
the presbytery took place. Route being separated
from Lagan. Shortly after another meeting w-as
formed in Tyrone, so that the meetings became five
in number; and this arrangement continued fill 1702.
when nine presbyteries were formed, which were
subsequently increased to twenty-four.
The Ulster Presbyterian churches were not a little
distracted in the nn'ddle of the seventeenth century,
by some converts being made from among their mem-
bers to the opinions of the Quakers. (See Fijikndp,
SoriETY OF.) The first regular meeting of this body
in Ulster was formed at Lurgan in 1654. Edmun-
sen, a zealous supporter of Quaker principles, was
imprisoned at Armagh for haranguing the people at
fairs and other public places on religious matters,
proclaiming the unlawfulness of tithes, and the im-
propriety of public ordinances and of a hired min
istry. Cromwell's party knowing that the Presbyte-
rians in Ireland were at heart in favour of the
legitimate monarch, gave his son Henry strict
charges to watch narrowly all their niuvements.
The Irish council frequently issued proclamations
for days of tasting and of thank.sgiving ; these, how-
ever, the presbytery unifoimly refused to observe.
Henry viewed this resistance to authority with in-
dignation ; but on being promoted by his father to
the oflice of lord-deputy of Ireland, his whole policy
underwent a remarkable change, the Presbyterians be-
ing now treated with confidence and favour. In JIarch
1658, he summoned a nundjer of the more eminent
Presbyterian and Independent ministers to meet in
Dublin, and confer with him on the subject of their
maintenance. The meeting, which consisted of thirty
ministers, continued nearly five weeks, and the re-
sult of their deliberations was, that Henry caused
arrangements to be made for each minister receiving
a regular stipend of not less than £100. "But this,"
says Adair, '• through the uncertainty of these times
came to nought before it could be well etVected."
The attention of the assembled ministers was next
called to several other matters deeply afi'ecting the
interests of the comitr}-, such as the instruction and
conversion of the Roman Catholics, the promotion of
peace and unity among all godly ministers fhougli of
different churches, the due observance of the Sab-
bath, and the suppression of Iieresy and profaneness.
It was Henry's earnest desire to promote in every
way the improvement of Ireland; and although the
death of his father, Oliver Cromwell, led to a change
in the government of England, by the successicm of
his eldest brother Richard to the Protectorate, Henry
was still continued as head of Irish affairs, and raised
to the dignity of Lord Lieutenant. Under this ex-
cellent and prudent ruler, Ireland enjoyed unusual
tranquillity, and became every day more prosperous.
The presbytery improved the precious opportimity
which this season of internal quiet afibrded to visit
remote districts of Ulster, and settle ordained minis-
ters over vacant congregations.
The government of Hem-y was of but short dura-
tion. His brother Richard, having proved himself
quite incapable of managing the affairs of England,
was deprived of his oftice as Protector, and the gov-
ernment became once more republican. Henry
thereupon resigned the lord lieutenancy of Ireland,
and withdrew to England. The Irish Presbyterians,
always opposed to republican government, agreed
generally with the Scottish I'resbyterians in their
desire for the restoration of the exiled king. A
general convention of Protestants met in Dublin
about the beginning of February 1660, which ap-
pointed a fast to be kept throughout Ireland, one of
IRISH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
167
the causes assigned for it being breach of covenant.
The members of tlie convention were for the most
part favourable to prelacy, and after sitting three
months, they agreed to send commissioners to Eng-
land desiring the restoration of the former laws and
church government and worsliiii.
Charles II. liad m the meantime been brought back
to England and placed upon the throne. In tlie days
of his adversity, be had made great professions of at-
tachment to the cause of presbytery, but in a short
time after he had received the reins of government, he
tlu'ew oft' the mask, restored prelacy and the Liturgy,
denounced the covenant, and all who adhered to it,
and refused toleration to non-conformists. Tlie Pres-
byterians of Ireland, Eke those of Scotland, had been
deceived by the hollow and insincere professions of
the perfidious monarch, and accordingly, immediately
after the convention had closed its sittings, they sent
over a deputation to the king, to lay before him their
state, and solicit protection. At the same time also
they sent a petition for the settling of religion ac-
cording to the rule of reformation against popery,
prelacy, heresy, &c., according to the covenant. On
their arrival in London, the deputation, learning that
the king had declared for prelacy and disowned the
covenant, were requested to modify their petition by
expunging all niention of the covenant and prelacy.
They did so, and the king having given them an audi-
ence, listened respectfully to their petition, and sent
them away with fair promises. In the meantime it
was publicly known that Charles had actually named
bishops for every diocese in Ireland, and that they
were preparing to proceed to occupy tlieir difi'erent
sees.
For seven years the Presbyterians of Ulster had
enjoyed an interval of peace and growing prosperity,
diuring which they had gathered round them nearly
the whole population of the province. They had
now seventy ministers, and neai-ly eighty congi'ega-
tions, comprising a population of not fewer than
100,000 souls. The ministers were associated in ii\ e
presbyterie.'s, subordinate to a general presbytery or
synod, which met usually four times in each year.
In worship, government, and discipline, the Irish
Presbyterians were entirely confoiTned to the Church
of Scotland. Their church was now rooted in the
affections of the people, and consolidated in all its
arrangements. But a season of severe persecution
was fast approaching. The prelates whom Charles
had nominated to the vacant sees in Ireland repaired
to their diti'erent dioce.ses. On the 27th of .lanuary
IGGl, two archbishops and ten bishops were conse-
crated in St. Patrick's cathedral, Dublin. This was
immediately followed by a proclamation issued by
the lords justices, forbidding all unlawful meetings,
under which meetings of presbytery were included,
and directing the sherift's and other ofhcers to pre-
vent or disperse them. In vain did the Ulster clergy
apply for the exemption of their presbyterian meet-
ings from the application of this proclamation ; tlicy
were told that they might preach on the Lord's Day
and exercise other pastoral duties, but they must not
dare to hold meetings for the exercise of discipline
in church affairs.
The first who commenced active persecution
against the Presbyterian ministers was the celebrated
Jeremy Taylor, who had been appointed to the see
of Down and Connor. This prelate declared in one
day no fewer than thirty-six congregations vacant,
on no other ground than that their ministers had not
been ordained by bishops. Curates and priests were
named by the bishop to the vacant charges. The
rest of the brethren in the other dioceses were gi'a-
dnally ejected in the same way, and although they
still continued preaching for a time, all of thenj, ex-
cept two, were forced to desist within two or three
months after their places were declared vacant. The
two thus favoured were allowed through intercession
in their behalf with the bishop, to exercise their
ministry for six months after their brethren were
silenced. All the Presbyterian ministers were now
not only deprived of their churches and mainte-
nance, but forbidden under heavy penalties to preach,
baptize, or publicly exhort their people. In these
distressing circumstances, these faithful servants of
Christ had no alternative left them but to labour
diligently in private. Accordin'jly, they visited
from house to house, and held meetings for re-
ligious exercises imder cloud of night. Sixty- one
Presbyterian ministers in Ulster were at this time
deposed from the mini.stry, and ejected from their
benefices by the northern prelates. The sunmiary
nature of the steps thus taken in the case of the
Presbyterians of Ireland, is to be accounted for by
the fact that prelacy had never been abolished by
law in that country, ;md thereftue at the Restora-
tion, being still the legal establishment, it was im-
mediately recognized and enforced. Both in England
and Scotland, on the contrary, prelacy having been
already abolished, new acts of parliament required to
be passed before the bishops had power to proceed
against non-conformists. Of the seventy ministers
who belonged at this trying time to the difi'erent
presbyteries throughout Ulster, seven conformed to
episcopacy, and joined the now dominant church,
consenting publicly to renounce the covenant, and to
be re-ordained by their bishop.
After an interval of twenty years, the Irish par-
liament met in May 1(j61, and besides establishing
the former laws in regard to episcopacy in Ireland,
they issued a declaration forbidding all to preach
who would not conform, and ordered it to be read by
every minister in Ireland to his congregation on the
next Sabbath after receiving it. An act was passed
by the same parliament for burning the Solemn
League and Covenant ; and this was accordingly
done in all the cities and towns throughout the king-
dom, the magistrates in every place being directors
and witnesses. At this solemn time, wdien such
deeds were transacted in the land, the presbyterian
168
IRISH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH
ministers in tlie noi'tli gave tliemselvcs much to
pr.iver, and lield frequent conl'erenecs in jjrivate for
mutual eneouragemeut and advice in such crilical
times. For a few niontlis in the beginninj; of the
year 166"2, there was a partial relaxation of tlie penal
statutes against non-cunforiiuty, both in the case of
the Uonianists and of tlie Presbyterians ; but the
bibliops becoming alarujcd at these indications of
toleration, persuaded the lords justices to issue a pro-
clamation to the effect that as recusants, non-con-
formists, and sectaries, had gi-own worse by cle-
mency, no further indulgence would be granted by
the state. A change now took place in the govern-
ment, the Duke of Onnond being appointed lord-
lieutenant of Ireland ; but his policy, in so far as re-
garded the Presbyterians, was the same as that of
the lords justices. A deputation was sent by the
Ulster brethren to wait upon the Duke with a peti-
tion for immunity from bisliops and ceremonies,
which, liowever, met with no success.
About this time a corispiracy, generally known by
the name of Blood's Plut, was formed by some rest-
less spirits for the overtlirow of the government.
Several concurring circumstances gave rise to the
suspicion that some Irish Presbyterian ministers
were to some extent connected with the plot. Such
an opportimity was gladly seized for creating a pre-
judice against the whole body, and in consequence
the greater number of the ministers of the north were
either banished, imprisoned, or compelled to flee,
though entirely unconnected with the con.spiraey.
It was to the credit of the Duke of Ormond, that
when he ascertained the innocence of tlie Presbyte-
rians he gave them cxem]itiun for six nionths from
all annoyance on accotuit of non-conformity. In
the course of that time, Bramhall the primate, hav-
ing died suddenly, his successor being a person of a
mild spirit, prolonged the indidgence for six months
longer. The ministers began gradually to resume
their duties among their tlocks, and in the comve of
four or five years the Presbyterians in Ulster had
nearly recovered their former position in the pro-
vince. In the j'ear 16G8, they began to build
churches, and religious ordinances were publicly
dispensed. The clergy held also monthly meet-
ings of presbytery, though in private houses, and
resumed their entire ecclesiastical functions, with
the exception of licensing and ordaining ministers,
so that in the beginning of the following year they
had attained to considerable freedom. But the acti-
vity wliich was now displayed by the Ulster Presby-
terians excited the jealousy of the Episcopalians ;
and Bishop Leslie of Ilaphoe, in jiarticular, seemed
inclined to take violent steps against the ministers
of his diocese, but was compelled by the government
to pause in his course of intolerance.
In 1G72, Charles II., contrary to all expectation,
granted a yearly pensioti of £000 to the Ulster Pres-
byterian ministers, which was distributed in equal
proportions to all the mini.sters who were in the
country in tlie year ICGO, and on their death to their
widows and orphans. The warrant for this grant
continued in force for ten years, till 108'J, though
it was not probably paid regularly during that time.
There is a tradition, indeed, that this Rajiuin Du-
nuin was enjoyed by the ministers for only one year.
For several j'ears after this period, little or nothing
occurred of importance as regarded the church.
Ministers continued to be planted by the presbyte-
ries, not only in the north, but also in the south and
west. Occasional instances of petty persecution still
happened. Many of the laitj' were summoned be-
fore the bishop's court for refusing to attend on the
established worshiji, and subjected to heavy fines or
to excommunication. In 1G84 a severe persecution
was commenced anew in Ulster. Tlie Presbyterian
meeting-houses were closed, and public worship
among them prohibited. This continued during the
two following years; and such was the deplorable
state of matters in the counties of Derry and Done-
gal, that several ministers from these parts removed
to America, and laid the foiindaiioii of the Presby-
TEitiAN Church in Nokth Amei!Ica (which see).
Charles II. died in 1G85, and ivas succeeded by his
bi'otlier, James II., who proved himself to be a des-
jiotic monarch, and a bigoted supporter of Roman-
ism. He commenced his government of Ireland by
disarming the militia, who were almost exclusively
Protestant. He next removed the lords justices,
and intrusted the government to Lord Clarendon,
who w-as sworn into office as lord-lieutenant in Jan-
uary 168G, but only a year had elapsed when this
nobleman was recalled, and the most obnoxious Ro-
manist in the empire, the notorious Lord Tyrconnel,
appointed in his room. James seemed to be bent
on establishing Popery in Ireland, but Tyrconnel
had a still further object in view, to separate Ireland
from the crown of England, and should the king
die without male issue, to have it erected into an in-
dependent kingdom, under the protection uf Fiance.
To this treasonable scheme devised by Tyrconnel,
Louis XIV. was privy, having by secret correspon
dence been made fully cognizant of the plan. The
new lord-lieutenant proceeded to take steps for
carrying out his project. He put the military power
in the hands of the Romanists, atid transferred to the
same party the chief civil and corporate oflices of
the kingdom. The corporations of Ulster were also
reconstructed with the view of placing tlieni under
the exclusive authority of the Honian Catholics.
The ecclesiastical atl'airs of Ireland were regulated on
the same princijiles. The Romish prelates received
liberal salaries out of the re\enues of the vacant
sees; they wore their official costume in public, and
in many cases they laid hold of the tithes for their
own use. To encourage the established clergy to
join the Church of Eonie, they were allowed still to
retain their benefices even after leaving the estab-
lished church. At length, James issued his cels-
biatcd Declaration for Liberty of Conscience, bus-
IRISH PRES15YTEIUAN CHURCH.
IGb
pending' tlie execution of iiU tlie penal laws for
religious oiTences, and prohibiting the imposition of
religious tests as qualitications for oftice. This De-
claration, which extended to Ireland, afforded season-
able relief to the Presbyterians from persecution.
Tlieir places of worship, which had been closed for
five years, were now re-opened ; stated meetings of
presbytery were publicly held, and all ecclesiastical
functions exercised as formerly.
The year 1688 was probably the most eventful
year in the whole history of the British empire.
Liberty lay prostrate at the feet of a despotic sover-
eign, and through royal influence Romanism was fast
assuming the ascendency. In these circumstances
the Presbyterians, losing sight of all that they had
suffered at the hands of the Episcopalians, cordially
joined with them in opposing the conmion enemy.
Any active movement was next to impossible, the
army being almost to a man composed of Roman
Catholics. But in the midst of the gloom which
seemed to hang over the prospects of the Irish Pro
testants, the news arrived of the landing of the Prince
of Orange in England, and suddenly the whole as-
pect of affairs was clianged. The Presbyterians were
the first to hail the arrival of the prince, and from
Ulster a representative was sent to wait upon his
highness, and in their name congratulate him on his
arrival, and wish him success in his great under-
taking.
At this moment, when the expectations of the Irisli
Presbyterians were at their height, an unfounded
rumour was raised of an intended massacre of the
Protestants of Ireland on a particular day. All
rushed to arms in self-defence, and although the re-
port, being false, soon subsided, the Protestants of
Ulster still continued their defensive preparations.
A Protestant association was formed in each of the
counties ; a council of war was elected, and a com-
mander-in-chief or general for each county ; while a
general council of union was appointed to sit at
Hillsborough for each of the associated counties of
Ulster. No sooner had the organization of the
northern Presbyterians been completed than Tyrcon-
nel resolved to send the flower of his army to Ul-
ster in order to disperse their associations, and reduce
them to subjection ; but before taking this step he
issued a proclamation offering pardon to all who
should lay down their arms, witli the exception of
ten of the leading Protestants of Ulster, and threat-
ening those who rejected this oiferwith the penalties
of high treason. This insidious offer of Tyrconnel
was unanimously rejected bythe general council of the
Protestants, and they were all the more encouraged
to give a decided refusal, by the arrival of a letter
from the Prince of Orange approving of their con-
duct, and promising them speedy and efi"ectual sup-
jjort. On receiving this welcome intelligence, the
Presbvtorians of the north immediately proclaimed
King William and Queen Mary with the most cor-
dial demonstrations of joy.
II.
The Irish army advanced rapidly upon the north-
ern counties, and achieved a decided victory over
the Protestant forces at Droniore, thus opening to
themselves the whole of the north-east of Ulster.
Nor were the Protestants more successful on the
western side of Lough Neagh than they had been on
the eastern. At length Derry was the only city in
which they could find a refuge, and their enemies
were now resolved, if possible, to deprive them of
this last resort. King James marched northwards
from Dublin at the head of twelve thousand men, and
a considerable train of artillery. He proceeded lo
blockade the small but fortified town of Derry.
Meanwhile, in the disturbed state of the country,
public worship was almost wholly suspended. Nearly
tifty Irish ministers took refuge in Scotland, and
were settled in various parts of the kingdom.
The enemy, with Xing James at their head, had
concentrated then- forces around the walls of Derry,
which was garrisoned by about seven thousand brave
Protestants, who were resolved to perish in its de-
fence rather than suiTcnder. The siege commenced
on the 18th of April 1G89. and for the long period o)
a hundred and five days did tiie Protestants main-
tain their groimd, until, on the last day of July, the
Irish army abandoned tlieir trenches, iuid raised the
siege, having lost 100 officers, and between 8,000 and
9,0U0 men. Enniskillen was maintained with equally
undaunted bravery and remarkable success. En-
couraged by these victories, the Protestants were
still further cheered by the arrival of a large army
from England commanded by the Duke of Schom-
berg. The timely aid thus sent them by King William
relieved their minds from much anxiety. In a short
time Ulster was restored to comparative tranquillity,
the inhabitants returned to their homes, and business
was resumed with its usual activity. The ministers
gradually returned to their charges, and as soon as
the presbyteries could be lield, a solemn day of
thanksgiving was appointed, and an address drawn
up to the Duke of Schomberg, which was presented
to him before he left Belfast. The deputation which
was sent from Ulster to congratulate King William
on the glorious Revolution, reported to the brethren,
on tlieir return, that they had received a most gra-
cious answer to their petition, and a promise that an
annual pension of £800 should be conferred on the
ministers. Ample protection and toleration was
now granted to the Presbyterians of Ulster, who are
accustomed, even at this day, to ascribe the remark-
able prosperity, which has since attended their
church, to the benelits conferred on them by the
reign of William of glorious memory.
Strongly attached to King William, it allbrded
the Irish Protestants the highest satisfaction to
learn that his majesty had resolved to place himself
at the head of his aniiy in Ireland, and to conduct
the war in person. On the king's arrival, the Pres-
byterian as well as the Episcopalian ministers, has-
tened to express their loyalty to their sovereign, and
1'
170
IRISH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
their devoted attauliment to his cause. One of his
first acts, al"tcr setting foot on the sliores of Ireland,
was to authorise the payment of £1,200 yearly to
the Preshytcrian cleri,'y of Ulster, in which origi-
nated the grant called tlic lieijium Donum or Royal
Bounty, still enjoyed by their successors. The vic-
tories of William, the contident assurance of tlie
royal protection, and the pecuniary grant which they
had just received, tended to encourage them in the
re-establishment of their church in the most favour-
able circumstances. The Presbyterians were at this
period by far tlie majority of the Protestant popula-
tion in Ulster.
Now that not only perfect toleration, but even
roval favour, was enjoyed by the Presbyterian min-
isters in the north, they resolved to resume their
synodical meetings, and to hold them half yearly.
Accordingly, the tirst regular meeting of syiiod was
held at Belfast on the 26th of September 1G90. In the
discharge of all their ministerial duties the ministers
Buffered no molestation either from the church or the
state. The penal .statutes against tliem were stUl in
force, yet they had becoirie a dead letter, and sev-
eral Presbyterians were in the enjoyment of poli-
tical and municipal offices. King William now set
himself to the repeal of several obnoxious statutes,
which seriously afVected the Ulster Presbyterians.
He commenced with abolishing the oatli of supre-
macy, and substituting in its room the same oaths of
fidelity and allegiance which had been in force in
England since the year 1088. This was no small
boon to the Presbyterians, as it opened up to them,
without a violation of their consciences, all the civil,
military, and municipal offices of the kingdom. But
while their civil privileges were thus enlarged, their
religious liberties were still under statutory restric-
tions. And this was all the more surprising, that the
English Dissenters had, from the beginning of Wil-
h'am's reign, enjoyed the benefit of the toleration act,
though, in consequence of the sacramental test act,
they were incapable of holding any public office.
The Irish parliament, which had not sat for twenty-
six years, was convened towards the close of the year
1602 ; and in a few days after the session cojnmen-
ced. Lord Sydney, the lord-lieutenant, by the direc-
tion of the king, introduced a Ijill for the toleration
of Dissenters similar to that which was in force in
England. TInough the influence of the bishops,
however, the bill was defeated, and William's good
intentions were frustrated. And yet practically such
a measure was scarcely needed in Ireland at the
time, in so far as the Presbyterians were concerned.
They enjoyed the utmost freedom in the exercise of
religious worship ; all places of trust and power were
0|)en to them, and the most friendly co-operation ex-
isted between them and the lipiscopaliaus, in all that
regarded the best interests of the people. The
pleasing harmony which tlms prevailed among the
different reliL,'iouK denominations in Ulster was llrst
broken by Dr. King, bishop of Derry, who, in 1093,
published a pamphlet with the \\e\v of showing the
Presbyterians that their modes of worship were mere
human inventions, and unwarranted by the Word of
God, and that those of the E|iiscopal church were
alone founded on the Bible. This production was
not published in the first instance, but circulated
privately among the Presbyterian ministers in the
diocese. Contrary, however, to the author's wish,
it found its way to London, where it was reprinted,
and soon became known throughout the kingdom.
A keen controversy now ensued, which uidiappily
roused the most bitter feelings of animosity among
the different classes of Protestants at a time when
unity was peculiarly desirable.
The king and his ministers were still bent on ex-
tending toleration to the Irish Presbyterians, and a
new parhament having met in Dublin in 1695, an-
other attempt was made, at the request of the king,
to pass an act similar to tlie toleration act in England.
Through the determined opposition of the High
Church party, this second efi'ort was equally unsuc-
cessful. The subject of toleration was now discussed
with great vigour and earnestness through the press
Pampldets appeared on both sides manifesting no
small ability and argumentative power. While this
controversy was raging as to the expediency of ex-
tending toleration to the Irish Presbyterians, an act
was passed in the Irish parliament, which met in
1697, guaranteeing ample toleration to the French
Presbyterians, a large number of whom had settled
in Ireland after the revocation of the edict of Nantes
in 1682. In consequence of the encoiu-agement thus
given to the French refugees, French nonconform
ing congregations sprang up in Dublin, Carlow, Cork,
Waterford, and other places, whose ministers con-
tinued to receive salaries from govenmient so long
as a single French congregation existed in Ireland.
But although the Irish Presbyterians were unable
to secure an act of toleration, they were, notwith-
standing, makiiig rapid progress both in mmibers
and influence. In the principal towns of Ulster
they had risen to the highest offices in the munici-
pal corporations. Ajd while new congregations were
formed in different parts of the province, an attempt
was made to rear iqj a native ministry, by the estab-
lislunent of a philosoiihical seminary at Killileagh.
The \\\& original presbyteries were now, in 1097, dis-
tributed into two particular synods, or sub-synods as
they were sometimes called, which were appointed
to meet at Coleraine and Dromore in the months of
March and October of each year. The ))resbytery
of Antrim, also, having become too large, was divid-
ed into ttt^o presbyteries, that of Antrim and that of
Belfast. This arrangement of synods and presby-
teries continued dm'ing the remainder of William's
reign.
The flourishing condilion of the Presbyterian
church in Ulster began now to excite the jealousy
of the clergy of the Establishment. The conse-
quence was, that the presbyteries and synods weie
IRISH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
171
sulijecterl to new grievances. It was demanded,
in some places, that the burial service of the English
Liturgy should be read by an Episcopal clergyman ;
oaths were required of them in other places which
they could not conscientiously take, and attempts
were made, for the first time, to prevent the Presby-
terian ministers from celebrating marriages among
their own people. Prosecutions were instituted
against the ministers, in several instances, and heavy
penalties imposed.
The Presbyterian body in Ulster felt it to be a
very great hardship that the validity of marriages
celebrated by their ministers should be called in
question, more especially as they had been accus-
tomed to such marriages from their first settle-
ment in Ireland. After submitting to the annoy-
ances connected with this matter, they resolved to
bring the whole subject before the lord-lieutenant,
and entreat the interposition of government in (heir
behalf. The king, to whom the point was referred
by his deputy, expressed his decided disapproval of
the proceedings carried on against tlie Presbyterians,
and his earnest wisli that some measure should be
devised for putting a stop to the prosecutions, with-
out interfering with the rights of the Established
Chiu-ch. But instead of the royal wish being com-
plied with, the prosecutions in the bishops' courts
against marriages continued to multiply to such a
degree, that in less than half a-year another appeal
for redress was made to the Irish government. Their
hope of obtaining relief from this or any other grie-
vance, however, was now much diminished. King
William having died in March 1701. No party in
the kingdom niom-ned more deeply the loss of this
excellent monarch than the Irish Presbyterians, in
whose interests he had uniformly manifested a lively
concern.
Deprived of their greatest earthly protector and
friend, they were still exposed to prosecutions on
account of marriages, and rumours began to spread
of a design to suspend the Regium Donum, which
had been granted by William. The synod, accord-
ingly, lodged complaints on both these heads with
the lord lieutenant ; and while little satisfaction was
given in the matter of the prosecutions, the Royal
Bounty was continued as formerly, Queen Anne
having issued letters-patent constituting thirteen min-
isters trustees for the distribution of the grant. But
through the influence of the High Church party cer-
tain modifications were introduced into the mode of
its distribution, in order to render the ministers more
directly dependent on the government. To accom-
plish this object, the power of allocating the amount
among the ministers was withdrawn from the trus-
tees, and vested in the lord-lieutenant. Thus the
grant was no longer divided share and share alike,
but the plan of arrangement was now laid down in
these words : " To be distributed among such of the
non-conforming ministers, by warrant from the lord-
lieutenant or other ciiief governor or governors for
the time being, in such manner as he or they shall
find necessary for our service, or the good of that
kingdom." And yet, notwithstanding these written
modifications, the Regium Donum seems to have
continued to be distributed in equal proportions to
all tlie ministers as formerly.
So rapidly had the Presbyterian congregations in
Ulster increased in number, tliat it became necessary
to organize anew the public judicatories of tlie church.
Accordingly, the whole ministers were now arranged
in nine presbyteries, distributed into three sub-synods,
all being under the superintendence of one general sy-
nod, which continued to meet annually at Antrim in
the first week of June. To raise the standard of theolo-
gical acquirements among her young men, the church
enacted, in 1702, that the curriculum of study shoidd
include not less than four years' study of divinity,
besides the regular course of philosophy. The
standards of the Church of Scotland, which she rightly
regarded as her parent church, were those to which
all her ministers were required steadfastly to adhere.
Queen Anne had no sooner ascended the throne,
than she put herself in the bands of the High Church
party, who were strongly opposed to the Presby-
terians of Ulster. Accordingly, in the first English
parliament of this reign, a bill was passed extending
to Ireland the provisions of an act of King William's
last parliament, by which all persons in office, civil,
military, or ecclesiastical, were required to take the
oath of abjuration, which declared that the person pre-
tending to be king of England, under the title of James
III., had no right or title whatsoever to the crown.
This oath was taken by almost all Presbyterian
ministers in Ireland. There were, however, a few
who scrupled conscientiously to take the oath, and
who on this account received the name of non-jurors.
These were looked upon by High Churchmen as
Jacobites, and disloyal, and occasion was taken to
cast the same reproach, however unjustly, on the
whole Presbyterian body. For a time the non-jur-
ing ministers were unmolested, but at length various
attempts were made, though without success, to put
the law in force against them. Such was the hostiUty
of the High Church party to the Presbyterians, that
tliey prevailed upon the Irish House of Commons to
pass a resolution, " That the pension of £1,200 per
annum granted to the Presbyterian ministers in Ul-
ster is an unnecessary branch of the establishment."
But the government declined to carry out this reso-
lution of the Commons, and the grant was continued
as formerly.
A heavy blow was dealt at this time by the High
Churchmen in Ireland against the Presbyterians. A
bill was framed ostensibly to prevent the further
progress of Popery, and as its provisions ap-
plied exclusively to the Romanists, it received the
support of the Presbyterians, but when sent to
England, a clause was introduced into it by the
English ministry, no doubt with the full approbation
of the Queen, •'requiring all persons holding any
172
IRISH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
office, civil or militaiT, or receiving any pay or salary
from the crown, or having command or place of
trust from the sovereign," to take the sacrament in
the Established Church witliin three months after
every such appointment. By this Sacramental Test,
dissenters of all kinds, inchuling of course the Irish
Presbyterians, were excluded froin all offices of
public trust and emolument. The consequence was,
that most of the magistrates througliout Ulster were
deprived of their commissions. For a time, indeed,
it appeared doubtful whether the ministers were not
prevented by the act from accepting the Regiuvi Do-
num, but on consulting the solicitor-general, the
synod were assured that they might continue to re-
ceive it with safety, inasmuch as it did not accrue to
them out of any office or place of trust bestowed by
the sovereign.
In vain were petitions presented to the Irish par-
liament by the Presbyterians and their friends, call-
ing for the repeal of the Sacramental Test clause ;
all such petitions were utterly disregarded. Nay,
such was the intolerant spirit which characterized
this parliament, that an attemjit was even made wholly
to prevent Presbyterian ministers from celebrating
raaiTiages, but happily the design was not carried
out, and no attempt was again made to interfere with
the validity of Presbyterian marriages. Still further
to injure the Presbyterian church, the parliament
passed a resolution, which, though general, was de-
signed to crush the philosophy school at Killileagh,
in which young men were trained for the ministry in
Ulster. The resolution ran thus : — " That the erect-
ing and continuing any seminary for the instruction
and education of youth in principles contrary to the
Establislied Church and government, tends to create
and perpetuate misunderstandings among Protes-
tants;" but this resolution was entirely inoperative,
and failed to inflict the slightest injury on the seminary
at which it was aimed. The same party were more
successful in their efforts to hijure the non-juring
ministers who had hitherto been allowed to remain
unmolested; the parliament having been prevailed
upon to pass two resolutions, which compelled Jlr.
M'Bride, one of the non-jurors, to quit his ministerial
charge in Belfast, and to retire to Scotland, where
he was forced to continue for three years.
Meanwhile the Presbyterian church was prosecuting
her Master's work with the utmost activity and zeiil.
In 1705, it was enacted by the synod, that all persons
licensed or ordained should subscribe the Westminster
Confession of Faith, as the confession of their faith.
A number of congregations having sprung up in the
south and west of the kingdom, a missionary fund
was now instituted for their support, and active mea-
sures were taken for supplying with ordinances the
scattered members of the church in remote districts
of the country. It was the earnest wish of Queen
Anne, and the Whig party, which had acquired the
ascendency in England, to obtain a repeal of the
obnoxious Sacramental Test clause, but the High
Church party, which still prpdominated in the Irish
parliament, were resolved to uphold the test with
even increased rigour. Circumstances soon alibnled
them an opportunity of displaying their zeal in this
direction. It so happened that, with the exception
of Derry, the Presbyterians in Ulster, who had he'd
municipal offices before the passing of the Sacra-
mental Test clause, still retained them, though they
had ceased to act. This peculiarity having been acci-
dentally discovered in the case of Belfast, the House
of Commons took the opportunity of setting forth a
declaration to the effect, that the office of burgess
was vacated in every case in which the occupant had
not qualified by becoming a conformist. In conse-
quence of this declaration, I'resbyterian burgesses
were everywhere throughout Ulster superseded by
Episcopalians. The impolicy of the Sacramental
Test clause became more especially apparent in the
spring of 1708, when the French king attempted to
land the Pretender in Scotland. This event excited
great alarm among the Presbyterians in Ulster, from
their vicinity to Scotland, but numbers of them re-
fused to be em'oUed in the militia lest they should
be brought under the operation of the Sacramental
Test. It was now plain to thoughtful men of all
parties, that some remedy must be devised for so
serious an evil. Efforts, therefore, were again put
forth to procure a repeal of the obnoxious chuise
from the English parliament, as the Oath of Supre-
macy had been rejiealed in the previous reign. It
was found, however, that any proposal of the kind
would meet with insurmountable opposition, and
therefore, it was judged to be quite inexpedient to
bring forward the subject in the meantime.
The prospect of obtaining the speedy removal of
the test, as well as the redress of their other griev-
ances, now becsmie brighter in consequence of the
appointment to the government of Ireland of the Earl
of Wharton, who had long been considered the leader
of the Presbyterian interest of England. But the
nomination of this nobleman to the lord-lieutenancy
aroused the High Church party to redouble their ex-
ertions to maintain the test. At this crisis Dean
Swift appeared, wielding his powerful ])en in opposi-
tion to the claims of Presbyterian and other Dissent-
ers. Amid all opposition, however, the Presbyterian
church was still on the increase. Its congrega-
tions numbered more than one lumdred and thirty,
and it was proposed in the synod of 1708, that
the supreme court .should now consist of delegates
from each presliytery, as in tlie case of the Church
of Scotland. This proposal w;is fully discussed at
the meeting of synod in the following year, and in
consequence of the strong opposition w-hich it met
with from a number of ministers and ciders, it was
first postponed, and ultimately abandoned.
In 1710, the synod of Ulster resolved to adopt
measures for preaching the gospel to the native
Irish in their own language. This important work
had been too long neglected, and as the Episcopal
IRISH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
17;t
chinxli hp.d recently awakened to their duty in this
matter, the Presbyterian church now followed their
example. Seven ministers and three probationers,
who were able to preach in Irish, were appointed to
itinerate for this purpose, carrying along with thera
a supply of Bibles, Confessions of Faith, and Cate-
chisms, all in the Irish language. But the troubles
of the times prevented this scheme from being car-
ried out to any great extent. To this period also
must be referred the origin of what has been called
" The General Fund," instituted " for the support of
religion in and about Dublin and the South of Ire-
land, by assisting and supporting the Protestant
dissenting interest against unreasonable persecutions,
and for the education of youth designed for the min-
istry among Protestant dissenters, and for assisthig
Protestant dissenting congregations that are poor and
unable to provide for their ministers." Large sums
of money were contributed to this fund, by means of
which ordinances were provided for many districts
In the south of Ireland.
Meantime the Earl of Wharton, wlio had been
a^ain appointed lord-lieutenant, endeavoured, though
without success, to prevail upon the parliament to
repeal the Sacramental Test. A few months only
had elapsed, however, when the High Church interest
having re-acquired the ascendency at the English
court, the govermnent of Ireland was transferred
once more to the Duke of Ormond. This cliange in
the rulers of the country led of course to an entire
change in the whole aspect of public aS'airs. The
penalties of the law were now put in force on the
few non-juring ministers in Ulster, ?,nd three of them
were compelled to seek safety in flight. The Irish
parliament, but more especially the House of Lords,
continued to manifest the most undisguised hostility
to the Presbyterians. A representation and address
was drawn up to the Queen's Majesty relating to the
dissenting ministers, and though this document pro-
fessed to narrate a number of grievances which the
Episcopalians of Ireland suffered at the hands of the
Presbyterians, the real design of the whole was to
urge upon Queen Anne the withdrawal of the Royal
Bountv. Another address having the same object
in view was presented by the Convocation of the
clergy. The Presbyterians, therefore, in self-defence,
hastened to lay at the foot of the throne a faithful
statement of their principles, vindicating themselves
from the misrepresentations which their enemies had
so industriously spread. Government, and even the
Queen personally, received from the High Church
party in Ireland numerous and earnest letters calling
for active steps to be taken against the Ulster Pres-
byterians. Pampldets were published of the most
abusive and inflammatory character, accusing this
peaceable and useful class of her Majesty's subjects,
of disloyalty and rebellion. Not contented, how-
ever, with calumniating them by private correspond-
ence and through the press, the High Church party
proceeded to acts of open persecution. Through
their influence the presbytery of Monaghan was sum-
moned before the magistrates of the district, and
indicted for a riot, simply because they held meet-
ings in their capacity as a church-court. Such an
outrage could not of course be borne in silence ; and
the synod having appealed in vain to the lords jus-
tices in Dublin, laid their case before the Queen, the
lord-lieutenant, and the Earl of Oxford, who was at
that time prime minister. In reply, instructions
were sent from Government to the lords justices,
that if the indictment should be sustained by the
grand jury, the trial should be conducted before the
Queen's Bench in Dublin, where it would be free
from the influence of local prejudices, and more com-
pletely under the control of government. Before the
day of trial came, the prosecution was stopped. But
the Presbyterian clergy were now in various ways
made the victims of that intolerant spirit which had
been revived by the House of Lords and the Convo-
cation. Ministers were prosecuted for celebrating
marriages, and laymen for teaching schools and re
fusing to act as churchwardens.
The resignation of the Didce of Ormond, and the
appointment to the lord-lieutenancy of the Duke of
Shrewsbury, a man of a mild and conciliatory sjiirit,
induced the Ulster synod to make another attempt
to obtain the repeal of the Sacramental Test ; on this
also, as on former occasions, they were unsuccessful.
The influence of the Higli Church party was now
strong, and at their suggestion the Royal Bounty
grant was entirely withdrawn in 1714 by the Irish
government. Lawsuits still continued to be instituted
against the Presbyterian clergy for celebrating mar
riages. And the change which had recently taken
place in the political alTairs of England by the ascen-
dency of Bolingbroke, was the means of adding still
more grievances to those which already existed. A
bill liaving been introduced into the English parlia^
ment for preventing the growth of schism, a clause
was proposed and passed in the House of Lords ex-
tending its operation to Ireland. By this measure
every Irish Presbyterian, who ventured to teach a
school, except of the very humblest description, was
liable to be imprisoned for three months. Encour-
aged by the assaults thus made at headquarters on
the liberties of the Ulster synod, the P^iiscopalians
in Ireland openly added insult to injury, and so far
did they carry matters, that in the towns of Antrim,
Downpatrick, and Rathfrlland, the Presbyterian
churches were actually nailed up. In the midst of
these gross acts of persecution, and on the very day
on which the schism bill Civme into operation, the un-
expected death of Queen Anne checked the proceed-
ings of the High Church party, and introduced an
era of comparative liberty and peace.
The accession of George I. to the throne of Eng
land, was welcomed by the Irish Presbyterians aa
likely to secure to them the full possession of civi
and religious freedom. They hastened therefore to
lay their claims before the king and his ministry.
174
IRISH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
cravin;:; tlie reiieal of the Sacramental Test, full legal
protection for their worship and goveniinent, and the
restoration and increase of the grant of the Royal
Bounty. Knowing that the Act of Toleration had
been obtained by the English dissenters, on condi-
tion that they subscribed the Thirty-Nine Articles
of tlie Established Church, excepting those which
related to discipline, the Irish Presbyterians held a
meeting at Antrim, for the purpose of maturely con-
sidering on what principles they would claim tlie
protection of the laws. This point was carefully
deliberated upon, and it was resolved that as they
could not conscientiously subscribe the Thirty-Nine
Articles, they were quite ^Tilling and re.ady to substi-
tute subscription to the Westminster Confession of
Faith ; but a few con.gregations in Dublin and the
South of Ireland having been educated among the
English dissenters were averse to subscribe the West-
minster Confession ; and in deference to the scruples
of these brethren, the meeting proceeded to prepare
a special formula to be substituted in room of the
AVestminster confession, in case the government
should refuse to admit of their subscription of the lat-
ter. The formula agreed upon by the meeting was in
these words : — '• I profess faith in God the Father,
and in Jesus Christ the eternal Son of God. the true
God, and in God the Holy Ghost, and that these
tliree are one God, the same in substance, equal in
power, and glory. I believe the Holy Scriptures of
the Old and New Testament were given by Divine
inspiration, and that they are a perfect rule of Chris-
tian faith and practice. And pursuant to tliis belief,
I agree to all the doctrines common to the Protes-
tant chinxhes both at home and abroad." A depu-
tation from the Presbyterian body proceeded to
Jjondon, and were received graciously by the king,
who appeared to be sensibly moved in listening to
the detail of tlieir gi-ievances ; and by his command
the grant of Royal Boimty was forthwith renewed,
and hopes held out of an augmentation to its amoimt
at no distant date.
It was quite plain to the High Chin-ch party that
the king was disposed to favour the Presbyterians;
hence they sounded the alarm that the church was
in danger. These extreme views prevailed in Dub-
lin College, and the Jacobite spirit which began to
manifest itself among the students, attracted the
notice of the government, more especially as the
Pretender was well known to threaten an invasion.
It was supposed that he might land in the northern
parts of Ulster, and steps were immediately taken
suited to the emorgency. A militia force was en-
rolled, and althougli by joining it the Presbvtcrians
exposed themselves to the iienalties of the Sacra-
mental Test Act, they hesitated not to take arms in
di'fence of their reli.ion and liberties, hoping that
the government would |>rotect them against the
jienalties of the law. A bill was accordinglv passed
through the Irish parliament, which secured dissent-
ers ill ihe militia against ail the penalties of the
obnoxious Act. The bishops did all in their power tc
prevent even this partial relief from being aflbrded to
the Presbyterians, and accordingly after having been
transmitted to London, the bill was abandoned by the
govenmient, and the Test Act remained in full force
against the Presbyterians, whether they served in
the militia, the regular army, or in any other capa-
city %vhatever. In order to neutrahze the injurious
efl'ect of the triumph which the bishops had effected,
the House of Commons passed a resolution, declar-
ing, "That such of his Majesty's Protestant dissent-
ing subjects of this kingdom as have taken commis-
sions in the mOitia, or acted in the commission of
array, have hereby done a seasonable service to his
Majesty's royal person and government, and the
Protestant interest in this kingdom." And still fur-
ther to (|uiet the minds of the disappointed Presby-
terians, the Commons, in opposition to the High
Church jiarty. passed an additional resolution to the
efl'ect, •' That any person who shall commence a
prosecution against any dissenter, who has accepted
or sliall accept of a commission in the army or mili-
tia, is an enemy to King George and the Protestant
interest, and a friend to the Pretender."
Thus once more were the Irish bishops powerful
enough to defeat the attempts made to rejieal the
Sacramental Test, even although both the King and
the Irish House of Commons were disposed in this
matter to favour the Presbyterians. It was highly
creditable to the Presbyterian body that they came
to the resolution of continuing in the public service
at this critical period, even although b)' doing so
they exposed themselves to the penalties of the
Sacramental Test. A synod was now summoned to
meet at Belfast, with the view of considering the
terms on which apidication should be made to the
government for a Toleration Act. The attend-
ance both of ministers and elders was larger on this
occasion than at any former meeting of synod, and
after matiu'e deliberation, it was agreed, that they
should propose subscription of the Westminster Con-
fession of Faith as the ground of toleration ; and if the
government should prefer the fomuila already referred
to, they should add to it a clause which would make
the last sentence run thus : — " And pm-suaut to this
belief, I agree to all the doctrines common to the
Protestant churches at home and abroad, contained
in their and our public Confessions of Faith." The
.synod directed their attention also to the necessity of
preaching the gospel in the Irish language, in dis-
tricts where Roman Catholics abounded, and they
unanimously resolved to encourage this excellent de-
sign to the utmost of their power. Those of the
brethren who were able to preach in Irish were com-
missioned accordingly to preach in succession in
various districts. A school for teaching Irish was
opened in Dundalk, and steps were taken for print-
ing editions of the catechism, and of a short grammar
in the Irish tongue. A very favourable report of the
success which had accompanied this important scheme
IRISH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
175
w;i8 made to the synod in 1717, and they resolved
"to continue to use their utmost endeavours to fur-
ther so good a work." The nine presbyteries of
wliich the church consisted in 1702, were now aug-
mented to eleven, having under their care about 140
congregations.
The Irish Presbyterians knowing that it was the
earnest desire of the king and his ministers to redress
the grievances of which they justly complained, held
a meeting at Newry, to consider the propriety of
making another eflbrt to obtain relief. They ap-
pointed a deputation from both the North and South
to repair to London for this purpose. On reaching
the metropohs, the deputation waited upon the mem-
bers of Government, from whom they received assur-
ances that something eti'ectual would be done for
their relief in the next session of parliament ; and in
tlie meantiuie the king and his ministers placed on
tlie civil li>.t the sum of £800 a-year, as an augmen-
tation of the Royal Bounty, one-half to be appro-
priated to the synod of Ulster, which comprised 140
ministers, while the other half was to be devoted to
tlie ministers of Dublin and the South, who amount-
ed at this date to no more than thirteen. In the
course of the following year (1719), the Government
sought to fulfil their pledge by causing a bill to be
introduced into the Irish House of Commons, " for
rendering the Protestant dissenters more useful and
capable of supporting the Protestant interest of this
kingdom." The High Church party, afraid that too
liberal concessions might be made to Presbyterians,
introduced a counter bill, " for exempting the Protes-
tant dissenters of this kingdom from certaiu penalties
to which they are now subject." Tlie object of this
latter measure was to grant nothing more than a
bare toleration for dissenting worship ; and in this
meagre and unsatisfactory form it passed into a law,
but not without the most strenuous and persevering
opposition from some High Churchmen. In the
course of the same session of parliament, a bill of
indemnity was passed discharging those in public
otEces or employments from the penalties incurred
by not taking the Sacramental Test. A similar act
of indemnity was repeated annually for a long
period, either voted by the Irish Parliament, or as
was generally the case, sent over from England.
Up to tills period of its history, the Presbyterian
church in Ireland had been characterized by a strict
adherence to the doctrines of the Westminster Con-
fession of Faith, and a complete accordance both in
worship and discipline with the parent Church of
Scotland. iS'ow, however, heretical views on tlie
essential doctrines of the gospel began to be broach-
ed by some ministers connected with the Belfast
Society, an association of ministers which had been
organized in 1705 for mutual improvement in theolo-
gieil knowledge. The originator of the new opinions
appears to have been a young minister, the Rev. John
Abeniethy, who was ordained minister of a congrega-
tion in Antrim. He taught that the ground of a sin-
ner's acceptance m the sight of God was his sincerity,
that error was innocent when not wilful, and that all
belief in positive doctiines was uncertain, or at all
events non-essential. In regard to ecclesiastical
discipline, Mr. Abernethy, and those of the Belfast
Society who agreed with him, held that the church
had no right to require subscription to a human con-
fession of faith, and that to demand such a subscrip-
tion was to violate the right of private judgment,
besides being inconsistent with Christian liberty
and true Protestantism. Tlie origin of these lax
and erroneous opinions in Ulster is probably to be
traced to the circumstiuice, tliat Mr. Abernethy
had been a fellow-student and intimate friend of
Professor Simpson, who was cited before the General
Assembly in Scotland for teaching Ai-minian and
Pelagian errors in the Divinity Hall of Glasgow ;
and besides, several of the leading members of the
Society had studied under tins heretical professor.
It was strongly suspected, moreover, that in addition
to their other errors, these young men had imbibed
the Arian opinions of Dr. Samuel Clarke, but this
cliai'ge they solemnly denied. For tifteen years the
errors which had crept into the church made silent
but steady progress, and those who held them be-
came the most prominent and influential members of
the synod. At length, Mr. Abernethy published a
sermon, which he had preached before the Belfast
Society, under the title of ' Religious Obedience
founded on Personal Persuasion.' From the appear-
ance of this discom-se in print, is to be dated the
commencement of that controversy which raged
among the Ulster Presbyterians for seven years,
giving rise to a number of publications on both
sides, and terminating in the exclusion of the mem-
bers of the Belfast Society from the community of
the Synod.
At the commencement of this important contro-
versy, the practice had begun to be adopted by some
presbyteries of allowing subscription of the stand-
ards with reservations and explanations. This ob-
jectionable practice was legalised by the Synod,
under what is known -by the name of the Pacific
Act, and laxity of discipline having been thus intro-
duced into the proceedings of the supreme court of
the church, the example was soon followed by the
inferior courts. In the presbytery of Belfast, Mr.
Ilalliday, who was a strong advocate for the new
opinions, refused to avail himself of the provisions of
the I'acitic Act, or to subscribe the Confession of
Faith in any form. In utter contravention of the
laws of the church, the presbytery were contented to
receive a meagre and unsatisfactory declaration of
his faith, which he tendered to the brethren, insist-
ing that no church had a right to demand any fuller
confession. Four members of the presbytery pro-
tested against the reception of such a declaration, in
place of subscription to the Westminster Confession,
and appealed to the sub-synod of Belfast. This
quarterly provincial synod met in the first week of
17G
IPAm PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH
January 1721, wlien the reasons of protest were ap-
proved by tlie whole synod, with the exception of
tlie memliers of the Belfast Society ; and the majority
of the presbytery who had admitted Mr. Halliday,
without subscription of the standards, were publicly
rebuked at the bar of the court. Notwithstanding
this decision of the sub-synod, Mr. Halliday still re-
fused to subscribe the Confession. The whole church
was much agitated by the divisions which had arisen
among its minister.s, and in this painful state of mat-
ters the supreme court held its annual meeting at
Belfast. The attendance of both ministers and elders
was unusually large, showing the deep interest which
was felt in the present critical state of aiTairs. At
this synod memoiials were [iresented from seventeen
congTegations spread o\er seven counties of Ulster,
entreating that in order to quiet the apprehensions
of multitudes, as well as to remove all cause of re-
proach, " all the members of synod, and all inferior
judicatories of the church, may be obliged to sub-
scribe the Westminster Confession of Faith as the
confession of their faith." In the spirit of this me-
morial, the synod commenced their proceedings by
passing a resolution, which denied in the strongest
manner that they had departed " from the commonly
received doctrine concerning the essential Deity of
the Son of God, by denying his essential Divine per-
fections, particular!)' his necessary existence, abso-
hite eternity, and independence." The members of
the Belfast Society declined voting for this resolu-
tion, "not," as the minutes of synod bear, "because
they disbelieved the article of Christ's supreme
Deity ; for this article they professed in the strong-
est terms to believe ; but because they are against
all authoritative human decisions as tests of ortho-
doxy, and because they judged such decisions unsea-
sonable at this time." To meet more directly the
object of the memorial which had been laid before
them, the synod agreed not to enjoin, but simply to
permit all the members of synod who were willing to
do so, to subscribe the Westminster Confession of
Faith. This resolution also was keeidy opposed by
the members of the Belfast Society, but was carried
by a decided majority. A large number of ministers
accordingly signed anew the Confession of Faith,
and from this time the two parties were known by
the names of Subscribers and Non-Subscribers.
At this meeting of synod, Mr. Halliday was ad-
mitted as a member of the body without being called
upon to subscribe the Confession, on the simjile pro-
viso that this be no precedent in any instance for the
future. And to render the Pacilic Act more cfl'cc-
tual, as well as to secure the peace of the church,
Jhree resolutions were passed, first, that no person
should be licensed, ordained, or installed, without
the concurrence of two-thirds of the presbytery then
present ; secondly, that should any single member
protest against such license, ordination, or installa-
tion, further proceedings therein should be arrested
until the next eynod; and thirdly, that should the
Pacific Act be again violated, the piesiding miuislei
should be suspended at the discretion of the synod.
The entire province of Ulster was now in a state
of commotion, the people arraying themselves on
either side of the controver.sy. Pamphlets were
publi.shcd in rapid succession by the champions of
both parties. So keen indeed did the conllict be-
come, that great anxiety was felt lest a rupture
shoidd take place between the two parties at the
next meeting of synod, wdiich was appointed to be
held at Derry. The attendance, owing to the re-
moteness of the place of meeting, was not so large aj(
at the last synod. After discu.<sion, which was co)(-
ducted with considerable warmth, the following n\e
resolutions were adopted with the view of removing
division and preserving peace. 1. The declaring
articles of faith in Scriptin-e words only shall not be
accepted as a sufficient evidence of a person's sound-
ness in the faith. 2. The synod resolvedmost constant-
ly and firmly to adhere to the Westminster Confession
of Faith. 3. The synod resolved to maintain the
Presbyterian government and discipline as hitherto
exercised. 4. The synod desire to exercise Chris-
tian forbearance towards the non-subscribers, so long
as they governed themselves according to the acts
of the synod, and did not disturb the peace of the
church. 5. The synod earnestly and most seriously
exhorted the people under the ministry of the non-
subscribers to condescend as far as their consciences
allowed them in adhering to their pastors.
Those attempts on the part of the synod to com-
promise matters were altogether unsuccessful. The
lay-members of the church were much dissatisfied
with the leniency shown by the supi-eme court to the
non-subscribers, as being in their view utterly incon-
sistent with the purity and safety and peace of the
church. It now became every day more and more
apparent that a disruption of the synod was at hand.
In several presbyteries accordingly, vacant congi-e-
gations refused to admit into their pulpits non-sub-
scribing ministers. So strong indeed was the feeling
against these ministers which pervaded the Presby-
terian population generally, that subscribing minis-
ters found it necessary to cease from employing them
at communion seasons, or holding ministerial inter-
course with them in any way. To allay the irritation
which existed hi the minds of many, the sub .synod
of Derry at their meeting in May 1724, drew up a
" Seasonable Warning," as it was termed, which
they circulated widely among the ]ieople. and which
had the efl'ect of convincing tluni that a large body
of ministers and elders were firm in upholding the
doctrines and constitution of the church.
Meantime great anxiety prevailed throughout the
church as to the probable residt of the deliberations
of the stipreme court. The meeting took place at
Dungannon, and the deepest interest in its proceed-
ings ].>or\aded all classes. A very large number of
members, both clerical and lay. were present. The
subject which engrossed the attention of the synod
IRISH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
177
throughout almost its entire sittings was the case of
Mr. Nevins, one nf the non-subscribing ministers,
who was accu-serl of lidding and avowing Arian
tenets. The result was, that after a protracted trial,
extending to nearly two weeks, he was cut olT from
the communion of the synod, b;it neither disjoined
from his congregation, nor deposed from the minis-
terial oiBce.
The warfare between the subscribers and the non-
subscribers continued to be carried on with the
greatest earnestness throngh the press, the latter
party exhibiting a decided superiority in literary
prowess. Popular favour, however, was decidedly
on the side of the Subscribers, and it was daily be-
coming more obvious that tlie expected separation
of the two parties could not be much longer delayed.
While the public mind was in a state of the utmost
excitement, the synod held its usual annual meeting
at Dimgannon on tlie ■21st of June 1726. The non-
Kuliscribers laid on the table five overtures or " ex-
pedients for peace," as they chose to term them,
'i'his elaborate production took up extreme ground,
and left the .-^ynod no other alternative but to ex-
clude its authors from the communion of tlie church.
An attempt was made to delay matters for another
year, but this motion was negatived by a large ma-
jority. The subject of separation was now deliber-
ated upon, and on the votes being taken it was found
that by a large majority, composed chiefly of elders,
the ministers being nearly equally divided, the sepa-
ration was carried. Yet even this decision was par-
tial and limited in its character. It excluded the
non-subscribers from "ministerial communion with
subscribers in church judicatories as formerly;" that
is, it simply excluded them from ecclesiastical fel-
lowship, by being members of the synod or its in-
ferior courts, but did not exclude tliem either from
Christian fellowship or from ministerial communion
in religious ordinances and .sacraments. And though
tlie open, avowed non-subscribers were now removed
from the synod, there still remained a number of
ministers who were .secretly attaclied to the princi-
ples of the non-subscribers, but who, not being honest
enough to avow their sentiments, still continued in
communion witli the synod. A question naturally
arose in the altered state of matters as to the distri-
bution of the Royal Bounty, but in a private meet-
ing of the ministers, it was unanimously agreed, that
the usual proportions of the grant should be paid to
the members of the excluded presbytery, as regu-
larly as if they still formed a constituent part of the
synod.
Tlie Irish Presbyterians had, a few years before
this, received from government the full benefit of the
Act of Toleration. Tliey had still reason to com-
plain of several giievances which remained imre-
dressed. Sites for churches were refused by Epis-
copalian landlords. Presbyterians were still excluded
by the Sacramental Test from places of public trust
under the crown, and they were liable to be prose-
II.
cuted for their marriages celebrated by their own
clergy. Tlie accession of George II., in 1727, Iiow-
ever, was hailed as holding out favourable prospect ,
the highest authorities, both in cliurch and state, be-
ing generally disposed to relieve them from the dis-
abilities under which they still laboured. But though
tlieir hopes from government were now brighten-
ing, the social condition of the province of Ulster
was far from satisfactory, and an extensive emigra-
tion of the agricultural population took place, the
people flocking in great numbers to the West Indies.
An inquiry was immediately instituted by govern-
ment into the causes of this alarming diminution of
the Protestant population in the north of Ireland,
and the Presbyterians urged anew upon tlie atten-
tion of the civil authorities the necessity of repeal-
ing tlie obnoxious Sacramental Test Act. The Iligli
Cluirch party were naturally afraid that the claims
of the Ulster Presbyterians might be acknowledged,
and Dean Swift appeared once more as the stern op-
ponent of toleration, publishing a powerful pamph-
let on the subject. In 1732, the English Protestant
Dissenters exerted themselves strongly to procure
tlie repeal of the Test and Corjioration Acts. And
in the following year the Irish Presbyterians direct-
ed their efforts towards the procuring of the re-
peal of their Test Act, but although their claims
were admitted by the English ministry, their hopes
of redress were once more doomed to be disappoint-
ed. The only relief, indeed, which the Presbyte-
rians received during the reign of George II., was
an act passed in 1738 by which they were exempted
from all prosecutions for marriages celebriited in their
congregations by mhiisfers wlio had qualified under
the Toleration Act.
Notwithstanding the numerous disadvantages un-
der which the Ulster Presbyterians had long laboured,
their numbers had steadily increased, thirty new con-
gregations having been organized within the last
thirty years. The consequence of this was, that the
dividend of the Royal Bounty, which annually ac-
crued to each individual minister, was rapidly dimin-
ishing. In these circumstances, the synod, between
the years 1744 and 1760, frequently had under their
consideration the propriety of applying to govern-
ment for an addition to the Royal Bounty. It was
strongly feared that the cause of the Pretender would
be warmly espoused by the Irish Romanists, but all
apprehensions for the security of Ireland were quiet-
ed by the promptitude with whicli the Presbyterians
of Ulster took up arms to resist the enemy should he
venture to land upon their shores. Their determi-
nation to risk their lives and fortunes in defence of
the Protestant king and constitution, was set forth
in a " Declaration" which they published as soon as
the standard of the Pretender had been raised in Scot-
land. These demonstrations of loyalty were duly ap-
preciated by the Earl of Chesterfield, the lord-lieuten-
ant, and the Presbyterians were given to expect that
they would probably receive some mark of the royal
Q
178
IlMSir I'KESrA'TEUTAN CITUKCIl
favour. In 1746, accordingly, wlien the rebellion
Imd been suppressed, the synod forwarded a me-
morial to government, setting forth their present dis-
tressing eircnnistances, occasioned by tlie pressing
poverty of tlie country, and craving an increase of
the grant whicli they bad received from the Uoyal
Bounty. This memorial ajipears not to have been
presented at headquarters; and lliongh, in 1749, a
similar resolution was formed by the synod, in con-
sequence of discouragements it was speedily aban-
doned. The following year a fund was established
for the benelit of the widows and families of deceased
ministers ; an institution which has flourished be-
yond all expectation, and though the endowment
originally contemplated was £12 annually, each wi-
dow now receives yearly £.34, present currency ;
and when a minister dies, leaving a family and no
widow, the children receive the annuity for ten years.
The non-subscribers now occupied a separate posi-
tion from the Ulster synod under the name of the
Presbytery of Antrim ; butalthougli by their separa-
tion from the bodythe church was to some extent puri-
fied, their students being still educated chiefly in Glas-
gow, a class of mhiisters gradually arose in the synod,
who held lax, and, in many cases, erroneous princijiles,
such as were usually termed New-Light. In the
course of time this party acquired a complete pre-
ponderance both of influence and talent in the synod.
In the Irish Episcopal Church also, at this period,
that is about tlie middle of last century, evange-
lical doctrine had almost lied from its pulpits. Sev-
eral of the inferior clergy held Arian opinions, and
one of the bishops was an avowed Unitarian. The
two parties of Presbyterians, the subscribers and
non-subscribers, though ecclesiastically separated
from each other, were brought frequently into friendly
intercourse, on the footing of their common connec-
tion with the Widows' Fund, and in theological sen-
timent they began gr.idually to approximate to each
otiier. Pure Calvinistic doctrine was now very
generally repudiated by the leading ministers of tlie
Presbyterian Church, and the whole body was gra-
dually drifting away from the good old theology of
the Westminster Confession. The Seceders, how-
ever, who preaclied sound evangelical doctrine, were
gradually on the increase, and numbers of Presbyte-
rians, who loved the truth, gladly sought refuge
from the heresy which pervaded tlieir own church in
the orthodox Seceding congregations. Tlius the
apathy of the synod of Ulster promoted the suc-
cess of both branches of the Secession Church, the
Burghers and the Antiburghers. See Associatk
PltHSUyTERY oi- Irklani).
So great was the indifference which the Presby-
terian ministers of Ulster manifested even to the con-
cerns of their own church, that not more' than one-half,
and scarcely sometimes one third of tlieirentire num-
I her, attended the meetings of the general synod. To
remedy this growing evil, it was proposed, in the
1 meeting of 17.52, tli.at the .synod should for the fu-
ture be composed of delegates from the respective
presbyteries, and that their charges in attending
should be defrayed by their constituents. The pro-
ject, however, was postponed from year to year, and
at length abandoned. For a long period the Ulster
synod had been sadly degenerating both in doctrine
and discipline, and while ever since the separa-
tion of the presbytery of Antrim there had been a
part}' in the synod who sympathised with the non
subscribers, that party was no longer a minority, but
a large and overwhelming majority. It is not sur-
prising, therefore, that in 1758 a resolution should
have been unanimously adopted by the synod for
the renewal of friendly intercourse with tlie non-
subscribers, who were well known to adhere as firmly
as ever to their original principles, and to be depart-
ing more and more widely from the Westminster
standards. The following j'ear, accordingly, a de-
putation from the presbytery of Antrim appeared at
the synod, and handed in a commission appointing
them to attend the synod, and to join in consulta-
tion witli it in all matters of general concern to the
Protestant Dissenting interest. Some of the mem-
bers were taken by surprise, and were scarcely pre-
pared for this step on the jiart of the non-subscribers ;
but the commission was sustained without opposition
Next day, however, some of the members adverted
to the subject, stating that the minute of the previous
year, inviting the non-subscribers, contemplated their
taking part in the discussions of the synod only in
reference to their common secular concerns. This
explanation was accepted by the synod. Another
opportunity soon presented itself of exhibiting pub-
licly the affinity which the two bodies now felt to
exist between them. George H. liaving died in
1760, the Ulster synod and the Presbytery of An-
trim joined in an address of congratulation to the
new sovereign, George III., on his accession to the
throne, describing themselves as " The Presbyterian
ministers of the Northern Association in Ireland."
The students of both parties were trained under flie-
ological professors, and the ministers held brotlierly
intercourse by preaching in each other's pulpits.
Notliing, indeed, seemed to lie in the way of a com-
plete coalition, but the fear of alienating a large body
of the laity who were decidedly opposed to the here-
tical principles avowed by the non-subscribers. In
the low state to which vital religion had now sunk
among the Irish Presbyterians, it is scarcely to be
wondered at that tlie cause made so little progress
among the people, that from 1756 to 17G9 only two
congregations were added to the synod of Ulster.
Emigration had for a number of years past dimin-
ished to a considerable extent the number of Presliyte-
rians in the north of Ireland, and the dividend whieh
the Royal Bounty afforded to each minister was so
small tliat they had a difficulty in obtaining an ade-
quate maintenance. Tlie natural result of such a state
of matters was, that the nimilicr of candidates for the
ministry was quite insuifieicnt to supjjly the vacant
IRISH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
179
consrejations. This led to a relaxation of the rules
laid down in regard to the course of study necessary
to obtaui license, and men of indifferent qualifica-
tions were both licensed and ordained. But this
evil was light compared with tlie alarming indiffer-
ence to sound doctrine which so extensively pre-
vailed. The doctrines of the Westminster Confes-
sion were ahnost completely set at nought, and the
proposal was broached by a number of ministers lo
set aside the law of subscription. Such, however,
was the attacbinent of the laity to the Confession,
that it was deemed prudent to relinquish the design ;
although the supporters of the Confession were now
but a minority in the supreme court, and several
presbyters dispensed with subscription both in cases
of license and ordination.
Though the Irish Presbyterians, both n.inisters and
people, were in a very depressed state, so far as out-
ward prosperity was concerned, and thousands had
emigrated to America, they were fast rising in pnli-
tical importance. When the revolutionary war cum-
menced between America and Britain, and the
French took part with the revolted provinces, her
ships of war tlireatened a descent upon the coasts of
Ulster. The government hastened to conciliate all
parties in Ireland in order to secure their supjiort,
more especially as the Irish people had voluntarily
set up an extensive military organization for their own
defence. In June 1778, or about three months after
the volunteer companies had begun to be formed, the
Irish House of Commons made another attempt to
obtain the repeal of the Sacramental Test, a clause
to that efl'ect Iiaving been appended to a bill which
was designed to relieve the Roman Catholics of some
of their disabilities. The bill p.assed with the ap-
pended clause, but wdicn forwarded to England in
order to receive the sanction of the privy council, it
was returned without the clause which had been ap-
pended; and thus the grievances of which the Ulster
Presbyterians had so long complained still remained
unredressed. The volunteers rapidly increased until
they reached the large number of 42,000 ; and while
a large proportion of the population were thus in
arms, discontent was rapidly spreading in conse-
quence of the deep injury which the American war
had inflicted upon trade. Such a state of things
could not fail to excite considerable anxiety in the
government ; and as a matter of policy, the Irish
parliament had no sooner met in 1779 than a bill
was introduced, and unanimously caiTied, for the re-
lief of the grievances of Dissenters. After a little de-
lay tlie measure having been approved by the privy
council, was sent back tolreland unaltered, and speed-
ily passed into a law.
The Irish volunteers had now become a formida-
ble body. On the 15th February 1782 they held a
meeting at Dungannon, which was attended by the
representatives of one hundred and forty-three corps
in military dress, and passed resolutions indicating
their determination to maintain the principles of con-
stitutional freedom. At this time the volunteers in
Ireland amounted to nearly 100,000 men, well armed
and disciplined, who, with one voice, boldly asserted
the independence of the Irish legislature. It was
found to be impossible to resist the demands of the
peo|)le, ami the Englisli government yielded so far
as to acknowledge the legislative independence of
Ireland. Various other acts were passed favourable
to the Presbyterians, among which may be men-
tioned one which declared the validity of all mar-
riages celebrated among Protestant Dissenters by
ministers of their own denomination. In 1784 a
further boon was conferred upon the Ulster synod
by an increase of the Regiinn Donum, the king having
been pleased to grant £1,000 per annum. Some
disajipointment was felt that the sum was so small,
but the men of power in Ireland had resisted the be-
stowal of a larger grant. About the same time the
Irish Seceders received a bounty from government ot
£'.00 per annum. In the coin-se of a few years the
question as to the necessity of a more adequate pro-
vision for the Presbyterian ministers was taken up
by the Irish House of Commons, who passed an
unanimous resolution to present an address to his
majesty on the subject. The wishes of the Commons,
however, were anticipated by a king's letter, dated
21st January 1792, granting during pleasure an ad-
ditional sum of £5,0(10 per amuun for the use of the
Presbyterian ministers of Ireland. Of this sum the
synod of Ulster and presbytery of Antrim received
£.3,729 IGs. lOd., the rest being distributed among
the Seceders, the Southern Association, and the min-
ister of the French congi'cgation, St. Peter's, Dublin.
But though favoured with outward prosperity, the
internal condition of the Presbyterian church of Ire-
land was melancholy in the extreme, erroneous opi-
nions as to the vital doctrines of Christianity being
openly avowed by the leading ministers of the body.
Pelagian and semi-Pelagian views were very gener-
ally taught from the pulpits. The presbytery of
Killileagh was particularly noted for the number of
heretical ministers which it contained. The course
of education prescribed furstudents of theology in con-
nection with the .synod of Ulster was so limited that
any candidate who had attended a divinity class only
one session of five months, might be licensed as a
preacher. Ministers who had passed through such
a brief course of study were not likely to prove effi-
cient instructors or able del'enders of the faith. The
subject was brought under the notice of the general
synod, and in 1786 the Belfast academy was opened,
though it does not apipear to have been attended by
any considerable number of students of divinity,
these continuing still to resort to the Scottish uni-
versities. At this period the church made little or
no progress. For the twenty years preceding 1789
not one new congregation was regularly established.
The Seceders and Reformed Presbvterians, however
were, dm-ing the same time, rapidly on the increase.
In 1795 the Government had signified their in
180
lllISH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
teiitiou of erecting and endowing a seminary at
M.iynootli for training candidales for the Romish
jiriesihooii. Some hnpes were at the same time en-
teriaiiii'ii tliat tlie English parliament wonlii vote a
»nni fur the establi^llMle]lt of a Rresl)yteriaii college
in Ulster. Negolialions were carried on fur some
time with men in i)Ower, but to the mortilicalion of
the Irish ProlcslaiMs. Maynoolh was liniit and en-
dowed, while the esiablishment of a Protestant se-
minary was postjioned for an indeiinile period. The
iiiale of Ireland was now such as tilled tlie Iiearts of
nil good men witli sorrow and alarm. "The three
Ro[ni:^li provinces," says Dr. Reid, "exhibited a mi-
serable array of ignorance, poveriy, protligacy. and
outrage. E> en in Ulster, laxity of princi|de had in-
troduced laxity of practice, — drnnkeiniess, profane
swearing, and Sablwtli breaking were fearfully pre-
valent, ami the writings of Tlionias Paine, which had
been diligently circulated, bad extensively diti'used
the leaven of infidelity."
Such was the moral condition of Ireland when
the rebellion of 1798 broke out. The object of
this conspiracy was wholly of a jiolitical nature,
having in view the separation of Ireland from
Great Britain, and th.c erection of an indejiendent
republic. The Irisli Presbyterian minister.s, as a
body, steadfastly opposed all insurrectionary niove-
ni'nts, and gave no counten.ance to the Society of
United Irishmen. The same sentiments were shared
by a large portion of the Presbyterian laity. In
several districis of Dosi-n and Antrim, however, and
especially in the town of Belfast, a spirit of disall'ec-
tion was wiiiely diffused among the people. But it
was highly creditable to the ministers connected
with the synod of Ulster, that very few of their order
were implicjited in the Rebellion, and such w.is the
confidence which the military authorities reposed in
the loyalty of the ministers, that the meeting of
synod in 1798 was held with their sanction, and
under their protection. At that meeting a resolu-
tion was passed expressing strong disapprobation of
the conduct of those individuals belonging to their
Hocks who had taken part in the conspiracy. A
pastoral address was also drawn up, and addressed
to the Presbyterian people, remonstrating with those
who had joined the ranks of the rebels. The
sum of £.'JOD was unanimously voted to the gov-
ermnent towards the defence of the kingdom ; and
the presbyteries were enjoined under penalty of
severe censure to institute a solemn inrpury into the
conduct of ministers and licentiates charged with
seditious and treasonable practices, and to report to
next meeting of synod. When the synod met in
.Juiu^ 17y9, the reports from tlie several presbyteries
s'lowed that very tew of tlie ministers had been con-
cerned in the Relx-liion, and that only one, the Rev.
James Porter of (Jreyabbcy, had been arrested, tried,
and executed for treasonable practices. Of the small
number involved in the Rebellion, two were reported
as Ktill \a confinemett; others had expressed their
sincere contrition ; others were no longer connected
wirh the body, and the remainder had either volun-
tarily, or witli the permission of the government, re-
moved from the kingdom. It may be noticed, that
the greater number of the Presbyleiian miuisiers
who were impliciited in the Hebellioii held New
Light principles.
The project now began to be started of a legisla-
tive union between Great Britain and Ireland. To
reconcile all parties of the Irish people to this most
iiuporlant measure, various inducements were iield
out. The members of the synod of Ulster were as-
sured tliat a university for their special benefit would
be founded at Armagh, and a divinity prol'essorship
endowed ; that the Regium Doimm wuuld be liberally
increased, and that a royal commissioner of their
own vommuiiion should sit in their annual synod, as
in the General Assembly of the Established Church
of Scotland. All these ]iroposaIs were afterwards
abandoned, except that which referred to an increase
of the Reghtm Donum. While this subject was
under consideration, the union of the two countries
of Great Britain and Ireland was consummated.
This great event took place on the 1st of January
1801. Some apprehensions were entertained that,
in consequence of a change of government which
happened about this time, the proposed increase of
the Re(jium Donum might not be obtained, but at
the annual meeting of the synod of Ulster in 1802,
it was oflicially announced that " his Majesty's con-
fidential servants had come to a determination to
reconunend to the king to increase the lieyium Do-
man in the next year, and that a future conniiunica-
tion would be made as to the amount, and the regu-
lations which it might be thought necessary to
adopt." A new arrangement accordingly was made,
the members of the synod of Ul.'^ter, and of the
synod of Antrim, to whom alone the grant was re-
stricted, being divided into three classes, those located
in cities or large towns, those in the more populous
districts, and those in more thinly peopled localities.
The congregations amounted at this time to 186,
which were divided into three classes, containing 62
each. The ministers, according as they belonged
to the first, second, or third class, were to receive
respectively, £10O, £75, or £50 each per annum.
The agent for the distribution of the bounty was
henceforth to be appointed and paid by government.
Much dissatisfaction was expressed by many mem
bers of the synod with the system of classification,
but the government refused to modify tlie terms of
tlie gram, and they were therefore with some mur-
muring submitted to. The Rcginm Donum to the
synod of Ulster and presbytery of Antrim, had pre-
viously amounted to £0,329 Gs. lOd., but by the ad
dition now made it amounted in 1803 to £14,970
18s. lOd., late Irish cuiTeucy. Such a liberal gov-
ernment allowance was received with satisfaction and
gratitude, and the result has been such, even in a
political and financial point of view, that the gov-
IRISH PRESBYTKIUAX CHURCH.
181
erninent lias never had cause to repent of its liber-
ality.
It is lamentable to reflect, that at the very time
wlien the synod of Ulster was experiencing so largely
and liberally the countenance of government, its use-
fulness as a Christian institution was at a low ebb.
Many of the ministers had imbibed Arian and even
Unitarian principles. The subscribers and non-
subscribers were so mingled togetlier, that it was
ahnost inipos-ible to distinguish the one party from
the other, and in 1805, the synod unanimously re-
solved that the licentiates of tlie presbytery of An-
trim, of tlie Southern Association, and of the Church
of Scotland, should be fully entitled to officiate in its
pulpits. In such a state of matters practical religion
among the people had sunlc, as was naturally to be
expected, to a very low state. But how often has
the truth of the Divine promise been exemplified in
the history of every section of the church of Christ,
" At evening time it shall be light." In the midst
of the spiritual darkness and death wliich now over-
spread the Presbyterian Chm-ch of Ireland, there
were still found some godly ministers and praying
people who longed and looked for a revival of true
vital religion in the land. Xor did they long and
look in vain. No sooner had the excitement of the
Rebellion passed away, than a number of pious
ministers and laymen belonging to the various Pro-
testant denominations met at Armagh, and formed
an association under the designation of the •Evan-
gelical Society of Ulster,' having in view the estab-
lishment of a system of itinerant preaching through-
out the towns and villages of the province. A
number of Congregationalists or Independent churches
sprung up about this time in Ulster, and several of
the Secession ministers with their congregations
joined that body. One eminent minister belonging
to the synod of Ulster, the Rev. Alexander Carson
of Tobermore, withdrew from the body and joined
the Baptists. Amid the keen discussions which
agitated both the synod of Ulster and the Secession
synods on the subject of the RegiumDomim, atnnn-
ber of the lay members belonging to both bodies
passed over to the Reformed Presbyterian church,
which repudiated a state endowment. Besides, so
zealous was this la.st-mentioned denomination, and
so faithfully did they preach the pure gospel of
Christ, that numbers of the more pious portion of
the community hastened to join them, so that numer-
ous congregations arose in all parts of the country
professing the principles of the Reformed Presby-
terians.
The rapid increase of the other branches of the
Protestant Dissenters in Ireland, had a decidedly
beneficial influence upon the synod of Ulster. Arian
and Socinian preachers began now to be discoun-
tenanced by the people, and whenever a vacancy
occurred, their places were filled by evangelical
ministers. A better spirit now showed itself in the
deliberations of the synod. Plans were devised, and
money was raised for the supply of Bibles on easy
terms to the poorer classes of Presbyterians. This
benevolent and truly Christian movement was chiefly
carried forward by iVIr., afterwards Dr. Ilanna of
Belfast, to whom on many accounts the Presbyte-
rians of Ireland are under deep obligalions. The
apiiuintment of tliis excellent and able evangelical
minister as Professor of Theology, which took place
in 1817, by a unanimous vote of synod, formed a
new era in the history of the Presbyterian church of
Ireland. It mdicated that sound evangelical doc-
trine had now obtained an ascendency in the synod ;
it cemented the union between the General Synod and
the Belfast Institution, and it enabled the church to
train its students at home, instead of obliging them
to repair for their theological education to Scottish
universities. The synod now began to raise the
standard of education among its candidates for
license, and to carry out this important object,
the students were required to devote two sessions
instead of one to the study of theology. Since
that time another session has been added to the
theological curriculum. For a long time the sy-
nod of Ulster had held ecclesiastical intercourse
with the svnod of Minister and the presbytery of
Antrim ; and this was tolerated, though most reluc
tantly, by the evangelical ministers, who were yearly
on the increase, as long as there was no ecclesiasti-
cal code to which they could apiieal; but a canon of
discipline and church government having been pre-
pared and adopted by the synod in 1824, the eccle-
siastical relationship between the .synod and tlie
Munster and Antrim bretliren ceased to be recog-
nized. And another advantage which accrued to the
church from its possession of a regular code of laws
was, that the question of subscription to the stand-
ards was finally settled by the established rule, that
"presbyteries, before they license candidates to
preach the gospel, shall ascertain the soundness of
their faith, either by requiring subscription to the
Westminster Confession of Faith, or by such exami-
nations as they shall consider best adapted for this
purpose." Some definite arrangement on this point
was absolutely demanded by the position of the
church at this period. For half-a-century the prac-
tice of requiring subscription from either licentiates
or ordained ministers had been unknown, and as the
natural consequence of such laxity, heresy had grown
up and been tolerated in tlie bosom of the Presby-
terian church. To such an extent had this evil
spread that, according to a statement made by Dr.
Cooke, when examined before the Commissioners of
Irish Education Inquiry, of two hundred ministers
belonging to the Ulster synod, about thirty-five were
Ariaiis. The evidence containing this statement
appeared in February 1827, and its publication
caused no small excitement ; more especially as in
addition to Dr. Cooke's startling statement, the fact
became known that the Rev. William I'orter, who
was then clerk of the Ulster synod, had, in answer to
182
IRISH PRESBYTERIAN CllUIiCII.
the inqiiiries of the Cumiiiissioiiers, openly avowed
hiinseh' to be an Ariaii, and expressed his belief that
the system was •• gaining groinid among the thinlv-
ing few," giving it as liis opinion, tliat there were
"more real Arians tlian professed ones" amongst
the ministers with wliom he was oftieially connected.
At the next annual meeting of synod, a motion was
proposed to tlie effect that " the Rev. William Por-
ter having pubhcly avowed himself to be an Arian,
be no longer continued clerk." After a long and
keen debate, it was agreed to condemn certain parts
of his evidence, but that he shoidd be allowed to re-
tain his situation as clerk of the synod. The matter
did not terminate here liowever. Mr., now Dr.
Cooke, who lias over proved himself the champion
of orthodoxy against error of every kind, moved that
the members of the court, "for the purpose of afford-
ing a public testimony to the truth, as well as of
vindicating their religious character as individuals,
declare, that they do most fu-mly hold and believe
the doctrine concerning the nature of Gud contained
in tliese words of the AVeslniinster Shorter Cate-
chism, namely, that ' there are three persons in the
Godhead, the Father, tlu' Son, and the Holy Ghost,
and these three are one God, the same in substance,
equal in power and glory.'" This motion was admi-
rably fitted to test the principles of the body, and
accordingly a discussion ensued of the most ear-
nest and exciting kind, which lasted for two entire
days, at the close of which Mr. Cooke's motion was
carried by an overwhelming majority, only two
ministers venturing to vote in opposition to it, while
eight declined voting.
No sooner had the sj-nod closed its sittings, than
the Arian party in the churcli resolved to make a
desperate struggle in defence of their principles.
Mr. Montgomery of Strabane had delivered a bril-
liant speech in support of the New-Light opinions,
and this able production was forthwith printed and
industriously circulated, and a few days before the
meeting of the synod in 1828, the author was pre-
sented by his admirers with a complimentary address
and a service of plate. The whole Presliyterian
body were keenly alive to the importance of this
meeting of synod. It was more numerously attended
by both ministers and elders than any synod had
ever been in the whole course of the history of tlie
Irish Presbyterian church. This was felt to be the
crisis of the Arian controversy, and the immense
majority of the Presbyterian laity being decidedly in
favour of the Old-Light principles, watched with the
most intense interest the proceedings of the church
at tliis eventful ])eriod. Mr. Cooke, as he had done
from tlie commencement of the controversy, took the
lead against the Arians, and to put an end to the
growth of this noxious heresy within the church, he
moved a series of overtures, the obvious design of
wliicli was to exclude from the sacred oflice all
Arians, Socinians, Pelagians, and Arminians, as well
as all who were destitute of vital godliness. These
overtures, which passed by a large majority, are too
important not to be inserted in full. They were iLs
follows : —
" I. That many of the evils which now unhappily
exist in the General Synod of Ulster, have arisen
from the admission of persons holding Arian senti-
ments, contrary to the accredited standards of thi."
body, as founded on the Word of God, from the oc
casional admission of others, who, though nominally
holding in sound words and profession the form of
godliness, were yet deniers of the power thereof, and
consequently destitute of that zeal which is neces
sary to tlie dissemination of the gosjjel.
" II. That while we are hidividually bound to use
all Scriiitural means to guard against the continu-
ance of these evils, it is also our duty as a church to
adopt such regulations as may, with the Divine bless-
ing, prove etiectual to prevent the introduction of
ministers unenliglitened by the Spirit of God, and to
advance spiritual religion in our Church courts and
congregations.
" III. That before any person be recognized as a
candidate for the ministry, he shall, ]ireviously to
entering a theological class, be enjoined to present
himself at our annual meeting to be examined by a
committee of this synod respecting his personal re-
ligion, his knowledge of the Scriptures, especially
his views of the doctrines of the Trinity, original sin,
justification by faith, and regeneration by the Holy
Spirit, and likewise as to his motives for offering
himself a candidate for the sacred office of the min-
istry ; and that should any such exaniinant be found
opposed to those doctrines, or appear to be destitute
of vital godliness, he shall in no case be recognized
as a candidate for the ministry of this synod.
" IV. Th.it students after having finished tlieir
theological course, and their trials in the presbytei-y,
shall again present themseh es for a similar examina-
tion before the same committee, and it sliall be the
duty of that committee to ascertain their soundness
in the faith, by requiring from them a statement of
their views of the doctrines contained in the West-
minster Confession of Faith.
" V. That if any person thus licensed be after-
wards found not to preach the doctrines of the Tri-
nity, original sin, justification by faith, and regenera-
tion by the Iloly Spirit, or to avow any principles in
opjiosition to these doctrines, he shall not be con-
tinued in fellowship with this body
"VI. Persons who are iilready preachers in thi.s
body, but have not been licensed according to these
regulations, shall, previously to ordination, be requir-
ed to undergo a similar examination.
"VII. Should any person be licensed or ordained
in ojiposition to these regulations, such license or
ordination shall not be deemed valid by this body.
"VIII. The conimiltee for these examinations
shjdl annually be ajipointed in open synod."
The design of this last overture was to exclude all
Arians from the committee of examination.
IRISH PRESBYTEra.VN CHURCH.
183
The synod, by passing these overtures, had evi-
lently taken a step which most effectually excluded
Avians from the ministry in connection with tlie
synod of Ulster. The New-Light party now saw
that it was next to impossible for them to continue
much longer in the communion of the synod, and
they began seriously to meditate the propriety of
separating from the body. A few months, accord-
ingly, after the meeting of synod, a meeting was
convened in Belfast, and a remonstrance adopted,
in which they plainly stated that if the obnox-
ious overtures were not rejiealed, they would be
compelled to form themselves into a separate as-
sociation. Next synod, which was to meet at
Lurgan in June 1829, was expected to decide the
fate of the Arian party, but the pressure of other
business compelled the postponement of the sub-
ject to a special synod, wliich was appointed to
be held in Cookstown on the third Tuesday of tlie
following August. Before that day, however, tlie
Arians met in Belfast, and agreed to absent them-
selves from the ensuing synod, feeling tliat it was use-
less to prolong a contest so unequal. Mr. Porter alone
of all tlie New-Light party was present at the synod,
and read an address explaining the cause of their
absence. Their remonstrance was presented, signed
by 18 ministers, 15 students or licentiates, 197 elders,
ISS members of the committees of congregations,
and 314 seatholders. In the address which Mr.
Porter read, a request was made that if the overtures
were confirmed, the synod should nominate a com-
mittee furnished witli full power to enter into an
arrangement with them for a Christian and friendly
separation. The synod acceded to the proposal, and
a conference was arranged to take place in Belfast
on the 9th of the following September. The result
was, that seventeen ministers withdrew from the
jurisdiction of the synod of Ulster, and formed
tliemselves into a sep.arate body on the 25th of
May 1830, under the name of the Remonstr.\nt
Synod op Ulster (which see). Tliey were still
permitted by government, however, to enjoy their
share of the Ile;/iiii)t Domini, they retained tlieir in-
terest in the Widows' Fund, and they continued in
possession of their places of worship though num-
bers of their people now forsook their ministry.
From the date of the withdrawal of the Unitarians
the Ulster synod began to experience a great revival of
true religion, and to make rapid progress in the work
of church extension. " Within twelve months after
the adoption of the overtures in 1828," as we learn
from Dr. Reid, " no less than eleven new congrega-
tions sprung up in the synod, and in the ten years
immediately following the Arian separation, the
growth of the body was greater than it had been
during the century preceding. From 1729 to 1829,
the synod added only about seventy-three to the
number of its congregations ; from 1830 to 1840 no
less tlian eighty-tliree congregations were erected."
The nnportant subject of theological education now
occupied much attenlioii. and in the course of seven |
years the number of professors was trebled, and in j
1840 it was proposed to add another session to the ;
theological curriculum. The synod engaged also
with redoubled zeal in the cause of missions botli at
home and abroad. For some years the national
system of education established by government
for Ireland occasioned keen discussion, and even
angiy controversy, but iii January 1840 the synod
succeeded in obtainhig such niodilieations of the
.system as enabled it to accept assistance from tha
funds provided by the legislature. Another topic ot
great iiriportance was brought under the considera-
tion of tlie .synod, that of subscription to the Con-
fession of Faith. In 1832 the synod agreed to re-
quire subscription from candidates fur license or
ordination, but at the same time a written explana-
tion was allowed on any point about which scruples
were entertained. This rule, however, was found to
give rise, in many cases, to considerable embarrass-
ment, and in 1835 the synod resolved that in future
no exceptions or explanations were to be received,
but that the candidates for license or ordination
must give an unqualified subscription to the for-
mula. This measure was followed by a renewal of
communion with the Church of Scotland, the Gen-
eral Assembly in the following May unanimously
agreeing to readmit the members of the Ulster sy-
nod to ministerial fellowship.
It was quite obvious, from the whole proceedings
of the synod, that a doctrinal reformation had bt en
wrought in the church, commencing from the separa-
tion of the Arian or Socinian party. The adoption
of the overture requiring unqualified subscrij)tion
was the crowning act of this great revival. All the
evangelical Dissenters rejoiced in the all-imporlaut
change which had thus been efl'ected in this interest-
ing section of the Protestant Church in Ireland. The
Irish Secession Church seemed to sympathise more
than any otlier with the Ulster synod in its reno-
vated state. The two bodies were now completely
agreed both in doctrine and polity, besides having
been placed by the government in 1838 on precisely
tlie same footing as to the reception of the Regium
Doiium. A desire began to be very generally enter-
tained accordingly, that a union of the two churches
should take place as soon as possible. The move-
ment on the subject commenced among the students
connected with the Belfast Academical Institution,
and from them it spread among the elders and people
of both denominations. In 1839 memorials in fa-
vour of a union were presented both to the synod of
Ulster and the Secession synod. Committees were
appointed on both sides to prepare preliminaries,
and after agreeing in their separate judicatories to
the terms of incorporation, the two bodies were for-
mally united into one church on the 10th July 1840,
the united synods being regularly constituted under
the title of the General Assembly of the Presbyte-
rian Church of Ireland. Thus the Ulster synod, by
184
ISCRAXIKI— ISIS.
this Imppy union, received an accession to its num-
hei's of 141 ailditional congregations, raising its entire
iinnibor to 433, and tlie wliole united body was
divided into 33 presbyteries, which liave since been
increased to five synods, 36 presbyteries, 491 con-
gregations, and 533 ministers. 'I'lie Irish Presby-
tfirian Cluirch from tliis time took a higli position
as a large and intlnential body. An attempt was
made soon after the imion to prevent Presbyterian
ministers from celeljrating marriages between tlieir
own people and Episcopalians, and the EiigHsh
judges even went so far as to declare such marriages
illegal. But in 1844 an act was obtained from the
legislature warranting the exercise of tlie disputed
privilege, where at least one of the parties belongs
to Iiis ovni denomination. An Episcopalian minister,
however, am perform the ceremony vvliere both the
parties are Presbyterians or Romanists, and no min-
ister not connected witli tlie Establishment can le-
gally marry an Episcoiialian or a Romanist.
In 184G a wealthy lady connected with the Pres-
byterian church bequeathed a sum of £20,000 to-
wards the erection and endowment of a Presbyterian
college. Considerable discussion took place as to
the most suitable locality for sucli an institution, but
it has at length been built in the town of Londonder-
ry. Within the last sixteen years, as we learn froin
Dr. Dill, the Home Mission of the Irish Presbyte-
rian Church has phmted about 160 new churches in
destitute localities ; established a number of mission-
stations and out-stations in the south and west ; sup-
ported from 300 to 400 Irish and English mission
schools, in which upwards of 20,000 Roman Catho-
lics have been taught to read the Scriptures ; and
circulated large numbers of Bibles and tracts in ]jo-
pish districts. The Home Mission has two depart-
ments of operation, the one devoted to the conversion
of Roman Catholics, and the other to the supply of
the spiritual wants of the Protestant population, and
especially the Presbyterian. The mi>sion to Ro-
man Catholics is again divided into two branches,
one to the English-speaking, and the other to the
Irish-speaking Romaui-sts, both of which have,
through the Divine blessing, led to the rescue of
many from the errors of Romanism, and their admis-
sion into the communion of the Presbyterian Church.
IllVIXGITES. See Apostolic Catholic
Church.
ISBRANIKI, a sect of Russian Dissenters whirli
arose about the middle of the sixteenth century.
The appearance of this sect excited no small coiumo-
tion. The name which they assumed means the
Comjiany of the I-lect, but their enemies styled them
Itaskolniki or Schismatics. Some Lutheran writers
have alleged that these I^branili were sprung from
the ancient Booomilks (which see). Tlie cause of
their separation from the national church ajipears
to have been somewhat singular. The church
books, which were printed in 1.062 under the czar,
John Basilides, were printed from niiuiusoript ca-
pies, which being considered incorrect, were some-
what altered in their printed form. The changes
introduced were regarded by some as teaching im-
soimd doctrine, and a sect having arisen who ad-
hered to the former books, called themselves by the
name of StaroverUi, or believers in the old faitlu
These Dissenters, however, were comparatively few
in number till about the middle of the following cen-
tury, when, in consequence of the church-books hav-
ing been revised b}' the patriarch Nikon, the outcry
of unsound doctrine was again raised, and the mimber
of Dissenters increased. Of all the doctrines which
they held, that which gave greatest ofl'ence was their
denial of ditierent orders and gradations of clergy.
On accoiuit chiefly of this tenet they were exposed
to mucli persecution, but under Alexander I. they
were tolerated by the State.
ISIS, one of the principal deities of the ancient
Egyptians, the wife of Oxirin and the motlier ot
Horns. She was the goddess of the earth, and pro-
cessions were held in her honour, at which her vo-
taries carried wheat, barley, and other cereal grains.
Osiris symbolized the sun and the Nile, Isis repre-
sented the moon and Egypt fertilized by the Nile.
Osiris was worshipped under the form of an ox or a
buU (see Apis) ; Isis luider the form of a cow. As
the mythology of ancient Greece has been believed
to be derived from that of Egypt, Isis came to be
identified with Denicter; and hence the fabulous
stories in regard to tlie latter came to be transferred
to the former. Isis was also worshipped in Greece
under tlie names ui Pelagia and JEriijptia; wliile, in
the western parts of Europe, her worship was in
course of time likewise established. In the time of
Sulla it came to be introduced at Rome, but the pri-
vate observance of the rites of Isis was afterwards
forbidden on account of their immoral character.
For the same reason her temples were destroyed by
tlie public authorities at Rome, but so partial were
the people to the worship of Isis, that it was re
stored and sanctioned by the triumvirs in B. c. 43.
Under Augustus this licentious worship was again
forbidden, but it was revived under Vespasian, and con-
tinued until the introduction of Christianity which
gradually banished all Pagan worship througliout the
Roman empire. Apuleius introduces Isis as giv-
ing the following account of herself: " I am Nature,
the mother of all things, mistress of the elements,
the beginning of ages, the sovereign of gods, the
queen of the Manes, the first of the heavenly natures,
the uniform faceof the gods and goddesses. It is I who
govern the luminous tirmament of licaven, the salu-
t;u-y breezes of the sea, and the liorrid silence of
heaven, with a nod. My divinity alone, though
miiltitbrm, is honoured with diH'ercnt ceremonies, and
under diiVercnt names. The Phrygians call me the
Pessinuntian Motlier of the gods ; the Athenians,
tlie Cecropian Mother; the Cyprians, the Paphian
Veims ; the Sicilians, the Stygian Proserpine ; the
Cretans, Diana Dictynna ; the Eleusinians, the Old
ISITES-ISMAILIYA?!.
185
goddess Ceres ; some Jiino, some Bellona ; others
Hecate; and otiiers, again, Rhamniisia. The orien-
tal Ethiopians and Egyptians honour me with pecu-
liar ceremonies, and call me by my true name Isis."
ISITES, a Mohammedan sect who believed the
Koran to have been created. They alleged that the
Koran delivered by Mohammed was merely a copy
of that which was written by God himself, and was
kept in the library of heaven ; and to reconcile this
notion with the statement of Jlobanimed, they de-
clared that when the prophet affirmed that the Koran
was not created, he referred to the original, and not
to his own copy. See Kor.\n.
ISJE, the name of a central province of Japan, to
which the religious sect of the Siutoists requires
each of its adherents to make a pilgrimage once a-
year. or at least once in their life. In Itje is the
grand Miii, or temple of Tensio-Dtii-Ddn, which is
the model after which all the other temples are built.
.An account of this celebrated pilgrimage is given by
Kasmpfer, whose words we quote : " This pilgrimage
is made at all times of the year, but particularly in
the spring, at which season vast multitudes of these
pilgi-ims are seen upon the roads. The Japanese of
both sexes, young and old, rich and poor, undertake
this meritorious journey, generally speaking, on foot,
in order to obtain, at this holy place, indulgences and
remission of their sins. Some of these pilgrims are
so poor, that they must live wholly upon what they
get by begging. On this account, and by reason of
their great number, they are exceedingly trouble-
some to the princes and lords, who at that time of
the year go to court, or come thence, though other-
wise they addre-ss themselves in a very civil ujanner,
bareheaded, and with a low, submissive voice, say-
ing, ' Great Lord, be pleased to give the poor pilgrim
a seni, towards the expense of his journey to Isje,'
or words to that effect. Of all the Japanese, the in-
habitants of Jedo and the province Osju are the most
inclined to this pilgi'image. Children, if apprehen-
sive of severe punishment for their misdemeanors,
will run away from their parents and go to Isje,
thence to fetcli an Ofarri, or indulgence, which upon
their I'eturn is deemed a sufficient expiation of their
crimes, and a sure means to reconcile them to their
friends. Multitudes of these pilgrims are obliged to
pass whole nights lying in the open fields, exposed to
all the injuries of wind and weather, some for want
of room in inns, others out of poverty ; and of these
last many are found dead on the road, in which case
their Ofarri, if they ha\e any about them, is care-
fully taken up and hid in the next tree or bush.
" Others make this pilgrimage in a comical and
merry way, drawing people's eyes upon t! em, as well
as getting their money. They form themselves into
companies, generally of four persons, clad in white
linen, after the fashion of the Kuge, or persons of the
holy ecclesiastical court of the Dairi. Two of them
walking a grave, slow, delibei'ate pace, and standing
often still, carry a large barrow adorned and hung
about with fir-branches and cut white pajier, on which
they ])lace a resemblance of a large bell, made of
light substance, or a kettle, or something else, allud-
ing to some old romantic history of their gods and
ancestors ; whilst a third, with a commander's staff in
his hand, adorned, out of respect to his office, with a
bunch of white paper, walks, or rather dances, before
tlie barrow, singing with a dull, heavy voice, a song
relating to tlie subject they are about to represent.
Jleanwhile, the fourth goes begging before tlie
houses, or addresses himself to charitable travellers
and receives and keeps the money which is given
them. Their day's journeys are so short, that they
can easily spend the whole summer upon such an
ex]iedition."
It would appear from the accounts of travelers,
that Isje, the object of this most meritorious of pil-
grimages, presents nothing that corresponds to its
fame, or the greatness of the empire. It is rather
held forth as a monument of antique poverty and sim-
plicity. The Mia or temple where the pilgrims pay
their devotions, is a low wooden edifice, with a fiat
thatched roof, and on entering nothing is to be seen
but a looking-glass of cast metal, which is regarded
as a symbol of the Deity, and s(niie white paper cut in
different forms, which they take for an emblem of
the purity of the heart. The doors are likewise em-
hellished with wliite p.'iper. When any one comes
to worship at the temple, he never presumes to enter,
hut stands without, and while he says his prayers,
he looks only into it through a lattice-window.
ISLAM, the name given by Mohammed to the
religion which he taught. The word means either
"resignation to the will of God," or "a state of sal-
vation," but the former is the meaning recognized
by the majority of the Mohammedan writers. Faith
in the Koran is Islam, and a believer derives from the
same Arabic root the name of Moslem or Mussul-
man. The word IsUm is also sometimes used to
denote the whole body of the faithful ; but they are
more generally called Moslems or Mussulmans. See
Mohammedans.
ISLEBIANS. See Antinomians.
ISMAILIYAH, or Ismaelians, a Moliammedan
sect which branched off from the Schiites (which
see), in the age of the seventh Inicto. Jaafar, the
sixth Imdm, had nominated his son Ismail his suc-
cessor, but on his premature death he declared his
second son Moussa his heir. Now as Ismail had
left chililren, those of the ScJiiites who regarded the
Im,<mate as hereditary, denied tlie right of Jaafar to
make a second nomination. They formed a sect ac-
cordingly, called Ismadians, to which belonged the
Fatbuite Caliphs of Egypt, and also the Assassins
(which see), v.hose name was once so justly dreaded
both in Ein-o[ie and Asia. Tlie Ismaelians were a
secret association, as has already been described
under the article Asmssiim, in which the history of
the sect is given. The following account, however,
of the Egyptian Ismaelians, as given by Dr. Taylor,
-I
186
IS0CHIUSTE3 -ITALIC VERSION (Old).
may interest the reader: "The Ismaeliaiis of Egypt
met in their urand lodge twiee every week ; their
president, or Dai-al-l)oat, paid a formal visit to the
sovereign, and lectured him on some portion of tlie
secret doctrines. Macrisi tells us that the degrees
of the order were extended in Egy[)t from seven to
nine, and furnishes us with the following account of
the stages of initiation. In the first stage, the can-
didate was shown the doubts and difficulties attend-
ing the religion of the Koran, he was inspired with
an anxious desire to have its mysteries explained,
and some glimpses of the Isinaelian doctrine were
then afforded, in order that he might be induced to
take an oath of bUnd faith and unlimited obedience
to his Dai, or instructor. In the second stage the
nature of the Imdmate, as a divine institution, was
explained. The peculiar doctrines of the Ismaelians
commenced at the third degree, when the candidates
were taught that the number of Imdms was seven,
and that Ismail was the last and greatest. In the
fourth stage it was declared, that since the creation
there had been seven legislators divinely inspired,
each of wliom had modified the doctrines of his pre-
decessors. These seven prophets were said to be
'endowed with power of speech' because they au-
thoritatively declared the divine will; they were
each followed by 'a mute prophet,' that is, one
whose duty was simply to enforce the doctrines of
the preceding, without the power of altering or
modifying them. Tlie seven legislators were Adam,
Noah, Abraham, Moses, Christ, Mohammed, and
Ismail; their seven disciples or 'mute prophets'
were Seth, Sheni, Ishmael, Aaron, Simon (Peter),
Ali, and Mohainmed the son of Ismail.
" In the fifth degree, it was declared that each of
the 'mute prophets' had appointed twelve IJais, or
a|iostles to spread the knowledge of the faith, and
that the number twelve was next in sanctity to the
number seven. Having passed through these inferior
degrees, in which the great aim of all the tenets
taught was to inspire converts with a high respect
for their instructors, the secret doctrines were re-
vealed to them in the next gradations. Those who
attained the sixth degree, were told that religious
legislation should be subordinate to philosophical ;
in tlie seveiitli stage, tliey were introduced to the
mystical speculations, which characterize Oriental
metaphysics; in the eighth, they were taught the
indilVerence of human actions, and in the nintli, the
initiated received their final lesson, 'to believe no-
thing and dare evoy thing.' "
ISOCIIKIST/E (Gr. equiil to Christ), some fol-
lowers of Origcii, wlio were charged with maintain-
ing that tlie Apo.stles were raised to e(iual glory
with their Master. They were condemned by a
council at Constantinople in A. l>. 553.
ISKAi:i>lTES. See.jKw.s.
ISIIAFIL, the angel who, according to the Mo-
hammedans, will sound the tnunpet whicli is to sum-
mon the world to judgment on the great day.
ISTIL\II.\X GAMES, one of the great national
festivals among tlie ancient Greeks, whicli derived
its name from the isthmus of Corinth on which it
was celebrated. The games were lield in honour of
Poseidon every third year, althougli Pliny alleges
that they were celebrated every fifth year. They
consisted of wrestling, horse and chariot races, and
other atliletic exercises ; along with contests in music
and poetry. At a later period, fighting of animals
was introduced among the amusements of the joyful
festive season. The victors in the Isthmian games
received a garland of pine-leaves or of ivy. See
Games.
ISTHMIUS, a surname of Poseidon (which see),
derived from the isthmus of Corinth, on which stood
a temple dedicated to his worship.
ITALIC SCHOOL, a sect of ancient Greek phi-
losophers, founded by Pythagoras, who flourished in
the last half of the sixth century before Christ. He
commenced with the great general idea of absolute,
all-comprehending unity, which he called the Monad,
and which included spirit and matter, but without
separation or division. This Monad was the Py-
thagorean god. From unity arises multiplicity, or
the universe consisting of manifold beings, all evolved
from the original Monad. Matter when thus disen-
gaged from the primitive unity becomes the prin-
cijile of darkness, ignorance, instability and change,
while spiritual beings, in the same circumstances,
have fallen into a state of imperfection and division.
In its fundamental character then the Grecian Italic
school was essentially pantheistic.
According to this system, all the efforts of intelli-
gence and will ought to be directed towards their
emancipation from the thraldom of matter, and the
influence of the variable, with the view of reaching
the knowledge of the true which is invariable. The
conception of absolute unity is the highest pohit of
science, and when arrived at this point the mind is
completely delivered from the influence of matter.
The will also being involved in the same bondage to
matter, can only be freed by such exercises as fasting
and abstinence, by which the soul restricts tlie domi-
nion of the senses. But the complete emancipation
of the soul from the bondage of matter could only,
according to Pythagoras, be effected by successive
transformations or metempsychoses ; and the linal
deliverance of tlie soul is its transformation into
God.
Such were the fundamental principles of the Italic
school of philosophy, which, though originated by
Pythagoras, was followed up by TiiiKcus of Locrnm,
in his work on the Soul of the World, in which the
universe is regarded as one vast intelligent being, of
whicli God is the soul, and matter the body. Ocel-
lus Lucanus carried these pantheistic notions still
further, recognizing one uncreated, imperishable tie-
ing, wliich, however, undergoes successive piiases of
decay and renovation.
ITALIC VERSION (Old), a translation into
ITALY (CnKisTiANiTV inj.
187
Latin both of the Old and New Testaments, which
was held in general estimation before the time of
Jerome, who undertook to reWse it at tbe desire of
Uamasus, bishop of Rome. Jerome had not pro-
ceeded far in his work of revision, when finding that
the Old Testament had been translated not from the
Hebrew, but from the Greek version, he determined
to execute an entirely new translation, directly from
the Hebrew original. Hence originated the Vui.-
GATE (which see).
ITALY (CmusTiANiTY in). At a very early
period in the liistory of the Christian church, even
ill the days of the apostles, the gospel liad found its
way into Italy. This is evident from tlie circum-
stance that when P.iid wrote his Epi.stle to the Ro-
mans, there existed in Rome, the ca[)ital of Italy and
iiuleed the metropolis of the world, a church so con-
siderable that the apostle could address them in
these words, Rom. i. 8, " I thank my God through
Jesus Christ for you all, that your faith is spoken of
throughout the whole world." It is very probable
that Rome being a general I'endezvous of people from
all countries, botli Jewisli and Gentile converts may
soon after tlie day of Pentecost have taken up their
residence there, and formed themselves hito a Chris-
tian church. Among those who were present indeed
at the Pentecostal effusion of the Spirit, are expressly
mentioned " strangers from Rome," by whom doubt-
less the seeds of Divine truth woidd be conveyed to
tlieir native city; and hence from the salutations at
tlie end of the Epistle to the Romans, it is plain,
that some of the oldest Christians lived at Rome. It
has long been a favourite assertion of the Roman
Catholic Church, that the Apostle Peter was the
founder of the cliurch at Rome. For this opinion,
however, there is no solid historical foundation ; and
the whole facts of the case militate against such an
idea. Had it been founded by an apostle, Paul
would neither have addressed it by letter, nor visited
it in person, since it was a fixed principle with him,
not to build upon another man's foundation. And it
is remarkable that while Cains and Dionysius, the
former writing in the end, and the latter in the mid-
dle of the second century, speak of Peter as found-
ing the church at Rome, the Apostle Paul is men-
tioned as engaged along with him in this work. And
Caius states, that in his time the graves of the two
apostles were pointed out at Rome. Taking all these
circumstances together, it seems to be an established
point, that at a date later than any noticed in the
Acts of the Apostles, both Peter and Paid had
jointly ministered to the Cliristian church at Rome,
which had existed in a tlourishhig state many years
previous to their vi.sit.
But a dilficulty arises in connection with this view
of the subject, from the circumstance that on Paul's
arriving in Rome, as stated in Acts xxviii. 22, the
elders of the Jews, who resided in the city, begged
him to give them some information as to the sect of
the Christians, of whom they seem to have known
nothing, except that it was everywhere spoken
against. At first view it appears inconceivable on
the supposition that a Christian church existed in
Rome, that the .Jews should not have been aware of
its exi.stence. And yet notwithstanding the ignorance
manifested by the Jewish elders, the very same narra-
tive plainly mforms us, though incidentally, of tlie fact,
that at that very time there was a body of Christians
resident in the city, some of wliom liastened to meet
the apostle, whose heart, we are told, was cheered
by the sight of them. " So we went," .says Luke,
who accompanied the apostle, " toward Rome. And
from thence, when the brethren heard of us, they
came to meet us as far as Appii Forum, and The
Three Taverns : whom when Paul saw, he thanked
God, and took courage." How then, since it cannot
be denied that a body of Christians dwelt in Rome
when Paul arrived there, were tlie Jews unacquainted
with the fact of tlieir existence? "The only pos-
sible explanation," says Olshausen, " of this pheno-
menon— and it is one which at the same time indi-
cates the origin of the tendency which we afterwards
find in the Roman Church — a]ipears to be this. It
must be assumed that the Christians of Rome
were induced, by the persecutions directed against
the Jews under Claudius in the ninth year of liis
reign, to make their dillerences from the Jews clearly
and strongly apparent — perhaps in consequence of
the infiucnce which even at th.at early time some
disciples of St. Paul already exercised on tlie Roman
Church ; exactly as at a later date the Christians of
Jerusalem separated themselves from the Jews, that
tliey might not be confounded with them, and might
be allowed to live in Aelia. If disciples of St. Paul
early acquired a decisive influence in Rome, we shall
also understand how it was that the Apcstle could
regard the Roman Church as his own, and could
open his correspondence with it without invading
another's field of labour. In consequence of this
persecution of the Jews, Aquila and Priscilla took
refuge at Corinth ; and there they were found by the
Apostle Paul (Acts xviii. 2), who, without doubt,
beciime even at that time acquainted, by means of
tliese fugitives, with the Roman Churcli and its cir-
cumstances. On this knowledge St. Paul, four or
five years later, at the beginning of Nero's reiyii, on
his third missionary journey, wrote from Corinth his
epistle to Rome. There is little likelihood that any
great number of Jews can have ventured so early to
return to Rome ; these who retunied were obliged to
keep themselves in conce;Jnient, and it was naturally
the interest of the Christian community there to re-
main as far as possible from them. Even three years
later, when St. Paul himself appeai'ed in Rome, the
body of Jews there may still not have been consider-
able,— in part, too, it may not have been composed
of its old members, who had lived there before the
persecution by Claudius, but of altogellier new set-
tlers, who were unacquainted with the earlier exist-
ence of a Cliristian community. And thus it might
188
ITALY (Christianity in).
come to pass within oiijlit oi- ten years tliat tlie
Cliristian comimmity at Koine appears entirely sepa-
rated from tlie body of Jews in that city ; and in
such a state of separation we lind it, according to the
notice at tlie end of the Acts.''
On the authority of TertuUian, we learn, that when
the Uoiiian Emperor Tiberius heard from Pilate
concerning the miracles of Christ, and his resurrec-
tion from the dead, he actually proposed to the senate
that Christ sliould receive a place among the Roman
deities, but the proposal was negatived by the sen-
ate. This story, however, which is referred to by
no other writer except TertuUian, is too improbable
to be credited on his single and unsupported testi-
mony. So ignorant were the Pagans of the lunv
religion, that at first the Christians were confounded
with the Jews, so that the edict of Claudius for the
banishment of the Jews from Rome, A. D. 5.3, in all
probability involved the Christians also ; and hence
the confused statement of Suetonius, who lived half-
a-century after the event : — "the emperor Claudius
expelled the Jews from Rome, who were con.stantly
raising disturbances, at the instigation of Chrestus."
With the advance of Christianity in the Roman Em-
pire, the Christians came to be distinguished from
the Jews, and to be no longer regarded as a Jewish
sect.
The persecution of the Christians commenced
at Rome in A. D. 64, under the emperor Nero ;
and while the Christian religion was prohibited
throughout all the provinces of the empire, the
cruelty of the emperor fell exclusively on the Chris-
tians in Rome, who were accused as being the in-
cendiaries of the city. Domitian, who assumed the
imperial purple A. D. 81, adopted also the most se-
vere and persecuting measures against all who em-
braced Christianity, in whatever part of the empire
they might be found. The short reign of Nerva,
extending from A. D. 96 to A. D. 99, afforded the
Christians a breathing time, all complaints against
them being suspended, and a temporary toleration
of their religion being granted. The fury of their
enemies, however, burst forth with fresh violence on
the death of Nerva and the accession of Trajan, more
especially as Christianity was spreading rapidly on
every side, and the rites of Paganism were every-
where passing into discredit. Pliny the younger,
in writing to the emperor concerning the slate of re-
ligion in Bitliynia and Pontus, over which he had
been appointed proconsul, .says, " The contagion of
this superstition has seized not only cities, but also
the villages and open country." Tacitus, who lived
at the same period, speaks of Christianity as a de-
structive superstition, which, in common with many
other evil opinions and practices, found a home in
the great Roman capital. During the reign of Tra-
jan many Chri-tians perished for their religion ; but
even while sanctioning persecution throughout the
whole empire, the emperor issued a rescript, grant-
ing pardon to such as manifested repentance by
renouncing the Christian faith. Tlie result of this
was, that the Chri.-^tian church at Rome passed
through a sifting-time which separated the cliall
from the wheat, and wliile some drew back at the
threatening prospect of death, multitudes readily
submitted to martyrdom rather than deny their Lord.
Popular fury imagining itself to be supported by
law, now rose with unniitigiited violence against the
Christians, and the first years of the govemnient of
Hadrian, who ascended the throne A. D. 117, were
disgraced by the most reckless as.saults made up-
on the innocent and unoft'ending Christians. The
emperor was warmly attached to the Pagan customs
of his country ; but being a lover of justice and so-
cial order, he issued a rescript designed to protect
the Christians agahi.st the unbridled rage of tlie po-
pulace. Witli this view it re(piired that no accu.sa-
tions against Christians were to be received, unless
they were drawn up in legal form, and when le-
gally brought to trial and convicted of acting con-
trary to the laws, they were to be punished accord-
ing to their deserts; but a severe punishment was
also to be inflicted on false accusers. On the death
of the emperor, A. D. 138. his rescript lost its force;
but under his successor, Antoninus Pius, several
public calamities, which were imputed by the people
to the Christians, roused the popular rage to a greater
lieight tlian it had ever before reached. The emperor,
naturally of a mild and gentle disposition, hastened
to put an end to such violent proceedings. Though
repressed for a time, however, they broke forth
agiin under his successor, Marcus Aurelius, who,
while he professed the calm philosophy of the Stoics,
joined with the lawless mob in oppressing the Chris-
tians. In his reign a pestilence of the most destruc-
tive kind spread its ravages throughout the whole
Roman empire, and while it was raging in Italy, he
looked upon it as a warning from the gods to restore
their worship in its minutest particulars. He sum-
moned priests, therefore, from all quarters to Rome
that they might observe the Pagan rites, by which he
hoped to avert the evil. But this zeal for the re-
newal of the ancient worship only rendered him more
cruel and unsparing in his persecution of the Chris-
tians. By a strange incident, however, which occur-
red in the course of Providence, Marcus Aurelius
was led to change his whole line of policy towards tho
Christians. It is thus briefly noticed by Neander :
" While prosecuting the war with the Jlarcomma-
nians and Qnadcs in 174, he, with his army, was
thrown into a situation of extreme peril. The btmi-
ing sun shone full in the faces of his soldiers, who
were suffering under the torture of intolerable thirst;
while, at the same time, under these unfavourable
circumstances, they were threatened with an attack
of the enemy. In this extremity, the twelfth legion,
composed entirely of Christians, fell upon their
knees. Thi'ir prayer was followed by a shower ot
rain, which allayed the thirst of the Roman soldiers,
and by a storm which frightened the barbarians
ITALY (CllItlSTIANlTY IX).
189
The Roman army obtained the victory, and the em-
peror, in eonimonioration of the event, gave those
Christian soldiers the name of the ' tlumdering le-
gion.' He ceased to persecnte the Christians ; and
though he did not receive Christianity immediately
into the class of ' lawfid religions,' yet he pnlilished
an edict which threatened with severe penalties sucli
as accused the Christians merely on the score of their
religion."
The Christians under Comrnodus, who succeeded
to the throne A. i). 180, enjoyed a season of respite
and tran inillity after the protracted suflerings of the
previous reign. Not that the old laws were repealed,
but the emperor, though a person of licentious habits,
was from some cause or another disposed to befriend
the Christians. IreiuEus, who lived at this period,
says, that Christians were to be found in the imperial
court enjoying the same privileges which belonged
to all throughout the Roman empire. Comrnodus
was assassinated A. D. 192, and Clement of Alexan-
dria, who wrote soon after this event, describes the
Christians as exposed to heavy persecution. " Many
martyrs," says he, " are daily burned, crucified, be-
headed, before our eyes." Septimius Severus, on
reaching the empire, threw the shield of his im;>erial
protection over the Christians, knowing that men and
women of the highest rank in Roiue, senators aiul
their wives, belonged to the persecuted sect. In the
course of a few years, however, this emperor passed
a law, forbidding under severe penalties a change
either to Judaism or to Christianity. The circum-
stances of the Christians were now rendered distress-
ing, and entire oomnuinities were glad to purchase
freedom from persecution by the payment of large
sums of money. No improvement in the state of
matters took place under the cruel Caracalla, but a
spirit of hostility to the Christians prevailed in all
the provinces of the Roman empire, which, however,
began to pass away at the commencement of the
reign of Heliogabalus A. D. 219. The aim of this
em|)eror was to establish, not the ancient Roman
idolatry, but the Syrian worship of the .sun; and
Christianity, therefore, he tolerated as he did other
foreign religions. From very different motives this
toleration continued under Alexander Severus from
A. D. 222 to A. D. 235. Partial to a species of reli-
gious eclecticism, he recognized Christ as a Divine
Being, on a footing with the other gods ; and it is
said that he wished to have the name of Christ enrol-
led among the Roman deities. He does not appear,
however, to have adopted Christianity by an express
law of the empire among the tolerated religions.
But the partial quiet which the Cliristians enjoyed
during the reign of Severus came to an end with his
assassination, when the throne came to be occupied
by Maximinus, who allowed full scope to the popu-
lar hatred wliich existed ui many parts of the empire
against the Christians. A more favourable period
for the Chriatiaus returned again in A. D. 244, when
Philip the Aj-abian, who is said to have been him-
self a Christian, ascended the throne. Origen, who
lived at this time, and was on terms of intimacy with
tlie imperial family, states, that the Christians now en-
joyed a season of quiet. " The number of the Chris-
tians," he says, " God has caused continually to
increase, and some addition is m;ule to it every day ;
he lias, moreover, given them already the free exer-
cise of their religion, althou;;h a thousand obstacles
still hinder the spread of the doctrines of Jesus in the
world."
During this long time of peace Christianity made
rapid and extensive inroads on the Paganism of the
Ronum empire, and the fury of the adherents of the
old religion was aroused to check, if possible, the en-
croachments of the Christian faith. Decius Trajan,
who conquered Philip the Araljian, and ascended tlie
throne of the Cassars A. D. 249, was a devoted friend
of Paganism, and was, therefore, resolved to restore
the ancient laws against the Christians, wliich had
fallen into desuetude, and to put them in execution
with the utmost rigour with the view of effecting an
entire suppression of Christianity. He commenced
his reign by demanding from all his subjects complete
conformity to the ceremonies of the old Roman religion
on pain of torture, and in the case of bishops on pain
of death. The persecution began at the city of
Rome with great severity, and gradually extended
to the provinces. At its very outset the Roman
bishop Fabiaiius suifered martyrdom. Imprisonment,
exile, torture, and death were the portion of those
of Ijoth sexes, of every age, and of all ranks and
conditions, who were disposed to hold fast the testi-
mony of Jesus. In the close of the year 251, Decius
fell in a war against the Goths. The calm which the
Christians enjoyed, in consequence of this event, con-
tinued during the reign of Gall us and Volusianus,
which extended only through a part of the follow-
ing year. But a destructive pestilence, with drought
and famine, excited, as in former times, the fury of
the populace against the Christians, as being, in their
view, the cause of these calamities. An imperial
edict now appeared, requiring all Roman subjects to
sacrifice to the gods, and when it was discovered that
the altars were far less frequented than in former
times, new persecutions arose, in order to compel an
increase of sacrifices, and to sustain the declining
interests of Paganism. The bishops of Rome, who
were, of course, under the immediate eye of the em-
j/eror, were the first to bring down upon themselves
the sword of persecution; both Cornelius and Lu-
cius, who successively held the episcopate of Rome,
were finst banished, then condemned to death. The
assassination of Gallus, A. D. 25.3, restored tranquil-
lity and peace to the oppressed ChrLsiians ; and the
Kmperor Valerian, in the first year of his reign,
seemed disposed to treat them with clemency, and
even kindness. But in the course of a few years he
was persuaded to alter his course of acting towards
the Christians. He deprived the churches of theit
teachers and pastors ; then he prohibited public as-
190
ITALY (Christianity in).
somblics of Clwisiiaiis. ciidoavoiiring in tins way to
check the progi'ess of Cliristianity without resorting
to bloodslied. Measures of severity .vere now re-
sorted to, chiefly, in the first instance, atjainst bishops
and clergy, but afterwards against the laity also; even
women and cliildren were subjected to the scourge,
and then condemned to imprisonment or to labour in
the mines. Finding that such measures were inefl'ec-
tual, Valerian resolved to adopt a more vigorous line
of procedure. In A. D. 258, accordingly, an edict
was issued, declaring that " Bishops, presbyters, and
deacons were to be put to death immediately by the
sword ; senators and knights were to forfeit their
rank and their propertj' ; and, if they still remained
Christians, to sutler the like punishment ; women of
condition, at'ter behig deprived of tlieir property,
were to be banished. Those Christians who were in
the service of the palace, who had formerly made
profession of Christianity, or who now made such
profession, sliould be treated as the emperor's pro-
perty, and after being chained, distributed to labour
on the various imperial estates." In consequence
of this rescript, the Roman bishop, Sixt us, and four
deacons of his church, were condennied to suffer
death.
Valerian, having been engaged in war witli the
Persians, was taken prisoner, and the imperial scep-
tre passed into the bands of his son Gallienus. This
emperor immediately published an edict, securing to
the Clu'istians the free exercise of their religion, and
restoring to them tlie cemeteries, as well as other
buildings and lands belonging to the cliurches which
had been confiscated in the reign of his father. This
edict was very important, recognizing, as it did, the
Christian church as a legally existing corporation, en-
titled to hold common property, and now brought un-
der the express protection of law. For more than half
a century the Christians enjoyed a season of peace and
tranquillity, and tlieir ranks were joined bj' indivi-
duals drawn from all orders of society. Men of
wealth and station now began, in considerable num-
bers, to pi-ofess Christianity, and splendid clun-ches
to be erected in the large cities. And even when
Dioclesiau was first invested with tlie imperial dig-
nity, Cln-istians were sometimes raised to the highest
oflices of trust. The Pagans were naturally jealous
of the growing esteem in which Christians were now
held, and more especially as, in their view, tlie rise of
Christianity must ncces.sarily hasten the downfall of
the old religion. This crisis the Pagan party felt to
be imminent. All their inlluence, therefore, they
brought to bear upon Dioclesi.an to induce him to enter
upon an exterminating persecution of the Christians.
But the emperor was most unwilling to undertake the
bloody task. A fitter tool was found in Dioelesian's
son-in-law, Caiu.s (ialerius Maximian, a prince who
was zealously devoted to the Pagan religion, and
held sacrifices and divination in high estimation.
This man, accordingly, being commander of the forces,
issued an order to tlie army requiring every sol-
dier to perform sacrificial rites; aiid in consequence
Christian officers resigned their commissions, and
Christian soldiers quitted the service, that they might
remain steadfast to their faith. This was the com-
mencement of a time of persecution, but beyond the
harsh military order Dioclesian refused to move. At
length, through the influence of Galerius, he was per-
suaded, in A. D. 303, to commence a bloody persecu-
tion. An edict was forthwith issued, prohibiting all
assemblies of Christians for religious worship ; order-
ing all Christian churches to be demolished, and all
manuscripts of the Bible to be destroyed. Christians
who held places of honour must either renoimce their
faith or be degraded ; while tliose in the humbler
ranks of life were to be divested of their rights as
citizens and freemen. Christian slaves were pro-
nounced to be incapable of receiving their freedom
as long as they remained Cliristians. In judicial pro-
ceedings also, whenever Cliristians were concerned,
the torture was authorized to be used.
The impression made upon the Christians by this
edict of Dioclesian was, that nothing less was aimed
at than the total extirpation of Christianity. All the
prisons were now tilled with the Christians, and a
new edict appeared, commanding that such as were
willing to sacrifice should be set free, and the rest
compelled by every means to oft'er sacrifices to the
gods. The floodgates of op]iressioii were now thrown
open, and cruelties of every kind were practised up
on the Christians. Con.stantius Chlorus, however, in
A. D. 30.5, was raised to the dignity of emperor along
with Galerius, and being naturally of a mild disposi-
tion, as well as a friend to Christianity, the sword of
persecution was now sheathed, and the Christians
enjoyed a temporary respite. But in the course of
tliree short years, a command was issued by Gale-
rius, directing the fallen temples of the gods to be
restored, and requiring that all free men and women,
and slaves, and even little children, should sacrifice
and partake of what was offered at heathen altars.
This cruel edict led to new tortures, and a fresh efl'u-
sion of blood ; a state of matters which, however, was
happily soon followed by another respite, more parti-
cularly to the Christians in tlie West, which lasted till
the beginning of the year 310. Giderius, having been
attacked by a severe and painful disease, now I'e-
laxed his severity, and in the following year the
remarkable edict appeared which put an end to the
persecution of Christians in the Roman empire.
Witli the succession of Constantine commenced a
new era in the history of the Christian church. Soon
after his remarkable conversion to Christianity, a. d.
312, he proceeded to establish it as the religion of
the state, and sought to remodel the government of
tlie Christian church, so as to make it correspond
with the civil arrangements of the empire. From
this time the bishops of Rome began to put forth
those arrogant claims which terminated in the full
development of the papacy, A. D. G06. The acknow-
ledgment of the Pope as Universal Bishop, was, of
ITALY (CmusTiANiTY in).
191
course, a work of time, and it is ii well-known fact,
that the jiapal supremacy was resisted in Italy after
it had been owned by the most remote churclies of
the West. So early as the fourth century, the wor-
thy Ambrose, archbishop of Milan, wliich was the
capital of the diocese of Italy, prepared a particul ir
otfice or form of worship, which was known by the
name of the Arahro^ian Liturgij; and even after the
Pope had appointed the Roman Missal to be used in all
the Western churches, the church of Milan continued
still to adhere to their own ritual. It was not, in-
deed, till the eleventh century that the archbishops
of Milan would consent so far to acknowledge tlie
authority of Rome, as to receive their palls from the
Pope. Wlien Honorius first demanded the submis-
sion of the church of Milan, a universal feeling of
indignation was excited among the people, as well as
the clergy. And it was not witliout a strong remon-
strance that the pomt was at length yielded, but as a
standing memorial of their independence, they still
continued to use the Liturgy of Ambrose. For a
long period the papal claims met with occasional re-
sistance from the archbishops of Milan, and when
Gregory VII., in A. n. 1074, issued his famous de-
cree enforcing the ceUbacy of the clergy, the cliurch
of Milan rejected the papal edict, pronounced tlie
Pope and all who adhered to him on this point to be
chargeable with heresy, and they even threatened to
make a formal separation from the Church of Home.
During the dark ages, Italy was the scene of some
of the most valiant struggles against Papal domina-
tion. Claude of Turin, in the ninth century, who
protested against the worship of images and against
pilgrimages to Rome ; and Arnold of Brescia, the
disciple of Abelard, in the twelfth centm-y, who lifted
his voice against the secularization of the church and
the temporal authority of the Pope ; are examples of
the reforming spirit which has so often characterized
the Christians of Italy. (See Arnoi.di.sts.) The
labours of the enthusiastic young priest of Brescia
produced a powerful effect upon the ardent minds of
the Italian people, and prepared them for welcoming
the Waldenses, who, penetrating through the Alps,
effected a settlement in Lombardy A. D. 1180, and so
rapidly spread themselves throughout Italy, that in
the beginning of the thirteenth century, some of
them were found even in Rome itself. Acti\'ely en-
gaged in propagating their simple scriptural tenets,
these hereditary witnesses for the truth could not
fail to call down upon themselves the fulminations of
the Vatican. In A. D. 1231, accordingly, Gregory
IX. issued a bull, directing that a strict search should
be made for these heretics, and that when discovered,
they should be given up into the hands of the secu-
lar authorities to be punished; while those who gave
them shelter and protection were to be declared in-
famous, along with their children to the second gen-
eration. The Patarenes, as the Waldenses were
then called, had churches in almost all the towns of
Lombardy, and in some parts of Tuscany, as well as
in Naples and Sicily. For a long time their students
of theology were educated in Paris, but in the tldr-
teenth century they hail academies in Lombardy for
training their candidates for the ministry.
A colony of Vaudois, in A. D. 1370, found an
asylum in Calabria, but their simple worship, so un-
like to that of Rome, soon attracted the notice of the
priests, who raised the cry of heresy against them.
The colony, however, maintained its position, and
received from time to time accessions to its laimbers,
continuing to flourish for nearly two centuries, when,
as the light of the Reformation began to dawn upon
Italy, it was assaulted with ftiry by Rome's sup-
porters, and completely exterminated. For a long
period the corruptions of the Roman Church were
so thoroughly known and recognized among the Ita-
lian people, as to form a staple subject of raillery
and reproach in the works of their most celebrated
poets. Dante, Petrarch, Boccacio, and Ariosto, each
in turn made the most withering exposure of the
errors and evil practices of the Romish clergy, and es-
pecially of the monks and friars. The novelists joined
with the poets in these assaults upon the ecclesias-
tics of the time; and a series of spirited lampoons
and pungent satu'es imbued the niiiuls of many
among all classes of the Italian people, with the most
thorough contempt both for the clergy and the
church to which they belonged.
But of all the precursors of the Reformation,
Italy owes its deepest debt of gratitude to the great
Florentine Reformer, Girolamo Savonarola. Tliis
eminent man was born in Ferrara in 1452. En-
dowed with great talents, he devoted many years to
the study of philosophy and theology. Being a man
of strong imagination, and warm piety, he was im-
pressed with a firm persuasion that he had received
a mission from above. His discourses to the people
produced a powerfid effect, inveighing as he did with
the most impre?sive eloquence against the abuses of
the church, and the unfaithfulness and vices of the
clergy. Ha^•ing settled at Florence in 1489, he so
wrought upon the minds of the people, by his power-
ful and fervid appeals, that a speedy improvement
took place in the whole aspect of the town. " Lux-
ury," says Dr. M'Crie, " was repressed, the women
gave an example of modesty in their dress, and a
change of manners became visible over the whole
city." Nor did he call for a reform of Florence alone,
but of the whole country, commencing, as he alleged
it ought to do, with the head of the church. The
reigning Pope was Alexander VI., whose notorious
vices Savonarola most unsparingly exposed. The
result of such boldness it was easy to predict. Tlie
daring monk was apprehended, accused of heresy,
interdicted from preaching, and visited with a sen-
tence of excommunication. For a short time the
Reformer yielded to the Papal decision, but at length
summoning courage, he appeared again in public,
renouncing obedience to a corrupt tribunal ; and con-
ducting divine service in the face of the interdict, he
192
ITATA' (CuilISTIANITY IN).
preached to immense crowds, who listened with the
(ieepest interest to the discourses of tlie reforming
monl;. Alexander was enraged at this open defiance
of his Pontillcal authority, and watching liis oppor-
tunity, he prevailed upon tlie Flcirentines to give up
the heretical monk into liis liands, on which he con-
denmed Idiu to tlie llames, along witli two of his
reforming associates. In pursuance of tliis sentence,
Savi.narola was burnt at the stalce on the 23d of
May 1498.
Tlie cry for reform in the church, wliich tlie Flo-
rentine reformer had so loudly and perseveringly re-
echoed, was now familiar as household words tlirougli-
out all Italy. For a century this cry had rung in
the ears of the peojile, and botli from tlie pulpit and
the press the church liad been ass.ailed as essentially
Antichristian botli in its doctrines and jn-actices.
Sucli invectives could no longer be tolerated, and in
151t) a ]iapal bull was issued forbidding jireacliers to
treat in their sermons of the coming of Antichrist
It was too hite. Such a mass of corruption did tlie
Popes and the Papal church appear to the discerning
Italian people, that contempt for the organized frame-
work of the cliurch gave rise, first to indifference about
rehgion, wliich afterwards passed by a gi'adual and
easy process into cold scepticism, and this again at-
tem]iled to hide itself under a forced outward respect
for the forms of the church. But in spite of all the
.■ittem])ts made by the Popes to uphold the credit of
the Rouiish system, the writings of Luther and Me-
lancllion, Zwingli and Bucer, were extensively circu-
liited throughout Italy, and perused by many with
the greatest eagerness. And the reformed opinions
were all the more easily spread, as the attention of
numbers of the learned Italians bad been directed to
.sacred and oriental literature. These studies natu-
rally led them to the examin.ition of the Holy Scrip-
tures, and prepared them for taking an active and
intelligent part in the religious controversies of the
period. "The reformers appealed," says Dr. M'Crie,
" from the fallible and conflicting opinions of the
doctors of the church to the infallible dictates of re-
velation, and from the vulgate version of the Scrip-
tures to tlie Hebrew and Greek originals ; and in
these appeals they were often supported by the
translations recently made by persons of acknow-
ledged orthodoxy, and published with the permission
and warm recoimncndaiiuns of the be.ad of the
church. In surveying this portion of history, it is
impossible not to admire the arrangements of provi-
dence, when we jierceive monks and bishops, and
cardinals and popes, active in forguig and polishing
those weapons which were soon to be turned .igaiiist
themselves, and which they afterwards would fain
have blunted and laboured to decry as unlawful and
empoisoned."
In vain did the Romish clergy exclaim loudly
apauist tlie translation of the Scriptures into the
vulgar tongue ; translations into the Italian began
to ippear soon after the invention of the art of
printing, and tended to pave the way for the recep-
tion of the reformed doctrines in Italy. And the
intercourse which had been opened up between that
country and the Protestant parts of Europe, tended
to propagate the new opinions among all classes of
the people. So seriously was this inconvenience felt
by the defenders of the old religion, that they would
willingly have put a stop, if it had been possible, to
Jill intercourse between the Germans and Italians.
During the first half of the sixteenth century, how-
ever, this intercourse was rendered more intiuiata
and close in conseipience of a number of German
soldiers who had embraced the Protestant fiiith hav-
ing come into Italy in the army of Charles V., as
well as in that of his rival Francis I. These Pro-
testiint soldiers mingling with the Italian people,
made them acquainted with the opinions of Luther
and his associates. And the iinpre.'^sions thus con-
veyed to the popular mind in favour of the Kefonna-
tion, were not a little strengthened by the bitter and
angry contest between the Pope and the emperor.
Manilestoes were iniblished on both sides full of
threats and recriminations. Nor did the emperor
rest contented with mere verbal fulmination. He ad-
vanced with ills army into the territories of the church,
besieged Rome itself, and took bis holiness prisoner.
The following scene, described by the elder M'Crie,
shows the contempt with which the German soldiers
treated the rites of the Romish church : " A party of
German soldiers, mounted on horses and mules, assem-
bled one day in the streets of Rome. One of them,
named Grunwald, distinguished by his majestic coun-
tenance and stature, being attired like the Pope, and
wearing a triple crown, was placed on a horse richly
caparisoned. Others were arrayed like cardinals,
some wearing miires, and others clothed in scarlet or
white, according to the rank of those whom they
personated. In this form they marched, amidst ihe
sounding of drums and iifes, and accompanied by a
vast concourse of people, with all the pomp and
ceremony usually ob.served in a pontifical proces.sion.
When they passed a house in which any of the car-
dinals was confined, the procession stopped, and
Grunwald blessed the people by stretching out his
fingers in the manner practised by the Pope on such
occasions. After some time he was taken from his
horse, and borne on the shoulders of one of his com-
]j,anions on a pad or seat jjrepared for the purpose.
Having reached I he castle of St. Angelo.he drank from
a large cup to the safe eu.stody of Clement, in which
he was jilcdged by his attendants. He then adminis-
tered to his cardinals an oalli, in which they engaged
to yield due obedience and faithful allegiance to the
emperor, as their lawful and only prince ; and not
to disturb the peace of the emiiire by intrigues, but,
.•IS became them, according to the precepts of Scrip-
ture and the example of Christ and his apostles to be
subject to the civil powers. After a speech, in which
he rehearsed the civil, parricidal, and sacrilngiouB
wars excited by the popes, and acknowledged tb.at
ITAIA' (Christianity in).
193
Providence liad raised up tlie Emperor Cliarles V.
to reven;,'e the>e crimes and bridle tlie rage of wiclced
priests, tlie pretended pontiff solemnly promised to
transfer all his authority and power to Martin Lu-
ther, that he might remove the corruptions which
Iiad infected the apostolical see, and completely re-
tit the sliip of St. Peter, that it might no longer be
the sport of the winds and waves, through tlie unskil-
fuhiess and negligence of its governors, who, intrusted
with the helm, had spent their days and nights in
drinking and debauchery. Then raising Iiis voice,
he said, ' All who agree to these things, and would
see them carried into execution, let them signify this
by lifting up their hands;' upon which the whole
band of soldiers, raising their hands, exclaimed, ' Long
live Po[)e Luther! Long live Pope Luther!' All
this was performed under the eye of Clement VII."
Throughout all the Italian States, and more espe-
cially in the large towns, were found numerous and
ardent friends of the Protestant cause. And even
the very disputes which were agitated among the
Keformed churches themselves were made subjects
of controversv among the Italian Protestants. This
was remarkably the case with the ditl'erence which
existed between Luther and Zwingli respecting the
presence of Christ in the sacrament of the Supper;
tlie former interpreting the words of institution liter-
ally, the latter tiguratively. Both views of the sub-
ject had their respective supporters in Italy, but the
majority were in lavour of the opinions of the Swiss
Reformer. The controversy was warmly aL'itated
auiong the Protestants of Modena, Bologna, and
other parts of Italy ; but it was carried on with the
■rreatest heat in the "Venetian territories, where the
doctrhie of the German Reformer chiefly prevailed.
Another controverted point, which was keenly dis-
cussed among the Italian Protestants, was the doc-
trine of the Trinity. It is not improbable that the
heretical writings of Servetus may have found their
way into Italy. At all events the Reformed church
at Naples was disturbed in its infancy by the diau-
sion of Arian principles among its members ; and in
tlie Venetian territories, where the Protestants were
numerous, though not organized into settled congre-
gations under regular pastors, these unscriptural
notions obtained ready acceptance. Socinian writers
are accustomed to trace the origin of their sect to
meetings which were held towards the middle of the
sixteenth century in the territories of Venice, but
chiefly at Vicenza, where they allege that private con-
ferences or colleges met and agreed upon a creed
which was drawn up on Socinian principles. This
statement, however, is doubted by Mosheim and
other ecclesiastical historians, and their hesitation
to admit its accuracy is amply justified by the consi-
deration, that not the slightest allusion is made to
the subject in any part of the works of Faustus So-
cinus.
But although it is scarcely probable that the So-
cinian doctrines originated in Italy, it is undeniable
that a number of the Italian Protestants were, at the
Reformation period, infected with these heretical opi-
nion.s, and, accordingly, when driven from their coun-
try and settled in the Orisons, we tind the Grison
churches agitated by violent disputes, not only on
the doctrine of the Trinity, but on various other arti-
cles of the Christian faith. And yet Protestantism
in Italy, with all the errors which came to be mingled
with it, was a living, a growing principle, which had
taken such root in the country, tliat the friends of
the Reformation entertained the most sanguine hope
that It.aly would throw off the yoke of Rome. The
Pope himself became alarmed at the rapid progress
of the new opinions ; and, in 1542. the Romish clergy
were urgent with his Holiness to take some eli'ective
measures for the defence of the Catholic faith. Those
of the ecclesiastics, accordingly, who were suspected
of favouring the new opinions, v/ere carefully watched,
and occasion eagerly sought of lodging formal com-
plaints against theni. Ochino and Martyr, in jiarti-
cular, wlio attracted crowds to listen to their d's-
courses, while their writings were extensively circu-
lated and eagerly read by the Italian people, were
surrounded by spies, and snares having been laid for
their lives, they were compelled to escape from the
country. The erection of a court of inquisition was
now eagerly pressed by the more zealous Romanists
as absolutely necessary to preserve Italy from being
overrun with heresy. x\ceordingly, Pope Paul III.
founded .at Rome the congregation of the Holy OflRce,
by a bull datecl 1st April 1543. This court at first
contined its operations to the States of tlie church ;
but gradually extending its authority, it established
branches in other parts of the countiy. The senate
of Venice refused to allow the inquisition to be set
up within their territories, except in a very modified
form. On two dilicrent occasions, in the beginning
of the sixteenth century, the Neapolitans had resisted
the establishment of the inquisition in their country,
and even when Charles V., in 1.546, renewed the
attempt, such a commotion was excited that it was
found necessary to abandon the design. In almost
every part, however, of the Italian States, Rome, by
watching its oppiu'tunity, and acting with its usual
caution, succeeded in peaceably establishing the in-
quisition, and in this way alone, as popish histo-
rians admit, was the Reformation suppressed in Italy.
No sooner was this engine of tyranny and cruel
oppression set up than multitudes of the Italian Pro-
testants fled from the country, and the prisons of the
inquisition were rapidly filled with those who remain-
ed behind. The public profession of tlie Reformed
religion was now strictly prohibited, but so numerous
were its private adherents, that it cost the inquisitors
the labour of twenty years to extirpate them. At
Modeiia, Fen'ara. and the territories of the Venetian
republic, the popes found the utmost dlfficidty in
suppressing the Reformed doctrine. One occupant
of the see of Rome after anoilier, lighted up the fires
of the inquisition for the destruction of Italian Pre-
K
19-1
ITOGAY-JACOBITE CHUKCH.
testaiitism ; but allliough the open confession of tlie
Reforinei] doctriiies was rendered impossible, persons
were found in ditVerent parts of Italy, in the seven-
teenth century, who secretly held these piijiciples.
Great numbers of the Protestant Italian i-efugees
found a home in the Orisons, where they enjoyed
liberty of conscience and the pure preaching of the
gospel. Zealous and unwearied in their endeavours
to advance the cause of truth and righteousness, their
settlement in that country proved a blessing to
many. New churches sprung up on every .side, and
in a short time the Protestants became a decided
majority of the population. The provinces situated
between the Alps and Italy, more especially the
valley of the Valteliiie, formed the principal seat of
the Italian Protestants who had been driven from
their native land. But little bands of these refugees
repaired to otlier places, such as Zurich, Basle, and
Geneva in Switzerland, Lyons in France, Strasburg
in Germany, Antwerp in the Low Countries, and
even to London, in each of which towns they fomied
Protestant churches where the gospel was preached
in the Italian language.
Since the suppression of the Refoimation in Italy,
that unhappy country has been crushed under the
combined influence of Papal oppression and political
despotism. But as Sismondi has eloquently re-
marked, " her heart still beats with the love of
liberty, virtue, and glory : she is chained and covered
with blood ; but she still knows her strength and her
future destiny ; she is insulted by those for whom
she has opened the way to every improvement ; but
she feels that she is formed to take the lead again
and Europe will know no repose till the nation which
in the dark ages lighted the torch of civilization with
that of liberty, shall be enabled herself to enjoy the
light which she created." In every part of Italy,
but more especially in Tuscany and Naples, the
slightest attempt to assert liberty of thought in mat-
ters of religion, is instantly met with persecution in
various forms. The Bible in the vernacular language
is a proscribed book ; and tracts containing doctrines
not in unison with the dogmas of Rome, expose the
persons in whose possession they are found to the
vengeance of the priests. In the dominions of the
King of Sardinia, however, the Protestant religion is
tolerated, and the Waldenses, tliat long-persecuted
sect, which has never bowed its neck to the yoke
of Roniv,, maintains its scrijitural princijiles, and
practises its simple worship witliout molestation or
interruption of any kind.
ITOGAY, a household god among the Mongol
Tartars. He is the guardian of their families, and
presides over all the products of the earth. Old
travellers tell us, that no one presumes to dine until
this god and his family are first served, their enter-
tainment consisting in the mouths of the idols being
covered with grease. When the people have dined,
they throw out the fragments which remain, expect-
ing them to be devoured by some unknown spirits.
IXIUS, a surname of Aj>ollo, from a district in
the island of Rhodes, where he was worshipped.
J.\-\FARITES, a Mohammedan sect who held in
the highest reverence the memory of .Taafar, the
sixth Im,^m, who is considered by many of the
Scliiifex as little if at all inferior in knowledge to
Solomon himself. When the celebrated Nadir Schah
proposed to assimilate the Persian Mohammedan
system to that of the Turks, he suggested that Jaa-
far should be acknowledged as the head of the new
national faith. His plans, however, were altogether
unsuceessfid. See Imams (Tiik IHvelve).
JAB.A.JAHITES, a Mohammedan sect, who denied
the perfect foreknowledge of God, and asserted that
the providence of God in the goveniment of the
world is regidated by circumstances as they arise ;
and they held also that the Divine knowledge, like
human, was improved by experience.
J.VrOBlNS, a name which was applied in France
to the Dominicans (which see) because tlioir princi-
pal convent was situated near tlic gate of St. James
(Jacolvf:) in Paris. At the commencement ot tlie
tii-st French revolution, the meetings of its most
zealous promoters were held in the hall of this con-
vent, and from this circumstance Jacobin came to be
another n.inie for a revolutionist.
JACOBITE CHURCH, a name which the Syrian
church assumes to itself. When the Syrian Chris-
tians are interrogated as to the reason of this name,
they usu.illy allege that they are the descendants of
Jacob or Israel ; that they are the descendants also of
the earliest converts of the apostle James ; and that
they are sprung from the adherents of the monk and
presbyter Jacob Baradanis, who, in the sixth century,
was mainly instrumental in preserving, establishing,
and extending the Monophysite party in Syria and the
adjacent countries. In his zeal for the ]u-opagation
of the Monophysite tenets, Jacob wandered in the
disguise of a beggar through the Syrian provinces,
conlirming and encouraging the oppressed party, and
JACOBITES— JAINS.
I'Jb
orJaiuiiig pastel's over tliem. The patriarch of Au-
tioch was made superior of the sect, and Jacob la-
boured as a bishop at Edessa for thirty-tliree years,
until A. D. 558, when lie died. At the close of his
laborious life, Jacob left his sect in a very dourisliing
condition in Syria, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Egypt,
Nubia, Abys.sinia, and other countries, where they
have tlourislied more or le^s till the present day.
The great body of the members of tlie Jacobite
church are now found in Mesopotamia, jiarticularly
in the neighbourhood of Mosul and Mardiu. Their
primate or highest ecclesiastical functionary is the
patiiarch of Antioch, who, since the end of the ninth
century, has uniformly taken the name of Ignatius,
in memory of the martyred bishop of Antioch. Thi.s
dignitary usually resides in a monastery near Mardi'n.
The second dignitary, the primate of Tagrit, resides
near Mosul, and is termed Maphrida or fruit-bearer.
The wliole number of Jacobites is calculated to
amount to nearly 150,000 souls, which, according to
Dr. Wilson, are thus distributed : " In the pashalik of
Aleppo, and chietly in that city and in Antioch, they
number probably about 2,000. In Damascus they
have only a few families. There are very few, if
any, of them to be found in Lebanon ; and iiv the
southern parts of the Holy Land, including Jerusa-
lem, where they have a bishop and a monastic estab-
lishment, they probably do not exceed a hundred or
two. In the provinces of Malab.ir and Tiavanki'ir in
India, their numbers, by the persecutions and frauds
of the Roman Catholics, have been considerably re-
duced. Those who remain independent of Rome, in
a letter to their brethren of Mesopotamia, stated
their numbers a few years ago at 11,S7"2 families,
having forty-tive churches and a half. In the gov-
ernment census of Travankiir of 1836, they are given
at 118,382 souls, the Romo-Syrians being, in addi-
tion to this number, 56,184 souls. The Syrian and
Kestorian communities in India have now for many
years been united. The time of the merging of the
former into the latter is not exactly known."
In their public worship the Syrian Christians use
the Syrian language, though their vernacular tongue
is the Arabic. They acknowledge only the coun-
cils of Nice, Constantinople, and Ejihesus. Like
oiher Monophysites, they allege th.it the Divine
and human nature of Christ were so united as to
form only one, yet without any change, confusion,
or mixture of the two natures. While their liturgi-
cal standards contain much scriptural, evangelical
doctrine, the Jacobites have imbibed some dangerous
errors. They address prayers to the saints, particu-
larly to the Virgin Mary, and John the Baptist,
whom they address as powerful intercessors with
Christ in their behalf. They believe in baptismal
regeneration. In dispensing baptism the face of the
child is turned toward the East, and a triple afl'usion
of water is made with the left hand of the priest as
he pronounces the name of each of the persons of the
Trinity. The anointing with holy oil is also in use
in the Jacobite church, and the rite of Confirmation
follows that of Baptism and Chrism after the expiry
of seven days. The doctrines of the real presence,
and the sacrifice of the mass, are tenets of this
church, but they use leavened bread in the eucharist.
The priest alone drinks of the cup ; but he dips the
cake, with the cross and sections corres])onding with
the twelve apostles imprinted upon it, in tlie wine,
before handing it to the people. Prayers aie oU'ered
for the dead by the Jacobites, and they maintain the
doctrine of sacerdotal absolution. They attach great
importance and efficacy to the sign of the cross.
Their fasts are numerous, and kept with great strict-
ness, so that, as Dr. Woltf was assured by one of
their deacons, for seven mruiths in the year they are
neitlier allowed to eat meat, nor fish, nor eggs, and
can eat nothing else but herbs.
There are some Romanist Jacobites in Syria, who
have a patriarch of their own at Aleppo. In 1847,
the Jacobite bishop of Mardi'n went over to the
Church of Rome, along with some of his flock. In
general, however, their attachment to the Monopliy-
site doctrine proves an insuperable obstacle to their
conversion to the Romish faith. Accordingly, a
Jesuit, in the seventeenth century, declared, that " if
you combat them, they only answer by invectives,
making the sign of the cross with only the middle
finger of their hand, holding, at the same time, the
other fingers closed, in order to make you understand
tliat they acknowledge only one nature in Jesus
Christ, and that you .shall never make them believe
the contrary." The Egyptian Jacobites are called
Copts (see Coptic Church), and tlie Indian Jacob-
ites or Syrian Christians of Malabar, receive the
name of Christians of St. Thomas. (See Thomas,
St., Christians of).
JACOBITES, a name applied to the adherents
of James II., particularly to the non-jurors, who se-
parated from the high Episcopal church simply
because they would not take the oath of allegiance
to the new king, and who, in the public services,
prayed for the Stuart family. They were most nu-
merous in Scotland, but were much lessened by the
defeat of the Pretender in 1745, and still more so at
his death in 1788.
JACOBITES (Order of), a Romish order of
mendicant monks established by Innocent III. in the
thirteenth century, but which ceased to exist in tlie
course of the same century.
JAGOUTH, or Yaghuth, one of the five prin-
cipal gods of the ancient Arabians. He was usually
represented under the form of a lion, and is men-
tioned by name in the Koran.
JAH. See Jehovah.
JAINS, a remarkable sect of Hindus found scat-
tered throughout India, but more especially in South
Canara. The hills about Gawilghur have been a
favourite retreat of the Jains, who, in many particu-
lars, resemble the ancient followers of Budha. Sev-
eral of their tenets are similar | their temples are
196
JAIXS.
fiequeiitly of the same fashion ; and their images
have tlie qiirly hair and African features peculiar to
tlie Budhist idi)ls. These two sects agree in deny-
ing tlie divine origin and authority of the Vedas ;
tlie worship of both is chieily directed to certain
eminent saints, having the same attributes though
bearing dilferent names ; and they both recognize
tlie subordinate deities of the orthodox Hindus. The
doctrine of transmigration, also, is held by both
these sects. In all other matters they are at va-
riance. The Jains admit the doctrine of caste, so
far as to acknowledge the usual division into the four
principal tribes ; but they select their priests from
the Vaisvas or cultivators, instead of from the Brah.-
mans. Hence the Br.ahmans entertain the most in-
veterate hostility to the .Tains, who are always found
in separate communities, and such is the mutual
enmity of the two parties, that while the Brahmaus
are wont, in their daily prayers, to curse the Jahis,
these again often utter the cry, •' May the Brah-
mans perish ! "
One of the great peculiarities which belong to the
religion of the Jains is the remarkable and even ludi-
crous e.xtent to which they carry their scruples re-
specting the destruction of animal life. "Their
absurdities in this matter," remarks a writer much
conversant with India, " are far beyond those of the
Hindoos. AVith one exception, — the sacrifice of the
ram, — they esteem the destruction of any sentient
creature, however minute, as the most heinous of
crimes ; and continually carry at their girdles a small
broom, suspended by a string, with which they ten-
derly sweep aside every insect which they may ob-
serve in their path, lost they should accidentally
tread upon it. To so senseless a length do they carry
this principle, that they will not pluck any herb or
vegetable, or partake of any sort of food, which may
be supposed to contain animalculae ; so that the only
articles of sustenance remaining to them appear to be
rice, and a few sorts of pulse, which they cook with
milk. They affirm, indeed, that it is as foul a mur-
der to kill an insect as to slay a man ; and so ex-
treme is their precaution to avoid the commission
of the crime, that it is with great reluctance, and
only when reduced to the necessity by urgent thirst,
that they will drink water; even then, they inva-
riably suck up the fluid through a piece of fine mus-
lin. In like manner, when they require water for
ablution, or any unavoidable household purpose, they
carefully strain it repeatedly, before they venture to
use it. Tlie most noxious vennin and insects are
also treated with the same consideration as the most
harmless creatures ; and if, through persevering an-
noyance, they are compelled to deprive certain odious
insects of the asylum usually found upon their per-
sons, they remove the tormentors with the utmost
care, and tenderly place them out of harm's way."
The .Jains allege that they have preserved the true
and primitive religion, and that lliiuluism, as it now
exists, is a monstrous combination of heretical dog-
mas and practices. The Vedas, the eighteen Pura-
uas, the Trimurtti, the Avatars of Vishnu, the Lin-
gam, the worship of the cow, and other animals, ihe
sacrifice of the Homo, and all adoration of sensible
objects are rejected by the Jains, who maintain thei-e
to be perversions of the primitive religion. It is not
improbable, indeed, that the Jains may be identical
with the Gi/miiosophists of India mentioned by the
Greek wi-iters, and in confirmation of this idea it may
be stated, that in Hindustan they are called Diyam-
haras, which means "devoid of clothes," thus corre-
sponding to the name applied to them by the Greeks.
Their philosophical opinions are thoroughly inale-
rialistic. Thus the formation of the universe is
explained by the combination of identical or homo-
geneous atoms. They divide beings or existences into
two great classes, animate iind inanimate, the former
being the subjects of enjoyment, and the latter the
objects of enjoyment. Animated beings they allege
to be eternal, but having bodies they are composed
of parts formed by the four elements, earth, air, fire,
and water. The soul is believed to exist in three
states, — that of bondage by its own activity, that of
liberation by the fulfilment of precepts designed to
destroy activity, and that of perfection when all acti-
vity has ceased. This last is the highest distinction
to which a Jain devotee can be elevated. It is styled
Sanyasi Nirioani, and is reached only after a long
course of penance. " In this sublime state," we are
told, " the soul is supposed to be partially absorbed
into the essence of the Divinity, and the man becomes
almost insensible to earthly concerns. He is said to
be devoid of all human passions, and acknowledges
none of the reqinrements of nature ; hunger and
thirst are unknown to him ; abstruse contemplation
is his only sleep ; heat and cold, disease and infirm-
ity, alike fail to inflict pain or inconvenience ; and
his eye rests with equal indilVerenco upon good and
evil. Being divested of all wants, he lives in abso
lute independence of his one-time fellow mortals, and
estranges himself frofn all communion with them,
having no thouglit, atTection, or inclination, except
for things divine. In this manner, he advances step
by step, in purity and excellence, during which time
the principles or elements of his natural body are
gradually dissolved, until, having passed through
eleven hitermediate stages, he arrives at ultimate per-
fection, and becomes inseparablv iniiled with the
Deity."
The Jains have a literature peculiar to their sect,
more particularly a series of works called Puranas,
which ought not to be confounded with the Puranas
of the Hindus, for although they occasionally in.sert
legends borrowed from the latter, their special object
is to trace the legendary history of the Tirthakara-i,
or deified teachers, worshipped by the sect. The
number of these teachers whom they reverence
amounts to twenty-four for a given period, and they
emmieratc by name the twenty-four of their past,
the twenty-four of the present, and the twenty-four
^';nitf
iitmiem$iiijfs,l'FilEi-itaifiii?fn
JAKUTI-JAMMABOS.
197
of the age to come. Tliey are calleil Jinas, ;ind
their statufis, either all or in i art, are assembled in
their teiiiplus, sometimes of colossal diniensious, and
usually composed of blaelc or white marble. The
objects now held in higliest esteem in Hindustan by
the Jains are Parswaiiilth and Mahavira, the tweiity-
tliird and twenty-tburtli Jinas of the present era, who
seem to have superseded all tlieir predecessors. (See
Jinas.) The Jain temples in Soutliern India afl'ord
some of the finest specimens of Hindu architecture.
They are apparently of great antiquity, and are
usually found in groups of eight, ten, or more hud-
dled closely together in some very retired and ro-
mantic spot.
The sect of the Jains is said by Mr. Colebrooke
to have been founded about B. c. 600, by Piirswa-
n.atlia, and established by Mahavira. The sect con-
tains two great subdivisions, the Swetmnharn.", white-
robed, who abound in Grujerat, and Digamharas, un-
clothed, who aboinid in Rajpootana. The latter
separated from the general body about A. D. 552, and
are distinguished by certain pectJiarities. Thus
they represent their gods without clothing; tliey
deny their deified saints to be supreme gods; and
they require their ascetics to use no clothing or any
otiier article of equipment but a fan of peacock's
feathers and a cup. The sacred books of tl]e Jains
are written in the Pali language, and according to
tlieir Iii.storic.al records, they were fir.st conunittcd to
writing about 980 years after Maliavira, or about
A. D. 380. The most ancient Jain temples are stated
to have been founded about one hundred years
before.
J.4KUTI, a god of tlie Japanese, whom tluiy in-
voke in time of sickness, or when death is seeni-
inglv near at hand.
JA.MEri'ri (St.) D.\Y, aChristi;iri festival held in
honour of James ilie brother of John, who was llie
first apostle that gained the crown of martyrdom. It
is celebrated In llie Roini.^h cinnch lui tlie 25tli of
July, and in the Greek church on the 23d of Oc-
tober.
JAMES'S (St.) LITURGY, one of the Liturgies
used in tlie Greek cliurch. This is the Liturgy uf
Jerusalem, which is usiuilly ascribed to the apostle
James, who was the first bishop or pastor of the
Christian church in that city. It is so long as'to
require five hours to read the whole of it, and ac-
cordingly it is read publicly in some churches only
once a-year, that is, on the 23d of Ociober, which i.s
the festival of Sr. James's day. The .standard rit-
uals of the Greek church are tliose niodifications of
St. James's Litiu'gy which are u.sed at Constanti-
nople; namely, I hat of St. Chrysostom, which is hi
ordinarv u.-^e, and that of St. Basil, which is .substi-
tuted for it on certain appointed days. The.se two
are simply abridgments of the Liturgy of Si. James.
It is very doublfid whether this JJturgy usually
ascribed to James is really the work of that apostle,
'i'he (Uily fouiidatiuM on which the upiuicm rcAls, is a
doubtful fragment ascribed to Proclus, archbishop oi
Constantinople, and the thirty-second canon of the
sixth General Cotmcil in Trullo. Eusebius and Je-
rome, however, both of whom give catalogues of the
ecclesiastical writings previous to their own times,
make no mention of any Liturgies as having come
from tlie pens of apostles.
JAMES OF CO.MPOSTELLA (Church of), a
church at Compostella in Galicia, a province of
Spain, which is famous for the devout pilgrimage;^
made to it by Spanish devotees of the Romish
church. It is dedicated to James the Greater, who
is alleged by Spanish writei-s to have been the apos
tie who first planted Christianity in Spain, and whoso
figure is said for many centuries to have rested on
the high altar of the church in the form of a wooden
bust, with forty or fifty white tapers continually
burning befiu'e it. The pilgrims kiss the figure three
or four times in token of reverence. There is in the
same chiu-ch a stone cross under which they pass
three times, through so small a hole that they are
forced to lay themselves flat against the pavement.
The body of the apostle, who is known to the Sjia-
nish populace by the name of St. James of Galicia,
is alleged to have been at Compostella about the be-
gijnnng of the ninth century, and since that time it
is believed to lia\e performed great miracles there.
JAMES THE LESS (FiiSTiVAL of). See
Philip (St.) and James's (St.) Day.
JAMMABOS, mountain priests of Japan, an or-
der of the religion of <S/)/to. They go armed with
swords and scimitars, and hence they are some-
times called mountain soldiers. They are a kind
of wandering monks, dependent on the benevolence
of the public for subsistence. Kaempfer thus de-
scribes them: "They do not shave their heads, but
follow the rules of the first founder of this order,
who moriified his body by climbing up steep, high
mountain.s ; at least, they conform themselves there-
unto in their dress, apparent behaviour, and some
outward ceremonies; for they are fallen short of his
rigorous way of life. They have a head, or general,
of their order, residing at Miako, to whom they are
obliged to bring a certain sum of money every year,
and who has the distribution of dignities and of titles,
whereby they are known among theinselves. They
connnoni}' live in the neighbourhood of some famous
Kami temple, and accost travellers in the name ot
that Kami which is worshipped there, making a short
discourse of his holiness and miracles, with a loud,
coarse voice. Meanwhile, to make the noise still
louder, they rattle their long stall's, loaded at tlie
upper end with iron rings, to take up the charity
money which is given them ; and, last of all, they
blow a trumpet made of a large shell. They carry
tlieir children along with them upon the same beg-
ging errand, clad like their fathers, but with their
heads shaved. These little bastards ai-c exceedingly
troublesome and importunate with travellers, and
commonly take care to light on tliem, as they are
198
JANGAMAS-JANSENISTS.
gcin;; up some hill or mountain, wliere, because of
the difficult ascent, they cannot well escajie, nor in-
deed otherwise get rid of them without siving them
somethin;;. In some places they and tlieir fathers
accost travellers in company with a troop of Bikuni
or nuns, and, with their rattling, singing, trumpeting,
cliattering and crying, make such a frightful noise as
would make one almost mad or deaf. Tliese moun-
tain priests are frequently applied to by superstitious
people, for conjm-ing, fortune-telling, foretelling fu-
ture events, recovering lost goods, and the like pur-
poses. They profess themselves to be of the Kami
religion, as established of old, and yet they are never
suffered to attend, or to take care of, any of the
Kami temples."
The solemn vow wliich the Jammabos make in
entering into tlie order is to renounce all temporal
advantages for the prospect of eternal happiness.
Tlie fomider of the order seems to have lived in the
sixth century. He wandered about in deserts, and
climbed the steepest mountains, subjecting himself
to the severest hardships and privations. In course
of time, his followers became divided into two
orders, called Tojiinfa and Funsmifa. Tlie former
are obliged to go on a pilgrimage once a-year to the
mountain of Fikoosan, a very lofty and precipitous
mountain ; and so completely is this a test of charac-
ter, that if any person living in sin shall venture to
climb tlie hill, the devil will instantly enter into him.
The other order of Jammabos are obliged annually to
pay a visit to the sepulchre of their founder, which is
also situated on the top of a high and almost inacces-
sible mountain. In preparation for this hazardous
undertaking, they practise frequent ablutions and
severe mortific;itions. During their pilgrimage tliey
eat only herbs and roots. On their return they go
to Miaco and present a gift to the general of the
religious order to which they belong, wlio in turn
bestows some lionourable title on the pilgi'im. The
Jammabos dress like laymen. They wear a sabre
fastened to tlieir girdles, a staff in their hands, with
a brass head and four rings of the same metal. They
wear about their necks a .scarf or rather a silk band
adorned with fringes, which is longer or .shorter ac-
cording to the rank of the priest. They have a
curiously sliajied cap on their heads, and a wallet
upon their backs, with a book in it, a little money,
aiid a coat. They wear sandals on their feet com-
posed either of straw or the stalks of the Lotos, a
flower which is consecrated to religious uses. At
their original institution the Jammabos were Sinto-
uts, but tliey have blended that form of religion with
the worship of strange gods.
JANGAMAS, a Hindu sect, the essential charac-
teristic of wliich is wearing the LiNOA (which see),
or .symbol of creative production, on some part of the
drtss or person. The type is of a small size, made
of copper or silver, and is commonly worn suspended
in a case round the neck, or sometimes tied in the
turbau. In common with the wor.ihippcrs of Sitka
generally, the Jaiigamas smear their foreheads with
ashes, and wear necklaces, and caiTy rosaries made
of the Riulrdksha seed. I'lio clerical members of the
sect usually stain their garments with red ochre.
They are not numerous in upper India, and are
rarely encountered except as mendicants leading
about a bull, the living type of Naudi, the bull of
Shiva, decorated with housings of various colours,
and strings of cowrie shells. The conductor carries
a bell in his hand, and thus accompanied goes about
from place to place, subsisting upon alms. In the
South of India the Jamjatnas or Linijayets, as they
are often called, are very numerous, and the officiating
priests o! Shiva are commonly of this sect. Wilks,
Buchanan, and Dubois, represent the Jangamas as
very numerous in the Deccan, especially in Mysore,
or those countries constituting ancient Canara. Be-
sides the Jangama priests of Kedarnath, a wealthy
establishment of them exists at Benares.
JANNES AND JAMBRES, two Egj'ptian magi-
cians refened to in 2 Tim. iii. 8, as withstanding
Moses, probably by attempting to imitate the mira-
cles which Moses and Aaron actually performed.
The names of Jamies and Jambres do not occur in
the Old Testament, but they are mentioned in the
Talmud and several Rabbinical works. The para-
plirast Jonathan, in Num. xxiii. 22, says they were
tlie two sons of Balaam, who accompanied him when
he went to Balak king of Moab. Many of the hea-
then writers, as cited by Ensebius, speak of them
as Egyptian scribes famous for their skill in magic.
The Mohammedans have several traditions concern-
ing them.
JANSENISTS. The influence of the Reforma-
tion in Germany in the sixteenth century extended
even within the bosom of the Romish church. The
watchword of Luther and his associates, that we are
justified by faith, without the works of the law, was
felt by multitudes even of those who still remained
under tlie bondage of the Man of Sin, to be the
very truth of God ; and the Protestant world is not
generally aware that, from the time of Henry the
Fourth of France, to the end of the reign of Louis
the Fourteenth, there existed, in the very heart of
the Papacy, a large, learned, and devotedly pious
body of men, who held the grand doctrines of Bible
Christianity, and busied themselves in translating
and widely disseminating the word of God.
In the winter of 1604, two students of great pro
mise attended the ancient college of Louvain. Their
disijositions were far from similar, but their tastes
and pursuits were the same, and they both of them
were animated by the most fervent and enlightened
piety. Jean du Verger de Hauranne, one of those
estimable youths, was sprung from a noble and an-
cient family. Corneille Jans<^nius, the other, who
was four years younger than his college companion,
was the son of honest and industrious, though hum
ble parents. Du Verger had studied previously at
Paris, and Jmis^nius at Utrecht ; but they met at
JAXSENISTS.
199
Louvain. and studied theology together, witli a view
to the priesthood. They soon became closely united
ill a friendship wliich lasted through life — a friend-
ship originating in piety, and cemented by tlie love
of Christ. In consequence of intense application to
study, the health of Jansenius was so injured that he
■was advised, on leaving college, to try the eti'ect of
the air of France. Du Verger invited him to ac-
company him to Bayonne. There the two students
applied themselves to the study of the Fathers, and
in particidar of Augustin, but more especially did
they give much of then- time to searching the Scrip-
tures, which they knew were able to make them wise
unto salvation. Prom these studies, continued for
six years, originated Jansenism in the Itomisli
church, — a system of doctrine wliich, being accordant
in its grand features with Bible truth, was not long
in arousing, against all who held its tenets, the de-
tenuiued hostility of the Jesiuts. The system of
doctrine thus learned in secret by Jan.s^nius and his
friend was not made public until after the death of
the former, when his Commentary on Augustin was
given to the world.
After having prosecuted their researches for a
long period at Bayonne, the two friends at length
separated, — Jansenius returning to Louvain, and Du
Verger establishing himself at Paris. In the course
of a few years, Jaus6iius became so distinguislied
for his talents and theological attainments, that he
was elected to the bishopric of Ypres. Du Verger
in the meantime' eai'ned a high reputation at Paris,
not more for his learning than for his marked piety,
and imblemished purity of character. His learn-
ing attracted the admiration of many, especially of
the liigher classes, and he was introduced to court
by Cardinal Kichelieu as the most learned man in
Europe. Eight bishoprics were successively ofl'ered
to his acceptance, but respectfidly declined. As his
popularity increased, the good man seemed all tlie
more to shrink from public notice. He retired to a
private lodging in Paris, where he spent his whole
time in prayer, almsgiving, and spiritual direction.
Though thus hidden from the view of society in gen-
eral, a secret and gradually increasing iuHuence be-
gan to diffuse itself. People of all classes flocked to
hin for advice. Tlie result was that many in every
rank and every order of society, seemed to be ani-
mated by a nev/ spirit, striving to walk in the fear
and love of God.
About this time, Du Verger was appointed to the
abbacy of the monastery of St. Cyran, from which lie
derived the title by which he is best known in his-
tory— the Abbe de St. Cyran. Being on terms of
intimate friendship with M. Aniauld d'Andilly, eld-
est brother to Mother Angelica, he was introduced
to the acquaintance of that excellent abbess, and in
consequence became a frequent visitor at the Con-
vent of Port-Royal, and soon after became its spiritual
director. That monastery ha}ipened then to be at
the very height of its fame.
.Jansenius, who, as we have alreaily mentioned,
had returned to Louvain, acquired in the course of a
few years such renown as a scholar, that he was in-
vested with tlie superintendence of the College de
Salute Pulcherie in connection with the university
where he had so long and so successfully studied.
Here he composed several tlieological works which
still more enhanced his fame as a scholar and a divine.
At length his learning proctu'ed for him the chancel-
lorship of the University of Louvain, which was soon
followed by his consecration to the bisliopric of
Ypres. Every step of his promotion was resisted by
the Jesuits, but his acknowledged merit prevailed
over all opposition. In his ecclesiastical character,
he was the object of luiiversal admiration. In hum-
ble and unostentatious piety, in strong faith, in
masculine force of understanding, and gentle simpli-
city of heart, he was outshone by none of his con-
temporaries. His grand ambition was to realize in
his own person, the character of him who was styled
the father of the faithful, and the friend of God. He
devoted much of his time and attention to the reform
of his diocese. For twenty years, however, he oc-
cupied all his leisure hours in the preparation of a
translation of selected portions from the w(u-ks of
Augustin, with an ample commentary, chiefly with
a view to refute the errors of the Pelagians and
Semi-Pelagians. He was spared, in the providence
of God, to achieve this laborious and important
undertaking ; and on the very day of its completion,
he was seized with the plague, wliich was then raging
in Flanders, and, after an illness of only a few hours,
died on the 6th of May 1G38.
The great work in which Jans(!nius had for
twenty years been engaged he lived to complete.
It was entitled Augustinus (which see), being the
result of careful and protracted researcli into the
writings of Augustin. In the course of two years
after his decea.se, this valuable production, intended
to establish and bring out into prominent relief the
doctrine of free grace, issued from the press, not-
withstanding the strenuous and unwearied efforts put
forth by the Jesuits to prevent its publication. Ajid
when the Augustinus was given to the world, a keen
controversy arose in reference to the real character
of the doctrines which it contained. A charge of
here.sy was preferred against the book Ijefore the
college of Sorbonne in Paris, and the apostolic see at
Rome. It was drawn up by Father Cornet, a
Jesuit of some notoriety, and consisted of five pro-
positions, which he alleged had been extracted from
the work of Jansenins. They were as follows : —
1. Some commandments of God are impracticable
by the righteous, and sometimes even when they
attempt obedience, the needed grace is wanting.
2. No man can resist inward grace in the state of
nature. 3. In order to moral accountability it is not
necessary to be free from inward necessity, but only
from outward constraint. 4. The semi-Pelagians
admitted the necessity of an inward prevenient grace
200
JAXSEMSTS.
in order to every good act, and even to tlie reception
of t'aitli ; but tliey were herein liereticnl tliat they
required tliis grace to be siicli as the will of man can
yield to or resist indilVerontly. 5. It is serai-Pela-
gian doctrine to say that Christ died or shed his
blood for all men. The charge was sustained by
both tribunals and a bull was issued by Pojie Inno-
cent; X., condemning the Ausustinus as containing
dangerous, false, and unsound doctrine. Having suc-
ceeded in their desii^n. the Jesuits procured a for-
mula to be drawn up, embodymg the tive proposi-
tion of Father Cornet, which formula all teachers of
youth, and candidates for the ministry, were com-
manded to sign. This was designed to ensnare tlie
Janseiiisls, who, however, readily signed the formula,
but each adding a solemn declaration that the five
propositions were not to be found in the " Augusti-
nus." The Jesuits, enra^jed at being frustrated in
their designs to ensnare the Jaiisenists, ajiplied to
the Pope for another bull, which was accordingly
issued, declaring that the five propositions were not
only heretical, but that tliey were truly extracted
from the " Augustiuus," and were condemned in the
very sense in whicli they were found there. Hav-
ing procured this bull, confirmatory aud explanatory
of the former, the Jesuits drew np another formula,
which ran in these words : " I condemn from my in-
most soul, as well as orally, the doctrine of the five
propositions which are contained in the work of
Cornelius Jausenius, a doctrine which is not that of
St. Augustine, whose sentiments .lansenius has mis-
represented." This formula the .Tansenists refused to
sign, and thus an excuse was found for commenc-
ing a relentless and bitter persecution, which was
carried on for a number of years on the part of
the Jesuits. At length, in the good providence
of God, the persecution to which the Jansenists
had for many years been subjected, ceased for a
time. Clement IX. succeeded to tlie popedom,
who, being a man of a mild and gentle spirit, si,giia-
lized the commencement of his pontificate by throw-
ing open the prison doors, and removing the eccle-
sia.stical censures which had been so liberally inflicted
during the reign of his predecessor. Thus matters
continued throughout the remainder of tlie seventeenth
century — the Jansenist doctrines making silent, but
steady progress in spite of the bitter opposition and
rancoi-ous hatred of the powerful party of the Je-
suits. It was now all too evident that the Koman
Catholic Church in France had sufiered a severe
shock. The hated heresy of Jausenius now num-
bered among its su]iporters tlie ablest, the most
energetic, and withal the most pious members of
the llomish Churcli. The press, the pulpit, the
parlour were alike afiected with .in apparently irre-
pressible love for the Evangelism of the ISible. The
Scriptures were fast rising in the estimation of all
classes, and ere long, it was to be feai'cd, the priest
would lose his influence, and the church would be
abandoned by its people.
Such were the dark and gloomy prospects of Ro-
manism, not in France alone, but throughout all
Europe, at the opening of the eighteenth century.
Many of the learned and noble-minded supporters of
Jansenism had disappeared from the scene, but a
goodly band of devoted Bible Christians, both men
and women, still maintained the truth as it is in
Jesus. These found a rallying-point in the Convent
of Port-Ro_val, which, though it had been called to
pass through the fires of persecution, at the hanils of
the Jesuits, was still preserved, as a Pharos amid the
darkness, to guide many a benighted traveller to the
liaven of eternal peace. Long had the bitter ene-
mies of the doctrine of tVee grace watched for an op-
portunity of finally rooting out a monastery which
had both done and suitered so much to maintain and
to extend the principles of .Jansenism. There were
iiianv obstacles, however, which stood in the way ot
the accomplishnieut of a purpose which the Jesuits
had so long and so fondly cherished. Ol'ten did they
put forth their hand to smite, but they had not cou-
rage to destroy. The ambitions Perefixe, the arch-
bishop of Paris, had so far yielded to the jiressure ol
the Jesuits as to imprison the inmates of Port-Royal
des Champs, but only a few months had elapsed when
he was constrained to restore the sisters to their for-
mer position. Neither public opinion nor his own
conscience woidd permit a more prolonged cajitivity.
That haughty prelate, however, as well as his suc-
cessor, was now lumibered with the dead. The
archiepiscopal office was now held ' by the Cardinal
de Noailles, a man of mild, gentle dispositions, but
on that account all the more likely to be wrought
upon by the crafty, designing Jesuits. For a time
he resisted firml}' all the arguments and entreaties
with which they plied him to prevail upon him to
destroy the hated convent, and in this resistance he
was not a little encouraged by the salutary influence
which his excellent secretary, M. Thomassin, exer-
cised over him. But the pliable archbishop at length
yielded, and agreed to comply with all that was re-
(piired of liim. In vain did his secretary remonstrate.
M. de Noailles had pledged his word to the Jesuits,
and he refused to retract. Perceiving that his mas-
ter had given himself up into the hands of the Je-
suits, M. Tliomassin, with tears in his eyes, for he
was much attached to the Cardinal, cahnh^, but
firmly, replied, " No, my Lord, it shall never be .said
tliat your faithful servant, Thomassin, has lent his
pen to your Eminence's enemies, who only plot and
combine to dishonour j'ou." Retiring from the pre-
sence of the archbishop, the secret.ary repaired to
the church of St. Nicholas du Louvre, of which he
was Provost, and there, kneeling at the foot of the
high altar, he committed himself and the cause in
defence of which he had surrendered all his worldly
prospects, to that (iod who alone can bring light
out of darkness, and order out of confusion. There
lie remained in close communion with his Hea-
venly Father, until the shadows of evening had ga-
H
JANSEXISTS.
201
thered ai'uimd liim, and the last solitary lamp in
the church had been extinguished. Thus absorbed
in secret prayer, he felt a security and peace inde-
scribable by hiunan language. In supporting the
cause of Christ lie had drawn down upon himself the
frown and the fury of man, but he was now rejoicing
in the favour and the fellowship of his God.
Meanwhile the Cardinal de Noailles, thougli for-
saken by his secretary, who refused to lend himself
to the persecution of the Jansenists, hiid no difficulty
in finding ecclesiastics to aid him in his unhallowed
work. A petition to the Cardinal was speedily drawn
up and presented, and a decree was forthwith issued
for the demolition and tinal extinction of the Convent
of Port-Royal. It was on tlie 11th of July 1709
that the Cardinal signed the decree. Some time,
however, was allowed to pass away before it was
put into execution.
Tlie public indignation was excited by the cruel
deed which the Jc-^nits had thus perpetrated, and
one burst of execration was heard from every quar-
ter. The enemies of the truth seemed to have
prevailed. The gospel of the grace of God was
trampled under foot, and while the truly pious in tlie
Galilean Church mourned over the destruction of
Port-Royal, the adherents of the profanely called
Order of Jesus exulted in the thought that they had
rooted out a heresy wliich threatened ere long the
very existence of popery in Europe. Port-Royal
had afforded a refuge and a rally ing-point for all to
wliom Christ was truly precious, and the influence of
the doctrines and example of this Janseni-st commu-
nity had dift'used itself so far, and rooted itself so
deep, that French popery was fast assuming an
Evangelical and Protestant aspect. It was high
time, therefore, that an end should be put if possible
to this contagious heresy. The crushing blow was
given, and Jansenism was now, to all appearance, ut-
terly destroyed. But the triinnph of the Jesuits was
only a seeniiiig, not a real one. Port-Royal had
kindled a light in France which has never, even till
this day, been extinguished. From the seclusion of
Port-Royal issued some of the most erudite and ele-
gant, as well as withering exposures of the Jesuits,
who, writhing under the lash of the Jansenist scho-
lars, described Port-Royal as a place where forty
sliarp pens were at work, all pointed by Dr. Arnaidcl.
Of the distinguished men to whom this remark re-
ferred, it is sufficient to mention tlie names of Pascal,
Le Maistre, De Sacy, Arnauld, and Nicole, — scho-
lars of whom any age or nation might well be proud.
Seldom in the annals of the world's history has so
bright a constellation of geniuses adorned the same
country at one time. Truly providential was it, that,
at a crisis so important, when the cause of truth was in
such imminent danger, there should have been raised
up a band of men so admirably suited, both by talents
and education, for the successful defence of the faith
once delivered to the saints. Not atrace of the convent
is now to be found, but the spirit, the principles of the
11.
convent, are still alive and operating with an unseen
and pervading power, not only in France, but through-
out many other parts of the Roman Catholic Chunh.
To Port-Royal we owe it that the Galilean Churcli
still preserves so complete an antipathy to the spirit
of Ultra-montanism, and even amid the infidelity
and political vacillation of France there is a fire
smouldering at this moment among the Romanists of
that country, which is destined, we doubt not, at no
distant period, to make way for the complete estab-
lishment of the principles and the piety of the Hu-
guenots of former days.
Oidy two or three years elapsed after the demoli-
tion of the Jansenist convent of Port-Royal, when
the alarm of the Jesuits was anew excited by the
publication and extensive circulation throughout
France of ' Quesuel's Annotations on the New Tes-
tament.' Already had the cause of Jansenism been
greatly promoted by the press, more especially bj'
the writings of Arnauld, Nicole, and others, but,
above all, by the ' Provincial Letters of Pascal.'
And now that a Jansenist divine of such piety and
power as Quesnel was circulating still nujre widely
the Augustinian views which had already obtained
the approbation and acceptanceof multitudesthrough-
out all France, the Jesuits felt that some decided
step nuist be taken to check the further progress of
Janseui.sm. A bull was accordingly issued in 1713
by Clement XI.. which is usually known bj' the
name of the Bull Unii/cnitus, and which condenmed
the work of Quesnel, enumerating in detail no fewer
than on.- hundred and one propositions contained in
it, which were alleged to be heretical and unsound.
The appearance of this papal bull gave rise to a keen
controversy in the Galilean church, only forty bishops
supporting the decree of Clement, while all the rest,
lieaded by Noailles, the archbishop of Paris, boldly
resisted the fulmiuations of the Vatican, and appealed
from the Pope to a general council. The Jesuits,
however, at length prevailed, the Bull i'liirjrnitus
was submitted to by the Galilean church, and many
of the Jansenists were compelled to escape from
France, and to seek refuge in other parts of Europe.
Arnauld and a considerable remnant of the Jan-
senist party found an asylum in the Netherlands.
Utrecht, in particular, has, down to the present daj',
been a special seat of Jansenism. "Tliere arose,"
says Ranke, "an archiepiscopal Cluireh at Utrecht,
which held itself to be in general Catliolic, yet with-
al absolutely independent of Rome, and waged an in-
cessant warfare against the Jesuit ultramontane ten-
dency." The Augustinian opinions had made exten-
sive progress in Holland, and in the end of the
seventeenth century, the Roman Catholics of that
country, amounting to 330,000, appear to liave been
mostly Jansenists.
In former times Holland belonged to the dio-
cese of Utrecht, a see which was foimded by the
English missionary Willibrord, A. D. 696. The liish-
op was a suffi-agan of the archbishop of Cologne
202
JANSENISTS.
but, in 1559, Pope Paul IV. separated Holland from
the province of Cologne, and erected Utrecht into an
archbishopric with ti\e sulfi-agans, whose sees were
Haarloni, Deventer, Leuwarden, Groningen, and
Middelburg. When Trotestantism became the es-
tablished religion of the Seven United Provinces, the
ai-chbishops of Utrecht still eontiinied to exercise
siiiritual authority over the Roman CathoUcs in Hol-
land, but the siilVragans were no longer appointed.
The two chapters of Utrecht and Haarlem remained
as before, the former electing the archbishop in case
of a \acaney. while the election was confirmed by
the Pope, and in addition to his dignity, as filling the
see of Utrecht, he was imiformly accredited by the
Pope as his vicar-apostolic in Holland.
From the period of the Reformation, the Jesuits
kept their eye upon Holland with the view of se-
curing to themselves the whole influence and au-
thority which was claimed by the archbisliop of
Utrecht ; and when the doctrines of Jansenism
came to be canvassed, and numbers of the per-
secuted Jansenists took refuge in Holland, the
followers of Lo3"oIa keenly opposed those prelates
of Utrecht who asserted the doctrines of grace as
taught by Augustin. Archbishop Codde, in par-
ticular, who was consecrated to the see of Utrecht
in 1G89, was made the victim of Jesuit intrigue.
That worthy prelate treated the Jansenist refugees
from France with the utmost kindness. More es-
pecially Father Qnesnel, who took up his abode
at Amsterdam, and ended his life there, experi-
enced the most marked attention from Archbishop
Codde. The Jesuits were indignant at the favour
shown to one who had been the main instrument,
in their view, of propagating Jansenist principles
in France, and indeed throughout all Europe. They
secretly forwarded to Rome accusations against the
obnoxious archbishop, who was forthwith summon-
ed to appear before the Pope and answer to tlie
charges which had been laid against him. In obe-
dience to the papal niaiidUe Codde proceeded to
Rome, but on arriving there, he was treacherously
detained for tliree years, at the end of which iie suc-
ceeded in making his escape and returned to Hol-
land. ^Icanwhile, although no sentence of deposi-
tion had been pronounced upon Iiini, and he still
retained his archbisliopric. he had been dejirived of
his office of vicar general of the Pope, and another
appointed in his room. In the absence of Arch-
bisliop Codde, the Jesuits had been busy sowing the
seeds of dissension among the Romanists in Holland,
and not without consideraljle success. A schism had
been introduced into the church of Utrecht, many of
the peojile having joined the Je>int party in opposi-
tion to the Jansenist prelates. The archl)ishop endea-
voured to interest Pope Clement XI. in his favour, but
to no purjjose ; and at lengtli he resolved to with-
draw, which he did, allowing tlie chapters of Utrecht
and Haarlem to a|ipiiint vicars-geiuM-al in his stead.
The papal nuncio at Cologne, however, announced
that he had recei\ed a commission from the Pope to
exercise this authority. The chapters forthwith pro-
tested and appealed against the claim, but without
eflect.
At the death of Archbishop Codde the chapters,
instead of electing a successor, contented themselves
with appointing vicars-general as before. Matters
continued in this position for several years, and in
1719 the chapter of Utrecht, despairing of obtaining
a hearing from the Pope, appealed to the next general
council which should be held. Soon after, the chap-
ter of Haarlem took the same step. At length the
chapter of Utrecht resolved to adopt more decisive
measures. In 1721 they addressed a letter to Inno-
cent XIII., requesting that no obstacles might be
thrown in tlie way of their electing an archbishop to
the vacant see of Utrecht. To this communication
they received no reply^ and although they wrote
again the following year, their second letter also re-
mained unanswered. In these strange and unac-
countable circumstances, the chapter resolved to
proceed to a canonical appointment ; and, accord-
ingly, on the 27th April 1723, they elected to the
vacant see Cornelius Stecnhoven. and wrote to the
Pope requesting his confirmation of their appoint-
ment. To all their applications, however, Rome
w\is silent, and having no other resource they sought
and obtained consecration for their new bishop at
the hands of an exiled Janseni.st bishop, by name
Varlet, who had taken up his residence at Amster-
dam. These proceedings were formal!)' reported to
the Pope, who at length broke silence, and issued
three damnatory and excommnnicatory briefs. Stecn-
hoven occupied the see of Utrecht for only a few
months, when he died, and the chapter elected as liis
successor Johannes Cornelius Barchman Wuytiers,
who was consecrated in the same way as his prede-
cessor had been — a proceeding which called forth an-
other condemnatory brief from the Pope. Barchman
and his clergy appealed against the brief of the Holy
Father to the next general council. They also for-
mally appealed against the Bull Uni'prniiiis.
Many Romish prelates made common cause with
the nesv archbishop of Utrecht, who now became a
marked object of hatred to the Jesuits and the pajial
see, more especially as he published a charge in 1730,
condemnatory of the legend of Pope Gregory VII.
This amiable and excellent prelate, however, died in
1733, and was succeeded by M. Vander Croon, who
was consecrated as before. An excommunication
from the Pope followed, of course, which contained,
in this instance, an erroneous statement, that the
chapter of Utrecht had become extinct, and, there-
fore, could not possibly elect an archbishop. It had
now become evident that the church of Utrecht could
henceforth expect no countenance from Rome, and,
therefore, the new prelate resolved tore-establish the
sutVragan bishoprics which had once existed, in order
that an independent succession of invlalcs might be
supplied. Tills step Archbishop Vander Croon wai
JAXSENISTS.
203
about to take when his plans for the good of tlie
church wore cut sliort by liis deatli in 1739. His
successor, Archbisliop Melndaarts, however, carried
the project into execution, restoring the suflragan see
of Haarlem in 1742, and that of Deventer in 1758.
An account of these proceedings was transmitted to
Pope Benedict XIV., accompanied with a complaint
against the Jesuits for their injurious interfer-
ence with the cliurch of Utrecht. In 17G3, Mein-
daarts summoned a provincial synod, which is
known by the name of the Council of Utrecht, and
which declared that the church of Utrecht still re-
tained its connection witli the Pojie and the Clnirch
of Rome, but rejected the doctrine of the infallibi-
lity of both the church .and the Pope in matters of
fact, .and such points as had no reference to Christian
faith and practice. This synod appealed against the
Bull Uiiiijenitiis to a general council ; declared its
attachment to the doctrines of Augu.stin, and asserted
the right inherent in the cathedral ch.apter, at Utrecht
to elect their own bishop. The Pope, indignant at
the independence avowed by this provincial .synod,
excommunicated the whole Jansenist church of
Utrecht, both ministers and peoi)le, Tliis sentence
still remains in force. Onward to the present hour,
the election of every Uoinish bi.shop and .archbishop,
in the Jansenist church of Utrecht, hiis been followed
bv a new brief of excommunication, with one solitary
exception, that of Johaimes Bon, who w,as conse-
crated sutfragan bishop of Haarlem in 1814, To
bring about a recoiicili.afion with the see of Rome,
a conference was opened in 1823 with the p.apal nun-
cio at the Hague ; but it was broken otf in conse-
quence of the demands v/hich the nuncio msine, th.at
the Churcli of Utrecht should acknowledge the vali-
dity of the Bull Uii!{;em'/iis, and should imcondition-
ally surrender to the authority of the Pope.
In 182,5, .Toh.annes Van Santen was elected Arch-
bishop of Utrecht, .and on the 13th January of the
following vear, a brief of excommunication was issued
as usnal from the papal see. In rejily to this ful-
niination, V.an S.anten. with his two sulfrag.an bishop.s,
issued a circular, addressed to .all the bishops of the
Catholic church, entreating them to use their en-
deavours to induce the Pope to adopt a dilferent
line of .action. They also addressed a " Declaration
to all Catliolics," clerical .and lay, recounting their
grievances, and the injurious treatment they had
received .at the bands of Rome, and appealing to a
future general council. Intliis declaration they give
an .account of the conference which h.ad been sought
at the Hague in 1823, but which had been refused
nidess the church of Utrecht would consent to give
an implicit and absolute submission to the Pope. A
formula was drawn up by the secretary' to the Pope's
nuncio, which the clergy were required to subscribe
before the nuncio would even permit an interview.
The formula runs thus : " I, the undersigned, declare
that I sidjmit mv.self to the .apostolic constitution of
Pope Imiocent X., dated May 31, 1653, as well as
to the constitution of Pope Alexander VII., dated
October 16, 16.56; also to the constitution of Cle
ment XI., which commences witli these words, Vi-
neam Domini Snhaoth, dated July 16, 1705, I reject
and condemn with my whole heart the five proposi-
tions extracted from the book of Cornelius Jansenius,
in the sense intended by the author, the same in
which the lioly see has itself condemned them in the
above-named constitutions. 1 further submit myself,
without any distinction, mental qu.alification, or ex-
planation, to the constitution of Clement XI., dated
September 8, 1713, beginning with the word, Uni-
gniilus. I accept it purely and simply, and thereto
I swear: — So lielp me God .and this holy Gospel."
Tliese terms could uot be .accepted by the church
of Utrecht, .and the nuncio refusing to modify
them, the conference held with his secret.ary termi-
nated with a declar.ation on the p<art of the Jansen-
ist clergy, tluat " they had learned by instances
drawn from ecclesiastical history, such as those of
Popes Stephen VIL, Sergius III., Gregory II.,.Iohn
XXII., and some others, how true w.asthe testimony
thus expressed by Pope Adri.an VI. : It is certain
that the Pope is fallible, even in a matter of faith,
when he sustains heresy by decree or command : for
many of the popes of Rorne have been heretics."
Thus closed the Last public attempt made by the
.lansenist church of Utrecht to become reconciled to
Rome, and .she stiinds to this day in .an .anoni.alous
po.sition as a portion of the Romish church, yet for-
mally cut off from her connnunion. Private deal-
ings h.ave been held, on the ptirt of Rome, with tlie
venerable Archbishop Van Santen, to induce him
to sign the .above formula, but he has firmly resisted
all the temptJitions thrown in his way. Capucini,
a papiil nuncio, who was sent into the Netherlands
with fidl authority to regulate every thing for the
consolidation of the Roman Catholic chiu-ch, had a
long interview with Van S.anten, in the course of
which he endeavoured, by the most plausible argu-
ments, to prevail upon the .aged prelate to .subscribe
the formula, but his arguments and his entreaties
were alike unav.ailing.
The Jansenists of Utrecht diiier from the Church
of Rome on three points. The first regards the con-
demnation of Jan.^enius by Pope Alexaiuler VII.,
to which they oliject on the ground tliat the fi\e
hereticAl propositions, said to be extracted from the
' Augustinus' of J.ansenius, are not to be found in
that book. Secondly, they reject the Bull Unigetri-
tiis, because it condemns doctrines which are in ac-
cord.ance with the Bible .and the creed of the church ;
and also because the Bull in question has never been
sanctioned by a general council, nor received by a
large portion of the church. Thirdly, they contend
for the right of the Church of Utrecht to elect its
own bishops, that right having been granted by the
Emperor Courad III, in 1145, and afterwards con-
firmed by the Pope ; but of which they wf re luijustly
i de|uived in 1706. Yet although diliering iVom the
204
JAXUARIU3 (St.).
Churcli of Rome oil tliese points, the members of the
Church of Utieclit profi'.'S still to remain in the com-
munion of the Church of Rome, because "they hold
the same faith, aeknowledge the Pope as supreme
head of the church, obey him in all things according
to the rule of the church, [iray for him, defend his
rights, and remain in communion with other bi.'^hops
and churches which have preserved their outward
union with the Pope."
The Jansenists of Utrecht have a form of worship
identical in all essential points with otlier Roman
Catholic churches ; but in some of their churches
part of the service is read in the Dutch language, and
the ntmo.st zeal is manifested in diffusing among their
people the Dutch translation of the Bible by Versch-
nur. At Amersfoort they have a theological institu-
tion for the training of tlieir clergy. The members
of this interesting community of Jansenists have, for
many years, been gradually decreasing in numbers,
and from the doubtful position they occupy, there is
little prospect of any change for the better.
JANUARIUS (St.), a Romi.sh saint mentioned
in the Breviary under date 19th September. He is
represented as a Christian martyr, wlio, along with
others, perished by orders of Timotlieus, president of
Campania. " Each of the neighbouring cities," .s.-vys
the Breviary, "selected one of these saints as their
patron, and took care to bury their bodies. The
Neapolitans, by divine instruction, took away the
body of Januarius, and at tirst brought it to Beneven-
tum, then to the monastery of the Virgin ; lastly, it
was brought to the city of Naples, and placed in the
great church, and was distinguished by maiiy mira-
cles. It is particularly to be remembered that it
extinguished the globes of fire which broke forth
from Vesuvius, which threatened ruin on the places
not only near but far off. This also is notable, that
his blood, which was preserved by being collected in
a glass vial, when brought into the presence of the
martyr's body, liquefies and bidibles in a wonderful
manner, just as if recently shed, which is also seen
to this day."
The liquefaction of the blood of St. Januarius is one
of the most noted miracles of the Church of Rome.
The following .iccoimt of it is given by a traveller
who witnessed it : "I vras present in Naples in 1825
at the performance of the reputed miracle of St.
.Tamiarius's blood. It was exhibited for three davs,
and on the last, I think, the blood was reported
liqueKcd, and the bells rang in honour of it. On en-
tering the church, my friends and myself penetrated
a mass of many lumdreds of the lov,-er orders ; and
on arriving at the low balustrade, which separates
the chapel of Januarius from the church, we were
admitted. This chapel, which was richly ornament-
ed, hung with silk, and lighted with many wax can-
dles, wa.s thronged with many well-dressed people.
A shrine w.w brought in with a procession, and from
it a silver bust of the natural size produced. This
bust, said to contain the saint's head, was placed on
the altar, dressed with robes and mitre, and the ser-
vice began. After a little time the precious blood
was brought in. It is contained in a ciystal vase of
the form of a compressed globe, about four inches in
diameter, and the cavity within seemed to be about
two. This vase is set in a broad rim, having two
large handles, and looks very much like an old-l'ash-
ioned circular coach-lamp. The (supposed) blood
was presented to the head of the saint, and then to
the people, the priest holding the vase by its handles,
at arms' length, and gently turning it, while an as-
sistant held a taper between the priest's body ami
the vase. As the flame came immediately behind
the cavity, it showed whether the clot of matter on
one side liquefied and moved round, or remained ad-
hering to the side of the cavity. When 1 saw it, it
did not move. During the exhibition, the service
continued with incense and music. The priest slowly
passed along the line of beholders, giving each indi-
vidual time to ascertain if the licpiefaction had taken
place. They occupied themselves in cries and pray-
ers; and wdieu some time had elapsed, the lower
orders along the balustrade, and those behind them
in the church, became very vociferous, crying out
aloud (and at last even furiously) on the saint, in
tones of entreaty, anger, and despair. After the
wailing had continued for some time, the service ter-
minated, and the blood w.as borne away, the saint un-
robed, and carried of?" in his shrine, and the candles
extinguished ; but it was long ere the sobs of the
women died away, and one old countess, who was
near me the whole time, had continued hysterically
weeping and shrieking so long, that she was too
much exhausted to retire without assistance."
An (lid Italian author, named Boldetti, thus slates
the origin of both the procession and the nnracle :
" A Neapolitan lady being so sick as so keej) her
bed, having heard of St. Januarius and his associates,
determined to seek her cure upon the very spot
where these faithful Christians had been executed.
Inniiediately she gets up, full of hope, and takes two
vials, and repairs to the place of their martyrdom,
which being still wet with the blood of these faithful
confessors, she fills her vials therewith. In one she
puts all the pure blood she could get. and in the
other that which was mixed with the eartli and other
filth. She had scarce made an end bel'ore she found
herself restored to a perfect state of health. Some
time after, this good lady was infornu>d that the head
of the .saint whom we arc speaking of, was lodged in
Naples ; and thought her.sclf bound to acquaint her
countrymen that she was in possession of the saint's
blood, and owed her cm-e to it. This was a new sub-
ject of ediiicjUion for that pious city ; the devout are
determined to translate it ; the head, therefore, of the
saint is taken and carried in pomp in order to fetch
the blood. The lady did not wait for this visit.
Equ.ally humble and devout, she takes the two vials
and runs to meet the head of the martyr. In the
first moment of the interview the blood dissolves, the
JANUS AND JANA— JAPAN (Religion of).
205
people were convinced beyond the power of doubt-
ing, that it was the blood of St. Januarius, and
since tliat time tlie miracle has never ceased."
JANUi^ AND JAXA, two deities worsliipped by
the ancient Romans, the former as the Snn, and the
latter as the Moon. The worship of Janus is said to
have been introduced by Romulus, the founder of
the city of Rome, and it soon became one of the
most important parts of the old Roman religion.
From the name of tliis god, Nunia assigned to the
opening month of the year the name of Jannarius.
A temple also was dedicated to Janus, which was
opened in time of war, and closed in time of peace.
The image of this god was usually double-faced, and
in later times he was regarded as presiding over all
entrances and gates, and the beginning of all em-
ployments and undertakings of every kind. Hence
the Romans at the outset of every enterprise invoked
Janus along viith Ju[]iter. On the first day of the
year, sacrifices were oi^'ered to him by the people,
who were dressed in festive garments, and gave pre-
sents to one another ; priests also sacrificed to him
on twelve altars, thus recognizing him as presiding
over each of the twelve months ; prayers were oti'ered
to him at the coninienceinent of every day. Tlie
sacrifices ottered to .Janus consisted of cakes, barley,
incense, and wine.
JAPAN (Religion of). The Japanese have
always been remarkable for their religious character.
They claim to be the ofi'spring of the gods, and pro-
duce two different genealogical tables in support of
this claim. Those contairjed in the first table,
amounting in nmnber to seven, are said to have
reigned during an almost incalculable number of
years in Japan. These primitive gods were spiritual
substances, and were never clothed in bodies of any
kind. They were succeeded, however, by five ter-
restrial spirits or deified heroes, after whom appeared
the Japanese themselves, who boast of being de-
scended from the last in order of the seven primitive
gods, through the line of the second race of deified
heroes. The Daiki (which see), or sovereign pon-
tifl^ of Japan, alleges himself to be the lineal descend-
ant of the eldest son of their illustrious founder, and
that he is consequently the true, legitimate sover-
eign of the Emph'e of Japan. The first of the five
t(^r;-estrial spirits signalized himself by many deeds
of heroism and valour while he dwelt upon the earth,
and his death was also marked by several miracles.
He is accordingly held in universal veneration among
the Japanese, images and temples being erected to
his honour in every part of the country.
There are two principal religious systems in Japan ;
one native called Sintoism, at the head of which is
the Dairi; the other imported from China or Thibet,
called Budsdoism, which is simply Bud/mm, with
some modifications. The religion of Budha was in-
troduced into Japan A. D. 552. It seems to be Adi-
BuDiiA (whicli see), or the first Budha, the Supreme
Deity and origin of all things, wdio is worshijiped
among the Japanese under the name of A.MID.4S
(which see), and whose priests form the most numer-
ous and influential of the Budhist orders. Siebnld
seems to consider them as pure monotheists. At the
head of the Budhist hierarchy is a high-priest called
Xaco, resident at Miako. With this dignitary rests
the appointment of the Tundies, or superiors of the
monasteries in which the Budhist clergy live. Great
revenues are attached to the monasteries, and the
Tundies are strictly subject to the civil authorities.
They have no direct temporal power, there is no aii-
peal to the secular arm, no civil pimishments for
heresy, and no religious vows peipetually bir.ding,
all being at liberty, so far as the civil law is concerned,
to enter or leave the monasteries at pleasure. Be-
sides the regidar clergy, there are also wandering
monks, who live on alms, pretending to drive away
evil spirits, to find lost articles, to discover robbers,
to determine the guilt or innocence of accused par-
ties, to predict the future, to cure desperate niala-
dies, and to perform other wonders, which they do
chiefly through the medium of a child into whom
they pretend to make a spirit enter, able to answer
all their questions. Of these mendicant monks the
most numerous and influential are the Jammabos
(which see), or mountain priests, which belong not to
the Bitdhkt-s or Badsdoists, but to the Sirdoists.
When the Portuguese first landed in Japan in
the middle of the sixteenth century, they found,
that although the mass of the people were under
the influence of gross superstition, there was a class,
chicfl\' belonging to the upper ranks of society, who
regarded all the difl'erent religions of the country
with secret incredulity or even contempt. These
persons who were known in Japan by the name of
Siodiimi, and their doctrine by that of Siuto, were in
reality Confucians (which see), or followers of the
great Chinese sage or philosopher; but to avoid
being charged with a complete disregard of all reli-
gion, they outwardly conformed in religions practice
to the ancient national .system of the Sintoists.
Like other Budhists, the Budsdoists of Japan be-
lieve in the doctrine of the transmigration of souls,
and as a natural consequence, are averse to the use
of animal food, and this abstinence is also enjoined
by the religion of Sinto. which denounces as impure the
act of killing any animal, or being sprinkled with
the slightest drop of blood. Animals are not found in
great variety in the country, yet from time immemorial
the Japanese have possessed the horse, the ox, the
bufl'alo, the dog, and the cat; but none of these were
ever used as food. A strange notion has from an-
cient times been entertained in regard to the fox,
which they look upon as a sort of evil deity. When
any Japanese is in circumstances of doubt or ditli-
culty, he lays down a plate of rice and beans as a
sacrifice to his fox, and if any part of it has disap-
peared before the next day, he regards it as a favour-
able omen. The tortoise and the crane are reckoned
sacred animals, which are not to be killed nor even
206
JAPAN (Religion of).
iiijiireil. The Japanese islands have few real animals,
and tlie natives being niueli addicted to supersti-
tion, Iiave invented a ninnber of iniaginaiy creatures
whom they regard with a species of reverence. Tlie
dragon, who is also a dreaded monster among the
Chinese ; the Klrin, a winged quadruped, and the
/(«>, a beautiful bird of paradise, are all accounted
peculiarly sacred.
One great feature of tlie Japanese religion is their
attachment to festivals, of which they liave five great
annual ones, besides three inferior, which are celebrat-
ed every month with the utmost hilarity. One of the
most important of the festivals is the Matsuri (which
see), an annual feast held in honour of the god Suwa,
the patron of tlie city of Nagasaki. It consists of
processions, plays, and dances, got up at the expense
of ten or eleven streets, who unite every year for this
purpose. Tliere ai'e several festivals sacred to Smua,
of which the chief is held on the seventh, eighth,
and ninth days of the ninth month.
No country abounds to a greater extent than Ja-
pan in places dedicated to religious worship, or ob-
jects set apart for religious adoration. Thus Kamp-
fer remarks; — "Of all the religious buildings to be
seen in tin's country, the Tira, that is, the Buddlii-st
temples, with the adjoining convents, are, doubtless,
the most rem.'irkable, as being far superior to all
others, by their stately height, curious roofs, and
numberless other beautiful ornaments. Such as are
built within cities or villages, stand commonly on
rising grounds, and in the most conspicuous places.
Others, which are without, are built on the ascent of
hills and mountains. All are most sweetly seated, —
a curious view of the adjacent country, a spring or
rivulet of clear water, and the neighbourhood of a
wood, with pleasant walks, being necessary for the
spots on which these holy structures are to be built.
" All these temples are built of the best cedars and
firs, and adorned within with many carved images.
In the middle of tlie temple stands a fine .iltar, with
one or more gilt idols upon it, and a beautiful candle-
stick, with sweet-scented candles burning before it.
The whole temple is so neatly and curiously adorned,
that one would fancy himself transported into a
Koman Catholic church, diil not the monstrous shape
of the idols, which .arc therein worshipped, evince the
contrary. The whole empire is full of these temples,
and their priests are witliout number. Only in and
about .Miako they comit three thousand eight hun-
dred and ninety -three temples, and thirty-seven
thousand and ninety-three Siukku, or priests, to at-
tend them.
" The .sanctity of the Mia, or temples sacred to the
gods of old worshipped in the country, requires also
that they should be built in some lofty place, or, at
le.ast, at some distance from unclean, common
grounds. I have elsewhere observed that they are
attended only by secidar persons. A neat broad
walk turns in from the highway towards these tem-
ples. At the begiiming of the walk is a stalely and
magnificent gate, built cither of stone or of wood,
with a square table, about a foot and a half high, on
which the name of the god to whom the temple is
consecrated is written or engraved in golden charac-
ters. If you come to the end of the walk, which is
sometimes several hundred paces long, instead of a
pompous, magnificent building, you find nothing but
a low, mean structure of wood, often all hid amidst
trees and bu.shes, with one single grated window to
look into it, and within either all empty, or adonied
only with a looking-glass of metal, placed in the
middle, and hung about with some bundles of straw,
or cut white paiier, tied to a long string, in form of
fringes, as a mark of the purity and sanctity of the
place. The most magnificent gates stand before the
temples of Tensio dai sin, of Futz/nan, and of that
Kami, or god, whom particular places choose to wor-
ship as their tutelar deity, who takes a more particu-
lar care to protect and defend them.
" Other religious objects travellers meet with along
the roads, ,are the Fotoge, or foreign iilols, chiefly
those of Aimda and Dlsixoo. as also other monstrous
images and idols, which we found upon the highways
in several places, at the turning in of sideways, near
bridges, convents, temples, and other buildings.
They are set up partly as an ornament to the place,
partly to remind travellers of the devotion and wor-
ship due to the gods. For this same purpose, draw-
ings of these idols, printed upon entire or half sheets
of paper, are pasted upon the gates of cities and vil-
lages, upon wooden posts, near bridges, and in se\eral
other places upon the highway, which stand the
most exposed to the traveller's view. Travellers,
however, are not obliged to fall down before them,
or to pay them any other mark of worsliip and re-
spect than they are otherwise willing to do.
" On the doors and houses of ordinary [leople (for
men of quality seldom sufler to have theirs thus dis-
figured) there is commonly pasted a sorry picture of
one of their Lares, or house gods, printed upon a half
sheet of paper. The most common is the black-homed
Giwon, otherwise called God-su Ten On — that is,
according to the literal significati(ui of the Chinese
characters for this name, the. ox-lieaded prince oj
heaven — whom they believe to have tlie power of
keeping the family from distemperj*, and other un-
lucky accidents, parficularh' from the small-pox,
which proves fatal to great numbers of their chil-
dren. Others fancy they thrive extremely well, ami
live hapjiy, under the protection of a countryman ol
Jeso, whose monstrous, frightful picture they paste
upon their doors, being hairy all over his body, and
carrying a large sword with both liands, which they
believe he makes use of to keep ofi', and. as it were,
to pariy, all sorts of distempers and misfortunes en-
deavouring to get into the house.
" On the fronts of new and pretty houses I have
sometimes seen dragons' or devils' lie:ids, painted
with a wide open moutli, large teeth and fiery eyes.
The Chinese, and other Indian nations — nay, even
'hsS
«=5
,K
JAPAN (Religion of).
207
the Mahoniedans in Arabia and Persia — have the
same placed over the doors of their houses, by the
friglitfid aspect of this monstrous figure to keep off',
as the hitter say, the envious from distiu'bing the
peace of families.
" Often, also, they put a branch of the Fanna Slcitn-
mi or anise-tree over their doors, which is, in like
manner, believed to bring good hick into their
houses ; or else liverwort, which they fancy hath
the particular virtue to keep off' evil spirits, or some
otlier plants or branches of trees. In villages they
often place over their doors their indulgence boxes,
which they bring back from their pilgrimage to Isje,
thinking, also, by this lueans to bring happiness and
prosperity upon their houses. Others paste long
strips of paper to their doors, which the adherents of
the several religious sects and convents are presented
with by their clergy, for some small gratuity. There
are odd, unknown characters, and divers forms of
prayers, writ upon these papers, which tlie supersti-
tious firmly beheve to have the infallible virtue of
conjuring and keeping oft' all manner of misfortunes.
Many more amulets of the like nature are pasted to
their doors, against the plague, distempers, and par-
ticidar misfortunes. There is, also, one against
poverty."
Religious pilgrimages form a prominent require-
ment of the religions of Japan. Of these the most
celebrated is that to Isje (wliicli see). Pilgrims
also frequently visit the thirty-three principal Qu.^N-
WON or Canon (which see), temples which are scat-
tered over the whole country. Travellers in Japan
tell us, that as they pass along the roads they meet
witli pilgrims wearing only a little straw about their
waists, who are on their way to visit certain temples
in the hope of obtaining deliverance from some fatal
distemper which had seized either themselves or some
near relative. The roads swarm also with begging
monks, and Bikuni or nuns who subsist entirely
upon alms. Some mendicants, to attract compassion,
are shaved and dressed like Buclsdo priests, with a
portion of their sacred writings before them, which
they pretend to be busily engaged in reading ; others
are found sitting near some river or running water
perfonning a Siegakl, that is, a certain ceremony for
the relief of departed souls ; others sit ujion tlie road
all day long upon a small coarse mat, having a flat
bell lying before them, which they beat continually
with a small wooden hammer, while they repeat hi a
plaintive singing tone the word Nniiiada, which is
contracted from Namu Amida'> Budmi, a short form
of prayer wherewith they address Amidas as the
patron and advocate of departed souls.
The worship of ancestors which so remarkably
prevails among the Chinese is not altogether unknown
in Japan. Every month on the day of the ances-
tor's decease for fifty years or more, food, sweet-
meats, and fruits are set before the Ifay (which see).
Tlie fifteenth day of the seventh Japanese month is
a festival devoted to the honour of parents and an-
cestors. Every Jajianese whose parents are still
alive accounts this a happy day, and if maiTied, he
sends a present to his parents. A repast of vege-
tables and fruits is set before the Ifoys, and in the
middle is placed a vase in wliich perfumes are burnt,
and other vases containing flowers. On the following
day rice, tea, and other articles of food are served
up to the Ifu'js as to living guests. On the evenings
of both the fourteenth and fifteenth days of the
month, lanterns suspended from long bamboos are
lighted before each grave-stone, and refreshments
are also placed there. Before daylight of the six-
teenth, the articles placed at the graves are packed
into small boats of straw, provided with sails of paper
or cloth, wliich are carried in procession with vocal
and instrumental music to the water-side, where they
are launched by way of dismissing the souls of the
dead, who are supposed now to return to their
graves.
When the Dalri or chief piiest canonizes any
one who has been during life remarkable for his
virtues he comes to be ranked among the Camis
(which see), or protecting spirits whom the Japan-
ese, particularly the Sintoists, worship, ofl'ering sacri-
fices to them, and building Mias or temples to their
honour. Deified kings or heroes, indeed, form the
princi|ial gods of the Jap.inese, but the temples which
tlie Siiifnisls build to them are far inferior to the
Budsdo temples, which are usually situated on some
elevated spot surrounded with beautiful groves.
Even the temple of Isje, which is held in such hon-
our that it is called Dai-Singu, the temple of the
Great God, is a plain wooden erection, covered with
straw; and inside no statue or image is seen, but
simply a large brazen mirror, which is designed to
symbolize the all-seeing and all-knowing God. To
tliis temple every Siiitoist must once a-year, or at
least once in his life-time, perform a pilgrimage,
which is called Saiir/a. The Sintoism, indeed, of
Japanese antiquity is the worship of a people evi-
dently of Mongolian extraction, and well described
by Rougcmont, as " profane, eai'thly, epicurean,
which desires not to be tormented by the fear of
God, which only celebrates joyous festivals, which is
characterized by a morality wholly sensual in its
nature, which has no belief in hell, but which must
be governed by the severest laws." The ideas which
these heathens entertain of the future rewards of the
righteous and punishments of the wicked, are gi-oss
in the extreme. In their view the soul of a good
man at death wings its way to a sort of Elysian
fields, which are situated beneath the thirty-third
heaven, while the soul of a wicked man is refused
admittance, and doomed to wander like a vagabond
around the abodes of bliss, or, as many of the Ja-
panese believe, to enter into foxes, — animals which
are either themselves devils, or the abodes of devils.
'V\''hen the Budsdnists, or the worshippers oiBiidha,
made their appearance in Japan, about the sixth
century of our era, Budhkm was embraced by a
208
JAPAN (Religion of).
large imniber of the Sintoists, wlio eiidoavoiu'ed to
compromise tlie matter, by mingling some of the
doctrines and practices of the old religion of their
country with that of Biul/ta, which had been im-
ported either from China or Xepaul. It is remark-
able tiat every new region which einhvaced Bttdhi^m
gave a diil'erent name to the founder of the system.
He is Btulha in Ceylon, Fo in Cliina, Cliahia-Moiini
among the Jlongolian Tartars, Somntona-Codom
among the Nepanlese, and AinUlas among the Ja-
panese; the last mentioned being not Chakia, how-
ever, whom thev believe to have been born P.. c.
1027, but the Adi-Budha, or first Budha of the
Nepanlese, who was not a lunniin sage, but the
Divine Being.
While BudsdoisM rapidly gained ground among
the Sintoists, it met with violent opposition from the
Confucians, who had already become a powerful
party in Japan. A Budhist devotee, however,
arrived from India, who speedily succeeded in turn-
ing the tide of popular favour towards Bachdokin.
This he chiefly accomplished by means of miracles
which he professed to perform. One, in particular,
wrought a powerful impression upon the people.
This was the transportation of an image of Amidas
from China into a province of Japan, where it first
made its appearance, crowned with rays of light.
A temple was immediately erected in honour of this
deity, who from that time became the most popidar
object of worship. Some time after this event,
Budsdoism made great progress in Japan, in con-
sequence of the ardent and unwearied laboin's of
Sotoktai, a devoted missionary of the system.
The Japanese are singularly addicted to the wor-
ship of idols. " Their squares and highways," as
Picart informs us, '■ are always honoured with the
presence of some idol, which is erected there either
with a view to kindle flames of devotion in the souls
of traveller.-', or with an intent only to support and
protect the place. There are idols erected likewise
near their bridges, and round about their temples,
chapels, and convents. The people purcliase either
the pictures or images of these idols. The former
are, for the generality, drawn on a sheet, or half a
sheet of paper. They are pasted, like bills or ad-
vertisements, upon the gates of their cities, and other
public buildings, or on posts at the corner of their
briilges and streets. The people, however, are not
obliged, as they pass by, to prostrate themselves, or
bow the knee before them. They have genei'allv,
likewise, an im.age of their domestic and tutelar gods
before the doors of their houses."
All the gods of Japan are represented in a gigantic
or monstrous form sitting on the flower of a plant
which the Jafianesc call Tamte. The idols are all gilt,
and their heads encircled with rays, or v.ith a crown, a
garland, a sort of mitre, or a cap or hat in tlie Chinese
fashion. Animal-wor.ship is practi.scd in Japan, origi-
nating, probably, in the notion that tlu; living crea-
tures which they adore are inhabited by the soids of
heroes and princes. Apes, in jiarticular, from their
likeness to hiunan beings, attract great reverence
from the Japanese, who have a large pagoila or
temple dedicated exclusively to this species of wor-
ship. If the stag is not also an object of adoration,
it is at all events held in such veneration, that no one
is allowed to attempt to kill it. Should a stag liap-
pen to die of wounds in the public streets, the whole
of the street where such an event happened would
be fortlnvirh demolished, and the eiVects of its inha
bitants seized, sold, and the proceeds deposited in
the public treasury. Uogs are also highly valued,
and large immbers of the--:e animals are quartered
upon the inhabitants, who are obliged by law to
nurse them when sick, and to bury them when dead.
On the authority of Froes, a Romish missionary, we
are informed that in one part of Japan, at lea.'^t,
the fish found in a certain river are accounted sacred,
and it is reckoned sacrilege to kill them.
The most extraordinary temple in .Japan is one
situated near Miako, which is sometimes tenned the
Temple of Ten Thousand Idols, and of which we have
given an engraving in the present work. This temple
is thus described by the Dutch compiler of the embjis-
sies to Japan : — " In the middle of the temple there
is a gigantic figure of an idol, that has his ears bored,
his head bald, and chin shaved, much like a Bramin ;
over his head, and under the canopy that covers him,
hang five or six little bells. On each side of him,
that is, on the right and the left side of the throne on
which this deity is sitting, there are several statues
of armed men. Moors dancing, wizards, magicians,
and devils. There are likewise several representa-
tions of thunder and the winds. Round about the
walls of the temple, on the right hand and on the
left, are a thousand iduls all resembling Onion.
Each idol is crowned, has thirty arms, and seven
heads upon his breast. They are all m.ade of solid
gold; every individual decoration belonging to them,
as also to the temple, is likewise of the same precious
metal." Kiinipfer's description of it is somewhat
diflerent : — " In the middle of the pagotla," says he,
" sits a prodigious large idol, which has six-and-forty
arms and hands. Sixteen black demi-gods, of gigan
tic stature, are planted rotmd about him. At some
ciinsiderable distance there are two rows of other
idols, one on the right hand, and the other c» the
left, which are all gilt, .tnd all standing. Kach idol
has several arms. It is necessary to remark here,
that the multi|dicity of arms and hands expresses, or
is a symbol of, the power of the idol. Some have a
kind of shepherds' crooks in their hands, others gar-
lands, and all of them one implement or another.
Their heads are surrounded with rays, and there are
seven other figures over them, the middlemost whereof
is less than the rest. In this I'anthcon there are
likewise ten or a dozen rows of other idols, about the
cominon stature of a man, set very close together,
and disposed in such a manner that they gradually
ascend, in order that all of them may be equally
JASIDIANS— JAVA (Religion of).
209
conspicuous, and attract the eyes of the de-
votees."
Besides the five annual festivals of the Japanese,
which are seasons of recreation rather tlian of devo-
tion, they have also sacred processions, which they
terra Matsuri (whicli see), when they carry tlieir
gods in .shrines constructed for the purpose. From
the first visit of Europeans to Japan in the sixteenth
century, frequent attempts have been made by the
various maritime nations to open up commercial com-
munication with a people so numerous and wealthy
as the Japanese. Portugal led the way, and was
followed by Holland, England, Spain, and Russia,
and finally by the United States, wliieh recently des-
patched an expedition to Japan, under Commodore
Perry. Each, in succession, has failed, and to this
day Japan may be considered as shut out from the
fellowship of the other nations of the world, witli the
single exception of a solitary Dutch vessel being
allowed annually to visit the port of Nagasaki.
Romish missionaries have from time to time attempted
to obtain a settlement in Japan, but to no purpose ;
and no Protestant church has ever been allowed to
obtain access to the country for the diifusion among
the natives of the knowledge of Divine truth.
J.ASIDIANS. See Yezidi
JxVSIIRO, a name which the fiintoi.ts of Japan
use to denote a Mia or temple, with all its appur-
tenances.
JASSASA (Al), Arab., the Spy, a beast whose
appearance the Mohammedans believe will be one
sign of the approach of the day of final judgment.
" When the sentence shall be ready to fall upon
them," .says the Koran, " we will cause a beast to
come forth unto them out of the earth, which shall
speak unto them." This beast, it is believed, will
make its appearance in the temple of Mecca, or on
Mount Safa, or in the territory of Tayef. It is to be
sixty feet high, or, according to some, as high as the
clouds. It will appear for three d.ays, showing only
a third part of its body. This monster will be com-
posed of difterent species of animals, liaving the head
of a bull, the eyes of a hog, the ears of an elephant,
the horns of a stag, the neck of an ostrich, tlie breast
of a lion, the back of a cat, the tail of a ram, the legs
of a camel, the voice of an ass, and the colour of a
tiger. This beast will bring along with it the rod of
Moses and the seal of Solomon ; witli the former
smiting all believers on the face, and marking them
with the word Mumen, or beUever ; with the latter
smiting all unbelievers also on the face, marking
them with the word Cafer. or infidel, that every one
may be fully known on the day of judgment. This
beast, which will speak in Arabic, will, in addition to
all this, demonstrate the folly of all religions except
the Mussulman.
JAUK, or Yauk, one of the five deified men
mentioned in the Koran as having been worshipped
by the ancient Araliians. They are supposed to
have been Antediluvians, whoh.ad been distingtnshed
II
for their virtues and great qualities. Tlie Arabians
represented Jauk under the figure of a horse.
JAVA (Religion of). This island forms one of
the largest of the Sunda Islands in the Eastern Archi-
pelago. The population seem to have been of Tartar
origin, their ancestors having migrated from that
quarter of the .\siatic continent lying between Siara
and China. This migration Sir Stamford Raffles
supposes to have been of very ancient date, long
before the Burman and Siamese nations rose into
notice. It is astonishing how extensive a variet\' of
temples and sculptures of great antii{uity are to be
found everywhere throughout the island ; and as it is
matter of history that iMohammedanism became the
established religion of Java in A. D. 1475, all these
ruins, in so far as they partake of a Pagan character,
must of course be referred to an earlier period.
From the peculiar apjjeai'ance of tlie architectural
remains of the temples, and the an>.ient inscnptions
which are discovered on them, the conclusion has
been drawn by Raffles and others that they consist
of two series, an older and a more recent, the former
indicating that the religion of Builha at one time
prevailed in Java, and the latter indicating that
Bui:Uiiimv;a,s superseded by the more modern system
oi Brahmanism or Hinduism, which still retains so
firm a hold of the natives, although, for four centuries
past, the Jloslem faith has been the dominant religion
of the country, that they are still devotedly attached
to their ancientPagan institutions. The true condition
of matters may be learned by comparing tlie state of
the island of Java with that of the island of Brfli in
its neighbourhood. The whole island of Java ap-
pears to have been converted to Mohammedanism in
the course of the sixteenth century. The ruins of
sacred edifices and statues which abound there are
all of a Biidhist or Hindu type, while the present
inhabitants profess the religion of the Koran. In
BilH, on the other hand, not more than one in two
hundred of the natives are Mohaunnedans, aiul the
great body of the people profess the creed of the
Hindus, and observe its institutions, although Hin-
duism has become extinct in the rest of the Indian
Archipelago. " On Java," says Sir Stamford Raffles,
" this singidar and interesting system of religion is
classed among the antiquities of the island. Here it
is a living source of action, and a universal rule of
conduct. The present state of B^Ii may be con-
sidered, therefore, as a kind of commentary on the
ancient condition of the natives of Java. Hinduism
has here severed society into castes; it has introduced
its divinities ; it has extended its ceremonies into
most of the transactions of life ; it has enjoined or
recqmmended some of its severest sacrifices, such as
the biuTiing of a widow on the funeral pile of her
husband : but yet the individual retains all the native
manliness of his character, and all the fire of the
savage state." Mr Crawford, who visited Bali in
1814, says that the religion of Bali has been con-
sidered as of two descriptions, that of Budha, and
21
JEALOUSY (Water of)— JEHOVAH.
thiit of liralima. The Uudliists are said to liave
come first to the country. Of the Braliinaiis of
Sewa, or S/iiva, nine generations are said to liave
passed over since their arrival.
One of the most interesting and striking evidences
of tlie fact that Biid/iism anciently prevailed in Java,
is the temple of Boro Bor/o. probably Bara Budlia,
or the great Biidha, situated in the mountainous and
romantic territory of Ivjidon, immediately to the east
of Cheribon. It is a square structure, of hewn stone,
each side 5"20 English feet long, and UC feet in
height. It is built on the summit of a small hill,
and consists of a series of six enclosing walls, crowned
by a dome. The outer and inner side of each wall
is covered with a profusion of sculpture, including
between 300 and 400 images of Budha, from whom
the temple may possibly have received its name.
At Brambanan, however, in the district of Mataram,
there is a most extensive display of ancient architec-
ture, the temples, tliough built of hewn stone, being
small, and clustered in groups, of which tlie largest
is tliat called the Thousand Temples. It occupies a
space GOO feet in length by 5.50 in breadth, within
which are four rows of small buildings, surrounding a
large central one. The whole group has four en-
trances, each facing a cardinal point, and guarded by
two gigantic statues, each nine feet high, though in
a kneeling attitude, and eleven feet in circuit.
As a further proof that the Javanese were inti-
mately connected in religion with the Hindus, it may
be mentioned that the Kawi, or ancient Javanese
character, and which is accounted sacred, is nearly
allied to, and indeed has a large infusion of, the
Sanscrit. Figures of Hindu deities, such as Brahma,
Gai>e-:a, Maliadeva, and others, are to be found in
abundance.
The religious festivals of the Javanese now cor-
respond with those of the Slohanmiedans gene-
rally; but on the occasion of the funeral of a de-
parted relative, or in honom- of his memory, they
observe solemnities on the seventh, fortieth, one hun-
dredth, or thousandth day after his decease. Those
who intend to observe tliem assemble on the preced-
ing evening, in order to read some portion of the
Koran. Before the guests partake of the meal, the
princi[)al person present generally addresses the Al-
mighty in a prayer which alludes to the occasion,
and expresses gi-atitude for the repast.
JE.\LOUSY (W.4TKK OF). This water, which is
described by Moses as the bitter water that causeth
the curse, was appointed by tlie law of Moses to
be drunk by an Israelitisli woman suspected of
infidelity to her husband, but denying her guilt.
The mode of preparation and administration of
thi.'! water is minutely detailed in Num. xi. 5 — 29.
The priest was commanded to write the curses in a
book, and ha\ ing washed those curses into the water,
it was thus said to become bitter, or impregnated
with the curse. 'I'he effect produced upon the sus-
pected woman who was called upon to drink tliis
water of jealousy was dreadful. If guilty, slie felt
constrained to confess ; and the rabbins tell us that
a woman who confessed in such circumstances was
not put to death, but only divorced without dowry.
An ordeal of this kind was well fitted to accomplish
the purpose for which it was appointed, and could
not possibly injure the innocent.
JEBIS, the god of the sea among tlie Sintoists of
Japan. He is worshipped both by fishermen and
merchants, and is usually represented as sitting upon
a rock near the sea-shore, with an angling rod or line
in one hand and a fish in the other.
JEHOVAH, the incommunicable name of the
Supreme Being, denoting his self-existence. It was
not revealed before the time of Moses, and lience tlie
declaration made in Exodus vi. 3, " And I appeared
unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, by the
name of God Almighty, but by my name Jkhovah
was I not known to them." It is identical with J ah,
and is intended to describe the incoinmunicable
essence which the Apostle John expresses in the
Apocalypse by a periplirasis, '• He that is, and was,
and is to come." The Jews usually substitute i r
the word Jehovah, which they are afraid to pronounce
or to write, the word Adoiiai. or Lord. After the
Babylonish Captivity, the Jews left ofl' pronouncing
it, and thereby lost its true pronunciation. In our
authorised translation the word is generally translated
LoitD, in capital letters. The Septuagiut also renders
it the Lord. Origen, .Jerome, and Eusebius, inform
us that in their time the Jews left the name Jehovah
in their copies written in the Samaritan character,
instead of the Hebrew or Chaldee, lest strangers
shouldprofivneand misapplyit. The Jews,asJoseplius
informs us, call this name of God the Telra/jraminaton,
or the name with four letters, and they believe that
if any man knows the true pronunciation of it, he
cannot fail to be heard by God. Simon the Just,
they allege, was the last who was acquainted with it.
They saj* that the angels are not at liberty to utter
the word Jehovah, and that, by virtue of this name,
which was inscribed on his rod, Moses perfonned
all his miracles.
The Jewish Cabbalists attach the utmost import-
ance to the word Jehovah, which they allege not
only to be the peculiar name of the Divine essence,
but also to designate the Aziluthic world, or world
of emanation, which contains the ten Sephiroth.
The first of the lour Hebrew letters of wdiich it con-
sists has a twofold signification, the point of the letter
denoting the Supreme crown, which some Cabbalists
also call the central point, while the letter itself de-
notes Wisdom ; the second letter. Understanding ;
the third, which is equivalent to six, implies the next
six numerations ; and the fourth signifies the tenth
and last. Manasseh Ben Israel remarks that the
four letters may be differently arranged, so as to
form twelve ditVerent words, all signifying " to be."
In this respect, he says, the word Jehovah stands
alone, for n . other word can be found which will
JEJUMI— JEMMA.
211
admit of being so transposed, witliout a change of
signiticjition. It is further alleged by tlie Cabbalisls,
as we leani from an intelligent writer, that " the
seven nations which people tlie earth have tlieir
princes in heaven, who surround the throne of the
Eternal, as otiicers ready to execute his pleasure.
They stand around the name Jehovah, and upon
the first day of every year petition for a certain por-
tion of blessings to be confeiTed upon their people
during that period. This is expressive of tlie de-
pendauce of these princes for all tlieir knowledge in
the art of government on the Fountain and Source
of all knowledge, from whom cometh down every
good and perfect ,gift. It is further said that all the
knowledge and felicity destined for a particidar
nation was granted to the prince of that nation upon
the first day of every year. This circumstance dis-
tinguishes the Jews from all the other nations, be-
cause tlie name Jehovah is peculiar to them, and
they may, eveiy day of the year, receive such bless-
ings as are needful. To this apply the words of the
prayer of Solomon : ' The Lord our God be with us,
as lie was with our fatliers ; let him not leave us, nor
fors;ike us. Aud let these my words, wlierewith I
have made supplic^vtion before tlie Lord, be nigh
unto the Lord our God day and night.' And
David, speaking of other nations, says, ' They shall
pray unto God, and he sliall not save them.' That
is, the nations shall supplicate their princes for
additional blessings to those granted unto them upon
the first day of the year, but they shall supplicate in
vain." " The Cabbalists also teach," says the same
writer, " that when God treats with the heathen
nations, he assumes all his splendour and majestic
greatness; but when he condescends to treat witli
the .Tews, he appears in all his unveiled amiableness,
and converses in a familiar manner, or gives fidl
manifestations of the name Jehovah. ' They that
know thy name will put their trust in thee.' Ac-
corilingly, the wise men say that the name Jehovah
is pronounced and written in the temple in a proper
manner, but in the produces it is only expressed by
siniames and circumlocutions, obviously teaching the
plain truth, that the Jews knew God better than the
other nations, and that this name will apjiear in all
its divine and huninous splendour to the saints and
angels in the state of full perfection and glory.
" These mysterious Cabbalists have another method
of developing the mysteries contained in the name
Jehovah. They attribute to each of the letters a
specific value, which depends upon their local station
from the letter Jod, and form significant combinations
of these letters. They form a name of the value of
twelve, another of forty-two, and a tliird of seventy-
two, and to each of these they assign a particular
angel, invested with pai'ticular power to avert cala-
mity and to confer favours. They conclude this part
of their system by stating the vast importance of
acquiring proper conceptions of the name of God,
and the various significations of the same, in order
to pray in an acceptable manner, lest man should
supplicate for wrath and vengeance when he wished
to supplicate for pardon and mercy. And they be-
lieve that the highest measure of knowledge and
perfection is to know the whole import of the iu-
eSable name of Jehovah."
JEJUMI, figure-treading, a ceremony observed
annually among the Japanese, of trampling upon the
crucifix, the Virgin Mary, and other saints. It is under-
stood to be observed at Nagasaki down to the present
day, and is probably designed to express the •abhor-
rence which this singular people entertain for Cliristia-
nity, or at least for that fonn of it which the Jesuits of
Rome liad several times; though without success,
attempted to introduce into the kingdom of Japan.
The images used in Kiinipfer's time were about a
foot long, cast in brass, and kept in a particular box
for the purpose. The ceremony took place in the
presence of the street oflicers. Each house was
entered by turns, two messengers carrying the box.
The images were laid upon the bare floor, and the
list of the household being called over, they were
required in turn to tread u[ion them. Young chil-
dren, not yet able to walk, were held in their
mothers' arms, so as to touch the images with their
feet. It has been asserted that the Dutch were
obliged to engage in this ceremony, but the state-
ment is incorrect.
JEKIRE, an evil spirit among the Japanese,
which they expel by exorcising, a ceremony wliicli
Klimpfer describes, telling us tliat " in one of his
voyages he met with a vessel full of penitents, who
all roared out Namamhi as loud as they could stretch
their throats, in order to procure relief to their
atflicted townsmen, who were visited with a malig-
nant fever. At the same time they had recourse to
their gi'and chaplet, which, in time of public distress,
they always say sitting, young aud old, promiscuou.sly
together in a circle. The chaplet shdes apace
through the fingers of the devotees, and at every
great bead each of them lioUows out Naniauda, with
all the external testimonies of unfeigned son-ow and
sincere repentance. If, notwithstanding these their
pious endeavours, the contagion spreads farther, the
same divine service and humiliation is appointed to
be performed in all their pagodas."
JEiVIMA, the judge of the wicked after death
among the Japanese, who beholds in a large looking-
glass all the most secret transactions of mankind.
If, however, the priests intercede with Aniidas for
the sinner, and the relations of the deceased are
sufiiciently liberal in their offerings to the priests,
Amidas has sufikient influence with Jcmma to pro-
cure a mitigation of punislunent, or even a complete
discharge, so that the sinner may return to the world
again before the term allotted for his punishment has
fully exjiired. When they liave suffered all tliat has
been appointed for them, the wicked are sujiposed by
the Japanese Budsdoists to return into this world,
and to animate the bodies of unclean beasts, such as
212
JERUSALEM (New) CHURCH-JESUITS.
i
tOiuls, serpents, am) siich-like animals. The trans-
migration goe.-i onward, until, in process of time, tliey
return to human bodies, again to pass through
another series of changes. There is a temple con-
secrated to Jeiumn a short distance from Miako,
situated in a very dcliglitful grotto, in which liliewise
tliere is a convent. The tigure of Jemma, the king
of the devils, is monstrous, and on each side of him
are two largo devils, one acting as his secretary, and
registering in a book all the sins of mankind ; while
the other reads them distinctly, or rather dictates
wliat the secretary is to record. The walls are em-
bellished with frightful pictures of tortures which the
wicked are supposed to undergo. This temple is
resorted to by crowds of people from all parts, with
oblations and money in their hands, to redeem their
souls from the punisliments inflicted by so formidable
a judge.
JERUSALEM ;New) CHURCIL See Sweden-
BORGIANS.
JESSEANS, a name which Epiphanius says was
given to the early Clu'istians ; either from Jesse, the
father of David, or, which is more probable, from the
name of the Lord Jesus.
JESU.A.TE3. See Apo.stolic Clerks.
JESUITS, a religious order of the Romish Clnu'ch,
which was established in the sixteenth century under
the name of the Society of Jesus. Its founder was
a distinguished Spanish knight, Ignatius Loyola, who
was born at Guipuzcoa k. D. 1491. At an early age
he was sent as a page to the court of Ferdinand and
Isabella, where he acquired all the pr)lish and refine-
ment of manners which such a situation was so well
fitted to attbrd. It was not until he had completed
his twenty-ninth year that this man, destined to act
so conspicuous a part in the world, first emerged
from private into public life. The border provinces
between Franco and Spain had long been a source of
keen contention between the two countries. In 1521
Francis I., king of France, had despatched a large
army across the borders into Navarre, which, con-
trary to treaties, was then held by Charles of Aus-
tria. The French army having laid waste the pro-
vince of (iuipuzcoa, proceeded to lay siege to Pam-
peluna. the capital of Navarre. It was on this
occasion that we find Loyola in the army of his
country bravely defending the beleaguered garrison.
Here he was sev(!rely wounded, and carried to the
head- quarters of the French general, who generously
ordered him to he safely convoyed to the paternal
mansion near I'ampehuia. The wounded man reached
home, but, notwithstanding the care and attention
bestowed upon him, faial symptoms began to show
thciiiselves. lie became gradually worse, and death
seemed to be at hand. The physician pronounced
the case to be hopeless, and the priest was summoned
to perform the last offices of religion, according to
the rites of the CInirch of Rome. This was the eve
of Saints Peter and I'aul, and at dead of night, as
Romish writers tell us, the Prince of the Apostles
actually appeared in vision to the dying man, and
from that hoin- his recovery commenced.
A considerable period elapsed before Loyola could
leave his sick cliainber, and the time was chiefly
passed in devoutly perusing those marvellous legends
and lives of saints with which Roman Catholic lite-
rature abounds. Naturally of an enthusiastic tem-
perament, his mind was thrown into a state of
feverish excitement by the wonders which he read,
and he vowed, in his zeal, to renounce the world, to
make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and to devote him-
self to the service of God and the Virgin. These
resolutions were strengthened and confirmed bv a
vision which he alleged he had seen, of the Virgin
Mother, with the infant Jesus in her arms. Mean-
time he gathered strength both of body and mind,
and he longed to enter upon that course of self-
denying austerities which he had marked out for
himself. Holiness, in his view, consisted not in the
renovation and moral exaltation of his nature, but in
the crucifixion of that nature. His heart was set not
so much upon the creation, and growth, and perfec-
tiim of the new man, as upon the annihilation of
the old man. Loyola had proclaimed war against
himself, resolving to deny himself to the indul-
gence of all the affections, and principles, and ten-
dencies of his nature indiscriminately. lie set him-
self nightly to chastise himself with the scourge,
thinking, by the torment of the body, to purge away
the sin of the soul.
lieforo he had yet fully recovered his heallh, Loyola
left the paternal home, intending to put in practice the
resolution he had formed of nuiking a pilgrimage to
Jerusalem. But preparatory to entering upon this
long journey, he paid his devotions at the celebrated
shrine of the Virgin Mary at Muntserrat, near Bar-
celona. On reaching the neighbourhood of Bar-
celona, he learned th.at a pestilence was raging in the
town, and he judged it prudent, therefore, to take up
his residence foi' a short time at Manresa, about nine
nnles distant from Barcelona. Here he subsisted by
begging from door to door, applied the lash three
times every day to his bare shoulders, spent seven
hom's out of the twenty-four in private devotion,
besides thrice attending public prayers at church ;
and every week he confessed to a priest, and received
the sacrament. Soon, however, he began to feel the
wretchedness of that destitution and beggary to
which he had voluntarily reduced himself. In vain
did he practise .still more severe austerities and bodily
mortifications. His body only became weaker, and
his mind more perplexed and distracted. The sins
of his past life rose up in array before him, and to
his other painful anxieties w-ire added the pangs of
an awakened conscience. " A black dcsi)air," says
Mr. Isaac Taylor. " seized him in the midst of this
spiritn.al wretchedness; and the thought even of self-
destruction crossed his mind. At that time he occu-
pied a cell in a convent of the Dominicans, from the
window of which he had been impelled to throw
Jifiia'igtm«& iit y^nDilE.
JESUITS.
213
himself. He was, Iiowever, withheld from tliis pur-
pose by the Divine mercy; but he resolved, witli tlie
hope of vaiKiuishing or of placating the Divine jus-
tice, to abstain absolutely from all food, until he
should win back the peace and joy that had thus left
liim. Intermitting no sacred services and no pen-
ances, he fasted a day — and two days — and three —
and four — nay, an entire week ; and he would have
persisted in his resolution had not the priest, his
confessor, and wlio had already sounded the depths
of his lieart, interposed, and straitly commanded
him to abandon so presumptuous an endeavour as
that of contending with the Almiglity ; in fact he
threatened him with a denial of the communion,
should he persist. Alarjued .by a threat so territic,
he took food therefore ; and, for a time, regained
some tranquillity. Yet speedily he relapsed into the
same condition of inward distress, and was tempted
at once to renounce his ascetic purposes, and to
return to tlie world and to its enjoyments. Witli
tliis temptation, also, he grappled successfidly ; and
at length, and as if by a convulsive plunge, he extri-
cated himself at once, and for ever, from these dan-
gerous entanglements."
Daring the year which Loyola spent in Manrcsa,
he composed his remarkable work, " The Spiritual
Exercises," a production which is held in the highest
estimation in the Church of Rome as a Iwok of devo-
tion and a guide to religious conduct. In the spring
of 1523 he sailed from Barcelona for Italy, and, after
a stormy passage of five days, he reached Gaeta,
wlience he walked to Rome, worn out with fa-
tigue and hunger. After kissing the feet and re-
ceiving the benediction of Pope Adrian VI., he pro-
ceeded on his journey, and arrived at the Holy City
on the 4th of September 1523. He felt that he was
now pi'ivileged to tread on sacred ground, and ear-
nestly did he wish that lie might remain for a
lengthened period in this favoured spot, and realize,
if possible, his fondest day-dreams — the restoration
of the schismatic Greeks to the commtuiion of Rome,
and the conversion to Christianity of the followers of
Mohammed. But the monks of Jerusalem refused
to allow the zealous Spaniard to protract liis stay
in Palestine, and he was compelled to turn his back,
however reluctantly, upon the land of apostles and
prophets, and to return without delay to Europe.
On reaching home, Loyola resolved to prepare
himself for the sacred office by passing through a
regular system of instruction al Barcelona. In early
life, he had not even received the first rudiments of
education ; but, with the most laudable decision of cha-
racter, he took his place in a class of boys at school,
engaging in all their exercises, and even submitting
to the usual discipline of the institution. After
having made some progress in the acquisition of the
Latin language, he quitted the school, and entered
tlie university of Alcala, which Iiad been founded by
the learned Cardinal Ximenes. Here again he was
indebted for support wholly to the alms of the
charitable. Instead of devoting himself with un-
divided attention to the pursuit of his college studies,
the enthusiastic Loyola burned with a yearning desire
for the conversion of careless souls. Both in pi-ivate
and in public, in the streets and in the college halls,
he pleaded witli men about their immortal interests,
and called upon them to subdue the flesh by penances
and mortifications of every kind. The hearts of
many were touched by the discourses of the zealous
student. The suspicions of the holy office at Toledo
were excited by what they heard of the doings of
Loyola, and for six weeks he was committed to
prison ; nor was he liberated without the conditiim
being laid down that he should abstain from preach-
ing or teaching others until he had tinished his studies.
It was impossible for Loyola to snbnn't to such
restrictions, and therefore, on being liberated from
prison, he set out, with several hke-minded com-
panions, for Salamanca, where, meeting with similar
treatment as at Alcala, lie determined to repair to
Paris, with the view of completing his academic
course at the university. In the depth of winter, lie
travelled on foot, alone, and without a guide. He
spent several years in preparing for the priestly
oflice, studying philosophy and the languages at
Montague College, and attending a course of theology
with the Dominicans. He had now passed six years
in fitting himself, by a regular course of training, fur
public usefulness. Thus equipped, he endeavoured
not only to convert the profligate, but those also whom
he considered involved in fatal heresy, as having
imbibed the opinions of Luther and the Reformation.
This great work, he felt persuaded, could not possibly
be accomplished bv his single unaided efl'urls. He j
therefore strove to win over to his opinions some of
the most distinguished students then attending the
university of Paris. His first convert was Peter
Faber, a Savoyard. The celebrated Francis Xavicr
was the next. James Lainez, Alplionso Salmeron,
Nicolas Alphonso, surnamed Bobadilla, Simon Rod-
riguez d'Arevedo, Claude le Jay, John Codure, and
Pasquier Brouet, joined the company which gave
origin to the Society of Jesus.
This band of zealous associates gathered roiuid
Loyola, animated by his ardent and devoted spirit,
and impressed with the firm conviction that they and
their leader were called by God to the discharge of
a great work. On the 15tli of August 1534, being
the Festival of the Assumption of tlie Virgin Mary,
the company assembled in the church of Montmartre,
and there solemnly dedicated themselves to the ser-
vice of the Saviour, partaking together of the Holy
Eucharist, and binding themselves, by a solenm oath,
to a profession of jioverty, a reiumciation of the
world, and ab-solute devotion to the service of God
and the good of souls; adding at the .same time some
other special resolutions, — namely, to attempt a mis-
sion to Palestine, or, if frustrated in that design, to
throw themselves at the feet of the sovereign pontiif
without reservation, stipulation, or condition of any
•214
JESUITS.
! kind, offering to undertake any service which lie, the
' vicar of Cln-ist, should call them to perform. Several
of tlie members of the Society liad not yet tinished
tlieir studies. Tliree years, tlierefore, wore allowed
for this purpose, and it was agreed that tliey should
meet in January 1537, to carry into effect the designs
tliey had formed. That year, accordingly, the com-
panions of Loyola left Paris, and proceeded tluougli
France, Germany, and Switzerland into Italy. At
Venice they met with their spiritual guide and
instructor, who had gone by another route, and
arrived belore them. It was here that the Society
was fully constituted, and its rules drawn up and
agreed to. The members distributed tliemselves
among the hospitals of the city, and freely gave their
services to the sick and the poor. Their object,
however, was still kept in view, to carry out tlieir
proposed journey to Palestine. But before setting
out for the Holy Land, Loyola despatched his com-
panions to Rome, for the purpose of casting them-
selves at the feet of Pope Paul III., and obtaining
his permission and benediction. They were cour-
teously received by the pontiff, all their wislies were
gratified, and tliey were amply supplied with gold
from the Papal treasury. The}' returned to Venice,
and rejoined their master, when both he and they
received priest's orders from the niuicio there, and
bound tliemselves anew to the service of God, of the
church, and their fellow-men. The next town they
visited was Vieenza, where they engaged in preach-
ing tlie Gospel with such unwearied diligence and
devoted eaniestness, that the citizens regarded them
with the utmost respect and even veneration. Tlieir
powerful addresses on the public streets not only
drew tlie attention, but reached the hearts, of their
liearers, and many who came to mock I'emained to
liray.
It was %vhile the Fathers were at Vieenza that they
laid down the plans of their society. In the com-
mencement of the great work to wliich they deemed
themselves to be called, tliey decided to make a new
proffer of themselves and their services to the Apos-
tolic See. For this purpose Loyola, Faber, and
Lainez set out for Rome, leaving the rest of tlieir
companions to disperse themselves as missionaries
over the northern parts of Italy. While journeying
southwards on f(jot, Loyola was favoured with one of
those remarkable visions which he was so often per-
mitted to behold. The Eternal Fatlier appeared to
him in a trance, and by his side stood Jesus, bearing
a large cross, and uttering these words as he received
Loyola from the Father : '•' I will be favourable to
you at Rome." From the date of this vision, it was
resolved that the name of tlie religious order which
Ihey had formeil should henceforth be the " Society
of Jesus." On the arrival of the three asso-
ciates at Rome in l.').-!7, they were admitted to an
audience of the Pope, who readily gave his solemn
sanction to their undertaking. They now devoted
themselves to public preaching and private dealing
witli souls. Two of them officiated as professors of
theology in the Gymnasinm, while Loyola laboured
in hospitals, schools, and private houses, besides ad-
ministering the discipline of the " Spirit u;il Exercises"
to a number of persons of high rank both in church
and state. After Loyola and his two companions
had laboured thus assiduously for a time, it was
resolv'ed to organize the Society, and for this purpose
the whole of the Fathers were summoned to Koine
from the difi'erent towns of Italy where they were
diligently prosecuting their missionary work. AVhen
they had all assembled, they renewed their vows of
poverty, chastity, and unconditional obedience to the
Pope, and, after solemn deliberation, fasting, and
prayer, they elected Loyola to the responsible office
of general of the order. A petition was now pre-
.sented to Paul III. for a formal recognition of the
Society. His Holiness was personally di.sposed to
fiivour the new order, and more especially as their
ministrations were so highly appreciated in all the
countries where they were known, that applications
reached Rome from all quarters, requesting them to
imdertake spiritual and even secular offices. Jolin
III., the king of Portugal, had long entertained the
project of forming a mission in India, and his atten-
tion having been directed to the newdy-established
order, as Ukely to aflbrd .suitable agents for conduct-
ing this great work, he asked and obtained two mem-
bers of the order to engage in this service. One of
these was Francis Xavier, who earned for himself
the title of the prince of Romish missionaries.
The Pope now decided that the time had arrived
for giving his formal sanction and eontimiation to
the new order. He issued a bull accordingly, dated
27th September 1540, duly constituting the order
under the name of the Company of Jesus; and in
April of the following year, Ignatius Loyola was in-
stalled as General of the Order. At first the Society
was limited by the arrangement of the Pope to si.xty
members ; but it was soon found to be necessary to
remove this restriction, and vast accessions were
yearly made to its numbers. Loyola was not long
in discovering that the influence of the body was
destined to e.\tend far and wide, not only in all
countries, but among all classes of men, from the king
to the humblest cottager. Within a few years from
its first establishment, houses of the Order were es-
tablished in many countries, in Spain, Portugal,
France, Germany, Italy, Sicily, and even on the re-
mote shores of India. To maintain a constant and
close communication with the centre of influence,
provincials were ajipointed in all Romish countries,
through whom the Genend at Rome was made con-
stantly aware of all that concerned the inlerests of
the Church and the Order. The Constitutions of
the Society were carefully revised and digested,
and preparations were made for establishing .Jesuit
colleges in diflerent countries for tlie purposes of
general education.
In 1550, Loyola wrote an earnest letter to the
JESUITS.
215
senior Fatliers of the Society, requesting to be re-
lieved from tlie generalship whicli he liud held for
nine years, and tlie duties of which lie felt himself
scarcely able adequately to discharge. All of them,
with one exception, refused to accept his resignation,
which, accordingly, in deference to the wishes of his
collo.igues, he whhdrew. The Society liad spread
its intrica e ramirieations over the wliole of the Kom-
ibh cliurch, but Loyola was the mainsjiring of the
movement ; and nowliere did his endeavours to pro-
mote the progress of the Order meet witli greater
opposition tlian in France. In that country the
clergy entertained a deep-rooted jealousy and suspi-
cion of the Jesuits. The faculty of theology in tlie
Sorbonne issued a decree against the Society, but
Loyola maintained a prudent silence, and amid all
the obstacles which impeded its progress, the new
Order silently and secretly diflused its principles
among all classes of the people, and in process of time
it gained as firm a footing in France as in any other
country.
The accumulated labours and anxieties of his
office as General of tlie Jesuits, coidd not fail in the
course of years to weaken the naturally vigorous
constitution of Loyola. The members of the Order
therefore elected as his coailjutor a Spanish Jesuit
named Jerom Nadal, who relieved the General of the
business connected with the Society, and left him at
liberty to devote himself in the evening of his days
to his favourite employment, the care of the sick.
He did not long survive, however, his retirement
from active duties, but daily declining, he died on
. the last day of July 155G, in the sixty-tifth year of
}iis age. In 1GG9 the Jesuits prevailed on Paul V.
to admit Ignatius Loyola to the privileges of Beati-
fication (which see).
The most famous Jesuit next to the founder of the
Order was undoubtedly Francis Xavier, who, by his
almost incredible labours in foreign countries as a
missionary, did as much to advance the fume of
Jesuitism abroad, as Loyola by his almost miraculous
exertions at home. The apostle of India, as he has
frequently been termed, was by birth a Spaniard, and
having been selected by Loyola as a suitable person
to undertake the work of a foreign missionary, he
sailed from Lisbon in April 1541, but did not reach
the shores of India until May 1542. First at Goa,
and then on the coast of Malabar, he laboured
strenuously to turn the heathen from pagan idolatry
to the reception of Christianity in the form of Ro-
manism. And his success seems to have been mar-
vellous. He writes home, "that in one month were
baptized several thousand idolaters, and that fre-
quently in one day a well-peopled village was indi-
vidually baptized." Thus, in the view of this Jesuit
missionary, baptism seems to have been identical
with con\ersion. The next scene of his labours was
Japan, which has always been emphatically a coun-
try wholly given to idolatry. Tliither he sailed in
1549, and though he resided among the Japanese
only two years and four months, he succeeded in
winning over many even of the most bigoted wor-
shippers of idols to the proferssion of an adherence to
the Church of Rome. Tliis he contrived to accom-
plish bv compromise, combining heathen traditions
whh the facts and doctrines of Christianity.
Encouraged by the marked success which liad
hitherto attended his missionary elforts, Xavier now
formed the bold design of attempting the conversion
of China. To that country he directed his course
with only two companions, in 1552. While on his
way thither the vessel in which he sailed was seized
and dismantled. Though thus disappointed in his
object, he made another attempt to secure a passage
to China, but without success. The failure of his
favourite scheme preyed upon his mind and att'ected
his bodily health. He languished, sickened, and
died in the forty-sixth year of his age.
After the death of Xavier, several Romish mis-
sionaries, chiefly of the Dominican order, succeeded
in penetrating into China, and indeed that country
down to the present time has been a constant field
of Romish missions. In all parts both of the Old
World and the New, the Jesuits, from the fir.st es-
tablishment of the Order, have prosecuted the work
of missionaries with a zeal and energy the most
exemplary and unwearied. But while thus actively
carrying forward their missionary operations in for-
eign parts, they have always been equally alive to
the necessities of those under their immediate in-
spection ; for it is a remarkable fact, that at the
very time when Loyola was despatching Xavier on
his mission to the East, he was planning the estab-
lishment of Jesuit colleges in the diflerent parts of
Europe. His biographer, Ribadeneira, speaks of no
fewer than fifty-two collegiate establishments on a
larger, and twenty-four others on a smaller scale.
The immediate successor of Loyola in the gen-
eralship of the Order was Lainez, who commenced
a system of policy which changed the whole charac-
ter of Jesuitism. He had represented the Society at
the council of Trent, where in all the deliberations
lie took high ground on the subject of the Pope's
authority, and indeed acted as papal legate. It was
quite in keeping with his character, therefore, that,
on his accession to the office of General, he should
claim to be invested with absolute authority, and to
have prisons at his command that he might have it
in his power to punish the refractory with temporal
penalties. Thus the liigh-toned spirituality which
Loyola had ever sought to connect with Jesuitism,
was exchanged for a system of mere human policy.
Instead of the discipline of the '■ Spiritual Exercises,"
the new General put in force the discipline of tlit
" Constitutions." It was Lainez and not Loyola
that first stamped upon the Order that peculiar fea-
ture which it has ever since maintained, that of im-
plicit submission to the will of the Superior, and
entire surrender of the body, mind, conscience, and
indeed the whole man to his undisputed control.
216
JESUITS.
Tlie strict cliscipliiio enforced upon tlie nieiiibers
of the Society by Laiiiez, was rendered, if possible,
still stricter "by his successor, Francis Borgia, who,
austere himself, demanded tlie utmost austerity from
others. Durin- the ten years whicli had elapsed
since the first "^establishment of the Order, the Je-
suits had thrown off much of tliat appearance of
piety, which, under the training of Loyola, attracted
the respect and even admiration of the world. It
was the aim of Borgia to arrest them in tlieir course
of da^-eueraey, and to insist upon their observance of
tlie outward 'proprieties, at least, of a religious order.
But with all tliis anxiety to reform his Order, Borgia
is charged, and not witliout reason, witli being one
of tlie principal instigators of tlie cruel massacre of
St. Bartholomew, though he was not spared long
enough to witness that dreadful event, having been
cut oH' about throe weeks before it took place.
The next General of the Order was Mercuiran, by
birth a Spaniard, under whose rule Jesuitism added to
its unboundeil ambition a system of casuistry, which,
bv means of sophistry and quibbling, would seek to
neutralize the plainest laws of the Decalogue. At
this period of their history the Jesuits commenced
to intermeddle with the political affairs of nations.
The first government on which they practised their
intrigues was that of Sweden, using all their endea-
vours to bring it into subjection to the see of Rome.
Their efforts, however, were wholly unsuccessful, and
Sweden remains a Protestant country to the present
day. The popes now began to see more clearly than
ever the high value of the Jesuit Order in upholding
and increasing the p.apal autliority. Gregory XIII.,
accordingly, who was the then reigning Pope, contri-
buted largely from the treasures of the church to re-
plenish the coffers of this useful Order. Their insti-
tutions of every kind were liberally endowed, and
every attempt was made to promote the wealth and
iniluenee of the society.
The Jesuits, as we have already remarked, had
no small difiiculty in obtaining a footing in France,
in consequence of the jealousy with which they were
viewed by the French clergy. But having once
e.stablislied themselves in the country, they busied
themselves in fanning the flame of discord between
the Roman Catholics .and the Huguenots, and to
their interference is mainly due those scenes of bar-
barous and inhuman cruelty which mark the liis-
torv of the Protestant church of France. The rise
of the Jansenists, in the sixteenth century, following
hard upon the I'rotest.ant Keformafioii in Germany,
rendered it still more dillicult for the JeFuits to hold
their ground among the French clergy and people.
The Sorboime had alw.ays viewed them with suspi-
cion, and now it demanded their expulsion from the
countrv. Henry IV. passed a decree to this effect
in 1594, but it continued in force for only a few
years. In 160.3 they were recalled, and spread with
kuch rapidity, that in a few years est.ablishuu'uts he-
longing to the Order were to be found in every pro-
vince, and in almost every town in the kingdom,
struggling hard to destroy the liberties of the Gal-
ilean church, and to propagate their uUramontanc
principles among all classes of the people.
It was at this period in the history of the Jesuits,
that the disciples of Loyola were confronted with
such overwhehning ability and power by the follow-
ers of Jansenius. ' The Provincial Letters' of Pas-
cal, one of the keenest and most cutting satires that
has ever issued from the press, spread teiTor and
dismay among the ranks of the Jesuits, and for a
season their cause was considered as hopeless. But
in course of time the pungency of Pascal's wit, and
the force of his logic, were alike forgotten, and the
Jesuits succeeded in recovering their intlueiice. The
reign of Louis XIV. was their golden age. They
presided both in the palace and at the council-board,
moving the springs of government, and directing the
consciences of the rulers.
It is nnnecessary, after what has been said in the
article J.\n.seni.sts, to do more th.an simply to allude
to the keen contest which ensued between th.at
party and the Jesuits in regard to the work of Fa-
ther Quesnel. Long and bitter was the contmvers}',
but it terminated in the triumph of the Jesuits, and
the consequent flight of the Jansenists into Holland
and other Protestant countries. Jesuitism now ob-
tained a complete ascendency in France, and the na-
tural fruits of the system speedily began to appear
Voltaire and the French Encyclopaedists gathered
around them a large and influential scliool of infidels
whose principles spread far and wide among the peo-
ple. To infidelity and irreligion succeeded anarchy
and revolution. The Jesuits were expelled in 1764
with the consent of Louis XV. All the governments
of Europe soon followed the examjile of France.
Tliev were banished from Spain and Sicily in 1767 ;
from Malta and Parma in 1768 ; and from Rome by
Clement XIV. in 177.3.
The reiection of the Jesuits by the Roman Catho-
lic governments, and even by the supreme Pontiff
himself, was felt to be a fatal blow aimed at the very
existence of the Order. Some of them, discouraged
and almost in despair, threw off the name and dress
of the Society of Jesus, and attempted to conceal
themselves under new appellations, such as those o.
" Fathers of the Cross," or " Fathers of the Faith ;"
but the great mass of them scorned to adopt such a
subterfuge, and resolved to continue to wear even in
public the insignia of Loyola. In one state, tlio
kiugduni of Prussia, the Jesuits paid no regard to
the papal brief for their suppression. Their conduct
in this matter met with the entire approval of the
reigning sovereign, Frederic the Great. The conse-
quence was that, shut out from other countries,
they fled to Prussia, and soon became numerons
there, monasteries being built for their reception,
and superiors elected over them. The bishop of
Brcslau interposed in behalf of the papal see,
whose authority was thus attempted to be set at
JESUITS.
217
noiiglit. but Fro(lei-ic threw the shield of his royal
protection over the rebellions Jesuits, and ordered
tliat tliey should remain unmolested in his dominions.
In vain did the Pope Pius VI. remonstrate with the
Prussian monarch ; he refused to yield more than to
allow the Jesuits to abandon the dress of their Order,
but in all other points he declared it to be his sov-
ereign will that they should remain inviolate. Tlie
French infidel school, more especially DWlembei-t,
was earnest wifli Frederic to expel the Jesuits, as
the other European nionarchs had done. But the
great Frederic was inexorable, he was resolved to
retain a class of men whom he regarded as useful to
liim in many respects, chiefly on political grounds.
His motives, however, were entirely misunderstood
by the Jesuits themselves, who, imagining that he
approved their religious principles, made a formal
application to him to declare himself openly the pro-
tector of their Order. This request, however, he
politely declined, stating " that it was for the Pope
to make whatever reforms he pleased in his own
states without the interference of heretics."
Tlie Jesuits, in their state of exile, received the
protection also of Catherine II., empress of Russia,
wdio looked upon them as political auxiliaries. On
this ground she retained them in White Russia,
which was an ancient Polish province, and prohi-
bited the proclamation of the brief of Clement XIV.
in all the Russia?. Encouraged by the support
which they received from Catherine they sent a de-
putation to Pius VI., who, as he was secretly dis-
posed to favour the Order, gave way to his own
per.sonal feelings in the matter, and while he openly
maintained tlie suppression of the Society, neverthe-
less encouraged their growth in Russia. The nur-
sery of the Jesuits, accordingly, was kept up in
White Russia : but after some years they began to
display an indiscreet zeal in proselytising, and were
in consequence expelled from the kingdom which
had so long afibrded them an asylum. But happily
for them they no longer required an asylum in tlie
north. Pius VII. relieved them from their degra-
dation, and by a bull, dated 7tli August 1814, he
revoked the brief of Clement XIV., and re-estab-
lished the Order of Jesuits throughout the world.
From this period, having been restored to the full
enjoyment of the papal sanction, the Jesuits made
their appearance openly in the Roman Catholic
countries of Europe, claiming to be regarded as a
valuable and ahnost indispensable portion of the
organization of the Romish church. In France they
sought to (ill the principal situations in colleges and
schools, with the view of training the youth in high
ultramontane views, A loud cry arose against them
in 1824; and in 1845 they were ordered to leave
. the country. But without any formal enactment in
their favour they have returned in great numbers,
and are fast pervading the minds of the clergy and
members of the Galilean church with ultramontane
principles of the strongest kind.
In Rome, too, the .lesuits have completely re-
covered the proud position they once held. Pius IX.
has confirmed the restoration of the Order. " They
enjoy," says Mr, Grinfield, in his historical sketcli,
entitled ' The Jesuits,' '• the complete command of
the Roman college, and of most of the collegiate
establishments in- 'the Eternal City.' Tliey are
again active in Spain and Portugal, and have renewed
their efforts in Austria, Bavaria, Silesia, and Prussia,
in Hanover, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and
France. In China and the South Seas, as well as
Australia and New Zealand, they are rapidly in-
creasing. In every part of the American provinces
they are awakening the alarm of Protestant.s. In
Canada, they have been restored to a large college,
and have numerous seminaries in every part of the
province. Numbers of them are employed in the
education of youth, and they are connected with a
large missionary establishment — a branch of the
Roman Propaganda. In the East and West Indies,
as, indeed, in all English colonies, they are numerous
and active. For the English who may travel abroad,
they have colleges at Dou.ay, Liege, Valladolid, Lis-
bon, Brussels, Naples, Paris, Rome, Boulogne, Rjilis-
bon, and in many other jilaces. Over these, some
.lesuits are regularly placed,"
On 1st January 1854, tlie total number of the
members of the Society of Jesus, not including the
.affiliated, amounted, according to the report of the
general's office at Rome, to 5,000, and it is highly
probable that since that time, their number must
have become much larger. Ribadaneira says, that,
in 1608, the Society numbered 10.581 members.
The members of the Society of Jesus are divided in-
to four classes : 1. The Frofessed, or those who take
the four vows, namely, that of perfect obedience, of
voluntary poverty, of perpetual chastity, and of ab-
solute submission to the Pope. 2. The Coadjutors,
who are eitlier spiritual or temporal, that is, eccle-
siastics or lay brethren. They aid in carrjdng for-
ward the designs of the Society, but are bound only
b)' the three simple vows of obedience, poverty, and
chastity. 3. The Scholars, whose position is to be
determined by their hidividual qualifications. They
are bound by the three former x ows. but are allowed
to take the last with consent of their superiors.
They may become either spiritual coadjutors, or
simple priests of the Society. 4. The Novices, who
are admitted indiscriminately, and are considered
only as candidates upon trial. A probation of two
years is required before taking the vows of the tem-
poral coadjutors, ami of the scholars who are to be-
come spiritual coadjutors. Another probation of a
year precedes the vows of the professed.
At the age of fourteen a young man may be pro-
posed for admission into the Order as a Novice ; but
before he is formally accepted, a minute investiga-
tion takes place into his temper, talents, station in
society, and prospects in life. Nor is the scrutiny
limited to the individual himself; it extends also to
218
JESUITS.
his relatives and connections, botli near and remote.
If the examiners are fully salistiod with tlie results
of their inquiry, lie is forthwith admitted into the
noviciate; if they are only partially pleased, he is
put on further probation ; but if they find the yoiitli
to be unpromising they dismiss him as unsuitable.
Supposing the youth to become a Novice, he is put
under a course of special training, with the view of
teaching him to yield implicit submission to his su-
periors, ir.erging his own will wholly in theirs. The
duty is incul«ued upon him of abandoning his patri-
mony, and devoting it to the poor or to the churcli.
During the whole period of his noviciate, he is pre-
vented from holding intercourse with his friends or
relatives, except under certain conditions, to which
he must strictly adhere. His every movement is
narrowly watched, and at the confessional he must
reveal the inmost secrets of his heart.
Shotdd the young man approve himself as a Novice
during a two yetirs' probation, he next becomes a
Scholar, and in this capacity he must pass a montli
in self-examination, confession, and meditation ; a
month iti begging from door to door ; he must wait
on the sick in some of the hospitals ; he must do the
duties of a menial in the convent ; he must employ
himself finally in teaching and in preaching. After
two years thus spent, he is promoted to the rank of
a coadjutor, and in another year to that of a ])rofrssed
brother. The grand aim towards which the whole of
this protracted course of training is directed, goes to
the entire subjection of the whole man to the will of
the superior. "If you would immolate 3'our whole
self wholly unto God," says Loyola, " you must offer to
him not the bare will merely, but the understanding
also; to think just what the superior thinks, and
take his judgment for your own, so far as it is possi-
ble for a devoted will to bend the understanding. It
is impossible to deny that obedience includes not
only the doing of what is commanded, and the will-
ing of what is done, but the submission of the judg-
ment also, that whatever is commanded should be
thought right and true ; for obedience is a holocatist
wherein the whole man, without any part reserved
whatever, is immolated to his Creator and his Lord
by the hands of his ministers.
" Tlie noble simplicity of blind obedience is gone,
if in our secret breast we call in question whether
that which is commanded be right or wrong. This
is what makes it perfect and acceptable to the Lord,
that the mo.st excellent and most precious part of
man is consecrated to him, and nothing whatsoever
of liim kept back for himself.
" And let every man be well persuaded that he
who lives under obedience ought, un<ler the provi-
dence of (Jod, sincerely to be governed and behave
exactly as if he were a corpse, which suffers itself to
be turned in all directions and dragged every where ;
or as if he were an old man's staff, to be used where-
soever and in whatsoever he wishes who holds it in
Ills hand."
At an early period, so early, indeed, as the meet-
ing of the Council of Trent in 1545, the Jesuits were
suspected of tendhig, in their doctrinal sentiments,
towards Pelagianism. Accordingly, the deputies
which they sent to the council, l^ainez and Sal-
meron, were watched by the Augustinian [larfy with
the greatest jealousy, and although they attempted
to conceal their real opinions under a mass of cum-
brous erudition, it was plain that they were entirely
opposed to the principles of Father Augustin in re-
gard to the vital doctrines of justification by faith,
the fallen condition of man, and the insufficiency of
good works to merit pardon and salvation. Another
point, also, on which the Jesuit deputies gave great
offence to the assembled bishops, was the boldness
with which they avowed ultramontane principles, not
oidy in regard to the supremacy of the Pope, but in
regard to his being the source of all episcoi)al autho-
rity, alleging, as they did, that " the divine hierarchy
of the church was concentrated on the head of I im
to whom they had made a special vow of obedience."
The doctrine of the Jesuits on this point is, that the
Pope, as head of the church on earth, is infallible ; tliat
he is the only visible source of that unixersal and un-
limited power which, in their view, Christ has granted
to the church ; tliat all bishops and subordinate
rulers derive from him alone the authority and juris-
diction with which they are invested ; that he is not
bound by any laws of the church, nor by any de-
crees of councils ; that he alone is the supreme legis-
lator of the church ; and that it is in the highest
degree criminal to oppose or disobey his edicts and
commands. Such are the strong views which the
Jesuits and ultramontanists generally entertain of
the power and authority inherent in the Pope as the
vicegerent of Christ on earth in the government of
the church.
The controversy with the Jansenists, towards the
middle and end of tlie sixteenth century, devehiiied
the Pelagian opinions of the Jesuits more fully than
even the debates in the council of Trent. The Au-
gustinian theology on the doctrine of grace had been
substantially taught in the "Augusfinus" ofJan.se-
nius, and ably defended by the writers of Port Royal.
The Jesuits, however, as they had formerly done in
opposition to the Dominicans, so now in opposition to
the Jansenists, contended earnestly in favour of tlie
Pelagian views, modilied somewhat by the introduc-
tion of the scientki media, or perfect prescience of
the future, on which the Divine ]jredestination was
suppo.sed to proceed. This latter modification of
Pelagianism was suggested by the Jesuit Molina,
in his celebnifed work on the Concord of Free-
will with Divine Grace, published in 1558. The
.lansenist controver.sy was c^arried on with great
bitterness for many years, but at length in U'i4'2 the
Jesuits succeeded in obtaining from Urban VIII. a
bull condemning the work of Jansenius ; and in
1().5,'! and 1()5() Innocent X. and Alexander VII.
issued bulls denouncing as heretical and impious live
JESUITS IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
219
propositions alleged to be contained in that work.
(See Jansenists.) At the instigation of the Je-
suits, a fierce persecution of tlie Jausenists took
place, which, although suspended for a time under
the pontiiicate of Clement IX., was soon recom-
menced, and many of the Jausenists Hed from
France to tiud an asylum in other parts of Europe.
The Jesuits raised another persecution against the
rival body in the following century, which ended in
the complete depression of their enemies, and their
own triiunph for a time, but, as we have already
seen, the day of retribution at length arrived, and the
Jesuits were suppressed in 1773.
The moral doctrines of the Jesuits were perhaps
more objectionable than their theological, tending as
they did to corrupt the minds and hearts of multi-
tudes. They taught, for example, that it was of no
consequence from what motives men obeyed tl)e
commandments of God, yet that wicked actions might
be justified by good intentions. Pascal, in the 'Pro-
vincial Letters,' exposes their system of morals with
the most cutting irony, and with exquisite humour.
Many of the Romish as well as Protestant writers
have been violent in their oppo.sition to Jesuit
morality. Some of their pernicious maxims were in
fact condemned in 1G59 by Pope Alexander VII.;
and in 1G90 the article relating to Philo-sophical Sin
was condemned, but without effect, by Alexander
VIII. Reference has already been made, under the
article Casuists, to some of their ethical tenets, par-
ticularly their doctrine of Probability, wliich, along
with that of Philosophical Sin, has stamped the
Jesuits as perverters of the principles of morality.
" According to the doctrine of the Jesuits," says
Professor Ranke, " it is enough only not to will the
commission of a sin as such: the sinner has the more
I'eason to hope for pardon, the less he thought of
God in the perpetration of his evil deed, and the
more violent was the passion by which he felt him-
self impelled : custom, and even bad example, inas-
much as they restrict the freedom of the will, avail
m excuse. What a narrowing is this of the range
of transgression ! Surely no one loves sin for its
own sake. But, besides this, they admit other
grounds of excuse. Duelling, for instance, is by all
means forbidden by the Church ; nevertheless, the
Jesuits are of opinion, that if any one incur the risk of
being deemed a coward, or of losing a place, or the fa-
vour of his sovereign, by avoiding a duel ; in that case
he is not to be condemned, if he fight. To take a false
oath were in itself a grievous sin : but, say the Je-
suits, he who oidy swears outwardly, without in-
wardly intending it, is not bound by his oath ; for he
does not swear, but jests. These doctrines are laid
down in books which expressly profess to be moder-
ate. Now that their day is past, who would seek to
explore the further perversions of ingenuity to the
annihilation of all morality, in which the propounders
of these doctrines vied, with literary emulation, in
outdoins; each other? But it cannot be denied that
the most repulsive tenets of individual doctors were
rendered very dangerous through another principle
of the Jesuits, namely, their doctrine of ' proba-
bility.' They maintained that, in certain cases, a
man might act upon an opinion, of the truth of which
he was not convinced, provided it was vindicated by
an author of credit. They not only held it allow-
able to follow the most indulgent teachers, but they
even counselled it. Scruples of conscience were to be
despised ; nay, the true way to get rid of them, was
to follow the easiest opinions, even though their siumd-
ness was not very certain. How strongly did all tli.s
tend to convert the most inward and secret prom|it-
ings of conscience into mere outward deed. In the
casuistic manuals of the Jesuits all possible contin-
gencies of life are treated of, nearly in the same
way as is usual in the systems of civil law, and exa-
mined with regard to their degree of veniality : one
needs but to open one of these books, and regulate
himself in accordance with what he finds there, with-
out any conviction of his own mind, to be sure of
absolution from God and the Church. A slight turn
of thought unburthened from all guilt whatever.
Wifh some degree of decency, the Jesuits them-
selves occasionally marvelled how easy the yoke of
Christ was rendered by their doctrines!" Philoso-
phical sin, that is, sin conunitted through ignorance
or forgetfulness of God, is in the eye of the Jesuits
of a very light and trivial nature, and does not de-
serve the pains of hell.
The Society of Jesuits is a regularfy organized
body, being governed by a General at Rome, who
has four assistants, but who is responsible to none
but the Pope alone. He nominates all the func-
tionaries of the Order, and can remove them at plea-
sure. By means of the confessional, the closest
surveillance is maintained over families and indivi-
duals, and an arbitrary jiower is exercised over the
consciences and the conduct of men, which it is im-
po.ssible for the victims to resist.
JESUITS IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRE
LAND. In the twelfth century, Pope Adrian 1 V .,
an Englishman by birth, made a grant of Ireland to
Henry II., King ofEngland, on condition that the king
shoidd pay him a yearly tribute for each house in
Ireland, that the Catholic religion should be restored
to its ancient splendour, and the people to a com-
mendable propriety of conduct. In 1174, Henry
was acknowledged to be lord paramount of all Ire-
land. Nothing connected with the Jesuits occurred
till the reign of Henry VIII. , when the Pope ot
Rome, Paul III., of Jesuit notoriety, took Ireland
under his innnediate patronage. The German Re-
formation, which diffused the principles of Protes-
tantism throughout every other country in Europe,
left Ireland untouched. Nay, a rebellion broke out
avowedly in defence of the Pope's authorit}', but the
power of the king of England bore down all opposi-
tion. Statutes were passed in the Irish parliament
abolishing papal authority, and declaring Henry
220
JESUITS IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
head of the Irisli CImrcli, as well as granting liim
the first-fruits of all ecclesiastical benefices. Partial
insurrections follmved. but they were speedily sup-
pressed. Parliament and the Irisli chieftains were
all on the side of Henry ; their country was raised
to the rank of a kingdom, and the English ascen-
dency, by the ailmission of Dr. Lingard. the Roman
Catholic historian, ve.sted on a ririner basis than it
had ever done since the invasion of the island by
Henry II.
Such w,as the state of matters in Ireland, when
two Jesuit envoys were despatched thither by
Paul III. The persons selected for this mission were
Brouet and Sahneron ; the one a Frenchman, and
the other a Spaniard. Tliey were invested with tlie
powers of papal nuncios, and before leaving Rome,
thev received special written instructions from Loy-
ola, as to the manner in which they should conduct '
themselves in fulrilling their difficult and delicate
task. Joined by a papal functionary named Zapata,
they set out on their expedition in September 1541.
On their way they visited Scotland, where they so
wrought upon the mind of tlie reigning monarch,
James V,, that they withheld him from joining
Henry VIII. in his resistance to the Papal power,
and his acceptance of the Reformation. From Scot-
land the Jesuit envoys hastened to Ireland, where,
by their bland and plausible numners, they succeeded
in gaining the confidence of the Irish jieople. They
reported to Rome that they had scoured the whole
island in thirty-four da3's, and had found the people
in the most deplorable state both as to religion ,and
morality. They iiad resolved, however, not to give
way to discouragement, but to try what could be
done by means of masses, indulgences, and confes-
sions. It was soon ascertained, of course, that the
Jesuits, instead of confining themselves to the exer-
cise of their .spiritual duties, were actually attempting
to plot against the government ; and, in consequence,
a price was set upon their heads, and confiscation
and the penalty of death were proclaimed against
every individual who shotdd harbour them. Finding
themselves thus in danger of falling into the hands of
Henry VIII., they left Ireland in haste, and, on their
way to France, again visited Scotland; but they saw
enough to discom-age them from prolonging their
stay in that country, and, contrary to the express
wislies of the Pope, they fled to France, where tliey
had the misfortune to be imprisoned at Lyons as
Spanish spies. They had intended, it is said, boldly
to appear at the English com-t, and plead the cause
of Romanism, but they judged it better to return to
Rome without delay. Thus ended the first expedi-
tion of the Jesuits to Ireland.
Notwithstanding the failure of- this scheme, the
Jesuits watched their opportunity for effecting a
Bettlement in Britain. A suitable occasion seemed
to present itself on the dealli of Edward VI. and the
accession of .Mary to the English throne, who, being
herself a Roman Catholic, wished to undo all that the
Reformation had eftected, and to restore the old
religion to its former position in the coimtry. At
this ajiparently favourable period a proposal was
made to Cardinal Pole to establish a branch of the
Society of Jesuits in England; but the proposal was
unexpectedly declined, the cardinal being by no
means friendly to the Jesuits. It was not, indeed,
till the death of iMary, and the acces.sion of Elizabeth,
that a second Jesuit expedition to Ireland was plainied
at Rome. The individual selected for tliis important
mission was an Irislunan by birtli, named David
Woulfe. Before setting out, he was invested by
Pins IV. with the powers of Apostolic nuncio, and
furnished with instructions to proceed to Irehtnd, for
the purpose of taking all possible steps to nnileruiine
the aiuliority of Elizabeth in Ireland, and subjecting
the Irish Clun'ch to the Papal dominion. After five
months spent on the journey, Woulfe reached Cork,
in the south of Ireland, where he was received,
according to his own account, with great joy by the
Roman Catholics. At first, he was peculiarly zealous
and active in the discharge of his mission, and wrote
to Rome the most eiicoin-aging accounts of his
success; but at length he gradually relaxed in his
exertions, and ended by conducting himself so im-
properly, that it was found necessary to dismiss him
from all connection with the Society of Jesus. Thus
terminated the second expeditiou of the Jesuits to
Ireland.
The Pope, however, and the Jesuits had strong
confidence that, amid all discouragements, they would
yet succeed in eft'ecting a lodgment in the Emerald
Isle, Only three years, accordingly, had elap^ed
fr(nii the period of Woulfe's unfortunate failure, when
three more Jesuits were despatched to Ireland, with
an archbishop, to erect colleges and academies — hav-
ing been invested with full power from the Pope to
make use of the ecclesiastical revenues for that object.
At the same time an English Jesuit was sent from
Rome to bis native country, " for the good of his
health, and for the consolation and aid of the Catho-
lics." Thomas Chiiige, for such was his name, is
said to have been successful in converting some of
the nobility to the Romish faith, but, in the course
of a year, his labours were cut short by death.
While thus watching over the interests of the
Romish Chm-ch in England and Ireland, Pius IV. did
not neglect to seek the jiromotion of the same cause
in Scotland. In 156'2, Nicholas Gaudan, a Jesuit,
was sent to Mary Queen of Scots, for the purpose of
comforting her in the midst of her dilficuhics. and
confirming her in her adherence to the faith of Rome.
The mission •which he had undertaken was one of
extreme dillicidty. Nowhere had the principles of
the Ueformation fouiul a more congenial scjil than in
Scotland. There, accordingly, these principles were no
sooner preached, than they found thousands of willing
nn'nds and hearts by whom they were understood and
.ajipreciated. At the time when Gaudan appearid at
the court of Mary, the Reformed opinions had been
JESUITS IN GREAT KIllTAIN AND IRELAND.
221
extensively embraced by all classes of the people, and
.vhatever savoured of Rome was repelled with indig-
nation and disgust. Such was the state of feeling in
Scotland when the Jesuit Gaudan entered the country
ill the disguise of a hawker or common pedlar. On
learning by a secret messenger the arrival of this
emissary from the Pope, the queen contrived to
admit him to a private interview; not once only, but
on three sc^parate occasions, when she solemnly pro-
tested to the Papal nuncio her determination to up-
liold the Church of Rome to the utmost of her power,
and her readiness to suffer in its support, should she
be called to do so. The report soon spread that a
Jesuit had found access to the palace, and the utmost
excitement began to prevail. His steps were tracked;
a price was set upon his head ; and Gaudan quitted
Scotland in the utmost haste, carrying with him,
however, several youths belonging to noble families,
to be educated in Flanders, that they might return
to their native land as apostles of the faith of Rome.
The rapid progress of the Reformation in ScotlandS)
aw.ikened no small anxiety at Rome, and an oppor-
tunity was eagerly looked for of restoring the Papal
supremacy in that coiuitry. In 1567, accordingly,
when Mary had given notice to the. Pope, Pius V.,
of her marriage with Daniley, his Holiness instantly
despatched a Jesuit named Edmund Hay, under the
pretence of congratulating her on the happy event,
but in reality to counsel with and advise her as to
the best mode of subjecting her kingdom to the See
of Rome. So anxious was the Pope to effect this
re-conquest of Scotland, that he declared, in a letter
to the queen, which he sent by the hands of Hay, and
which was written in the holoyTaph of his Holiness,
that he would sell the last chalice of the church in the
cause. Andthe Jesuit was, moreover, instructed to hold
out to llary the flattering prospect of Elizabeth being
}-et dethroned by the intluence of Rome, and herself
being placed on the throne of England. And it is
not unlikely that such an expectation was really en-
tertained by the Pope, as we find him in 1570, only
three years after this signiiicant message to Mary,
issuing a bull of deposition against the queen of Eng-
land, thus endeavouring to excite her subjects to
rebellion. The English Roman Catholics held this
bull in as little respect as the Protestants did ; but
that in other quarters a dilferent result was antici-
pated, is evident from the fact, that on the person of
a Scottish Jesuit, of the name of Creightun, who wa.s
apprehended and imprisoned in 1584, was found a
paper giving detailed reasons to show the easiness of
an invasion of England, and appealing to the general
wish and expectation of the English Catholics. The
Jesuits had taken an active part in establishing a
college at Douay, in French Flanders, for the pur-
pose of training missionaries to be sent into England.
William Allen, a zealous Enghsh Romanist, was the
main instrument in plaiming, and for many years
carrying on, this missionary college. At tlif instiga-
tion of a part}' in Douay, however, the magistrates
dismissed Allen and his as.sociafes, who immediately
transferred their services to a similar institution at
Rhcims in France. Another establishment of the
same kind was founded at Rome by Gregory XIII.
Thus, at the Seminaries, as they were Ciilled, of
Douay, Rheims, and Rome, were trained the Semi-
nary-priests, many of them Englishmen by birth, who
were to propagate the Romish faith hi England and
Ireland. It was soon discovered, however, that
various individuals among the Seminary-priests were
using their endeavours to seduce the English subjects
from allegiance to the queen, and thus carrying out
the design of the bull of Pius V. Several English-
men of good families entered the Society of the
Jesuits. In a single year, 1578, Flanders alone gave
the Company twelve select Englishmen, who had
been exiles, and their number increased from year to
year, until at length Mercurian, a general of the
Jesuits, exclaimed, " Now it seems God's will that I
the Company sh.ould march to battle against the
heresy of England, since he sends to her such a i
numerous and valiant host from England." Thither,
accordingly, several Jesuits repaired, who, along with
the Seminary-priests, attempted to sow the seeds of
disloyalty and disaifection among the people. Tliis
conduct, of course, could not be tolerated, and the
government forthwith issued a proclamation to the
following eft'ect : " That whosoever had any children, i
wards, kinsmen, or other relations in the parts be- \
yond the seas, should, after ten days, give In their i
names to the ordinary, and within four months call
them home again, and when they were returned,
should forthwith give notice of the same to the said |
ordinary. That they should not, directly or in- :
directly, supply such as refused to return with any .
money. That no man .should entertain in his house '
or harbour any priests sent forth of the aforesaid \
seminaries, or Jexidt',, or cherish and relieve them. '
And that whosoever did to the contrary, should be
accounted a favourer of rebels and seditious persons,
iuid be proceeded against according to the laws of
the laud." ]
About three years before this proclamation was
made, the Pope had sent an expedition to invade
Ireland. It was headed by a person of the name of !
Stukely, whom the Pope made his chamberlain, and
created him Manpiis of Leinster, furnishing him at
the same time with both money and men. Stukely i
set out, and on reaching the Tagus, where he ex-
pected to be joined by the king of Spahi with a large
army, he allowed himself to be persuaded to join
hi an expedition against the Turks, and perished in
the battle of Alcazarquiver. A fleet had been wait-
ing on the coast of Ireland to give Stukely a warm
reception, but it was of course recalled. And yet
though Stukely was diverted i'rom the first object of
his expedition, it was afterwards carried out by an
Irish refugee called Fitzmaurice, with a few Irish
and English exiles and Spanish soldiers. Dr. San-
ders accompanied them as Papal legate, tarrying
222
JESUITS IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
with him a bull which constituted the invasion a
regular crusiule, with all its privileges. A laiuliiig
wa.s made near Kerry, but the whole attempt at
inv.ision tunied out a total lailure, and the inv.aders
and insurgents were treated with tlie most barbarous
cruelty.
The boldness of the Jesuits seemed to increase
with every tVesh repulse whicli they received.
Scarcely liad the news of the disastrous failure of
the Irish expedition reached Rome, when they re-
solved, nothing daunted, to attempt the establishment
of a branch of their Society in England, and the per-
sons selected for tliis enterprize were two resolute
and euthufiastic members of the Order, Father Par-
sons and Father Campion, both of them natives of
England. They left Rome in 1580, with strict
cliarges given to them not to interfere in the slightest
degree with any political interests in the affairs of
England. Parsons, who was a man of iiorce, blus-
tering disposition, was appohited head of the expedi-
tion, which numbered in all thirteen persons, seven
of whom were priests. Passing through the Con-
tinental states, this party of Jesuit missionaries had
a conference with Boza at Geneva. Parsons, leav-
ing Campion to follow, resolved to enter England
before his companions. He passed himself oft' as a
military officer returning from Flanders to Englarid ;
and the wily Jesuit dressed himself accordingly, be-
sides interlarding his conversation with profane oaths,
to render the deception all the more complete. Cross-
ing to Dover, he journeyed on towards London, not
witiiout some fear of detection, in consequence of the
suspicion prevailing against strangers. Campion
followed, in tlie dress of a pedlar or merchant. On
reaching the metropolis, a meeting of the Jesuits and
missionary priests was held, at which Parsons pre-
sided. As instructed at Rome, he declared, and
even solemnly took oath, that, in coming to England,
he had no political designs whatever, but solely
sought the conversion of the country to Rome, with
the co-operation of the secular priests.
Notwitlistanding the solemn disavowal of political
motives with which the mission of the Jesuits was
thus conuncnced, Parsons and Campion travelled
through England imder various forms of disguise,
filling the minds of Roman Catholics with the most
seililious and treasonable principles, ui-ging, in no
very obscure or unintelligible language, the necessity
of deposing the queen. Intelligence of such pro-
ceedings could not fail to reach the government, and,
accordingly, impiiries of the most searching nature
were set on foot to discover the Jesuits. Severe
denunciations were published against all who should
harbour them, and against all who quitted the king-
dom without the license of the queen ; and rewards
were oHered for the discovery of the oflendcrs.
Parsons and Campion now addressed a letter in con-
cert to the privy council, complaining of the general
persecution, as well as the suspicions entertained
against what they termed the most blessed company of
Jesuits, and asserting the loyalty of the Catholics tc
be greater than that of tlie Protestants, but especially
of the Puritans. Campion challenged the Protestant
theologians to a controversy on the subject of the
true faith; but the Jesuit's challenge and defiance
were disregarded. The Jesuits now felt that the
pubhcation of the edict had rendered their position
dangerous. Spies were everywhere in search of
them, and they were under the necessity, in order t«
escape detection, of frequently changing their dis-
guises, their names, and places of residence. " My
dresses are most numerous," writes Campion, " and
various are my fashions; and as for names, I have an
.ibundance." Parsons, by his extraordinary dex-
terity and unscrupulousness, had less difficulty than
his colleague in eluding the pursuit of his enemies.
It cannot be denied that the presence of the
Jesuits in England, and the revolutionary principles
which they were diligently spreading among the
people, roused the queen and her ministers to the
•adoption of severe measm-cs against the English
Romanists. Up to this time, they had been readily
admitted to court ; some occupied situations of high
honour and trust ; and the Roman Catholic nobility,
though excluded from the House of Commons, still
sat and voted in the House of Lords. Now, however,
that the Jesuits and Seminary-priests were perverting
the minds of English Romanists, and alienating th.em
from the government of their coimtry, the most de-
cided steps were adopted by the queen and lier minis-
ters to repress tlie treasonable spirit which began to
manifest itself. Laws were passed, subjecting to the •
penalties of high treason all who possessed or pre-
tended to possess the power of absolving or of with-
drawing others from the established religion, or suf-
fered themselves to be so withdrawn. Those who
said mass, and those who attended it, were liable to
be punished with fine and imprisonment. Another
act provided, that to prevent the concealment of
priests as tutors and schoolmasters in private families,
every person acting in that capacity without the
apiirobation of the ordinary, shoidd be liable to a
year's imprisonment, and the person who employed
him to a tine of £10 per month. Tliese enactments,
severe though they undoubtedly ajipeared to be,
were at first seldom put in execution ; but at length
the storm of persecution broke out, and the jirisons
in every countiy were filled with persons suspected
as priests, or harboiu'ers of priests, or transgressors
of the enactments. Meanwhile the Jesuits meanly
skulked about from place to place, allowing the
vengeance of the government to fall not upon them-
selves, the real culprits, but upon multitudes of un-
oflfending persons, upon whom the suspicion of the
autliorities happened to rest. •' At length, thirteen
months after his arrival," to quote from Stcinmetz,
" Campion was betrayed by a Catholic, and seized
by the oftlcers of the crown. He was found in a
secret cli^set .at the house of a Catholic gentleman.
They mounted him on horseback, tied his legs luuler
JESUITS IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
223
the horse, bound his arms behind him, and set a
paper on liis hat with an inscription in great capitals,
inscribed — Campion the Seditious Jesuit. Of course
lie was raclced and tortured — words that do not con-
vey the hideous reality. Imagine a frame of oak,
raised three feet from the groimd. The prisoner was
laid under it, on his back, on the floor. They tied
his wrists and ancles to two rollers at the end of the
frame : these were moved by levers in opposite
directions, until the body rose to a level witli the
frame. Tlien the tormentors put questions to the
wretched prisoner; and if his answers did nut prove
satisfactory, they stretched him more and more, till
his bones started from their sockets. Then there
was the Scavenger's Daughter — a broad hoop of iron,
with which they sin-rounded the body, over the back
and under the knees, screwing the hoop closer and
closer, until the blood started from the nostrils, even
from the hands and feet. They had also iron gaunt-
lets, to compress the wrists, and thns to suspend the
prisoner in the air. Lastly, they had what they
called ' little ease' — a cell so sm.all, and so con-
structed, that the prisoner could neitlier stand in it,
walk, sit, nor lie at full length."
Parsons, learning that his colleague was ajipre-
hended, and condemned to die, fled to the Continent,
knowing well that a similar fate assuredly awaited
him if he remained in England. On reaching a place
of safety, the restless Jesuit commenced anew to plot
for the advancement of the interests of Mother
Church. Tlie scheme which he now devised was
nothing less than the conversion to the faith of Rome
of James VI., king of Scotland, the son of the un-
fortunate Mary Queen of Scots, who was then im-
prisoned in England. To carry out this project.
Parsons sent an embassy to the young king, then in
his tifteeuth year. This embassy was headed by the
Jesuit Creighton, who was completely outwitted by
James. Tiie young Scottish monarch, keenly alive
to his own interests, sought to turn the whole atl'air
to his own account, pretending to connive at the
proposed introduction of Romish missionaries, on
condition that his exhausted treasury was replenished
by the Roman Catholic powers. Creighton eagerly
accepted the royal conditions, and he and Parsons
hastened to Paris for the piu'pose of holding a con-
sultation on the subject with some warm and in-
fluential friends of the Romish See. It was agreed
that an attempt should be made to rescue Mary from
her captivity, and to associate her with her son on
the Scottish throne, and that, meanwhile, James
should be relieved from his pecuniary embarrass-
ments by a grant from the Pope and the king of
Spain. The money matters were easily settled, but
the first part of the project was of more difficult
accomplishment. A French Jesuit, Samnier, was
despatched from Paris to hold a secret consultation
with Mary. He entered England in the disguise of
an ofiicer, " accoutred in a doublet of orange satin,
green silk in the openings.
At his saddle-bow he displayed a pair of pistols, a
sword at his side, and a scarf round his neck." The
design of this Jesuit embassy was to excite a secret
revolt against Elizabeth on the part of some of the
Roman Catholic nobles. The plot, however, was
discovered, and, by the activity of the government,
completely defeated ; while the yoimg king of Scot-
land, instead of becoming a dupe of the Jesuits, was
thrown wholly into the hands of the Protestant
party.
The failure, however, of this project of the Jesuits
did not prevent them from forming another. A
secret consultation, accordingly, was again held at
Paris, with the view of devising a plan for the liber-
ation of Mary. It was resolved that the Duke of
CtuIsb should land with a French army in the south
of England, while James, with a Scottish army, was
to enter by the north, and those of the English who
were iiivourable to the Stuarts were to be invited to
lend their assistance. The plan was communicated
to JIary by the French ambassador, and to James
by Holt, the English Jesuit. This scheme also
failed, and JIary refused to lend her sanction to it.
Soon after, the Jesuit Creighton was apprehended,
and committed to the Tower, where he disclosed all
the particulars of the projected invasion.
Many were the schemes and plots devised against
Protestant England by the Jesuits, but, through the
vigilance of Elizabeth and her ministers, they were
all of them unsuccessful ; and the alarm which tliey
excited only led to more stringent and ojipressive.
treatment of the Roman Catholics. The queen was
highly oti'ended with the cruelty shown in many
cases. Camden tells us that " she commanded the
inquisitors to forbear toitnres, and the judges to
refrain from putting to death." She commuted the
sentence of death into transportation in the case of
seventy Romish priests, one of whom was Jaspar
Haywood, son of the first Jesuit that ever set foot
on English ground.
The Jesuits made use of Mary Queen of Scots as
a convenient tool for stirring up from time to time
fresh consjtiracies against the Protestant throne of
England. One of the most active of their auxilia-
ries in these plots was Philip II. of Spain, and there
is too good reason to believe that Mary, probably in
her natural anxiety for deliverance from her pro-
tracted captivity, was cognizant of, if she did not
participate in, these plots of the Jesuits. At all
events these crafty priests were her advisers and
ghostly confessors down to the time of her execution,
which took place in 1587. The death of the un-
hapjjy queen of Scots, produced a deep impression
on the minds of the adherents of Rome throughout
the whole of Europe, and Philip II. of Spain, in par-
ticular, hastened to carry out his long-contemplated
descent upon England with the glorious Armada.
Pope Sixtus V. gave his warm approval of the
scheme, and created the Jesuit Allen a Cardinal, for
the purpose of accompanying the expedition in the
224
JESUITS IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
character of pupal legate, with a comiiiission to re-
concile EngliiiiJ to the coinnimiion ot' Rome, and to
coiilirm the conquest to the Spanisli crown should
the expedition prove successful. This enormous
fleet consisted of 135 ships of war, manned by 8,000
sailors, and carrying 19,000 soldiers, and higli were
the hopes of tlie Jesuits when this mighty armament
set sail for the coasts of England. Allen carried
with him an " Admo;iition to the nobility and people
of England," which he had got printed at Antwerp,
and which was intended to be extensively distributed
! among the people on the arrival of tlie Armada.
' This document, the authorship of which has usually
been assigned to the Jesuit Parsons, was tilled with
the most scurrilous and abusive language against
Elizabeth, and called upon her subjects to rise in
rebellion and hurl her from the throne. But the
Jesuits were utterly mistaken as to the real state of
feeling in England, even among the Roman Catho-
lics, who were at this very time visited with the
most bitter persecution. No sooner did the news
arrive of the project of Pliilip with liis invincible
.\miada, than both Catholics and Protestants alike
ilew to arms, resolved to defend their country against
the Spanish invader. X\\ warlike preparation, how-
ever, was unnecessary. A temjiest arose, and in one
night the Armada with her mighty legions was swal-
lowed up by the boiling flood. Thus terminated the
boasted enterprize of Philip, planned bv the Jesuits,
and sanctioned by the Pope. From tliat date Sjiain
lias sunk into the position of a second or a third rate
power in Europe.
Fatlier Parsons seems to have now despaired of
crushing Protestant England by any machinations
carried on within the country ; and being himself
located on the Continent, he directed all his ed'orts
to rouse the Roman Catholic governments to attack
Elizabeth, and deprive her of Iier crown. AVith this
view he publi-shed in 1591 his answer to the edict of
the queen against the Jesuits. The book was mul-
tiplied in various parts of the Continent, and a
new edition appeared at Rome in 1593. This
production was well fitted to excite feeUngs of ha-
tred against Ellzabetli, botli among her own sub-
jects and among foreigners, and it is not surprising,
therefore, that the public mind was agitated at this
time by rumours of plots against the life of the
queen. The foreign seminaries, which supplied mis-
sionary priests to England, were mainly under the
control of Jesuits, who thus incessantly moved the
springs which were to regulate the thoughts and feel-
ings and conduct of the English Romanists. Parsons
and .\llen, in seeking to restore the Roman Catholic
religion to its former position of influence and autho-
rity in England, considered the best means of effect-
ing this to be the placing of a Roman Catholic
monarch on the throne. These two Jesuit leaders
looked to the daughter of the king of Spain as a
suitable person, and to recommend her to the Eng-
lish nation, Parsons published in 1.594 liis "Confer-
ence about the next succession." We learn from
Dr. Lingard that this tract excited an extraordinary
sensation both in England and on the Contintnt.
Parsons was in fact the accredited agent of Spain,
employed expressly by Philip to support the preten-
sions of the Infanta to the English throne. With
the exception of Creighton, who was decidedly fa-
^ om'able to the claims of James VI. of Scotland,
tlie Jesuits were imanimously supporters of the
daugliter of the king of Spain, for whose benefit
tliey promoted the second Spanish invasion, which
was equally disastrous with the first, and, what is
remarkable, from precisely the same cause. In 1598
we find an attempt made by Squires and the Jesuit
Walpole to poison Elizabeth, which, thougli it pro-
videntially failed, showed all too plainly that the
opinions which Parsons so diligently spread on the
subject of regicide, had been readily imbibed by
some members of the so-called Society of Jesus.
The rebellion which had for several yeaj's been
raging in Ireland, headed by the daring O'Xed, was
well known to have been planned and organized by
the Jesuits, more especially by tlieir general, Aqiui-
viva. In 1599, Spain furnished a supply of money
and ammunition for the insurgents, with a promise
of men. And the Pope also, to show his entire
approbation of the insurrection, sent O'Neil a con-
secraled plume and a bull, granting him and his ad-
herents the same indulgences as had been granted to
the Crusaders wlio had fought for the recovery of
the Holy Land. The Irish rebellion, however, was
suppressed, and the Spanish fleet, which had been
sent to aid the insurgents, was compelled to return
home, to announce to the ambitious monarch their
complete and inglorious defeat. But Parsons, and
those who favoured the Spanish pretensions, though
foiled in all the attempts they had hitherto made to
etVect their purpose, were still determined to per-
severe. Another invasion was planned in 1661, and
adopted by Philip III. of Spain; but it was suddenly
frustrated by the death of Elizabeth, and the unani-
mous acknowledgment of James VI. of Scotland as
her successor. A short time before her death, the
queen and her ministers had come to the knowledge
of the projected invasion, and of its being favoured
and encouraged by Garnet, the English provincial of
the Jesuits. One of the last acts, accordingly, ot
tlie reign of Elizabeth was to issue a proclamation
banishing the Jesuits from the realm, not only be-
cause they refused to acknowledge and obey the
queen, but entered into conspiracies of all kinds
against her person, and into alliances with enemies
of the kingdom, in order to elTect her downfall.
To the mortification of Parsons and his friends, not-
withstanding all the e.<ibrts they had made to set
aside the Scottish succession, James was proclaimed
king of England with the joyful shouts and acclama-
tions of the people. It was now evident that the
Jesuits had wholly miscalculated the extent of their
influence ; they had fondly expected that tlie death
JESUITS IN (iKE.vr UKITVIN AND IRELAND.
ni>
of Elizaljetli would be the signal tor a civil niif in
I'jiigliiml ; but no accession could be more pcjiceful
tlian tlint of tlie Scottish monarch to the tin-one of
Eugland. As soon as tidings of the event reached
Parsons, he lost iio time in writing a letter to a party
ill the English court, with a view to its being shown
to the new Uiiig, iii which he attempted, in the most
crafty and deceitful manner, to show that he and the
companv to which he belonged had been in favour of
the Scottish king. The original of this precious
documonf is in the library of the British Jliiseum.
Sanguine hopes were entertained tliat James, now
that he had succeeded to the English throne, would
modify, if he did not entirely repeal, the laws which
Elizabeth had passed against Jesuits and priests,
lliit only a lew months sufficed to dispel the delusive
hopes of the Romanists. The restrictive enactments
of which they complained were not only confirmed
by James, but ordexed to be pnt in rigorous execu-
tion. The Romish missionaries were banished from
the kingdom, and the penalties for recusancy, besides
being continued, were made to extend backward
throughout the time which had elapsed since the
new king arrived in London. Such nnexpeelcd
feveritv was felt deeply by the Roman Catholics in
England. Many families f'oimd themselves suddenly
|ilunged into a state of extreme destitution, in con-
sequence of the heavy fines to which they were
subjected. One enactment after anotlier passed of
tiie most oppre.ssive, ex.'iclhig, and even persecuting
character. All magistrates and judges were com-
manded, on pain of royal displeasure, to execute the
laws against Roman Catholics, both priests and lay-
nen, witli the most stern and uncompromising rigour.
The consequences were most disastrous. The rich
\.ere reduced to poverty, the poor were thrust into
prisons, the goods of multitudes were confiscated,
some were b.anished, and others were publicly exe-
cuted.
In such circumstances as these the desperate con-
spiracy was planned which is usually known by the
name of tlie Gunpowder Plot. The scheme was one
of fearful revenge, being nothing less than to blow up
the House of Lords with gunpowder at the o]ien-
iiig of Parliament ; and thus to destroy, at one
blow, the King, the Lords, and the Commons. For
more than a year the plan was secretly in process of
concoction, and meanwhile government were putting
in force measures of redoubled severity against the
adherents of the Church of Rome. The fatal day
drew near, but providentially some person or other,
who was privy to the plot, disclosed it, thus jirevent-
ing the exociuion of one of the most atrocious con-
spiracies which the history of any country records.
The conspirators, eight in number, were apprehended,
tried, and executed, while among tlie accomplices
in the preparation, it was discovered th.at three noted
Jesuits, Oaruct, Gerard, and Greeiiway, were impli-
cated, while every one of the conspirators belonged
to the Jesu't faction. Gerard and Greenway con-
TI.
trived to elude detection, and escaped to the con-
tinent. Garnet forwarded a strong protestation of
his innocence to the council, and though for a week
he attempted to secrete himself, his hiding-place was
discovered, and after frequent examinations, in which
he equivocated in the most disgraceful manner, he was
tried, convicted of eomi)licity in the conspiracy, to the
extent at least of guilty knowledge and concealment
thereof, and in consequence he was publicly executed.
Many have been the etibrls made by Romish writersto
exculpate Garnet froin all concern in. or even know-
ledge of, the Gunpowder Plot, but his own admissions
on his trial, as well as the evidence adduced on tlie
part of the crown, brought home the charge to the
wretched Jesuit priest and provincial so clearly, as,
in tlie view of every impartial person, to put the fact
of his implication in the conspiracy beyond the reach
of doubt. To display the innocence, however, of this
member of the Society of Jesus, miracles were al-
leged to have attended his execution. One, in par-
ticular, produced great excitement for a time among
the more ignorant and superstitious of the English
Romanists. An English student belonging to the
Jesuits alleged, that he was standing by whilst the
executioner was quartering the dead body of Ganiet.
when a straw, spotted with blood, came, lie knew not
how, into his hand. Subsequently, a man's face
was seen depicted on the straw, and on examination
it was pronounced the genuine picture of Garnet
most perfectly displayed in the single drop of blood.
It affords a melancholy view of the low state of in-
telligence in England at the time, that such a story
should have not only been currently reported, but
extensively believed by Romanists both at home and
abroad.
T!ie discovery of a eons]iiraey so horrible as the
Gunpowder Plot, and the fact which was fiillv
brought out, that it was originated by Romish Je-
suits, only exasperated the king and the government
still more against the English Roman Catholics, who,
though innocent as a body of all connection with the
nefarious transaction, were, nevertheless, visited with
still more cruel tiealment than they had hitherto ex-
perienced. Enactments of the most stringent de-
scription were passed against them, and to test tlieii
allegiance an oath was framed which was to be
taken by every Romanist of the age of eighteen and
upwards, and in which the temporal authority of the
Pope was plainly and explicitly denied. A contest
now ensued among the Roman Catholic leaders as
to tlie legality of taking this oath. A number of
the clergy and laity readily admitted its legality, and
took it wiihcut hesitation. AVlieii a copy of the
oath, however, was received at Rome, the Pope is-
sued two apostolic letters addressed to the English
Romanists, condemning the oath as unlawful. The
appearance of this papal decision threw the body
into great perplexity. Bellarmine, Parsons, and
other Jesuits on the continent were the chief oppo-
nents of the test ; but the English clergy were quite
i;
226
JESUITS IN GKI:AT HKI tain and lUKLANI).
divided in oijinioii on the subject. All tlie Koinaii
RatlioUc pot'i-s, with tlie exception of Lord Teyn-
h;iiM, took the o;Uh in tlic House of Lords ; and out
of tile whole body of Kn.^lish Koinanists, tliere were
only 1.014 recusants, of whom the great majority
beUjnged to llie hnudiler elasse.«.
At tlie earnest rciiuest of Henry IV. of France,
the Pope, I'aid V., sent a secret envoy to England
with letters lo King James, urging the adoption of
milder measures than those wliich had been recently
res(U-ted to by the legislature. James received the
envoy wiih apparent kindness, gave him the usual
gratnitv, but sent him away with no delinite answer
to the Pope's letters. The slight thus put upon his
holiness made him all the more ready to listen to
the persuasions of the Engli-sh Jesuits in Flanders,
who despatched a deputation to Rome, calling for
s ine speedy and energetic measures against the
English king. The I'ope, yielding to the pressure
from without, issued a brief, forbidding the Eng-
lish Romanists to attend Protestant churches, and de-
claring the oath to be unlawful, and to contain many
things contrary to faith and salvation. James, on
learning that this papal document had reached Eng-
land, and feeling assured that it was a contrivance of
the Jesuits, resolved to act with the utmost decision;
and forthwith, to show his imligiialicui at this inter-
ference of the Pope with the internal government of
the country, he ordered the oatli to be adininislered
to all Roman Catholies iniliscriniiuately. The per-
.secution now raged with renewed fury, which the
Jesuits endeavoured to allay by the ofl'er of a sum of
money.
It was not a little aniioying to the Pope to learn
that his late brief had been, to a great extent, disre-
garded by the English Romanists, matiy of them
having taken the oath in spite of the papal prohibi-
tion. Another brief, accordingly, was issued eon-
(irniatory of the foruK^r, but before it reached Eng-
land, lilackwell, the arehpriest of the Romanists, was
in prison, having been depo.sed from his oftice at the
instance of Bellarmine and Parsons, for taking the
Oath of Allegiance, and also by a jmblic letter re-
commending his |)eopIe to follow bis example.
King James, always ]iartial to theological contro-
versy, now entered the licld against the Romish .)e-
suits on the subject of the temporal power of the
Pope, and published a tract entitled 'An Apologie
for the Oath of Allegiance.' A war of pamphlets
now ensued ; divines, both Romish and Protestant,
published their senliments on this much disputed
point ; and during the greater part of the seventeenth
century the question was agitated on both sides with
the most biller keenness. James was resolved to
enforce the oath in face of all opposition, and tliree
Romish priests who refused lo take it were eon
deimu'd to the gallows. The Romanists were divided
among themselves in the midst of all the sufferings
which they were called to endure. Dissensions from
wilhin and oppression fmui wilhout rendrred the
situation of many of them, peculiarly painful. The
penalties for recusancy were enforced with increasing
severity, and in IGlOall Roman Catholics were or-
dered to (juit Lonilon within a month, and all priests
and .lesuits were commanded lo leave the kingdom
wilhin the same period.
But if Romanists in England were punisheil. nn
the one hand, by the Protestant government for
refusing to take the oath of allegiance, they were
punished, on the other, if they took the oath, by the
PojiC, under the iulluence of the Jesuits. In this
strange position eight clergymen, prisoners in Nev/-
gate, appealed to the Pope, imploring him, by the
blood of the martyrs, and by the bowels of their
Redeemer, to take pity on them in their affliction,
and to specify those parts of the oath which rendered
it unlawful to be taken. To this appeal, afi'ecting
though it was, his Holiness made no reply. Nor
did Parsons and the Jesuits content themselves with
harsh and cold-blooded neglect of their fellow-Ro-
nianists in England in the time of sore persecution ;
they resisted also every attempt on theiiart of others
to instruct and comfort them. The Benedictine
monks of Spain had resolved to establish a mission
in England, but the Jesuits oflered the most deter-
mined opposition to the scheme, and it was not until
the cardinal-archbishop of Toledo pronoiniced the
allegations of the Jesuits on the subject of the pro-
posed mission to be talse, and the design itself to be
worthy of all encouragement, that the Jesuits allowed
the plan of the mission to be carried into execution.
All the .seminaries for the training of missionaries
to England, with the single exception of the college
at Douay, were under the direction of the Jesuits;
and even Douay itself was gradually subjected lo
their control, through the crafty management of
Falher Parsons. The missionaries now poured into
England from these colleges were of the most illiterate
deseriinion, being prepared by only a few weeks' or
months' training to enter on the duties of the niis.^ion.
Accordingly, we learn that, in the course of the four
years ending at Christinas 1(108. no fewer than forty-
one missionaries were despatched to Engl.and iVoni
Douay alone. Thus, to the other e\ils of the jieriod,
in so far as Uomanists were concerned, was added an
ignorant, ilegraded, and, in maiiy eases, immoral
clergy. The idea began now to be started of the
necessity of episcopal oversight, in order to remedy
the evils whiili had crept into the system. Two
deputies had been despatched to Rome in HiOd, to
endeavour lo ] rocure a bishop from the Holy See.
Their evil genius, however, the notorious Parsons,
continued still to liaimt them, and, at his instigation,
the petition w;is rejected, and the ho)ies of tlie Eng-
lish Roniani.-ts disapiiointed. The clergy made
another ajipliiation to the I'ope for the ap])ointment
of a bishop o\ er them, but Parsons again foiled I hem,
and prevailed upon the I'ope to decree that, " until
every member of the clergy should concur not only
in petitioning for an episcopal siipen'or, but also in
JIvSUlTS IN GREAT KIUTAIX AND JRELAND.
227
recommending the particular individual to lie pre-
t'errcd to that dignity, no proposal on the siiliject
would be entertained." Such a decision from the
sovereign pontiif was bufRciently discouraging to the
English Uonianists. Nevertheless, they resolved lo
send another deputation to Home, to consult the
I'ope on the whole state of tlieir atl'airs. The envoys
were favoured with an interview with the Pope, the
result of which was, that they obtained a continuation
of the prohibition against the interference of the
Jcsiuts in the govenmient of the archpriest. Par-
sons was not a little mortified at the partial success
of the envoys, but he set himself with tlie utmost
energy to counteract their efforts, first, by endeavour-
ing to procure their recall, and, when that failed, by
so slandering their characfer as to destroy their in-
rtuence witli the Pope. This cunnuig and unprin-
cipled Jesuit pretended to be their confidential ad-
viser and friend, and yet, all the while, he was
sedulously employed in secretly frustrating every
appeal which they made to the supreme poiuiti'.
Early in the following year, 1610, Robert Parsons
was cut off by a sudden death, and thus a final
termination was put to the wicked schemes of one
of the basest aiul most unscrupulous men that ever
belonged to (he Society of tlie Jesuits, His life
seemed to be one continued senes of acts of dupli-
city, treachery, and atrocious wickedness. To this
mail, and his intriguing machinations, are to be
traced almost all tlie calamities which, for many a
long year, visited the Roman Catholics of England.
He was their mortal enemy, though he [n'ofessed to
be their sworn and devoted friend, " Father Par-
sons," says one of themselves, '■ was the prineijial
author, the incentor, and the mover of all our gar-
boils both at home and abroad." The death of such
a man might, therefore, have been considered as
likely to bring relief to the English Romanists; but,
'mfortimately, the spirit to which he had given rise
still survived. For ten years longer, the clergy con-
tbmed to urge, with unremitting earnestness, the
ajiiioiiitment of a bishop, but the Jesuits as vigor-
ously opposed ihem. At length, in 1620, the Pope
declared his willingness to accede to their request.
The Jesuits, thus foiled at Rome in their opposition
to the measure, endeavoured to prevent it from being
put in e.teciifion by awakening, through secret in-
thience, the fears and jealousies of King James ; and
in this they were so successful, that he solemnlv
declared that a Roman Catholic bishoji should never
be admitted into the country. The king, however,
.soon discovered that he had been duiied by the
Jesuits, and learning that only the spiritual inspec-
tion of the clergy was ilesired, he withdrew his op-
]iosiiion, and Dr. William Bisliop was forthwith
appointed \"icar--Vpostolic of England and Scotland,
but nominally Bishop of Chalcedon in iiartibus in-
JuleUtiin,
One grand object which flie Jesuits have inces.
san/ly kept in view, from the period of the first in-
stitution of their Order, has been the aggrandisement
of the Society, and the establishment of their in-
fluence m every part of Christendom. But to no
countrj- have their ambitious designs been more
sedulously directed tlian to England. They have
attempted to operate upon it by all possible means,
both direct and indirect. We have found them,
during the reign of James I., resorting to a thousand
diflc'rent plans to accomplisli their designs; and while
their plans were nnifonnly frustrated by the vigilance
of the king and his ministers, they were secretly, but
diligently, raising up, by means of the English Col-
lege at Rome, of which they had acquired the com
plete control, a band of j'oung men thm'oughly trained
up ill the principles of the Order, and from whose
labours as missionaries in England they expected a
vast accession to the influence of the Jesuits in that
country. Hence it hajipened, that of forty-seven
persons who left the English College at Rome during
the seven years preceding 1G23, no fewer than thirty-
three entered the Order of the Jesuits. So com-
pletely, indeed, did that English seminary become a
prey of the Jesuits, that the Pope found it necessary
to interfere, and to lay it down as a strict regulation
that, for the future, no student eilucated on the foim-
dation was to enter any religious order or company
without special license from his Holiness; and, be-
sides, each scholar, on his admission, was to take an
oath to that effect, and to be ready, at the command
of the protector or the jiropaganda, to take orders
and return to England on the nussion.
The ICnglisli Roman Catholics experienced no little
amioyance, in the early part of the seventeenth cen-
tury, by the institution of a new Order of religious
ladies, with the assistance of the Jesuit Roger Lee.
These nuns were to live in community, but without
any obligation of being shut up in a nunnery. They
were bound to take upon themselves the instruction
of young ladies, and to ramble over the country,
nay, even to the Turks and infidels, to seek the
conversion of souls to the Romish t'alth. The
Jesuits, we are informed, mainly supported their
cause, and took great paius to obtain them an estab-
lishment. These English Jesuitesses, as they were
often called, caused so much scandal to the Romish
mission, that the English clergy memorialized the
Pope on the subject, urging upon his Holiness tliat
the Jesuits were expressly forbidden, by their rules,
to meddle or mix in the government of women, and
that, notwithstanding this regulation, the Jesuitesses
were in the habit of making use of the Jesuits alone
in all their concerns in England and abroiul, so tliat
they seemed to think it a crime to permit any other
priest to hear the secrets of their conscience in con-
fession, In spite of all opposition, these Englisii
nuns besieged the Pope with jietitions for the con-
firmation of the Order; but, in 1630, Pope Urban
VHI., instead of confirming, wholly suppressed the
sisterhood,
After the liauishment of the .Icsuits from Kmilaiul
22»
JESUS.
iu 1604, we Ileal- little more of tliem until tlie reign
of James II., who aimed at the establislimeiit of the
Komisli Church in liis doiuiiiioiis. Jesuit schools
were oiieiicd: the Jesuit Pctre was raised to the
honour of a jjriiy couuciilor; the Pope was urm'd liy
the kiiii; to malie the Jesuit a bishop, Init decliued
to j^aiit the royal request. Tlie Kevoluliuii of 1(J88,
however, and the conl'oniieut of tlie throne of Kug-
biud on the I'riiice of Orange, chaii-ed the whole
aspect of ait'airs, and tlirew the Jesuits once more
into the shade. From that period till tlie date of the
suppression of the Order by CTanganelli, Pope Cle-
ment XIV., in 1773, the history of the Jesuits in
England is little more than a blaiilc. 'I'he Order
still survived the Papal deed of suppression, and
while the successor of Clement XIV. connived at
their continued existence, they found an asylum in
Prussia, and were permitted to open a novitiate in
Russia. But none of the foreign Jesuits appear to
have sought slHSlter in either Great Britain or Ire-
land. The English members of the body conlinued
to prosecute their niLssion as before. Nay, it is
affirmed that at the very time when the suppression
took place, the English government secretly patron-
ised the Jesuits for state purposes.
The restoration of the Order, as we have already
seen (see Jesuits), was the act of Pope Pius Vll.,
with the design, as is believed, of upholding ultra-
niontanism in France. The bull of revival and res-
toration was passed in 1814, and soon after, the
Jesuits were found in great numbers hi all the Con-
tinental countries; but their late expulsion from
Switzerland, their banishuient from Bavaria, Austria,
Naples, and even, through the decision of Pojie
Pius IX., from liome itself, drove many members of
the Order to take refuge in England, along with
their general, Roothaan. Through the liberality of
Mr. Thomas Weld, a wealthy Roman Catholic gentle-
man, the Jesuit refugees were presented with the
domain of Stonyhurst. Steinmetz gives the following
account of this seminary belonging to the English
Jesuits : " The college of Stonyhurst must receive,
on an average, at least £G,000 p(\r annum from pupils
— the number being about 120, at forty guineas per
annum, for boys under twelve years of age; for those
above that age, iifty guineas: and for students in
philosophy, one hundred guineas. P.esides this, the
college possesses and farms simic thousand acres of
good land, over which one of the fathers presides as
procurator. The .lesuits are highly esteemed in the
neighbourhooil : their handsome church is thronged
on Sunil;iys and festivals ; and on stated occasions
they distribute portions of meat to thcpoor, besi<les
Biipporting a small school for their children. Hence
they have inlluencu in those parts, as any member of
Parliament will lind to his cost, should he not make
friends with the Jesuits.
"The English Fathers have no less than thirty-
three establishments, or colleges, residences, and
inibsions in England. Of course Stonyhurst is the
principal establishment, where the Provincial of Eng-
land resides. The college, in 1845, contained tweiiiv
priests, twenty-six novices and scholastics, and four-
teen lay-brothers.
" Of the 800 mis.sionary priests in (ireat ISrita'n,
including bishops, the Jesuits alone can say how
many are enlisted under the banner of Ignatius,
though, doubtless, this knowledge is shared by the
' Vic;irs-A|iosiolic' of the various districts in which
they are privileged to move unmolested. The Jesuits
are muffled in England ; it is diliicult to distinguish
them in the names of the Catholic lists annually
published. They have established a chissical and
commercial academy at Mount St. Mary's, iic;u' Ciies-
terlield; and the prospectus of the establishment,
after describing the suit of clothes that the pupils
are to bring, simply informs the world that ' the
college is conducted by gentlemen connected with
the college of Stonyhurst.' These 'gentlemen' are
generally sent out in pairs by the provhieial, accord-
ing to the constitutions, and thus may charm by
variety; for the quantity of work on hand in the
vai'ioua Jesuit missions in England is by no means
so evident as the speculation for more, by this coi>-
stitutional provision. The secular priests are doubled
and tripled by the necessities of the mission; the
Jesuits are doubled, tripled, and quadrupled, by the
requirements of the constitutions and the prospects
before them."' The Romanist English colleges are
six in number: — Stonyhurst, near Whitley, Lancji-
shire ; St. Lawrence's, Ainpleford. York ; St. Gre-
goiy's, Downside, IJath; St. Edward's. Everton, near
Liverpool; College of the Immaculate Conception,
near Loughborough : St. Mary's, near Chesteriield.
These are understood to be cliieHy, if not entirely,
under the care of Jesuits.
The vice-prov iiice of Ireland numbered sixty-three
Jesuits in 1841, and seventy three in 1844. They
possess in Ireland the colleges of Conglowe.-, Tolla-
bog. and two seminaries in Dublin. The Irish Ro-
manists have been much diminished in numbers by
famine, pestilence, and, above all, extensive emigra-
tion to America, Australia, and other foreign coun-
tries. The Jesuits carry on their work with as
much secrecy as possible, endeavouring to advance
the interests of Rome, and especially of their own
(.)rder, among all classes of the people. See Ro.Mic
(Clil-ncii OF).
JESUS, a name given by Di\ine appointment to
the second person of the Blessed Trinity, as the
Saviour, which is the import of the Greek word.
That a special importance was allached to this ap-
pellation of our Lord, is evident from the circum-
stance that he was fio named by the angel before his
birth, for we find it recorded that the angel .said
unto Mary, "Fear not; for thou hast found favour
with God. And behold, thou shalt conceive in thy
womb, and bring forth a .son, and thou shaft call his
name Jesus.'' And the angel who appeared to Joseph
in a dream gave the same announcement, with tlm
JETSIKA— JEWS (Anciknt).
229
i:itcr|)i-ctatioM (if the nnme, " Thou shall call his
name Jesus; for he sliall save his people froiti their
sins." The reason was tluis unfolded why the Son
of Ood was about to assume human natm-e into uin'on
with the divine — that he might be Jehovah the
Saviour. Jesus was by no means an unfrequent
name among tlie ancient Jews. The first person to
whom we find it applied in the Old Testament was
Joshua, tlie son of Nun, whose oflice it was, by
Divine appointment, to conduct the Israelites across
the Jordan into the land of promise. In anticipa-
tion, no doubt, of his selection for this jieenliar
office, he bore originally the appellation of Oshea, or
lloshi'ii, the Saviour; but in Ninn. xiii., we find it
stated tliat Mosps, before sending out spies to examine
the promised land, changed the name of one of tliem,
by making a very important addition to it, Avhich
brought the type into a complete identity in name
with the gre.at .\mitype. Thus it is said, v. 10,
" .^nd Moses called Oshea the son of Nun Jelioshua;"
the first designation slgnifyingSaviour. and thesecond,
Jehovah the Saviiuu' The Holy Ghost tluis taught
that, while Joshua should be the deliverer of the
people, it w:ts not by his own arm that he shoidd
accomplish tlieir deliverance, but by the arm of Je-
hovah. And ill tlie interpretation given by the angel
of the name .Jesus, as apjdied to the Redeemer, it is
?aid " for he ;" in the original the pronoun is em-
phatic; "he himself shall save his people from their
sins." lie, then, is the very Jehovah implied in the
name given to him as to the typical Joshua. And
that he is indeed Jehovah, we learn from the language
wliich the evangelist Matthew employs, immediately
after describing the ap[iearance of the angel to Jo-
seiih : "Now .all this was done, that it might be
fullilled which was spoken of the Lord by the
prophet, saying, l^ehold, a virgin shall be with child,
and shall bring forth a son, and they shall call his
name Emmanuel, which being interpreteil is, Ood
with us." These words obviously convey the idea
that the Emmanuel, Ood with us, mentioned by
Isaiah, is the same with ,Jehovah-Jesus our Sasioiir.
The Son of Ood may be considered as Jesus the
Saviour in a threefold aspect — as making known the
way of s.alvation, as purchasing salvation for his
people, and .as bestowing it upon them when pur-
chased.
JETSIKA. the Book of Creation, one of the most
celebrated of the Jewish Cabbalistic writings. See
Cahb.m.a.
JEWS (Anciknt). The name of Jews was
usually given to the Hebrews, especially after the
period of the Babylonish captivity, when the n,a-
tion was chiefly limited to the line of the jiatri-
arcli Judali, the ten tribes having been almost
entirely absorbed in other nations, and thus hav-
ing disappeared from the page of history. The
.lewisb people are the most ancient, the most re-
markable and interesting of all the nations of the
earth. Though for nearly eighteen hundred years
they have nowhere been found existing in a national
capacity, but mingled among the people of all coun-
tries, yet they have continued separate and distinct,
so that they can be readily recognized by certain
peculiar characteristics. This cannot be affirmed of
any other people on the face of the earth. Amid
the various changes and revolutions which have oc-
curred in the course of the world's history, even the
jn'oudest nations of antiquity have become so com-
pletely merged in more modern nations, which have
sprung out of them, that it is impossible to trace the
course of tlieir history with the slightest approach
to distinctness. But here is a nation, which, not-
withstanding the numberless vicissitudes it has
undeigone, has from its origin to the (iresent hour
continued a separate people, whose career is capable
of being distinctly traced. It is the only nation,
besides, which can with certainty point to the fa-
mily, and even the precise individual, from whom
they originated. They claim to be descended from
Abraham, Isaac, and .Jacob — a claim which is estab-
lislied by the pen of inspiration, and has never for a
ninment been doubted. And to put their descent
beyond the reach of question, they bear about with
them a standing memorial of it in the ordinance of
circumcision.
From its very origin, the nation of Israel, as it is
called, in more ancient times, was separated from
other nations for a special and most imjiortant pur-
pose, that from them might spring the Saviour of the
world. And to bring about this great result, a spe-
cial providence evidently watched over ihem. The
promise given to Abraham in regard to this nation,
which wiis to descenil from him, was renewed to
Isaac and to Jacob. The family of .Jacob, by the
overruling providence of Ood, obtained a residence
in Egypt, until they became a great nation. Aftei
dwelling in Egypt upwards of four centuries, they
were delivered by the instrumentalitv of Moses, and
being conducted in their forty years' journey through
the wilderness by the special guidance of their
covenant-Ood, they were landed safely in Canaan
under the care of .Joshua. We are informed in the
Sacred Scriptures, that 4.^0 years el.apsed from the
call of Abraham to the deliverance fnun Egypt, and
during the first 215, the Israelites liad increased to
only 70, or as Stephen the martyr, following ihe
Septuagint, asserts, 75 souls, but during the latter
half of the same period, they had multiplied to more
than fiOO,000 fighting men, or including the aged, the
women, and the children, to probably upwards of
2,000,000.
There appears to have been a succession of twelve
kings during the time the Israelites were residing
in Egypt, and it is not a little remarkable that an an-
cient historian mentions the ninlli king of this series
to have been the head of a new dynasty or race of
kings. A revolution had ha|ipened in the country.
A new family liad ascended the throne, and as might
ha\e been expected in the case of an entire change
■iiO
JEWS i,Ancient).
of govcniinent, it is said of the Pliaraoli wlio tlien
reigned, tliiu " Up. knew not .Tospiili." Nut tli.'it lie
«;\s wliolly ijncirant of tlie wise and wonderful policy
liy wliicli .To^epli liad consoliilatcd tlie power of tlie
Egyptian monarelis, hut the meaning of (he expression
seems to be, that he held in no esteem the name and
'he services of so eminent a heiiefactor to his connlry .
Joseph having been the servant of a different family
from that which now ruled, all his wise and well-laid
schemes for the advancement of the conntry's wel-
fare were ^ iewed with an evil eye liy the stranger
who had intruded himself into the throne of the Plia
mohs. Tie knew not Joseph, nor did he regard witli
any favour the nation to which Joseph belonged, but
summoning an assembly of the Egyptian people, he
laid before tlieni the d.anger which, in his view,
threatened the eoimtry from the enornions increase
of the Israelites. The new monarch began to trem-
ble for the stability of his throne. The Israelites
hivd gone down to Egypt, and risen there to a high
degree of i)rosperity \mder a difl'erent race of kings
from that which now reigned. The most fertile
part of the conutry had been assigned to them, and
the wealth and influence which they h.ad acquired
were such as might well excite the jealousy and the
fears of an usurper. But the language in whicli the
king speaks of their numbers and power shows the
extent of his own fears, rather than the real state of
the Israelitish people. " Behold the people," says
he, •' of the children of Israel are more and might-
ier llian wi\" Such language was evidently exag-
gerateil, but he dreaded lest by their numbers and
their energy they should bring about a counter-revo-
lution and depri\e him of his kingdom. They had
hitherto been a peaceful and inotlensive race of
.slie|iherds. who reckoned themselves mere temporary
.sojourners in a stratige land, and therefore, they were
not likely to interfere in the political arrangements
of the country. But the policy of the monarch evi-
dently was to find an excuse for oppressing a people,
whose religion he hated, whose prosperity he envied,
and wliose wealth he coveted. Besides, it is not at
.■ill unlikely, from various ineident.il remarks which
occur in the Old Testament hi.story, that the Israel-
ites were at this period beginning to be reconciled
to, and aetnally to imitate, the idolatry of the Egyp-
tians. Thus it is stated in Josli. xxiv. 14, "Now
therefore fear the Lord, and serve him in sincerity
and in trutli : and put away the gods which your
fathers served on tlie other side of the flood, and
in Egypt; and serve ye the Eord." In these cir-
cum.stances it is not suriuising that they were sub-
jected lo severe trials, and in all probability the
Egyptian mon.-irch was made an instnunent in the
haiul of (Jod to chastise his erring people.
The obvious design of the king of Egypt in op-
pre.ssing the Israelites was to afflict ami impoverish
them, to break down their spirits, and to check their
rapid mcrease. Accordingly, they were now re-
duced to a state of .slavery, as complete as the Fel-
lahs of modern Egypt, and they were declared to be
the absolute property of the crown. The whole o(
the male population were doomed to toil at public
works under severe Egyptian taskmasters, who ai'c
represented on the Egyptian monuments, armed
with long whips, and driving b.and.^ of Hebrew slaves
like ciittle in the fields. They were compelled to
dig cljiy from the banks of the Nile, to make bricks,
and to build cities walled and fortified for the safe
keeping of the royal stores. The Egyptian king
ami his people, however, were completely disap-
pointed in their attempts to weaken and dispirit the
Tsr.aelites, and thus to prevent their incrcise. In
the midst of the cruel oppression to which ihey were
exposed, they eontimied daily to grow in numbers,
aiul their enemies, inwardly grieved at the advancing
prosperity of this wonderful jieoijle, resolved to
ado]it still more relentless modes of oppression.
"They m.nde them to serve with rigour, and m.tde
their lives hitter with hard bondage, in mortar or in
clay, and in brick, .and in all manner of service in
the field," or in all kimls of .igrieultural labour.
Such means, however, of preventing tlie increase of
the Israelites were completely defeated ; and the
Egyptian tyrant finding himself unsuccessful in his
first scheme of ojien violence, resorts to a secret
stratagem by whicli he hoped to accomplish his un-
hallowed purpose. He issued a cruel order that
every Hebrew male child should be thrown into the
Nile. This barlmrous and inhuman edict extended
to the Hebrew families indiscriminately, and it is
painful to think what deeds of horror must have been
perpetrated in execution of the roy.al mandate. Many
a mother's heart must have been torn with deepest
angui.-h when her helpless babe was ruthlessly
snatched from her arms, and without mercy con-
signed to the waters of the sacred river. To what
extent the bloody statute was executed, or how long
it was ill force, we are not informed : but during the
currency of its operation, Mo.<es, the deliverer of
Israel, was born. He was the son of Amr.tni aiul
Jochebed, and it would appear that some extraordi-
iiJiry impression rested on the minds of bis parents
as to the future gre.itne.ss of their child. It is saiil.
" his mother .saw him that he was a goodly child;''
.and tlie word which the martyr Stephen uses in
describing him is a very strong one, " he was fair :o
God, or divinely fair." The apostle, in the Epislle
to the Hebrews, calls him " a jiroper child," being
the same word as is employed liy Ste)ilicn, mean-
ing "a fair child." Josephiis also speaks in high-
ly coloured language of the beamy of Moses.
I'liere can be no doubt, therefore, that there had
been something peculiarly attractive in the outward
appearance of the child which ojieraled powerfully
in leading his parents to use all elVorts for the
lireservation of his life. The ))rcvailing motive,
however, which actuated the godly parents of i\Io-
ses, was faith in the Divine promises. Some
have supposed that they were favoured with an
JEWS (An'cii-xt'.
231
express revelation from heaven in reference to
tlie preservation of tlieir son. But it is quite unne-
cessary to make any sucli supposition, the promises
ill whicli tliey beheveci being, in all probability, those
wliicli referred to the fleliveiance of the Israelites
from Ej^yptiaii bondage. A very general expecta-
tion existed among the Hebrews, about the period of
the birth of M<ises, that the termination of their bon-
dage was drawing near, and his parents, in all pro-
Uibility, indulged the fond hope that their child,
from his peculiar appearance, was destined to be the
future deliverer of their countrymen. Hence they
resolved to conceal the child, and " were not afraid of
the king's commandment." Thus for three months
they contrived to evade the cruel edict, but knowing
that any plan of concealment could only be tempo-
rary, they at length came to the resolution, guided,
no doubt, by heavenly wisdom, to cast their child
upon the overruling Providence and ever watchful
care of their covenant God. They formed an ark of
bulrushes, in which they placed the child, and having
secured the frail bark by daubing it within with
slime, and without with pitch, they jn^epared to com-
mit it to the waters of the sacred river. The .joyful
festival of the Nile was drawing near. Towards the
beginning of July the expectations of the inhabitants
of Egypt are turned towards the river in theanxiou
hope that it will rise to asulficient height to overflow
its banks and fertilize the country. Tlie gr.-idual rise
of the river is eagerly watched and carefully mea-
sured, and when it has reached a certain lieight, a
jubilee is held throu_hoiit the land. Egyptians of all
ranks and classes repair in companies with music
and dancing to the banks of the river and bathe in its
waters — a practice which was in ancient times inva-
riably attended with various idolatrous rites and cere-
monies. It was on some such occasion that the pa-
rents of Moses deposited the ark, in which lay the infant
Mo.ses, among the flags or thck reeds which abotnid
on the banks of Egypt's precious river. Among
those who came to bathe in the river at this joj'ful
season was the daughter of the king, who providen-
tially rescued the child, and thus Moses was reared
amid all the refinements and luxuries of a palace.
He was educated also in the wisdom and knowledge
of the Egvptians, and thus fitted for the arduous,
important, and responsible office which in course of
time he was destined to till.
The time was raiiidly approaching when the Lord
was to visit his people and rescue them fr.im Egyp-
tian bondage. He remembered the covenant which
he had made with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and
inercit'iilly interposed to .iccomplisli for tliem a glo-
rious deliverance. By ten siucessive displays of
judgment he made known his power in the sight of
Pharaoh and his people, and brought out the Israel-
ites from the land of bondage with their whole sub-
stance, not one hoof being left behind. During the
tortv years which elapsed between their deliverance
by the hand of Moses, and their safe entrance into
Can;ian, they experienced many signal interposi-
tions of the Divine Providence in their behalf.
But of all the events which compose the history
of this important period, the most remarkable,
without doubt, was the giving of the law from
Mount Sinai directly from the mouth of God, and
its inscription afterwards by the finger of God
on two tables of stone. Israel was thus consti-
tuted the depository of the Divine law, and
Muses invested with the high honour of being the
lawgiver. In connection with the exalted i)rivi-
lege thus bestowed upon God's favoured people
and their distinguished le.ader, may be mentioned
another remarkable arrangement of Providence in
the erection of the Tabernacle, and the establishment
of the numerous institutions of the ceremonial law,
all of which were obviously designed to constitute a
distinct line of separation between the nation of
Israel and the other nations of the earth, besides
preiiaring them for the coming of the expected
Messiah, by keeping constantly before their m'nds
the great truth that without shedding of blood there
is no remission.
Once established in the Promisid Land, the Is-
raelites were marked out t'rom all the other nations
of the earth by a rigid jidlierence to the worship ol
the one livingand true God. The land of Israel, it lias
been well said, was at that time the oidy lucid spot,
for darkness covered the earth and gross darkness the
people. In this respect the Israelites long con-
tinued to maintain the most exemplary character,
manifesting the utmost abhorrence of idolatry in all
its forms. The .sacred historian, accordingly, has
placed on record the pleasing statcn.ent, that '■ Is-
rael served the Lord all the days of Joshua, and all
the days of the elders that outlived Joshua, and who
had known all the works of the Lord that lie had
done for Israel." Under the Judges, however, they
maintained more familiar Intercourse with the rem-
nant of the idolatrous nations that was left among
them, and were thus led to turn aside to the worship
of false gods. The consequence was, that they
were frequently exposed to the Divine chastise-
ments through the instrumentality of the neighbour-
ing nations, by whom they were again and again
oppres.sed and brought low ; but no sooner did they
repent and seek to return to the Lord than they
were straightway delivered. For a time they were
under the charge of the prophet Samuel, during
which they acknowledged no king but God. But
when, in his old age, Samuel committed the manage-
ment of the national affairs to his sons, the people
became extensively dissatisfied, and entreated that a
king should be appointed to rule over them as in the
other nations round about them. With the conduct
of Israel in this matter God was much dis|ileased,
regarding their desire for a king as in fact amount-
ing to a rejection of God as their king. He granted
their petition, but in anger, that they might be con-
vinced by their own exj^erience of the folly as well
•2J2
JEWS (Anciknt).
as sinfulness of tlieir request. Under tlie goveni-
inent of S;uil they liad ample reason to repent of tlie
nlioice they had made.
A new and a brighter era in the history of Israel
now commenced. Under the reigns of David and
Solomon the nation attained a higher degree of pros-
perity tliaii it has ever reached either before or since.
Xot only did they trinmph over their enemies, and en-
joy outward peace and security, but they were signally
blessed with a great revival of religion throughout
the land. David was the sweet psalmist of Israel,
and both he and Solomon wrote some of the most
precious portions of Holy Scripture. The reign of
the latter monarch was marked by a most ijnportant
event, the building and dedication of the Jewish tem-
ple. In the following reign, that of Rehoboam, (he
kingdom was rent into two parts, the tribes of Judah
and Benjamin adhering to Rehoboam, the son and
legitimate successor of Solomon; and tlie other ten
tribes erecting a new and independent kingdom un-
der Jeroboam, who headed a rebellion against the
lawfid monarch. To prevent his subjects from re-
timiing to Judah, Jeroboam set up idols at the two
extremities of the country. Dan and Beersheba, th s
commencing his reign with nn act of rebellion against
the God of Israel. A kingdom thus founded in the
■worship of dumb idols was not likely to prosper.
Accordingly, in the long catalogue of its kings, not
one is to be found who feared the Lord and .sought
faitht'uUy to serve him. Yet the Lord had still a
remnant even in this apostate kingdom. Even in the
house of Jeroboam there was a young Abijali, in
whom there was some good thing towards the Lord
God of Israel. Of the people there were seven
thousand who had not bowed the knee to Baal. The
projihets Elijah and Elisha were sent to warn them
of coming judgments, but they .set at nouglit all their
warnings, and in the rei'jfii of Hcishea. SlialmanesBr,
king of Assyria, invaded the country, took Samari.-i,
the capital of the kingdom, and carried the great
body of the people into ea|)tivity.
Tlie kingdom of Judah survived that of Israel
some years ; and although their line of kings is dis-
ligured by the names of many who encouraged idola-
try and iinquity, yet there were some, as for e.xam-
jile, Jehoshaphat, Josiah, and Ilezekiab, who sought
to reform abuses, and to eslablish the worship of the
true God throughout the land. Under such exem-
plary princes there was no doubl ateTn[iorary revival
of religion, but in a short time the people relapsed
into idolatry ; so that, after repeated warnings by
the prophets Is.aiah ami Jeremiah, Xebiiohadnezzar,
king of B.abylon, invaded Judah in the reign of Zede-
kiah, took Jerusalem, and carried the king, the no-
bles, and the great bndy of the people captives to
Babylon, where for seventy long years tliev hinig
their harps upon the willows and wept when they
ronicmbereil Zion.
On their return from Babylon, the Jews rebuilt the
lomple of Jerus:ilem amid murji uppositiun iVimi the
Sanuiritans, and a remarkable revival of religion took
place, as we learn from the books of Ezra and N'e-
hemiah. About this time, by Divine appointment,
arrangements were made, under ihe direction of
Ezra, for the more extended dilfusion among the
people of a knowledge of the Scriptures. For this
purpose the Levites were distributed through the
country, and employed themselves in reading and e.x-
pounding the "Word of God on the Sabbath days.
It is supposed, too, that, about (his time, .synagogiuis
were erected for public worsliip ; and the Scrijitures
were collected in one volume to be kept by the
priests as a precious deposit. Yet, notwithstanding
the religious advantages which were thus increasingly
bestowed upon them, we learn from Malachi, tlie last
of the Old Testament prophets, that a time of great
degener.icy had come upon them, and his closing
lu-ophecy is wholly dedicated to reproofs for their
wickedness, exhortations to repent of their sins, and
warnings of coining judgments. Nearly four hundred
years elapsed between the time of Malachi ami the
coming of Christ, during which the voice of prophecy
was no longer heard, and the Jews passed through
a lengthened period of darkness, and ojipression,
and sore persecution at the hand of their eneme^.
So severe and protracted, indeed, were the trials to
which they were at this time exposed, that had they
not been watched over by a special Providence they
would ceitainly have been exterminated from ihe
earth. This was remarkably exemplilied at an ear-
lier period, in the memorable deliverance which was
wrought for them by the instrumentality of Morde-
cai and Queen Esther; and another signal instance
of the Divine interposition in behalf of the Jews
occurred about lifty years after the days of Mal.achi.
Alexander the Great, in prosecuting his ambitious
coiupiests in Asia, advanced with a numerous army
to Lay siege to Jerusalem. The Jews had no forces
sulliciently large to defend themselves against so
formidable an enemy. In this extremity they com-
mitted themselves to the care of Jehovah, Israel's
(xod, aiul the high priest, arra\-ed in his priestly
robes, and attended by a large company of priests
dressed in white, set out from Jernsalem to meet
Alexander at the head of his army. As the proces-
sion drew near the warrior dismounted, and prostrat-
ing himself before the high priest, declared that
before he left Macedon he .saw in a dream a person-
dressed like the liigh priest, who had encouraged
him to come over and assist in the conquest (}f Per-
sia. Inunediately Alexinder gave up all thoughts
of besieging Jerusalem, and accompanying the priests
in jieacefid procession into the city, he otl'ere.l up
sacrifices according to the law through the ministra-
tion of the high priest. Alexaiuler's attention was
then called to ;i remarkable passage in the prophecy
of Daniel, where it is foretold that a prince of (irecia
should overturn the kingdom of Persia. This the
jMacL'doniau conqueror rightly interpreted, as rel'er-
ring to liiiuselt', and ever after cherished a great
JEWS (Anciknt).
233
respect for tlie Jewisli people. Tlie reigii of Alex-
a.niler was of sliort duration, extcnrliiig to little inon'
tliaii six years ; anfl liaving no son to succeed him,
four of liis principal officers ilivided liis dominions
among themselves. In this division Seleucus ob-
tained Babylon and Syria. The successor of Seleu-
cus was Antiochus Kpiphanes, wlio entertained a
l)itter hatred of the Jews He took the city of
Jerusalem, massacred thousands of the iidiabitants,
and taking away great numbers of them as captives,
compelled them by torture to renounce their own
religion, and worship the heathen gods. Many of
tlie Jews, however, submitted to torture, ami even
to deatli, rather than disclaim the worship of the
true God. In tlie.se trying circumstances God was
pleased to raise up for them a dehverer in the person
of Judas Maccabeus, tln-ough whose instrmnentality
.Judca became an independent kingdom, the temple
was purged from idols, and the wor.sliip of the true
God restored. So firm a standing did tlie Jews thus
obtain in their own country, that neigldiouring na-
tions sought their alliance. Even the Romans, who
were at tliat time ri.siug in national greatness, formed
a league witli the Jews. In tliis state of iiLdepen-
dence, witli the higii priest as tlieir civil as well as
spiritual ruler, the Jews continued for about a cen-
tury, wlien tliey once more became tlie tributaries of
a foreign nation. By the victorious arms of Pom-
pcv, a Roman general, the city of Jerusalem was
captured, and the Jews compelled to submit to the
Roman yoke. This event happened about li. c. G3.
Herod, usually styled tlie Great, the last king of Ju-
dea, was a foreigner, being an Idumean by birth, and
was permitted by the Romans to exercise royal
authority over the Jews. It was this prince wdio
ruled in Judea when our blessed Lord was born, and
at tliat time he displayed his barbarous cruelty and
inhumanity in the massacre of tlie children at Beth-
lehem. At the death of Herod, whieli happened
soon after. Judea became a province of tlie Roman
empire, thus fultilling the prophetic declaration of
Jacob, " Tlie sceptre sliall not depart from Judali.
nor a lawgiver from between liis feet, until Sliiloli
come ; and to him sliall the gathering of the peo-
ple be."
On the death of Herod, Ralcstine was divided
amongst his tliree surviving sons — .^rchelaus, An-
tipas, and Phili|i. Archelaus was appointed ethnareh,
or governor of ,Iudea, Idunica, and Samaria, which
formed the largest part of the province. Antipas
was named tetrarch of Galilee, and I'liilip tetrarch of
Trachoniiis. Archelaus was deposed by the Roman
Emperor Augustus, in conseiiuence of repeated com-
plaints t'roni his subjects, and a Roman governor ap-
pointed ill his room, subordinate to the prefect of
Svria. Various governors of the same description
succeeded, and among these Pontius PMate was the
tirst who took up his residence in Jerusalem, all the
rest having dwelt in Cwsarea. " The condition of
the Jews," says Dr. Welsh, " under the Roman go-
vernors was miserable in the extreme. The extor-
tions of the publicans, whose office it was to collect
the revenue, were excessive; and the whole of ihelr
proceedings was vexatious and oppressive. It was
vain to hope for redress from the governors, wlio.^e
avarice and injustice were proverbially great. Tlie
very fact of paying tribute to a heatlien government
was felt to be an intolerable grievance. And the
Roman soldiers, cpiartercd over the whole country,
though they prevented a general insurrection, yet,
by their very presence, and by the ensigns of their
authority, exasperated the minds of the Jewish
people, and led to many tumults, and seditions, and
murders. A numertuis party existed in Judea, wliose
religious prejudices were opposed to the idea of
]iaying taxes to a foreign power, and who cherished
the vain hope of restoring the Jewish kingdom.
Attempts were made by dilVerent individuals, and
particularly by Judas the Gaulonite, to instigate the
Jews to a general revolt, which were repressed as
they arose. But the fanatical principles were widely
spread, and led to excesses to which, in no small
degree, may be ascribed the final destructiim of Jeru-
i-alem. The party was dislinguished by the name of
Zealots."
The clouds, bctokenii;g a storm of insniTection
ag.ainst the Roman authority, were evidently g.atlicr-
iiig in the time of Pilate, and they were nearly burst-
ing forth under Caligula, wlio endeavoured to compel
the Jews to profane the temiile by placing his statue
in it. It was under Gessius Florus, however, that
the .lews broke out into ojien rebellion ; and, under
Nero, those wars arose between Rome and Judea
wliich tcrininated, A.D. 70, in the destruction of
Jerusalem by Titus. Josephus tells us that the
Roman general, standing on the ruins of the demo-
lished city, excl.ainied in trimnph, "It is, in truth, a
god who has given us the victory, and driven the
Jews from a position from which no human power
could ever have dislodged them." The same Je\vi.sh
historian relates that the ciioriiiinis number of
1,100,000 men perished during this fatal war. An
immense number of jirisoners, men, women, and chil-
dren, were either sold into slavery, crucified, or thrown
to wild beasts.
Three days before the close of the memorable year
on which Jerusalem and its temple were destroyed
by t!ie hands of the Romans, the Emperor Vespasian
and his son Titus entered Rome in triumph, clothed
in purple, and crowned with laurel, and, amid the
aeclaniations of a delighted people, they made their
way to the Temple of Victory. Among the jiroiid
Irojihies which were borne along in the procession
were the sacred vessels of the Jewish temple, the
golden table, the seven-branched candlestick of gold,
and the book of the law of Moses. A temple was
dedicated to the goddess of peace, in honour of this
joyful day, and a medal was struck representing
Judea as a weeping female resting her head on her
hand at the foot of a lalm-tree, wdiile the fierce
234
JEWS (MODRRN).
Ronmii soldier stands In- iiimioved. The niail)Ie
arcli of Tims still reinaiiis to us at Rome, having
survived the desolaliona of eighteen centuries, and
exhibiting a faithful rejiresenlation, among other
objects, of the li"ly vessels of the teinjile. "Even
to this day," says Dr. Da Costa, himself a converted
Israelite, •• the Jews in every country of their exile
and ilispersion have continued to observe the 9th day
of the uicuiih Ah in memorial of both the tirst and
second destruction of their city and sanctuary. Next
to the great day of atonement, it is the most strictly
kept of their fasts. Even the day before, the pious
Israelite takes nothing beyond what absolute neces-
sitv requires: he seats himself on the ground, either
at home or in the synagogue, by the dim light of a
small caiulle, and the evening service commences
with the l.'SSih I'salm : — ' IJy the waters of ]?abylon
we sat down and wept.' Mouruftd and penitential
p.salms are chanted in succession throughout the day,
especially the Tjamentations of Jeremiah, of which
so many striking features, once fultilled in the taking
of .lerusalem by the Babylonian.s, were still more
signally accomplished in its destruction by the Ro-
uians."
Thus closed the history of the ancient Jews, one
of the most eventful, interesting, and instructive
which the records of the world's history anywhere
contains.
JEWS (Modern I. The period of transition, we
conceive, from the historv of the ancient to that of the
modern Jews is tlie destruction of Jeru.sa!eni by the
Romans A. D. 70, and the consequent dispersion of the
Jews. Nothing worthy of notice occurred in the his-
tory of this remarkable peojile fur nearly I'orty years
after the destrnction of their city. The ruins of Jeru-
salem were occupied bv a Roman garrison, to prevent
any attenqjt being made to rebuild it ; but, though ex-
cluded from the holy city, large connnuuities of Jews
were gradually formed in diflercnt parts of the
country. And even in Jerusalem itself, the towers
of Hippieus, Phasael, and Mariamne, the only three
which remained standing out of the ninety towers
which formerly guarded its walls, became again
Btrongholds of the Jews.
At the end of half a century after the destruction
of Jerusalem, we tind the whole of Judea in a state
of rel)ellicin. 'I'he leader of this revolt was a false
Messiah called liiircodiab, attended by bis companion
or prophet Akiba. In the reign of the ICmperor
Trajan, the Jews began to give fresh signs of a de-
termination to resist the authority of the Romans,
particidarly those Jews who resided on the coast of
the Meiliterranean, in Cyprus, E-ypt, and Cyrene.
The insurrection spread to the banks of the Eu-
phrates, when Trajan hastened to Autioch, with the
view of checking its progress, but, being seized with
■udden illness, he died on his way to Rome. Adrian,
who succeeded him, qiuHled the disturbances among
the Jews of .\.-ia and of Egyjit ; hut in the latter
years of his reign a fresh rcMilt of the Jews tcjok
place in Palestine. This event was no doubt has-
tened on by the injudicious conduct of Adrian him
self, who passed a decree that Jerusalem should be
made a Roman colony imder the name of jElia Capi-
tolina, and that circumcision, the distinctive Jewish
rite, shoidd be prohibited. The smouldering flame ol
discontent among the Jews now burst into a furious
conllagration. Thousands (locked to Bethhoron from
all i>arts, and hailed Barcocheba as their Prince and
Messiah of the house of David. Thus constituted
the leader of a numerous host, the iinpostor ad-
vanced into Syri.a, persecuted the Cln-istians, and
took possession of Jerusalem, where he changed the
form of the Sau.aiilan coins, adding his own name to
them, with the title of Nasi or Prince. The contest
continued for nearly four years, and at length the
Romans were successful; and about A. n. 1.34, Judea
was again made desolate, about half a million IiaNiug
fallen by the sword in the course of the war, besides
those who perished by tire, famine, and sickness.
Those who escaped were reduced to slavery by thou-
sands. The remnant was transported into Egypt,
and Palestine was left almost without an inhabitant.
The Jews were now prohibited from entering Jeru-
salem, or even looking upon it from a distance; and
the city now cjilled vT'Jia was inhabited only by Gen-
tiles, or such Christians as renounced the Jewish
ceremonies,
Jerusalem being now a Rnman town, and no longer
the metropolis of the .Jewish religion, Tiberias was
tixed upon as the head-quarters of the Jews, and
there they tirst drew up the Mishna or oral law.
Chrisliauity had now taken the jilace of Judaism in
the chief places of the Holy Eand. Ai\\:\ Capitolina
became the seat of a Christian bishop, who, in coiu'se
of time, received the aiipellation of the Bishop of
Jerusalem. Helena, the mother of Coustantine,
founded Christian clnu'chcs at Bethlehem and on
the Mount of Olives, besides thirty other churches
which the same Empress is said to have erected in
difl'erent parts of Palestine. In the reign of Jidian
the Apostate, the city of Jerusalem was again
l)ronght into notice, in connection with a stiange
proposal which tliis heathen Ivnperor made to the
.lews, that they should join him in the impious
attempt to belie the prophecies of Scripture by
rebuilding the Temple. Annnianus M.-ircellinus, a
historian of the period, informs us, that to accom-
plish this great work Jews assembled from all quar-
ters in Jeru.salcm, and in festival garments, wiili
richly ornamented tools, commenced digging the
fouiulations of the new .sanctuary ; but while thus
employed, balls of fire suddenly issiu'd from beneath
the ground, accompanied with ati earthquake and
violent hurricanes of wind, which compelled them
to desist from the prosecution of their work; and the
dealh of .(idi.in in A.n. 410 put an eiul to all
thoughts of resuming it. Under the long series of
Christian ICmp(>rors who succeeded Julian, Jeru.'^a-
lem became the scene of iunnmerahle pilgrimages.
JF.WS (Modern).
235
and centiiiies after, flie possession of the sepiilclire
of Clirist aiirl of the other lioly places by tlie Moham-
medans, sjave rise to tlie Crusadrs (wliich see).
Ill the year A. D. 036, Jcriisaleni passed into the
hands of the followers of tlie false proidiet, and Omar
founded a mosque on Mount Moriali. Charlemagne,
however. Emperor of the West, received from the
Caliph, Al Rascliid, the keys of the Holy Sepulchre ;
hut no long time elapsed when they were resumed
liy the Mohammedan powers of Asia, against whom
for centuries the Crusaders fought witli desperate
valour, though with varied success, commencing
their expedition usually with a massacre of the
.lews, and when they succeeded in taking .lerusalem,
they uniformly signalized their triunipli by the mur-
der of all the ,Iews wlio might liaiipen to bo r&sidont
in the city. In 1516, the Holv City was once more
retaken by tlie Ottomans under Seliin I., and from
that time to tht. present it has continued to form a
part of the Pashalic of Damascus. " Truly impos-
ing," says Da Costa, " is the aspect wliicli the city
now presents! Its buildings, ils ruins, and its me-
morials, connected with so many pcopde, periods,
and hallowed .associations ! The mosque of Omar
now stands where once was raised tlie temple of
Solomon. David's tomb remains, beside a convent
of Minorites. T'lie site of Herod's Palace and the
traditional abode of Pontius Pilate are still jiointed
out, while we must not entirely overlook the resi-
dence of tlie I'rotestant Bishop of Jerusalem, and
the English Churcli, in wliicli its own services are
read in the Hebrew tongue. The Mahometans,
Christians, and Jews have each their separate quar-
ter; here, as elsewhere, the most despised and miser-
able belongs to the Jews. Yes ! even in the city of
their kings, the children of the kingdom are cast
into outer darkness."
It is remarkable that the .Jews have continued to
preserve their national character, though they have
lost their city and their temple, and so completely
have tliey been scattered and peeled, that they have
not a country they ran call their own. Tliev carrv
about with them the outward sign of their descent
from Abraham, which no tyramiical prohibition, no
cruel persecution, has ever prevailed upon them to
forego. Constituted of old the custodiers of the
.sacred oracles, they have scrupulously maintained
their adherence to the Hebrew Scriptures, and
thcuigh by Rabbinical comments and glosses tliev
have, in too many instances, perverted the meaning,
they have ever entertained the most scrupulous re-
gard to the integrity of the text. No sooner had
they been driven from Jerusalem, than the great
council of the Israelitis'i Rabbins was established at
Tiberias in Galilee. Thence issued the two great
'•torchoiises of Rabbinical lore, first the Mislma, and
atterwaids the Talmud, being, as the Jews allege, the
ond law, received by Moses from the mouth of
God, during the forty days which he spent on .Mount
Sinai. This oral law was transmitted bv Moses to
Joshua, and conveyed down from generation to
generation. A complete collection of all the oral or
traditional commandments was made about A. D. 190,
by Rabbi Judah the Holy. It is composed of six
treatises, called the Mlshnii, which has received
many additions and commentaries from the later
Rabbins, under the name of the Geinara. The Mioli-
na or text of the oral law, combined with the Geinara
or commentaries, form together the Talmuds, the more
ancient of which is the Jerusalem Talmud, completed
in Palestine towards the end of the third century;
while the later is the Babylonian Talmud, coni|iili'd
in the schools of Babylon and Persia, in the com-
mencement of the seventh century. Thus the reli-
gion of the modern .Tews became, like that of the
Pharisees in the time of our Lord, a combination of the
written with the oral law, both being regarded as of
equal authority. The Sadducees who resisted the
combination disappeared as a separate sect after the
deslrnctioii of Jerusalem; and with the exception of
the small sect of the Caraiths (which see), the
Jews to this day, those of them at least who have
not embraced infidelity, are rigid adherents of the
Talmud. In addition to the Talmud, however,
there are two other works of Jewish tradition, the
one called the Mamra, .and the other the Cnhhala,
both of which are regarded by the modern Jews as
of great importance in establishing the meaning of
the Old Testament writings.
The history of the modern Jew.s, or those of the
Dispersion, may be handled under a twofold di\i-
sion, that of tlie Asiatic or Eastern, and that of the
European or Western Jews. The question as to
the "Captivity of the E.ast," as it is termed by the
Rabbins, has given rise to much fiuiiless discussion.
The two classes of Jews now to be considered have
been almost uniformly for many centuries llie vic-
tims of iuces.sant op]iression and irijuslice at the
hands of the [leople among whom ihey lia\e been
scatlered.
From the reign of Adrian to that of ('oiistantine,
the Jews enjoved a season not merely of rest from
persecution, but of actual prosperity. In many cases
they were treated with the utmost favour by the
heathen Emperors as an ofl'set to the Christians,
who were of course hated alike by the Jews and the
heathens. During the ten persecutions of the Chris-
tians in the Roman Empire, the Jews looked on
witli complacency, and even triinnidi, at the barbar-
ous cruelties intlicled on the followers of the Naza-
rene; and it aft'orded them no small satisfaction to
see the hated Christians taking shelter in the cjita-
combs from the fury of the heathen, while their sy-
nagogues were flourishing throughout every part ot
the land of Edom, and their schools at Janinia and
Tiberias were rising in influence and authority every
day.
With llie establishment of Christianity under Con-
stantine, however, a remarkable change took jilace
in the condition of the Jews. Formerly, their in
23G
IKWS l^MOUKKN).
tense Imtred of Cliristmiiity was a passport with tlic
Uoiniiii enipenirs to places of trust ami aulliority.
but now tliat tlie cmpernrs had themselves lioconie
Christian, tli« Jews heeanic a eonilennicil and perse-
cnted sect. Tlie elevation of .Jiilian tlie Apostate to
the ioiporial tin'one gave tlicni some slight hope of
the restoration of brighter days, but the death of
•liilian, a'ter a short reign, disjippointed all their ex-
pectations. Tlie Christi,in emperors who siu-cecdcd
afforded the Jews entire toleratio;i to observe their
ceremonies, their feasts, and their S.abbatbs, secured
to ihem their property, their slaves, and their lands,
but at the same time called upon the Christians to
hold no interconrse witli them, and to be on their
guard against the doctrines of the syn.agogiie. In
the fifth centiu'v, the Jews throughout the Roman
Empire, both in its eastern and western divisions,
were not only deprived of toleration, hut exposed to
injurious and cruel trealment. But in the reign of
Justin, and that of Justinian, Jewisl\ oppression re-
ceived the sanction of law. Justin passed an edict
A. D. 523, prohibiting all .lews, Samaiitans, and
Pagtvns, from holding office in the State; while Jus-
tinian in his Code, as well as in his Novels, cxchulcd
the Jews from all civil rights, and any attempt at
proselytism w.as declared a capital criioc. The result
of siu-h oppressive enactments wasa series of succes-
sive insurrections on tlie part of the Jews, which dis-
turbed Justinian throughout his whole reign. The
most violent of these outbreaks was caused at Con-
stantinople by the sight of the holy vessels which
had been carried by Titus from Jerusalem to Home,
and had found their way to the capital of the Greek
Empire. To queU tliis tumult, which was of a very
serious description, .lustinian sent the holy vessels
from Coiisiantinople to .Icrusalem, and, from what-
ever cause, they have never been heard of sin-ce that
time.
The .Jews, soon after the dispersion, and the con-
sequent destruction of their whole ccclesi.astical po-
lity, longed for the restoration of some degree of
order and government. This led to the instilntion of
the Jewish patriarchs, the first of whom was Simeon,
the third, who lived in the reign of Adrian. In his
family the line of patriarchs continued until the fifth
century, when they began so to ]iervert their olliee,
that a law was passed by the ICmperor Theodosius
to restrict their power; and this proving iueM'ectii.al,
the ]>alriarc'ial dignity, in A. I). 429. was wliollv
abolished, and thus, as Da Costa remarks, "the link
was broken which connected the dilt'erent syn,agogues
of the Eastern Kmpire." About this time an exten-
sive emigration of learned Jews, devoted to the sliidv
of the Talmud, took place from Palestine and tlie
ISyzantine ICmpire to Babylonia and Persia— a cir-
cumstance which led to the compilation of the Baby-
lonian Talmud.
The rise of the Miiliaiiinicdan power in A^ia in
the seventh century h'd to the severe oppression and
deirrad.ition of the Jews in the East. I'revious to
that period, the Jews in Andjia seem to have been
nnmerous, [lowerful, and free. It is even asserted
that there existed at one time in that pcuinsulH a
Jewish kingdom under Jewish kings; and even so
late as the sixth ccntuiy, a Jewish king reigned in
Arabia. When Mohammed first commenced his
mi.ssion as a projihet, he seems to have met with
some countenance from the .\rabian .lews, who may
possibly have supposed him to be the Messiah. But.
in the course of a few years, they began to enterlain
unfavourable views of the prophet, and from that
time he looked upon them with the most bitter
hatred, stigmatizing them as " unbelievers," anil
" murderers of the proplicts," and applying to them
similar opprobrious epithets. Accordingly, there has
existed a strong feeling of enmity down to the present
day between the XInssidnian and the Jew. And yet
it is impossible to read the pages of the Koran with-
out being struck with the close connection which
may he traced between its doctrines and those of
modern Judaism, as developed in the Tahnud and
the Jewish traditions.
After the capture and destruction of Jerusalem by
Titus, the Jews emigrated in great numbers to the
coasts of the lied Sea. so that cities and even entire
districts belonged to them. They waged war and ne-
gotiated treaties with their neighbours, and were fast
rising into political importance in Arabia; but from
the seventh century, when Mohammed promulgated
his religion, they gradually sunk in influence and
power; aiul though considerable numbers of them
are still found in that country, they are held in great
contempt among the Mohammedans. Colonies of
Jews h.ave long existed in the most remote jiarts of
the interior of Asia and on the coast of Malabar.
There is also a peculiar race of Jews in the neigh-
bourhood of Bombay, who call themselves BioNl-
ISHAF;r. (which see\ hut claim no relationship with
the rest of the Jews in Eastern countries; and while
they strictly adhere to the chief portions of the Jew ish
ritual, they have also mingled Hindu suiierslitions
with their religious <ibservances. These Beni-lsrael
])r. Wilson of Bombay considers to be probably
descendants of the Ten Tribes. The Chinese Jews
are numerons, and are supposed to have originally
settled in the Celestial Emiiire between the time ot
Ezra and tlie destruction of the second temple.
This is confirmed by the fact, that they hold ICzra
in as great veutralion as Mosra, and appear to be
(piite ignorant of the Bbarisaieal traditions of the
Talmud. They are called by the Chinese " the people
that cut out the sinew;" and a great number of them
seem to ha\e exchanged .ludaism lor the religion of
the Koran.
The Jews have almost always in Europe been a
despised, oppressed, and persecuted ]ieoplc. Thus,
by the Council of Valines, A.n. 4I).5. Christians were
forbidden to cat with Jews. Some years later, I he
Council of Orleans prohibited niarririge between Jc"?
and Christians. The Council of lieziers, a.d. 12 IG,
JEWS (Modern).
237
fufiised permission to consult a Jewisli [ihysician.
For centuries tliere existed in France a pnljlic officer
called the " Protector of the Jews," wlio was chosen
from among the nobles of the land, and who, in some
cases, instead of being the friend, was the bitter
enemy of the very people wliom he svas appointed to
defend. In the south of France, trade was for a
long period chiefly in the hands of tlie Jews, yet they
were, all the while, regarded as the outcasts of
society. At Toulouse, so late as the thirlecinli
century, a Jew was compelled to receive in Easter
week every year a blow on the face before the doors
of the principal church. At Beziers, the bishop
yearly, on Palm Sunday, exhorted the people to
avenge the death of the Saviour upon the Jews of
tlie place; and after the year 1100, exemption from
tin's insult was purchased by the payment of an
annual sum of money. It is a strange circumstance,
however, that in no part of France did Hel)rew
learning flourish mnre than in the south. Mont-
pellier, Marseilles, Narbonne, Beziers, and other
towns, were celebrated for their synagogues and
academies, as well as for their Uabbinical writers,
commentators, and grammarians. The Jews have
never been found in great numbers in Norway, Swe-
den, and Denmark; but in all the other couiUries of
Europe, they have existed amid nuich discourage-
ment and persecution down to the present day.
The Jews who were banislied from S|iain in A. i).
1492, and from Portugal in A. i>. 1497, are known by
the name of Sephnrdim, or Spaniards, and maintain
their identity as a separate class of Jews among their
own brethren in all parts of the world. They look
lijion themselves as a higher order of Israelites. One
pecidiar point of distinction which marks them out
from other Jews, is tlieir daily use of the old Spanisli
language, which is handed down from generation to
generation, and with which they are so familiar, that
their own Scriptures are belter known to them in tlie
old Spanish version than in the original Hebrew.
Down to the commencement of the present century,
tlie Sephardim used both the Spanish and the He-
brew tongues in the daily intercourse of life, in their
private correspondence, and even in the public wor-
ship of the synagogue, exceiiting what was included
in the Liturgy. The Sephardim look back upon the
history of their ancestors during the fourteen cen-
turies of their residence as exiles in the Spanish
peninsula with the most romantic interest. "This
remarkable people," .says Mr. Prescott, " who seem
lo have preserved their unity of character unbroken
amid tlie thousand fragments into which they have
been scattered, allained perhaps to greater considera-
tion ill Spain than in any other part of Knrope.
Under the Visigothic Empire the Jews multiplied
exceedingly in the country, and were permitted to
acquire considerable power and wealth. After the
Saracenic invasion, which the Jews, perhaps with
reason, are accused of having facilitated, they resided
in the conquered cities, and were permitted to mingle
witli the Arabs on nearly equal terms. Their com-
mon Oriental origin produced a similarity of ta^tes,
to a certain extent not unfavouiable to such a coali-
tion. At any rate, the early Spanish Arabs were
characterized by a spirit of tolcralion towards both
Jews and Chrislians — ' the people of the book,' as
they were called — which has scarcely been found
among later Moslems. The Jews, accordingly, niiih'r
these favourable auspices, not only accumulated
wealth with their usual diligence, but gradually rose
to the highest civil dignity, and made great advances
in various departments of letters. The schools of
Cordova, Toledo, Barcelona, and Granada, were
crowded with numerous disciples, who emulated the
Arabians in kee[iing alive the flame of learning
during the deep darkness of the middle ages. What-
ever may be thought of their success in speculative
philosophy, they cannot reasonably be denied lo have
coutribulod largely to practical and experimental
science. They were diligent travellers in all parts
of the known world, compiling itineraries which have
proved of extensive use in later times, and bringing
home hoaids of foreign specimens and Oriental drugs
that furnished important contriljutions to the do-
mestic pharmacopa'ia. In the practice of medicine,
indeed, they became so expert, as in a manner to
monopolize that profession. They made great pro-
liciency in mathematics, and parlicularly in aslro-
nomy ; while, in the cultivation of elegant letters,
thev revived the ancient gIories\f the Hebrew muse.
This was indeed the golden age of modern Jewish
literature. The ancient Caslilians of the same pe-
riod, very diflcrent from tlicir (iolhic ancestors, seem
to liave conceded to the Israelites somewhat of the
feelings of respect which were extorted from them by
the superior civilization of the Spanish Arabs. We
find eminent Jews residing in the courts of the
Christian princes, directing their studies, attending
them as physicians, or, more frequently, administer-
ing their finances."
The Jews seem to have had a scttUnunt in Spain
long before the destruction of the second lemi'le. It
is remarkable that this portion of the dispersed of
Jndali allege that they are descendants of the house
of David. Not that they are able to produce any
document whereby to establish this claim, for the
Israelites, since their dispersion, have not continued
their genealogical tables ; but their high pretension
to be sprung from David is wholly founded on tra-
dition. For many centuries, the Jews carried on the
whole traffic of the kingdom of Spain ; and members
of their body were usually chosen to occnjiy places
of trust and honour at court. As in the Kast the
Jews were governed by tlie Resli Glutha, or Prince
of the Captivity (see Aichmalotarch), so in ihe
Sp^anish peninsula they %vere ruled by an Israelite
called the Rabbino mayor, who was appointed by the
king. This magistrate, who took cognizance of all
Jewish affairs, had under him a vice-rabbino mayor,
a chancellor, a secretary, and several other officers
■_';i8
JKWri (Mo1)i:kn).
while two (litVereiit orders of nibbiiis, m- jiiiiges, acted
under him in llie towns and districts ol' the kingdom.
But the honour in wliich the Jews were lield by the
king and tlie liiglier orders both in cliurcli and state,
did not make them altogetlier tree from oppression
and persecution. On tlie contrary, the free burgliers,
tlie inferior chM-gy, and esjiecially tlie common people,
were their inveterate enemies. From time to time
the most severe enactments were passed against
tliem, and thev were subjected to persecution of
every kind.
Nowhere has Hebrew learning been more exten-
sively cultivated than among the Jews of the Penin-
sula. In earlv limes, and even during the rule of the
Saracens, their youth were trained in the tamous
schools of Babylon and Persia; but at an after
period, an entirely new and independent school of
Hebrew theology was established in Spain. The
circumstances which led to the removal of the scat
of modern Jewish science from the ICast to the West
are thus detailed by Da Costa : — "Four learned Is-
raelites of Pumbeditha were in a ship, which was
captured by a Moorish pirate from Spain, A. n. 948.
One of tliem, named Kabbi Moses, after having .seen
his wife cast herself into the sea, to escape the fero-
city of the captain, was, with his son, carried prisoner
to Cordova. The Israelitisb inliabitants of that town
soon eli'ected their deliverance by means of a ransom.
.\fter remaining some time unnoticed, a learned dis-
cussion ill the .synagogue became tlie means of raising
IJjdjhi Moses high in the esteem of all, and renewing
the interest his late had before excited. He was
soon chosen head of that synagogue and Judge of the
Jews ; and becmning known, while holding this office,
to Uabbi Chasdai Ben Isaac, the great protector of
his nation, at the court of Miraniolin, he ubt;iined in
marriage for his son a daughter of the powerful Iiou.se
of Peliag, thus laying a prosperous toimdalion both
for his own descendants and tor the Jewish schools
of Spain. When tlie Persian school of the Geonim
came to an end in the eleventh century, in the person
of Rabbi H.-ii Bar I'ab Scherira, the schools of the
Spanish Ualibanim took its place, as the centre of
Jewish eivilizalion and learning. Soon Toledo and
Seville, then Saragos.sa, Lisbon, and a great number
of other cities, shared in the glory of Cordova. At
Toledo alone, the number of students in Hebrew
theology is said to have sometimes amounted to
twelve thousand: the iiunibiir is no doubt exagger-
ated, but the exaggeration itself proves the high idea
that was formed of the extent to which the study of
Hebrew literature was carried uii in ihe ancient
capital of Caslile."
'I'hus the reputed founder of the new school i f
Ilebriiw literature at Cordova was Uabbi Moses /
Pumbeditha ; but the first age or generation of the
Spanish Kabbaiiim did not begin with liim, or even
with his son, but with Ifabbi Samuel Ilallevi, siir-
nanied Hanr.agid, or the Prince, who is considered
as the lirst IJjibbiiio .Mayor, or Prince of the (',i|'li-
vity in Siiain, A. I). 1027. From that date till the
end of the tiftecntli century, nine generations of
Kabbanim are reckoned, each deriving its name
from a head of the synagogue, or some distinguished
student of the age.
The most distinguished of all the Spanish Kab-
banim were Aben Ezra and Maimonides, both of
ilicm gifteil with remarkable abilities, learning, and
wealth. The first of them, Aben Ezra, usually siir-
nained Hachac.liam, the wise, was born at Toledo in
the beginning of the twelfth century. He is best
known as a commentator on the Old Testament, his
labours in this dc|iartment having been valued not
only by Jews, but also by many Christians. Mai-
monides was a native of Cordova, having been born
there in A. D. 1139. He was a voluminous and a
versatile writer, his works, which amount to more
than thirty in number, being on a great variety of
ditl'erent subjects. The most remarkable of his
writings is bis More/i Ni'vocliim, or Guide to the
Doubtl'ul, a work in which he interprets, with griat
clearness, the Law and the Talnuid. The great aim
of Mo.ses Maimonides, in the twelfth century, was,
like that of Moses MendeLssohn in the eighteenth
century, to find a basis for the priiuiples of tradi-
tional Judaism in philoso[ihy rather than in revela-
tion. No sooner were the views of this remarkable
man given to the world in the iMoreh Nevocbim, than
a cry of heresy was raised both against the book and
its author. The synagogues of Spain were now
divided into two parties, the one favouring, and the
other opposing, the views of Maimonides. His tid-
inirers, however, obtained the decided suiicriority
both in numbers and influence ; and though l!ab-
biiiisni still continued to exercise dominion over the
synagogue, I lie discussions occasioned by the writ-
ings of Mainuniides tended, in no small degree, to
deliver the minds of many .lews from the trammels
of traditional authority. Accordingly, about a cen-
tury after, we find the Rabbins of Spain complaining
of the progress of infidelity caused by the influence
of Greek philosophy.
The Sephardim or Spanish Jews have not only
produced able writers on theological suhjecls, but
also distinguished poets, astronotners, and niatlie-
maticians. Amid the hononrs wliich they gained,
however, in the walks of literature and science,
often was the sword of intolerant persecution un-
sheathed, and the records of the Inquisition in
Spain tell us of multitudes of victims belonging to
the despised Jews no less than to the Christian here-
tics. At length, ill A. D. 1492, afier the reduction of
tlie lust Moslem kingdom in the Peninsula, an edict
w:is I romulgated for the expulsion of the Jews from
Spain, four iiioiilhs being allowed them to prepare
for their departure. In vain did they oti'er immense
sums of money to be allowed to remain ; they were
transported by ships to the coast of Africa. Many
of them endured such extremity of siitl'criiig that
ihrv ri'tiiincd to Spain and renounced the faith of
JEWS (Modern).
239
their fathers. Others found an a.syhmi in Portugal,
where, in consideration of the payment of a liigh
ca|jitation tax, tliey were invested witli various pri-
vileges, being allowed to celelirate their feasts, prac-
li.>e their ceremonies, and conlinne the full exercise
of tiieir religious worsliip. A Rabbinical scliool was
formed at Lisbon, whicli soon rose to considerable
distinction, and during the five years which elapsed
between the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, and
tlieir banishment from Portugal, this school became
the centre-point of Jewi-sh literature and science.
The most distinguished of the Portuguese Jews was
Abarbanel, whose fame, as a theological writer, is
still cherished among the Jews. In 1497, an edict
was published banishing the Jews from Portugal, as
they had a few years before been banished from
Sjiain ; and from this date the Sephardim were scat-
tered over every ipiarter of the globe, still, however,
preserving their identity separate and apart from all
tlieotherracesof the Jewish naticm. In America, n
Africa, in Asia, and many countries of Europe, they
found refuge, and enjoyed toleration and peace. But
the country which has aflorded them the warmest
hospitality, since the close of the sixteenth centin-y,
has been the Protestarit republic of the Low Coun-
tries.
The first settlement of the Jews at Amsterdim
was made in A. D. 1"94, and in the course of four
vears they erected a synagogue. Ten years after, the
increase of the Jewish population led to the forma-
tion of a second, and in A. D. 1018 of a third syna-
gogue. In 1G39 the three synagogues were united
to form one single community of Spanish .and Por-
tuguese Jews, which founded, in 1675, a handsome
synagogue for the wliole body. About the same
tin\e the German and Polish Jews had established
their synagogues in the capital of Holland. Though
excluded from public offices, and also from all guilds
or companies, except those of the physicians and
brokers, the Israelites were >ecured in the full posses-
sion of liberty of conscience, tlie free exercise of their
religion, the practice of their own laws and traditions,
and even, with few exceptions, the observance of
their national customs. Among the Jews in Hol-
land there have been various authors and learned
men, one of the most noted of wliom was Ral>bi
Meiiasseli ben Israel, who wrote several exegelical
and dogmatical works, besides several books relating
to the Jewish Liturgy, the worship of the synagogue
and Rabbini<-al nrdinances. Contemporary with this
learned autlior was aiiolher man of a strongly s])ecu-
lative turn of mind. Uriel da Costa, who threw ort'at
once all belief in the Divine authority of the Old
Testament, and in the traditions of the Kabbins.
The appearance of this bold inlidel in the synagogue
of Amsterdam, and tlie open avowal of his dangerous
doctrines, led to a keen struggle between the modern
sect of the Pliarisecs and that of the Sadducees. In
a work wliich he published explanatory of his opi-
nions, Uriel declared his rejection of ;\11 tradition, and
his denial of the resiurection of the dead and the life
to come. The chief magistrate of Amsterdam deem
ed it his duty to take cognizance of the matter, and,
accordingly, the autlior was arre.sted, and the affair
was compromised by the [jayment of 300 Horins, and
the confiscation of the books. From ibis time Uriel
da Costa became both in opinion and practice an
open Deist ; but at length, weary of a struggle in
which he stood .alone, he sought and obtained recon-
ciliation with the .synagogue. Again he avowed his
deisticiil opinions, and for seven years he was cast
off by his brethren. A second time he sought recon-
ciliation to the s3'nagogtie, which was only granted
after the infliction upon the unhappy man of the
well-known forty stripes save one ; and a few days
after submitting to this degradation, he put an end
to his existence, having previously written his auto-
biography, which was afterwards published by Liin-
borcb.
Another indivi<lual of great note among the .lews
in Holland was Benedict Spinoza, who. in his theolo-
gical writings, taught a system of coinplete Pan-
theism, not by substituting the whole iniiverse in
place of the living God, but by attributing real ex-
istence to God alone, .and admitting of no other
existence, material or immaterial, unless as a nioditi-
cation of th.at one only Being. This amiable but
erring philosopher was a native of Amsterdam, hav-
ing been born in that city in .\. D. 16.32. His pecu-
liar opinions were chiefly founded on the writings of
Des Cartes (see Idkausts), which exercised a re-
m.arkable influence on the thinkers of his age. The
views which Spinoza had been led to form were com-
pletely at variance with those of his fellow-Israelites,
and as a natural result he began to neglect the pub-
lic services of the .synagogue, and to dispute with the
Rabbins on religious subjects. At length his opi-
nions drew down upon him the censure of his breth-
ren, and he w.as not oidy expelled from the .synagogue,
but he found it necess.ary. in order to save his life, to
fly from Amsterd.am, and. after wandering from one
place to another, he settled at the Hague. Here he
lived in seclusion, but maintaining an extensive cor-
respoiulence witli learned men both in Holland and
elsewhere. In the course of a few years he was cut
o.ff by consumption.
Next to Amsterdam, nowhere have the Jews been
more prosperous than at the Hague. In that city
many of the finest liouses have been built and in-
habited by .lews, and their synagogue is in one ot
the best quarters of the towii. Members both of
the German and Portuguese svnagogues in Holland
were frequently pret'erred to fill confidential posts in
matters of di|ilomacy ; and such has been the respect
uniformly shown to the .lews in that country, that
till the reign of William V. inclusive, no stadtholder
of Holland h.ad ever failed to pay at least one formal
visit to each of the groat synagogues of Amsterdam.
During the eighteenth century, the Jews in Hol-
land, and indeed throughout the Continent generally.
2J0
JEWS (Moukkn).
imrtook of tlic dogeiierauy in leligioii wliicli so ex-
tensively prevailed. The iiiridel literature iuid phi-
losophy of France exercised a most [lernicious
influence over both Jews and Gentiles in every
country of Europe ; while Voltaire and his followers
intensely hated the Jews, hemnse the very existence
of thitt people constituted an incontestable proof of
the historical trutli both of the Old and New Tes-
taments.
The Jews appear to liave found an entrance into
l{ussia durin;,' the reign of I'eler the Great, but they
were banished from the country in 1745, for Iiaving
maintained a correspondence with the exiles of
Siberia. They have always, however, kept their
ground in Poland as well as in the Ukraine, both of
which belong to the government of the Czar. The
Polish Jews are looked upon by theh- brethren in
other conntries as a superior race, both In intellect
and learning. " Nowhere else," says Da Costa, re-
ferring to Poland, •' do we find In so great a degree,
among the dispersed nation, a life of so much social
acti\ity combined with a remarkable bent towards
religion and contemplative philosophy ; nowhere else
so wide a separation between science and tlieology,
and, at the .same time, such great capacity for sclen-
tilic knowledge; nowhere else such deep national
debasement, resulting from ages of ignoble occupa-
tion and servile subjection, with a chanictcr so highly
respectable, both In Its moral qualities and domestic
relations ; In a word, nowhere do so many remains of
ancieiU nobility, and, at tlie same time, of the most
wretched degeneracy, appear even in the expression
of coimtenance and stature of body. These singular
and original characteristics of the Polish Jew are to
be found, not only in the mystic theosophy which
usually disiinguishes their schools and tlieir theolo-
gians, but even in the existence of Caraltes amidst
these synagogues, in other respects burled. If we
may so express it, in the study of the Tahmid."
In the synagogues of Poland, the Jewish sect of the
BABn.vniAi.5Ts (which see), found many supporters ;
and In the same synagogues the CllAslDiM (which
see), had their origin in 1740.
An Anti-Talmudic sect s]u-nng up among the Pol-
ish Jews, originated In 1760 by Jacob Frank. This
new Jewi.-h sect completely cast oH'the Talmud, and
adopted the Cabbalistic book of Zohar as the basis
of its confession of faith, and licnco they assumed to
tliemselves the name of ZoiiAitlTKS (which see).
They plainly declared their belief In the doctrine of the
Trinity. At first the followers of Frank were looked
upon as belonging to the Christian rather than to
the Jewish faith, and they were persecuted by the
synagogue for their Christian dogmas. In a short
lime, however, they were persecuted, on the contrary,
by the liom.'^n Catholic church, on account of their
Jewish Cabbalislic views. In those critical clrcum-
siances. exposed to the hostility bcjth of Christians
and Jews, many of the Zoharitcs emigrated to Tiu'-
key, where llu-y were treated with the utmost harsh-
ness and cruelty by tlie jiopulace. Frank, with
whom the sect originated, entertained many semi-
nicnts approaching to Christianity, and he considered
that he had received a mission to unite together all
religions, sects, and confessions. His followers no
longer form a separate denomination, but numbers of
them still exist In Poland, belonging to the IJonian
Catholic Church, though distinguished by certain
remains of .Judaism, and some of them secretly re-
taining a firm belief in the religion of the synagogue.
They are said to have taken a share in the Polish
insurrection in 1830, and it has even been asse ted
that the chief of the Frankists was a member of the
Diet of Poland, and afterwards obliged to take refuge
as a political e.xile in France.
liut while the Jews in the southern and eastern
parts of Europe were agitated by the prevalence
anmng them of Cabbalistic opinions, a nio\ement of
a ditlerent kind was commencing in the north-western
parts and in Germany. While Jacob Frank was
actively propagating his peculiar views In Poland,
Moses Mendelsohn was Inculcating on the Jews in
Prus.sia a .system of ojiinions composed of a hetero-
geneous mixture of the teachings of Plato and of
Mahnonides. This remarkable man was born in
1729, at Dersace, of poor parents. In early lil'e he
exhibited many tokens of possessing an energetic
and inquiring mind. The writings of Malmonides,
and especially the Jloreh Nevochini, were his favom"-
iie subjects of study. His own philosophical writings
soon gained for him a high reputation both among
Christians and Jews. His chief anxiety was to re-
form the rellgiou of the Jews, while he malnlaincd
an outward respect for the forms of Uabbinical Ju-
daism. On one point he exjiressed himself very
sirongly — in reference to the authority of tlie syna-
gogue. He would not allow the synagogue or any
other religious connnunity to inqiose any restriction
whatever on the rights of thinking and teaching.
Through the intluence of Mendelsohn, all respect fur
the Talmud began to disapjiear among the German
Jews, and a large party was formed avowing them-
selves Anti-Talnnidists. This eminent Jewish philo-
sopher died in 178G, but the impress which he had
made upon the religion and literature of the Hebrew
n:ition contiimed to be felt long after his decea.se.
Three intimate friends, who long survived him, and
who actively propagated his opinions, were Ilartwig
Wcssely, Isaac F.uchcl, and David FriedlMuder.
The year 178'.) proved the commcnccnient of a
new era In the history of the modern Jews. With
the French lievolution a .lystem of political theories
and opinions arose which agitated all the nations of
Europe. Nor were the dispersed of Israel uuall'ccted
by the wide-spread spirit of change. Throwing off
their own ancient nationality, they directed all their
elibrls from this period to be reckoned fellow-coun-
trymen with the Christian nations. Taking advan-
lMi;e of the great polilical outburst In France, the
Jews called loudly f'or the application in their casa
JEWS (:\IODF.RN)
241
of the principles of liberty, fratiM-nity, and equality.
Tlieii- demaiul was acknowledged to be just, and in
171)1 complete equality was proclaimed for all Jews,
without exception and distinction, who would accept
the rights and fultil the duties of Frencli citizens.
The rights wliich the Revolution had thus obtained
for the Jews were confirmed by Xapoleon ]?o)ia-
parte. In consequence, however, of the prevalence
of usiuy among the Jewish population in the pro-
vinces of the Rhine, an Imperial edict was published
in 1808, imposing on every Jewish creditor who
should go to law against a debtor the obligation to
procure a certificate of good character, attested by
the local authorities, declaring that the said creditor
was not in the habit of taking usury, or pursuing
any disgraceful traffic. This severe decree was
limited in its continuance to ten years: but before
Ihe expiry of that period it was revoked, in conse-
quence of the restoration of the Bourbon family. In
Rhenish Bavaria and Rhenish Prussia it w.is con-
tinued and strictly enforced after the ten years had
come to a close.
Napoleon I., in his anxiety to promote the welfare
of (he Jews scattered throughout his dominions, con-
voked at Paris a large assembly or sanhedrim of
Isr.velites. This council, which consisted of lit)
members, nvot on tlie 28th of July 1806. It was
constituted by order of the Emperor, and three Im-
perial comnnssioners were introduced dinnng tlie
sittings, with twelve questions, wliicli tlie sanhedrim
were requested to answer for the satisfaclion of
Xiipoleon and the govermnent. These questions,
which chiefly referred to the Jewish laws concprning
marriage and usury, were after mature deliberation
answered by the assembly to the following effect, as
relatefl by I>a Costa : '• That the Jew, though by the
law of Moses he had permission to take several
wives, was not allowed to make use of this liberty in
the West, an obligation to take oidy one wife hav-
ing been imposed upon them in the year 10.30. by an
Assembly, over which Rabbi Gerson, of Worms,
presided, — that no kind of divorce was allowed
among the Jews, except what was authorized by the
law of the comitry, and pronounced judicially, — that
the Jews recognised not only Frenchmen, but all
men as their brethren, without making any difi'ereiico
between the .lew and him who was not a Jew, h'tnn
whom they ditlered not as a nation, but by their re-
ligion only. With respect to France, the Jew, who
had there been rescued from oppression, and allowed
an equ.ality of social riglits, looked upon that country
as more especially his own. of which he h.ad already
given manifest jn-Qof on the field of battle; — that
since the revolution no kind of jurisdiction in France
or Italy could control that of the Rjibbins ; — tliat the
Jewish law forbade all taking of usuiy, eitlier from
strangers or their own brethren ; that the command-
ment to lend to his Israelitisb brother, without in-
terest, was a precejit of charity, which by no means
detracted from the justice, or the necessity of a Inw-
II.
ful interest in matters of coitimerce ; finally, tliat the
.Tewisli religion declared, without any distinction of
persons, that usuiy was disgraceful .iiul infamous;
but that the use of interest in mercantile all'airs,
without reference to religion or coimtry, was legal,—
to lend, without interCNt. out of pure charity towards
all men, was praiseworthy."
The Imperial govermnent declared iheir entire
satisfaction with the replies of the .«anliedrim. and
another assembly of the same kind was convoked liy
the Emperor in 1807, to which Jews from othci
count)'ies, and especially from Holland, were invited,
witli the view of giving to the principles of the fir.st
sanhedrim the force of law among the Jews in all
countries. The second meeting, called the great
Saidiedrim, to which was intrusted the formation of
a plan of organization for all the synagogues throngli-
out the Empire, met the following year. The prin-
ciples laid down by the sauhedrim were strongly op-
posed by the Jews of other countries, particidaily
those of Germany and Holland. But the social and
political equality which the Jews enjoyed in Friiuce,
led to their settlement in gi-eat numbers in that
country ; so that in the course of two years after the
assembling of the sanhedrim, the Jcwi.^h population
resident within the boundaries of the French Em-
pire amounted to 80,000 souls, of whom 1,232 were
lauded proprietors, exclusive of the owners of houses
in towns.
The Jews in France, from the dati' of their em.an-
cipation by Napoleon I., have under every succes.sive
govermnent been eligible to the highest offices, both
civil and militaiy, and so well have they accpiitted
themselves in every office which they have occupied,
that in 1830 the Minister of Public Worship, M.
Mcrilhou, gave the strongest official testimony in
their favour. The extent, however, to which the
social equality of the Jews in France lias been car-
ried, has not only tended to destroy tlie national
spirit which has generally characterized the Jewish
])eople, but has introduceil ara<mg ihein that spirit
of religious inditlerence, and even infidelity, which is
ra|iidly diffusing itself among Continental Jews gen-
erally.
The Revohition iulrodnceil into the Nelhr'rhinds
from France in 17!).'), gradually led to the emiiucipa-
tion of the .lews in that country also. But while a
few hailed the new institutions, the great mass con-
tinued devotediv attached to the house of Orange, iuid
keenly opposed to the revolutionary spirit of the age.
The difference of opiinon which thus existed among
the Jews on political matters, brought about at length
a schism in the syn.agogne. Those who had i)n-
bibcd the new ideas assendilcd separately for reli-
gious worship, and founded a synagogue named
Adalh Jeshurnn, which conliniK'd apart from the
ancient synagogue of the Netb'-rlands till the reign
of William I. Soon after the revolution in llollaiul
ill 17'.I5, ,Tews began to be .admitted to the munici-
pality and the triljuual of Amsterdam, and even to the
2i2
JEWS (Modern)
Natioiiiil Assembly at the Hague. Tliese i>rivilej;es
were contiiuifcl lirst uiiili'f Louis Napoleon, and then
undef the liouse of Orani^e, as well as inider the ililVei'-
eiit constitutions ol' 18i;i, 1815, 1840, and 1848. At
tills day, acconliiigly, Jews in Holland are not inifre-
qiieiitly found holding uuiiiicipal oHices in towns, and
plaees of trust and inlluence under the. Crown. In
Belgium also, the Jews enjoy entire liberly, and are
eligible to all situations of a secular kind, on the same
fooling with the members of other religious Ijodies.
In Germany the Jews had a long struggle for
emancipation. No doubt the French Revolution,
and the inlluence of the French Imperial government
imder Xa[ioleou I., were favourable to the Jews iu
various parts of Germany. But it was not until the
reigu of King Frederick William IH. tliat the Jews
became entitled to rank as Prussian citizens. This
was secured to them by an edict published on the
lllli of March 1812, which, while it granted the
right of citizenship, encumbered it with so many
exeei'tious and pro\isional regulations, tliat it was
rendered almost nugatory. These restrictions, how-
ever, were removed in the year 1848, when the re-
volutionary spirit spread over almost every country
of Europe.
In Uoman Catholic countries various remarkable
changes have been effected in the relation of tlie Jews
to the governments. The reigning Poiie, Pius IX.,
at an early period of his Pontllicate, set an example of
liberality by his regulations in favour of the Jewish
subjects of the church. The Ghetto of the Jews at
Rome was solenndy opened on the evening of the
17th of April 1847. It had been customary for four
elders of the synagogue annually to approach the
Pope with an luunblc supplication that he woid<l
grant the Jews permission as a nation to reside in
Home. Tins degrading custom, Pius IX. abolislied,
and granted a complete and unreslricted toleration.
Throughout every part of the world Jews arc to
be found, "There is not a country," says Dr. Keith,
"on tlie face of the earth, wliere the Jews are un-
known. They are found alike in Europe, Asia,
Africa, and America. They are citizens of tlie world
without a country. Neither moimlains, nor rivers,
nor deseile, nor oceans, which are the boundaries of
other nations, have terminated their wanderings.
They abound in Polatid, in Holland, in Russia, and
in Tmkey. In Germany. Spain. Italy, France, and
Britain, they are more thiidy scattered. In Persia,
China, and India, on the east and on the west of the
(langes, tliey are few in number among the heathen.
They have trod the snows of Siberia, and the sand of
the bnrni[ig desert ; and tlie FiUropean traveller hears
of their existence in regions which he cannot reach,
even in the very inteiior of Africa, soutli ofTimbiic-
too. From Mo.-cow to Lisbon, from .lapau to Bri-
tain, from Borneo to Archangel, from Hiudostan to
Hoiidnias, no inliabilant of any nation upon the
earth would be known in all the intervening regions,
but a ,Iew alone."
Proiierly speaking, the modern Jews liave no sym-
bol or profession of faith, but allege the Word ol
God contained in the Old Testament to be the
standard of their belief and practice. Maimoiiides,
however, reduced the doctrines of Judaism to a
limited number of fmidamental principles, wliich are
usually known by the name of the Tbirlecn Articles,
and are regarded by the .Jews as exhibiting a view of
their peculiar system. Tliese articles which form
the creed of tlie modern .lews are as follows : —
"I. I believe with a perfect I'aith, that the Creator
(blessed lie his name; is the Creator and Governor ot
all creatures, that he alone has made, does make,
and will make all thingB.
"II. I believe with a [lerlect I'aith. tliat the Creator
(blessed be bis name) is only one, in unity to which
there is no resemblance, and tliat he alone has been,
is, and will be our God.
" III. I believe with a perfect faith, that the Crea-
tor (blessed be his name' is not corporeal, nor to be
com(irehended by an understanding capable of com-
prehending wliaf is corporeal: and tliat there is
nothing like him in the universe.
" IV. I believe with a perfect I'aitli, that tlie Crea-
tor (blessed be Ins name) is the First and the l.ast.
"V. I believe with a perfect failli, that the Crea-
tor (blessed be his name) is the only object of ado-
ration, and that no other being whatever ought to be
worshipped.
"VI. I believe with a jierfect faith, tli;it all the
words of the prophets are true.
" VII. I believe with a perfect faith, that the pro-
]iliecies of Moses our master (may he rest in peace)
are true; and that he is the father of all the wise
men, as well of those who went before him, as ot
those who have succeedeil him.
"VIII. I believe with a perfect faith, lh;it the
whole law which we have in our bands at this day,
was delivered by Moses our master, may he rest in
peace).
" IX. I believe with a perfect faith, that this law
will never be changed, and that no other law will
ever be given by the Creator, (blessed be his name).
"X. I believe with a perfect faith, that the Crea-
tor (blessed be his name) knows all the actions ot
men, and all their thouglits, as it is said; 'He fasli-
ionetli all the hearts of llieni, and understandetli all
their works.'
"XI. I believe with a perl'ccl lailli.lhat I lie Crea-
tor (blessed be his name; rewards tlinse wl. > observe
his commands, and piuiislies those who tran.sgress
them.
"XII. I believe wiih a perfect faith, that the
Messiah will come, and though he delays, neverthe-
less I will always expect him till he. come.
"XIII. I believe with a perfect faith, that the
dead will be restored to life, when it shall be so
ordained by the decree of the Creator; blessed be
his uaiiie, and exalted be his remembrance for ever
and ever,"
JEWS ^MODliRN).
243
The articles of Maiiiionides have been approveil
aiid sanctioned by ahmost all the Il;ibl)is for tlie last
Hve hundred years. They have been publicly adopted
•IS the creed of the sjiiagogue, and have lieen inserted
in the pmyer books as fundan)ental points, which all
.lews are expected to believe, and are required to
repeat every day. The precepts of the Jewish reli-
gion are considered as amounting to 01.3, of which
the affirmative are 248, and the negative 3G5. •' la
the ten cojnniandments," says a writer on this subject,
" there are 613 letters, and each letter stands for one
command ; and in the whole law of Moses there are
013 commandments ; and such was tlie power of
these two tables, (hat it contained the complete law
of Moses. Thus far it is proved that a perfect God
gave a perfect law." The negative precepts are
obligatory on every Israelite at all times ; but of the
affirmative, some are optional, some are restricted to
certain seasons, and others to certain offices ; some
can onlv be performed in Palestine, and others are
limited to the regulation of such ceremonies and
services as have been discontinued since the desirue-
tion of the temple. The obligations imiioscd on
Jewish females by the affirmalive precepts are very
few. The Habbis hold that before marriage a woman
has nothing to do with religion, and is not reqnired
to observe any of the comnianihnents ; and after
marriage, she has only to observe tin'ee : (1.) the
purifications of women ; (2.) to bless the Sabbath
bread — that is, to take a small piece of dough, re-
peat a prayer over it, and throw it into the tire; and
(3.) to light the candles on the eve of any Sabbath,
or of any festival, and repeat a prayer whilst doing it.
Every Jewish father is bound to instruct his sons
in the knowledge of the law, but not his daughters,
and women are not required to learn the law them-
selves, neither are they obliged to teach it to their
eliildren. The process of education followed in the
case of Jewish children is thus described by Dr.
iM'Caul in his 'Judaism and the Jews:' — "At foin-
or tive years of age, the Jewish child begins to learn
the Alejih Beth. As soon as he can read the Hebrew
text with points, the work of translation commences.
There is no learning of grammar. The Melanuned
teaches the translation at once. He pronounces the
Hebrew word, iuid tells the meaning, and repeats a
given portion in this way until the child knows it.
Thus, without grammar or lexicon, without any
reference to roots or conjugations, the Jewish chil-
dren learn the language of their forefatliers; and it is
surprising to see the progress which they make in
the course of a year. Wlien the child can translate
tolerably, he then begins the Penlateuch again, with
the ' Commentary' of R. Solomon Jarchi. Tlie style
of this commentator is concise, and often obscure.
Hut the oral instruction clears away the difficidties.
Die Melammed repeats the words, giving the sense
as before, and the child repeats after him until he has
learned his task, which is for a week — either the
whole weekly portion of the law, or a part of il,
according to his abilities. When he has mastered
Kashi, he begins the Talnmd. At first, the oral
method is used as before ; but very soon the child is
left to shift for himself; and usually, at ten years of
age, he is able to make out the sen.sc by the help ol
Jarchi's ' Commenlary.' At ihirtcen be becomes a
bar milzviih, the son of the conunandment, and is
then responsible for his own sins, which, up to that
time, the faiher has borne; and is expected to ex-
pound some difficult passage of the Talnuid publicly
in the synagogue. Of course all Jewish children
do not pui-sue these studies so far as the Talmud and
its conunentaries. The mass of the people are very
poor, and many are therefore obliged to rest satisfied
with a knowledge of the Pentateuch. Others sto]!
at Pashi's ' Commentary.' Olhers exhibit no taste
for learning. But still, after dediicling all these
classes, a greater proportion of Jewish children
receive a learned education than amongst Christians.
Poor youths of ])romise find a seminary and books in
the Beth Hammedrash, or house of instruclion, which
exists in every large congregation, where the Pabbi
presides and superiuleuds the studies. They are
supported by voluntary contribution, and wander
about from one celebrated Rabbi to another in order
to complete their studies; and, it must be added,
everywhere find a home and a supply of the neces-
saries of life. One of the most pleasing traits in the
Jewish character is the hospitality with which they
treat all strangers of their natran, but particulaily
wandering students."
A strange idea prevails anu)ng the modern Jews,
that if a child cannot repeat the Kude-sh in the
synagogue, the soul of the deceased parent remains
in purgatory. The gi-eatest reproach, besides, that
can be cast upon a Rabbinical Jew is, that lie neglects
the education of his children, more especially the
male children, on whom double attention is bestowed.
So little account is taken of females anujng the Jews,
that a thanksgiving is inserted in all the prayer-
books, and forms a part of the daily devotions of
every male member of the synagogue : " Blessed art
thou, O Lord our Cind! King of tlie universe ! who
hast not made me a woman 1"
From the dispeivion to the latter end of the last
century, Pabbinism prevailed universally amongst
the Jews, with the exceiition of the small sect of the
Ca1!AITES (which see). The distinguishing feature
of the Rabbinical system is, that it asserts the tran>-
mission of an oral or traditional law of equal autho-
rity with the written law of Ciod, at the same time
that it resolves tradition into the present opinions of
the existing church. In consequence of the ijitro-
ductioii of Pabbinical glosses, the great doctrines of
Scripture are completely perverted. Thus the fun-
damental tenet of original sin is denied by the Jews;
and Maimonides boldly affirms that the idea of man
being born with an inherent princijile of sin or
holiness, is as inconceivable as hi.s being born an
adept in any art or science. On the other hand, tin
'ZH
JEWS (Modern).
Taliniidisls, and otlier Jcwi.^li wiiicrs, trequently
spc.'ik of an evil prinuiplo, wliicli tliey ri'iJi'e.soiit as
the iuienial eause of all tlie sins tliat nu-M commit,
Some Uabbis speak of two pi-inuiples in man, tlie one
evil, the oilier good ; tlic former bom wiih liim, the
latter implanted at the age of tliirtceii.
The modern Jews are wilhoiit i)riest, altar, or
sacrilice, and, in their view, the only atonement is
sincere repentance, and the only ground of acceptance
is a perfect conformity to the law of Moses. Thi.s is
the doctrine set forth hy Maimonides, but the general
Jv^ctrine of the synagogue appears to bo, that there
are otlier substitutes as well as repentance, such as
the sutieriiigs and supererogatory merits of reputed
saints and martyrs. The doctrine of divine inlluence
is taught by some Rabbis, but not by others ; and the
self-deteruiining power of tlie human will to good or
evil is clearly asserted in a maxim laid down in the
Talmud, that everything is in the power of God
except the fear of God. The notion is very generally
entertained among modern .Tews, that the ceroinoiiial
observances gone through annually on tiie Great Day
of Atonement serve as an expiation for all the sins of
the preceding year. Some Rabbis inculcate that
repentance ought to bo accompanied with bodily
mortification and penance; ami it is very generally
believed that the bodily pains which they sutler are
expiations for sins. The doctrine of the metempsy-
chosis, or that one human soul animates several
bodies in succession, is adopted by many Jewish
writers.
It is maintained by the Jews that, after death,
those who have been righteous in this life are happy,
and ascend immediately into the holy place ; but in
the case of a wicked man, all his sins which stand near
him go before him to his grave, and trample upon his
body. The angel Duma likewise rises, attended by
those who are ajipointed for the beating of the dead
— a process which is called Ciiip.dut IIakkefeu
(which see), and is performed in the grave. Seven
judgments are undergone by the wicked, which are
thus described by a Rabbinical writer: — "The flr.-t
is when the soul departs from the body. The second
is when his works go before him, and exclaim against
him. The third is when the body is laid in the
grave. The fourth is C'/iibhnt Iliddv/cr — that is, the
boating in the grave. The lifth is the judgment of
the worms. AVIien his body has lain in the grave
tlirce days, he is ripped open, his entrails come out ;
and bis bowels, with tlie soides in them, are taken
and dashed in his face, with this addrcs.s. Take what
thou hast given to thy stomach, of that which tliou
didst daily eat and (Irink, and of which, in all thy
daily feastings, thou distribiitedst nothing to the poor
and needy ; as it is said, ' 1 will spread upon your
faces tlie dung of your solemn feasts.' JIal. ii. .'!.
After the three days, a man receives judgment on
his eyes, his hand.«, and liis feet, whicli have com-
mitted inii]uities, till the thirtieth dav ; and in all
these thirty days the soul and body arc judged
together. 'Wherefore the soul diu-ing this time
remains hero ujion earth, and is not suliered to go to
the place to which it belongs. The sixth is the
judgment of Hell. The seventh is, that his soul
wanders, and is driven about the world, finding no
res-t anywhere till the days of her punishment are
ended. These are the seven judgments inflicted upon
men; and these are what are signitied in the threat-
ening, 'Then will I walk contrary unto you also in
fury ; and I, even I, will chastise you seven times for
your sins,' liOV. xxvi. 'i8." The Jews, we have
.s.aid, hold the doctrine of transniigration, soine jiass-
ing into human bodies, others into beasts, others into
vegetables, anil others still into stones.
It would occupy too much space to enumerate the
idle and frivolous ceremonies enjoined by the Rabbis
in dressing and undressing, washing and wiping the
face and hands, and other actions of daily life. 'J'o
instance one, which is mentioned by Buxtorf : "A
Jew ought to put on the right shoe (irst, and then
the left; but the left shoe is to be tied first, and the
right afterwards. If the shoes have no latchets or
strings, the loft shoe must be put on first. In nn
dreiising, the left .shoe, whether with or without
latchets or strings, is in all cases to be taken oA
first." But passing to matters of more importance,
those which concern the piublic worship of the Jews,
we remark that a congregation, according to the de-
cisions of the Rabbis, requires at least ten men who
have passed the thirteenth year of their age; and if
this number is found in any locality, they may pro-
cnre a Synagogue (which see); or, as it is often
termed, a little sanctuary.
Various forms of prayer are prescribed to be used
in the .synagogue as well as in priv,ate devotion. 'I'he
prayers are appointed to be said all of them in He-
brew, and the most important of them are called S/ie-
mmieh Esri'h, or the eighteen prayers, to which an-
other has been added, directed against heretics and
apostates, thus making the number of pr.ayors nineteen,
though they are still called by the original name. In
addition to those prayers, the daily service consists of
the reading of three portions of Scripture, an exer-
cise which is termed Kiriiilh Sliciiia, or reading of
the SheiiHi, which is the cumincncing word of the
first of these three portions in the Hebrew )!Ible.
.'Ml except women, servants, and little children, are
enjoined to read these passages twice every day.
The Sliniia and the nineteen prayers are never to be
i;initted at the stated sea.sons of devotion. There
are also numerous short prayers and benedictions
which every Jew is expected to repeat daily. The
members of the synagogue are required to repeat, at
least, a hundred benedictions every day. The litur-
gies adopted by the Jews vary, in some few particu-
lars, in dilleri'iit countries, but in the main body of
the prayers they all agree. It is customary to chant
the prayers rather than read ihcin.
Amcmg the modern .lews the ancient mode of com-
puting the day, from sunset on one evening to sunset
Jl'-W.S (Monr.itN) in Ami;rica.
245
oil tiie I'ollowin,^ evening, is still retaineil. Tlieir
S?,l)batli coininences at sunset on Friila\-, and tpnni-
iiates at sunset on Saturday. Notliing ouglit to be
undertaken on a Friday, unless it can be linislied lie-
t'ore tlie evening. In tlie afternoon of tliat day tbo\'
wash and clean themselves, trim tlieir liair, and pare
liicir nails. Tliey begin witli tli:^ lel't baud, but deem
it improper to cut the nails on two adjoining ringers
in succession. As to the parings of the nails, the
Talmud declares, " lie that tlirows them on the
ground is an impious man : lie that biuies them is a
'ust man ; he that tlirows them into ilie lire is a [lioiis
and perfect man."
The writings of the Rabbis contain iiiunerous re-
gulations concerning meats and drinlcs. For exam-
[ile, the Jews are not permitted to laste the Hesh of
any four-footed animals bnt those which both chew
the cud and part the hoof; as sheep, oxen, and
goats. Tliey are furbidden to eat rabbits, hares, or
swine. They are allowed to eat no fisli but such as
have both scales and rius, no birds of prey, nor any
reptile. They are prohibited from eating the lilood
of any beast or bird, and also from eating of any
creature that dies of itself. Mr. .Alien, in his ' Mo-
dern Judaism,' thus describes the mode in whicli
animals desij;ned to bo eaten by Jews are slaugh-
tered : " Cattle, for their trse, are required to be
slaughtered by a Jew, duly qualilied and specially
appointed for that purpose. After an animal is
killed, he examines wliether the inward parts arc
perfectly souml. If he find the least blemish of any
kind, the whole carcase is rejected as unfit for .Tew-
ish tables. If it be found in the state required, lie
affixes to it a leaden seal, on one side of which is the
word Cosher, which signifies rirjlit, and on the other
the day of the week in Hebrew characters. At every
(Ihrislian butcher's, who sells meat to the Jews, there
is a Jew stationed, who is appointed Iiy the rulers
of the .synagogue to superintend it. When the car-
case is cut up, he is also to seal the respective pieces.
"Of those beasts which are allowed, they are not
to eat the hind quarters unless the sinew of the
thigli is taken out, whicli is a troublesome and ex-
pensive O|ieration, requiring a person duly qualified
and specially appointed for that particular purpose ;
and therefore it is rarely done.
" Previously to boiling any meat, they are required
to let it lie half an hour in water and an hour in salt,
and then to rinse off the salt with clean water. This
is designed to draw out any remaining blood."
From the prohiliition in the Law of Moses against
.seething a kid in his mother's milk, the Jews infer
that they must not eat meat and butler togeilier.
Hence the vessels used for meat must not be em-
ployed for things consisting either wholly or part of
milk, and for ealing and dressing vessels they are
obliged to use dillerent nten.sils. They purchase
their kitchen utensils perfectly new, lest tliey may
previously have been in the possession of (xcnlilcs,
ai'.d iiiav have been used for forbidden meats.
JEWS (Modichn) in A.meuica. Jews from tlie
Spaiiisli Peninsula appear to have settled in America
shortly after its discovery by Columbus. In the end
of the fifteenth century they were found in llrazil
under the name of Xew Christians. Tliey obtaine I
considerable accessions to their numbers in tliat
country by the arrival of emigrants from France.
At length Brazil was conquered by the arms of
Holland, and forlhwith considerable bodies of Dutch
.lews crossed the Atlantic, accompanied by two Kab-
biiis, and founded a Jewish colony in Brazil. Soon
after their settlement in the country, tliey rose to
great prosperity and iiifiuence under the fostering cai e
of the Dutch government, wdiich encouraged tliein
by the entire toleration of their religion, while the
Jews, in their turn, rendered essential service to the
State, by defending the country against the Spaniards
and Portuguese. But in 1G54 the Dutch lost [los-
.session of Brazil, that part of South America having
again become a colony of Portugal; and in conse-
quence the Jews were under the necessity of seeking
a settlement el.sewhere. A considerable portion of
litem established themselves in another part of the
New World, the Dutch West Indian Company hav-
ing, ill 1G59, atl'orded them a place of residence at
Cayenne. Their number was speedily increased by
tlie arrival of several families of Portuguese Jews
friim Lisbon. The progress of the colony, how-
ever, w.as hindered by a war, first with Portugal, and
then witli Fi'ance, which in IGfi-t took llie eotiiitry,
and scattered the Jews who had settled lliere.
A more prosperous and lasting settlement was
eft'ected by Portuguese Jews at Surinam. This co-
lony was planted by Lord AVillougliby in the time of
Charles II., the charter being dated in 1G02, and at
the invitation of iis founder the colony was joined
by a number of iudnstrioiis, and even disiingiii.slied,
Israelites, who had left Cayenne. The Jews were
here placed on a footing of entire equality witli tlte
Knglish, while they were left at pel feet liberty in all
matters of religion. In a lew years the colony
passed from the hands of the Engli.sh into those of
the Dutch, and a considerable nuniber of Jewish
families at this pei'iod went .along with the English
to fonn a colony at Jamaica. Many Jews, however,
preferred to remain under Dutch protection at Suri-
nam, where several iiidi\ idnals belonging to Hebrew
families distinguished themselves, first in defence of
the colony in 1G89 against the French, and after-
wards, both in that and the succeeding century,
again.st the Indians and Negroes. The prospcritv of
the synagogue at Surinam, however, was considera-
bly diminished by internal disputes, which arose
among the Jews themselves. They were afierwnrds
joined by some Gerin.an Jews, but the decayed con-
dition of the colony, lor many years p.ast, has not a
htlle retarded the progress of the Jewish population.
Another settlement of Jews has long existed at
Curaijoa, which, though originally a Spanish colony,
has for a very long period been in the liniids of the
246
JKWS (Modeun) in Britain.
Dutcli. It was not till tlie eigliteenili oentiirv, liow-
ever, tl)at they possessed a synagogue, wliicli. in a
short time, was folUnveil by a second. Tlie .lewisli
population of the colony is now lednceil to less than
1,000 souls.
Jews are found in every portion of the United
States of North .\inerica. Proliably the first Jew-
ish settlement \v;us formed at New Amsterdam, when
it was under the Dutch government about 1660. But
the number of the Israelites seems to have increased
more slowlv than in any other part of the world, as
we tind that till 1827 oidy one Jewish synagogue was
required in the cily of New York. Since that period
five other congregations have beeii formed, and all
their |ilaces of v.'orship are often crowded. The
number of Jews in the city of New York was cal-
culated a few years ago to amount to 10,000 ; but
Jewish emigrants arrive so rapidly from all parts of
the Old World, that their number, in ail probability,
much exceeds the calculation now referred to. In
the United States, the Jews were lately computed at
60,000 males, from thirteen years and upwards. Tlie
whole Jewish population of the United States, in-
cluding women and children, may, therefore, be said
to reach 150,000. In a few of the synagogues in
North America, the service is conducted in the Kng-
lisli language, but these are rare exceptions, the He-
brew being almost universally the language used in
public worship. The Jews enjoy perfect liberty in
the United States, and in consequence they are often
found in places of trast, and their names may be
seen on the rolls of both the uii|ier and lower houses
of Congress.
JEWS (Mi)DERN) IN Britain. Jews appear to
have settled in England so far back as the time of
the Saxon Heptarchy. Accordingly, a reference to
them occurs in an ecclesiastical canon of Egbert,
archbisliop of York, iji A. n. 740, which prohibited
Christians from taking any part in the Jewish festi-
vals. By the laws of Edward the Confessor, the
Jews are declared to be the property of tlie king.
When William the Conqueror came over from Ncu--
mandy to England, many Jews accompanied him ;
and they are mentioned in the time of William Kufu.-,
the second king of the Norman line, as being pos-
sessed, in various instances, of great wealth, living
in splendid mansions in London and other towns,
and having whole streets named after them.
In the twelfth centiny, the Jews were treated with
great cruelty a\id inhmnanity in England. They
were banished from the kingdom in the reign of
Henry II. At the coronation of Richard Cicur-de-
Lion, they were prohibited under heavy penalties
from appearing in the streets, and .some having ven-
tured to disobey the royal order were discovered by
the populace, and rudely assaulted. Both in Lon-
don and the provinces the utmost indignities and
insults were heaped U|)on the poor despised children
of ,\braham. It was at length resolved to make a
general massacre of the entire Jewish population in
Engl<ind. Thoy ofl'ered to ransom their lives with
money, — a privilege which was denied them, so that
being rendered desjierate, many of them slew theii
wives and children, declaring that it was better lo
die courageously for the Law than to fall into the
hands of Christians. They then committed their pro-
[lerty to the flames, and madly slew one another.
The same system of policy, in reference to the
Jews, was pursued by John, the brother and succes-
sor of Iiichard. At the conmicneement of his reign,
A. D. lino, he bestowed upon them all the privileges
they could desire ; but the.se plausible enactments
were oidy intended to conceal his real designs. He
seized upon the treasures of the Jews, and conqielled
them, by the most cruel tortures, to pour their wealth
into the royal coHers. His son Henry III. followed
in the footsteps of his father, persecuting the Jews
in reality, while pa.-^sing decrees in their favour.
Worn out at length by the ill-treatment which they
had endured during several reigns, the Jews ear-
nestly pclilioned to be allowed to leave the country.
This, however, was not granted, and their sulVer-
ings were protracted for some years longer, when in
1290 Edward I. banished them from the kingdom.
The Jews now, with their I'amilies ,and all the p"0-
perty which they had been able to rescue from the
hands of their spoilers, quilted the country to the
number of about 16,000. Many of the exiled He-
brews threw themselves into the sea in despair, and
otliers with ditliculty reached the Continent in a
state of extreme destitution.
For three centuries and a-half the Jews were pro-
hibiled from setting foot on the shoi'es of Eni^l.-iud.
•all hough the other European powers, both Protestant
and Romish, gave them tree access to their dilVerent
countries. Oliver Cromwell, however, who. on reli-
gious grounds, was not unfavourable to the Jews,
became deeply convinced of the impolicy of exclud-
ing this industrious and enterprising nation from all
connection with the English people. Probably-
aware of the good inclinations of the Protector to-
wa ds them, the Jews on the Continent despatched
]\Ianasseh ben Israel on a mission to the English
court, with a request to be allowed lo reside and
freely to exercise their religion in any part of Eng-
land, Scotland, and Ireland. On receiving this pe-
tition, Cromwell summoned a meeting of clergy, law-
yers, and merchants, to state their views on the sub-
ject. The Protector himself on this occasion pleaded
eloquently on behalf of the Jews, urging on Scrip-
tural as well as other grounds, the high expediency
of re admitting the Jews into England. But the
majority of the meeting, particidarly the elc gy and
merchants, declared themselves wholly op])osed to
the proposal, and thus the question was meanwhile
deferred. Without any formal enactment in their
favour, however, the Jews were tolerated in Great
Britain, though not as English subjects, or as fnrui
ing a Jewish syn.agogue. In the reign of Chiirles 1 1.
I the Jews obtaine<l lea\e to erect a synagogue in
JINAS-JINS.
Liiiiiloii, anil to exercise tlieir religion with unre-
siricted freedom. And it is a somewhat remarkiihle
fact, taken in connection with this tolerant enactment,
that the negotiations for the maniage of Cliarles
uith the Infanta, Catherine of Porlugal, were carried
on by CTeneral Monk, throngli the niediiin^of a Por-
tuguese Jew ; and the Infanta was acconi[ianied to
Hngland by two brothers, wlio both of them openly
professed the religion of Moses. From tliat tinn;
the Portngiiese synagogue in London began to flon-
risli, its numliers being increased by the emigration
of distingiiislied Jewish families from S|iain and Por-
tngal, but especially from tlie Netherlands. These
families have lived and prospered in London, parti-
cularly since tlie reign of King William in the end of
the seventeenth century.
Tlie Jews, from tlie period of tlie llrvolntion of
lf>88, when numbers came over mth the Prince of
Orange from Holland, have ever proved themselves
loyal and obedient subjects of the English govern-
ment, readily aiding in every emergency, botli in
jierson and with tlieir capital ; and in tlie rebellion
of 1745, they gave ample proof of their fidelity to
tlie reigning Protestant dynasty. Accordingly, the
government, appreciating the exemplary conduct of
tlic Jews, brought a bill into Parliament in 175B.
'■granting to all Jews, who had resided in Great P>ri-
tain or Ireland for the space of three years, the
riglits of English citizenship, with the exception of
patronage and admission to Parliament." The bill
passed, though violently opposed both in the House
and in the country ; but such was the excitement
produced by the success of the measure, and so many
were the earnest petitions for its repeal, that the
Parliament was at lengtli compelled to >ield to the
wishes of the people, and to accede to a proposal
introduced by ministers with that view. The Jews
themselves liad expressed no great anxiety for such a
law in their favour, fearing, as they did, that wlien
thus placed on a footing witli the Christians, some
of the Israelites might be induced to renounce the
religion of their fathers.
From the period of the first Revolution in France,
a liberal and tolerant spirit has made great [irogress
in England, and efforts have, from time to time, been
ni.-ide towards the absolute emancipation of the Jews.
'Plie ancient laws relative to Israel have not been
formally repealed, but they have been allowed si-
lently to fall into desuetude. They possess the
right of voting, and are eligible for the office of
inagistrates in towns. A Jew has been Lord iNlayor
of London, and another has been sheriff of the city.
In the face of the law, which excludes Jews from
Parliament, Baron Lionel Rothschild, an Israelite,
liMs been elected again and again as one of the moin-
bers to represent the city of London in Parliament.
Tliis striking popular demonstration, in favour of the
Jeivs, has led to the introduction of a bill into the
I House of ConiiTions, with the sanction of tlie govern-
I nient, to change the form of the oath wliicli is ad
ministered to members on taking their seats. A
clause which occurs in the oath contains tlie word.s,
'■ on the faitli of a Christian," wliich, of course, can-
not be conscientioiusly used by a Jew, and must, as
long as they are retained, form an eH'ectual barrier
to the entrance of a Jew into the House of Com-
mons. Almost every session, for some years p.'isf,
a liill for the modilicatioii of the oath, by tlie exclu-
sion, in the case of the Jews, of the obnoxious clause,
has been passed by the House of Commons, and
rejected by a majority in tlie House of Lords. In the
course of tlie present year (1858), however, the lords
liave yielded, and the ,Iews are now eligible as mem-
bers of Parliament, and allowed to occupy the high-
est oflices in the government. Many conversions
from Judaism to Christianity have taken place of late
years in Great Britain, and some converted Jews are
at this hour exercising tlieir gifts as Christian niiii-
istei's in connection with the Church of England.
J!N.-\S, saints among the Jains (which see) in In-
dia. A saint is called nJiiia, as being the victor over
all human passions and iiilhinities. He is supposed to
be possessed of thirty-six superhuman attributes, four
classes of which rcgJird the person of a Jina, such as
the beauty of his form, tlie fragrance of his body,
the white colour of his blood, the curling of his
hair, its non-increase, and the beard and nails, I is
exemption from all natural impurities, from hun-
ger and thirst, from infirmity and decay — properties
which are considered to be born witli liim. He can
collect around him millions ofhinnan beings, gods,
men, and animals, in a comparatively small sjiace ;
his voice is audible to a great distance, and his lan-
guage is intelligible to animals, men, and gods. Tlie
back of his head is encircled with a lialo of light,
brighter than the sun, and for an immense 'nter\al
around him wherever he moves, there is neither
sickness nor enmity, storm nor dearth, plague nor
war. Eleven attributes of this kind are ascribed
to him. The remaining nineteen are of celestial ori-
gin, as the raniingof flowers and jierfiimes, the sound
of heavenly drums, and the menial offices rendered
by Tndrfi and the gods.
The Jiiias, twenty-four in number, though similar
in their general character and attributes, are distin-
guished from each other in colour, stature, and longe-
vity. Two of them are red, two white, two blue,
two black, the rest are of a golden hue, or a yellow-
ish brown. In regard to stature and length of life,
they undergo a gradual decrease from Rishabha the
first Jinn, who was five hundred poles in stature, and
lived 8,400,000 great years, to Mahavira, the twenty-
fourth Jinn, who bad degenerated to the size of man,
and was not more than forty years on earth. It is
not improbable, as Professor H. H. Wilson suggests,
that these Jain legends, as to their Jlnas or saints,
are drawn from the legendary tides as to the series
of the ancient Bndlias.
J INS, an intermediate race, according to the AIo-
haminedans, between angels and men. They believe
248
JJ3U— .lOIlAXNl'lKS.
tliem to be made of fiie, but witli grosser bodies tliiiii
ibe angels. The Ji)is are said to propagate tlieir
kind, and, thoiigli long-lived, not to be immortal.
These beings are supposed to have inhabited the
earth previous to the creation of Adam, under a
succession of sovereigns. Mohannncd professed to
be sent as a preacher to them as well as to men ;
ami in the cliapter of the Koran which bears their
name, he introduces them as uttering these words :
" There are some among us who are upright, and
there are some among us who are otherwise ; we are
of diil'erent ways, and we verily ihouglit that we
could by no means frustrate God in the eurtli, neither
could we escape him by lliglit : therefore, wlicu we
lieard the direction, we believed therein. There are
Moslems among us, and others ndio swerve Iron)
righteousness."
JISU, a god among the Japanese, wlio.se ortice it
is to convey souls to the infernal regions.
JOACHIMITES, the followers of the famous
Joachim, abbot first of Corace, then of I'loris in
Calabria, in the twelfth century. This remarkable
man was supposed by the c<innnon people to be
divinely inspired, and eijual to the ancient prophets.
His predictions, which were numerous, were most of
them included in a work which bore the name of
'The Everlasling Gospel.' This strange treatise
consisted of tlu'ee books, and was full of euignialic
and ambiguous predictions. An Introduction to this
book was written by some obscure monk, who pro-
fessed to explain its prophecies, applying them to
the Franciscans. Both the university of Paris ami
Pope Alexander IV. condenmed the Introduction,
and ordered it to be biu'ued. This latter production,
which belongs to the middle of the thirteenth cen-
tury, has been ascribed to John of Parma, general of
the Fi-.inciscans ; or more probably to a Franciscan
monk named Gerhnrd, who adhered to the party of
the Spiritual-'!, and is known to have favoured the
opinions of the abbot Joachim. 'The Kverlasting
Gospel' describes in strong langimge the growing
corruption of tlie church, and Pascbalis holds a pro-
minent place in the picture. The Popes in general
come in for a large share of reproach, on account of
the Crusades, by which Joachiuj alleges they had
exhausted the nations and resources of Christendom
among barbarous tribes, under the specious pretence
of carrying to them salvation and the cro.ss. " Grief
over the ecjrrupiion of the church," s.iys Neauder,
" longing desire for belter times, profound Christian
feeling, a uu'dilative mind, and a glowing imagina-
tion, such are the peculiar charaeterislics of his spirit
and of his writings. His ideiis were presented for
the most jiarl in the form of counnents and medita-
tions on the New Testament; but the language of
the Hilile furnished him only with such binls as
might turn np for the matter which he laid into
Ihem by bis allegorizing mode of interpretation;
alihongli the types which he su|iposed ho fnimd pre-
sented in the Scriptures, reacted in giving .shape to
his intuitions. As his writings and ideas foinul great
acceptance in this age among tbo.se who were dis-
satisiied with the present, and who were longing
after a diU'erent condition of the clnu-ch ; and the
Franciscans, who might easily fancy they discovered,
even in that which is certainly gemiine, in Joachim's
writings, a prophecy referring lo their order, so a
strong temptation arose to the forging of works under
bis name, or the interpolating those which really
proceeded from him. The loose connection of the
matter in his works, made it easy to insert passages
tVom other bauds; .and this character of the style
renders a critical sit'ting of them difficult."
The title of .loaehim's book, 'The Everlasting
Gospel,' is borrowed from Kev. xiv. G, and by this
expression he uiulerstood, following the view of
Orlgen, a new .sjiiritual apprehension of Christianity,
as opposed to the sensuous Romish point of view,
and answering to the age of the Holy Spirit. A
great excitement was produced by the publication in
1254 of the ' Intro.lnctory to the Everlasting Gos-
pel,' which claimed all the i>ro]diccies of Joachim,
as referring to the Fianciscaii order, and alleged that
St. Francis was that apocalyptic angel whom John
saw flyiui in the midst of heaven. Joachim had
taught that two im]ierfect ages or dispensations were
past, those of the Father ami of the Son ; ami that
a third more perfect was at band, that of the Holy
Spirit. The 'Introductory' of (Jerhard, however,
alleged that the gnsjicl of Christ would be abrogated
in the year 12G0, and the new and etern.al gospel
would take its place, and that the nduislers by whom
this new disjiensalion would lie introduced were to
be itinerant b.arefoolcd friars. The connnentary thus
grafted upon the writing.s of Joachim by a Francis-
can monk, excited the utmost indignation against
the meiidieant monks, and the University of Paris
complained .so loudly against the ' Introductory,'
that by order of the Pope it was publicly bunit.
JOGIS. See Yogis.
JOIIANXITES, a sect which arose in Constanti-
miple ill the beginning of the liflh century, deriving
their name from John Chrysostoin, the validity of
whose depo.-ition they refused to acknowledge. On
Sundays and fcsiival days tliey held tlieir private
meetings, which were conducted by clergymen
who thought like themselves, and from these alone
they would receive the .sacraments. So keenly did
they feel in regard to the deposition of their bishop,
that .sanguinary tumults ensued. This schism .s|iread
more widely in the church, and many bishops and
clergyinen joined the party. They were encouraged
by the Roman eluircb, which constantly maintained
the iniiocenee of Chrysostom. Alliens, the second
successor of the deposed, being of a conciliatory spi-
rit, introduced the name of Chrysostom into the
chiircb prayers ottered in behalf of bisho|is who bad
died in the orthodox faith. Through the iiiliucuce
of the same benevolent prelate, a universal anmesiv
was obtained for all the adherents of Chrvsosiom
JOHN (St.) Bai-iist's Day— JORDAN (Bathing in the).
249
amdug tlie clevgy. Tims a still more extensive
schism was obviated; but a small party of Johan-
uitcs still coiitiiuied to hold theif ground at Constan-
tiuoijle. Tlio lirst who succeeded in initting an end
to the schism in that city was the iiatfiaridi Bro-
clns, who prevailed upon tlie emperor Tiieodosiiis
II. in A. D. 438, to allow the remains of Clu-ysostom
to be brought back to Constantinople, and to be
buried there with solenui pomp ; and liaving thus
gratified the renuiant of the Johannites, he persuaded
them to connect themselves once more with t\ia
dominant chureli.
JOHN (St.), Christians of. See Mend.eans.
JOHN (St.) Baptist's Day, a Christian festi-
val, which is traced back to the fifth century. It
was instituted in commemoration of the nativity of
John the Baptist; the only nativity besides that of
our Lord celebrated in the church, but allowed on
account of its s|)ecial connection with the birth of
tlie Saviour. It is held on the 24th of Jime. In
A. n. 50G it was received among the great feasts like
Easter, Christma'^, and other festivals; and was cele-
brated with eipial solemnity, and in much the .same
manner.
JOHN (St.) Baptist's .Mautyrpom, a festival
celebrated in tlie Greek church on the 2!)th of
August.
JOHN iSt.) KvANGr:LiST's Day, a Christian
festival celebrated in commemoration of John the
beloved disciple. It is observed on the ^Tth of
December. In the Greek church, the 2Gth of Sep-
tember is consecrated to the Assumption of the
Body of St. John the Evangehst. Tlie same church
has also a festival in honour of this evangelist,
which is celebrated on the 8tli of May.
JOHNSONIANS, the followers of Mr, .lolm
Johnson, who was for many years a Baptist minister
in Liverpool, in the eighteenth century. His pecu-
liar sentiments may be thus briefly stated. He
held that faith is not a duty which God requires of
man, but a grace which it is impossible to convert
into a duty, and which cannot be required of any
created being. The want of faith, therefore, in his
view, was not a sin, but a mere vacuity or nonen-
tifv. The principle of faith then was regarded by
Mr. Johnson as a work not wrought by man, but the
oper.ation of God, and hence it is not the soul of man
which believes, but the principle of gi'ace within
him. He maintained that the holiness of the first
man Adam was inferior to th.at of the angels, much
more to that of the .saints, who are raised above the
angels in glory. He regarded it as not the duty of
the ministers of the gospel to preach the law, or to
inculcate moral duties upon their people, seeing they
are appointed not to pi-each the law, but the gospel.
Still further, Mr. Johnson held th.at the blessings of
spiritual grace and eternal life being secured in Christ
prior to the fall, were never lost, and consequently
coidd not be restored. This excellent Baptist minis-
ter entertained high supra-lapsarian notions on the
II.
suliject of tlie Divine decrees, and he admitted the
universality of the death of Christ. On the doctrine
of the Trinity, his followers seem to have embraced
the Indwelling Sciie.me (which see), with Cal-
vinistic views of justification and the atonement.
In the last Census, that of 1851, no congregations
of this body are reported as now existing in Eng
land. It does not a[ipear that the ,/i)/))i.sO«KO!S ever
luul a footing in either Scotland or Ireland.
JORD.\N (Bathing in the), an annual ceremony
observed by the Syrian Christians, as well as by
Greeks, Nestorians, Copts, and many others, who
plunge naked into the river at the supposed spot
where the miraculous pass.age of the Israelites was
efi'ected, and where also our blessed Lord was bap-
tized. It is performed at Easter by pilgrims who
have come from all parts, and encountered the utmost
privations and difficulties, in order to purify them-
selves in the sacred waters. Not unfrequently the
number of pilgrims on such occasions amounts to
several thousand people of both sexes and all
nations. '• Once a-year," says Mr. Stanley, in his
' Sinai and Palestine,' " on the Monday in Passion
Week, the desol.ation of the plain of Jericho is
broken by the descent from the Juda'an hills of five,
six, or eight tliousand pilgrims, who are now, from
all parts of the Byzantine Enqiire, gathered within
the walls of Jerusalem. The Turkish governor is
with them, an escort of Turkish soldier.s accompanies
them, to protect them down the desert hills agiiinst
the robbers, who, from the days of the good Samaritan
downwards, have inf'ested the solitary pass. On a
bare space beside the tangled thickets of the modern
Jericho — distinguished by the square tower, now the
castle of its chief, and called by pilgrims ' the Hou.^e
of Zaccheus' — the vast encampment is spread out,
recalling the image of the tents which Israel here
iirst iiitchcd by Gilgal. Two hours before dawn, the
rude Eastern kettle-drum rouses the sleeping mul-
titude. It is to move onwards to the Jordan, so as
to accomplish the object before the great heat of tlie
lower valley becomes intolerable. Over the inter-
vening desert the wide crowd advances in almost
perfect silence. Above is the bright Paschal inoon —
before them moves a bright flare of torches — on each
side huge watch-fires break the darkness of the night,
and act as beacons for the successive descents of the
road. The snn breaks over the eastern hills as the
head of the cavalcade reaches the briid-: of the Jordan.
Then it is, for the first time, that the European
traveller sees the sacred river, rushing through its
thicket of tamarisk, willow, and agnus-castus, with
rajiid eddies, and of a turbid yellow colour, like the
'I'iber at Rome, and about as bi-oad — sixty or eighty
feet. The chief features of the scene are the wliite
clifl's and green thickets on each bank, though at this
spot they break away on the western side, so as to
leave an open space for the descent of the pilgrims.
Beautiful as the scene is, it is impossible not to feel
a momentary disappointment at the conviction, pro-
250
JORMUNGA\D~.IUBrLATION (Tiif. Gii-t of).
(liii-ecl by the first glance, that it ciiinot l)e tlie spot
either of tlie passage of Jo<hiia oi- of tlie baptism of
Joliii. The liigh eiistcni banks (not to mention the
otlier considerations namefl before) procUide Ijotli
events. IJiit in a few uioments tlie great body of
pilgrims, now distinctly visiljle in the brealjing day,
appear on the rid;,'e of the last terrace. None, or
h.-irdly any, are on foot. Horse, mule, ass, and camel,
in proniiscuoiis confusion, bearing whole families ou
their backs — a fatlier, motlier, and three children
jierhaps on a single camel — occupy tlie vacant spaces
between and above the jungle in all directions.
" If the traveller expects a wild burst of entlui-
siasni, such as thivt of the Greeks when tliey caught
the first glimpse of ilie sea. or the Germ.'in .armies at
the sight of the IJhine, he will be disappointed.
Nothing is more remarkable in the whole pilgrimage
to the Jordan, from first to last, than the absence of
any such displays. Nowhere is more clearly seen
that deliberative bu-<iness-like aspect of their devo-
tion so well described in Eotlien, unrelieved b\- any
e.spression of emotion, unless, perhaps, a slight tinge
of merriment. They dismount, and set to work to
perform their bathe ; most on the open space, .some
farther up amongst the thickets; some plunging in
naked — most, however, with white dresses, which
tliey bring with them, and which, having been so
used, are kept for their winding-sheets. Most of
the bathers keep within the shelter of tlie bank,
where the water is about four feet in depth, though
with a bottom of very deep mud. The Coptic pil-
grims are curiously distinguished from the rest by
the boldness with whidi they dart into the main
current, striking the water after their fashion alter-
nately with their two arms, and playing with the
eddies, which hurry them down and across, as if they
were in the cataracts of the Nile; crashing through
the thick boughs of the jungle which, on the eastern
bank of the stream, intercepts their progress, and then
rc-crossing the river higher up, where they can wade,
assisted by long poles which tliev liave cut from the
opposite thickets. It is remarkable, considering the
mixed assemblage of inen and women in such a scene,
there is so little appearance of levitv and indecorum.
A primitive domestic character pervades in a singular
form the whole scene. The families which have come
on their single mule or camel now bathe together
with the utmost gravity, tlie father receiving from
the mother the infant, which has been brought to
receive the one immersion which will suffice for the
rest of its bfc, and thus, by a curious economy of
resources, save it from the expense and danger of a
future iiilgrim.age in afler years. In about two hours
the shores arc cleared; with the s.ame quiet they
remount their camelB and horses; and before the
noonday heat has set in, are again encamped on the
upper plain of Jericlio. At the dead of night, the
drum again wakes them for their homeward march.
The torches again go before ; behind follows the vast
ninliilude. mounted, passing in profound silence over
that silent plain — so silent, that but for the tinkling
of the drum, its departiu'e would hardly be per-
ceptible. The troops stay on the ground to the end,
to guard the rear, and when the last roll of llie drum
announces that the last soldier is gone, the whole
plain returns to its perfect solilude."
From the time when our Lord was baptized in the
.lordan, this river has always had a iieeuliar sacred
interest attached to it. Hence, .as we le.ani from the
writer whom we have just <ptotcd, "In the mo.saics
of the earliest churches at Rome and Kavenua, before
Christian .and Pagan art were yet divided, the .Jordan
appears a river-god, pouring his streams out of liis
urn." It was the earnest wish of Constantine. the
first ("Christian Emperor, and has been the wish of
multitudes since his time, to be baptized in the
waters of the Jordan ; and for this purpose not I!o-
manists and Greeks only, but many Protestants also,
have carried off and carefully preserved water taken
from the sacred river.
JOIIMUNGAND, tlie >ridgard serpent of the
Seaiidinaviati mythology, begotten by Loki. The
Prose Edda relates that Thor fished for this serpent,
and caught him. (See 1Iymik.(i Thor gains great
renown for killing the Jlidgard ser|ient; but at the
same time, recoiling nine [laces, falls dead njion the
spot, sufiocated with the Hoods of venom which the
dying serpent vomits forth upon him. See ScAN-
DINAVI.VNS i^Rf.LIGION OF THE .VxCIF.NT).
JOTUN, the giants of the .ancient Scandinavians.
JGTCNUEIM (Giants' home', the region of the
giants in the old Scandiiiavi.an cosniogoiiv.
JOV OF Tllh: LAW (FivSTivAi. ('if tiif.!, a
name given to the ninth day of the Feast of Taber-
nacles among the Modern Jews. '• On this dny,"
says Mr. .-Mien, •' three manuscripts of the Penta-
teuch are taken out of the ark, and carried bv the
Chas.san and two other persons round the .altar.
Then they are laid upon the desk, and three portions
are read by three ditl'erent persons, one portion from
each manuscript. The first of these portions is the
last section, or tliirty-thini and thirt3--fourth chapters
of Deuteronomy ; for this is the day on wliicli the
annual reading of the law is concluded. But ,as soon
as this course is finished, it is iinmcdi.ately rcconi-
nieiiced. The second portion now read consists of
llie first chajiter, and first three verses of the second
chapter, of Genesis. ' The reason of which,' it is
said, ' is to show that man should be continually
emplovrd in reading and studving the Word of
God.'"
" On this day tliose offices of the synagogue
which are annual are |uit up to public auction for
the year ensuing, and assigned to tlie best bidder.
The whole of these nine days is a .season of great
joy and festivity, and the last is the most joyful and
festive of all."
JUIM LATION (The Gift of), a privilege alleged
by theurgic mysticism to be granted to emiueiit
Itoniish saints, wlierebv lliev are ciiablrd in ihiir
JUBILEE— .J UIULEE (Romish).
261
last inoMK'iits to sing a I riiim pliant deatli-soiig. Tims
Miiria of Uignys, wlicii on tlie [loiiit of fluiitli, sang,
we are told, without remission, for three days and
nights, hor ecslatic swan-song.
JUBILEE, a season of festival and restitution
among the aneient Jews, which followed seven Sa))-
batie years, thus occurring every fiftieth year. The
name is supposed by Calmet to be derived from a
Hebrew word hohil^ which means to restore ; because
lands which liad been alienated were restored to their
original owners. The Septuagint translates the word
ijohil by remission, and Josephiis by liberty. The
Scnjitural warrant for the observance of the jubilee
by the Jews is contained in Lev, xxv. 8 —13, and
runs as follows : " And thou shalt number seven
.^.-ibbathsfof years imto Ihee, seven tijnes seven year.-:
and the space of the seven sabbatlis of years shall be
unto thee forty and nine years. Then shalt thou
I i c.iuse the Irinnpet of the jubilee to sound on the
j I tcnih day of the seventh month, in the day of atone-
j moiit sh.all ye make the trumpet somul throughout
I all your land. And ye shall hallow the liftieth year,
j and proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all
I the inhabitants thereof: it shall be a jubilee unto you:
'i anil ye shall return every man uuto his pos.session,
and ye shall return every man nnto his family. X
jubilee shall that fiftieth year be unto you: ye shall
not SOU', neiiher reap that which groweth of it.-elt in
it, nor gather the grapes in it of thy vine undressed.
For it is the jubilee : it shall be holy unto you : ye
shall eat the increase thereof out of tlie field. In
the year of this jubilee yo shall i-etm'n every man
unto his possession." The return of the year of
jubilee was announced by sound of trumpet on the
tenth day of the month Tisri, answering to our Oc-
tober. The first jubilee occurred on the sixty fourth
year after the Israelites entered into the land of
Canaan. From that period .seventeen jubilees were
reckoned until the I5abvlonish captivity, which fell
out in the end of a Sabbatical year, and the thirty-
sixlli year of the jubilee. After the return of the
Jews from li.abylon, and the rebuilding of the Temple,
the jubilee festi\al seems never to have been ob-
served.
It has been much di -pitted among the Jews whe-
ther the fiftieth or the forty-ninth year was the year
of jubilee. Maiinonides nuvintaiued the ormer,
while many eminent Rabbis have declared in favour
of the latter. There were two special ,a(l\antages
which arose from the year of jubilee, — the mar.umis-
sion of servants, and the restoration of faniilies to
their ancient possessions. Servants were not abso-
lutely I'reed from bondage until the tenth day of
Tisri, wliich, as we have seen, commenced the year
of jubilee ; but for nine days l>efore, they spi nt their
time in festivities and amusements of every kind, and
wore garlands upon their heads in token of joy for
their approacliing liberty. But the most remarkable
privilege which the jubilee brought along with it, was
the restoration of houses and lands to their original
owners. The Jews, it is well known, were remarkably
.strict in preserving Iheir genealogies, that each family
might be able to establish its right to the inheritance
of its ancestors ; and thus, although an estate might
change hands a hundred times, it of necessity returned
every fiftieth year to its original owner. In pnrehasuig
an estate, accordingly, the practice among the Jews
was to consider how many years had passed since the
last jubilee, and then to purchase the profits of the
remaining years till the next. No man was allowed
to sell his house or his field till the time of jubilee,
unless constrained by poverty to do so ; and even
after he had sold it, the purchaser niUBt surrender
the estate should the original owner, before the year
of Jubilee, be in such circumstances that he can re-
deem it. Nay, even a near relative could redeem
the land for the benefit of the original proprietor.
Hebrew servants sold to strangers or into the family
of proselytes, had the privilege of redemption cither
by themselves or their relatives. Josephus infcjrnis
us that in the later periods of the Jewish history
there was a general cancelling of debts at the return
of jubilee. The political advantages of such an ar-
rangement as that of the jubilee are obvious. The
Hebrew government was thus made to rest on an
ccpial agrarian law. It made provision, as Dr. Graves
remnrks, in his ' Lectures on the Pentateuch,' for the
su]iport of 600,000 yeomanry, with from six lo
tvventy-tive acres of land each, whicli they held in-
dependent of all temporal superiors, and which they
might not alienate, but on condition of their revert-
ing to the families which originally pusses.sed them,
every fiftieth year.
JUBILEE (Romish), a ceremony celebrated by
the Church of Rome at stated periods, with great
pomp and splendid preparations. It was first iusti-
tuled bv Pojie Boniface VIIL, at the close of the
thirteenth century. In the year 1290, a notion
was extensively propagated among the inhabitants of
Rome, that those who should, in the course of I he
following year, visit the church of St. Peter's, would
obtain the pardon of all their sins, and the same
privilege would be enjoyed on every hundredth year.
In conformity with this popular expectation and
belief, he sent an epistle throughout Christendom,
which contained the assertion thai a jubilee of in-
dulgences was sanctioned by the ancient ecclesias-
tical law, and therefore he decreed that, on every
hundredth year, all who should confess and lament
their sins, and devoutly visit St. Peter's church at
Rome, should receive a plenary indulgence; or, iu
other words, a complete remission of all sins, past,
jn-cscnt, and to come. An ijidnlgcnce of this kind
had hitherto been limited to the Crusaders. The
consequence was, that midtitudes crowded to Rome
from all parts on the year of jubilee, and it was
estimated that 2,000,000 people visited Rome in the
course of the ye.ar \?M. Mr Gibbon, in his ' De-
cline and Fall of the Roman Empire,' thus describes
the state of nuitters on that occa.sion : — ''The \\e\-
2.'j>
JUDAISM-JUDF/S DAY (St.).
come soiiiul," says lie, " w.is propagated throngliout
Clirisfciulom, and at tirst from tlie nearest provinces
of Italy, and at Icngtli from tin- remote kin^'dmns of
Hungary and Britain, the liigliways were tlirunged
with a swarm of pilgrims, who sought to expiate
their sins in a journey, liowevcr costly and laborious,
which was cieinpt from the perils of military service.
All exceptions of rank or sex, of age or intirmity,
were forgotten in the common transport ; and in the
streets and churclies many wore trampled to deatli
by the eagerness of devotion. The calculation of
their nuniliers coidd nut he ea.sy or accurate, and they
liave probably been ma-nified by a dexterous clergy,
well apprised of the contagious e.l'ect of example ;
yet we are assured by a judicious historian, who
assisted at the ceremony, that Koine was never
replenished with less than two hinidred thousand
strangers ; and another spectator has tixed at two
i millions the total concourse of the year. A trifling
oblation from each individual would accumulate a
royal treasure; and two priests stood day and night
with rakes in their hands, to collect, without count-
ing, the heaps of gold and .-ilver that were poured on
the altars."
The experiment far exceeded the expectation of
either the Pope or the peojile, and the treasiu'y was
so amply replenislied by the contributions of the
pilgrims, that a century was naturally thought too
distant an interval to secure so obvious an advantage
for the Church. Clement VI., tlierefore, repeated
the jubilee in A. r>. 1350; and Urbiu VI., in A. D.
1.31^9, reduced the interval to thirty three years, the
supposed length of time to which the life of our Lord
on e.arth extended. Finally, Paul II., in 1475, estab-
lished that the festi\al of the jubilee should be cele-
brated every twenty-live years, which continues to be
the interval at wdiich tliis great festival is observed.
As a recent specimen of a jubilee Indl, we make an
extract from that which was i.ssued by the I'ope in
18'2-t, a|)pointing the jubilee for the following year :
" We have resolved," says he, " by virtue of the
authority given to us from heaven, fully to unlock
that s.acred treasure composed of the merits, surt'er-
ings, and virtues of Christ our Lord, and of his virgin
mother, and of all the saints which the author of
human salvation has intrusted to our dispen.sation.
To you, therefore, venerable brethren, patriarchs,
primates, archbishops, bishops, it belongs to explain
with perspicuity the power of indulgences : what is
their efficacy in the remission not only of the cano-
nical penance, but also of the temporal piuiishment
due to the divine justice for past sin; and what
gnecour is afforded out of this hcaveidy treasure,
from the merits of Christ and his saints, to such as
have departed real jienitents in God's love, yet before
they had duly satisfied by fruits worthy of penance
for sins of commission and omission, and are now
jiurifying in the lire of Purgatory." The last jubilee
took place in 1850, under the auspices of the present
I'opo, Pius IX.
JUDAISM, the system of doctrine and practice
maintained by the Jews. See Jicws (Anciicxt),
Ji-.\y.s (Modi-.rn).
JUDAIZINU CIIKISTIAXS. The Christian
church, at its first formation, was composed of two
separate and distinct classes of converts — those drawn
from the ranks of the Jews, and tho.sc drawn from
the ranks of the heathens. The converts from Ju-
daism brouglit with them into the Christian church
many strong prejudices in favour of Jewish rites and
observances, which they were most unwilling to re-
gard as of temporary and not permanent obligation.
Accordingly, we lind the Judaizing party, at a very
early period, making an ell'ort to persuade Paul to
yield to their views in circumcising Titus, though a
Gentile convert. The Apostle iirinly resisted their
demands in this matter; but soon al'terwards, some
persons belonging to the same party followed him to
Antioch, where they had almost succeedei], by their
intemperate zeal, in raising a schi.sm in the church.
The points in dispute were referred to a meeting of
the ajiostles and elders which was held at Jerusalem,
where, after the most careful deliberation, it was
agreed that circumcision shotdd be declared not to be
binding upon the Gentiles, and nothing farther was
exacted than the abstaining from meats ollcred to
idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and
from fornication ; and by this arrangement, which
was obviously intended for a transition state of the
church, the opposition between the Jewish and Hel-
lenist parties was broken down. (See Blood.) By
the decision of the bretliren at Jerusalem, harmony
was restored in the church at Antioch. The Judaiz-
ing party, however, gradually increased to such an
extent, that all the churches which Paul had jjlanted
were agitated by controversy, so that the Apostle's
peace of mind was disturbed, and even his life en-
dangered. In the heat of the coiilroversy, the
labours of the great Apostle of the Gentiles were
brought to a close.
The ministry of the Apostle .John in Asia Minor
went far to reconcile the contending parties; but
still the opposition of the Judaiziug Christians was
not wholly suppressed, and in ilie middle of the
second century, the controversy raised by these
zealots for the Mosaic law continued to be carried
on with nearly as much vigour as in apostolic times.
Nay, a chunh founded on Judaiziug principles
existed at Pella down to the til'ili century. That
there were other churches of the same kind in dif-
ferent jilaces is in the highest degree probable, from
the tenacity with which many Jewish converts ad-
hered to the observance of the law of Moses. All
Judaizers, however, in course of time, as we learn
from Irena:us, came to be known hy the name of
KmoNiTiis (which see).
JUDAS (St.) Ai.flliius (Day of), a festival
celebrated in the Greek church on the 19th June.
JUDE'S DAY (St.). See Simon (St.) and Jldi;
(St.), Day of.
JUDaMENT-DAY— JUDGMENT (General).
203
JUDGMKMT-DAY. The time of tlie general
judgment is a secret wliich God lias reserved for
himself. Hence we are expressly informed by
the liedeemer, " Of that day and hour knoweth no
man, no, not the angels of heaven.'' From various
expressions wliieh occur in the Apostolic Epistles, it
would appear that, at a very early period in tlie
history of the Christian church, an idea began to be
entertained by some that tlie day of the Lord was
near. Thus, in the Second Epistle to the Tliessalo-
nians, Paul beseeches them not to be shaken in mind
or troubled, as if the day of Christ were at hand. It
is called a day, but that term in Scripture is often
used indelinitely, sometimes for a longer, sometimes
a shorter period. What is to be the duration of the
Judgment-Day we are in utter ignorance ; but of one
thing we arc assured, that whereas " it is appointed
nnto all men once to die, after death cometli tlie
judgment."
JUDGMEXT-IIALL of ?1L.\TE. The solemn
scene of our Lord's appearance in the judgment-hall
of the Roman governor, is represented in the cour.se
of tlie Komish ceremonies which are annually held at
Rome during Holy Week. Mr Seymour thus de-
scribes it from personal observation : — " The gospel
is read by three priests. One of them personates
the evangelist who wrote the gospel; and his part is
to read the narrative as detailed. A second per-
sonates Pontius Pilate, the maid at the door, the
priests, the Pharisees; and his part is to read those
sentences which were spoken by them. The third
personates our Lord Jesus Christ; and his part is to
read the words which were uttered by him on the
occasion. To give the greater eft'ect to the whole,
the choir is appointed to undertake those parts which
were the words of the nuiltitude. The difl'erent voices
of the priests reading or intoning their diHerent parts
— Pilate speaking in one voice, Cliri.st in another,
while the choir, breaking forth, fill the whole of the
vast church with the shout, ' Crucify him ! Crucil'v
him !' and again with the cry ' Not this man, but
IJarabbas !' produce a most singidar efi'ect."
JUDGMICXT (Gr;NKR.4L). That there will be a
period of linal retribution, when men shall be sum-
moned to impartial judgment, according to their
character and actions, is a doctrine both of reason
and revelation. The simple notion of a Supreme
Being necessarily supposes him to be possessed of
perfect justice, as well .as the other moral attributes
which are essential to his character as the ruler of
the universe. On contemplating, however, the state
of matters around us, we cannot fail to be struck
with the evident inequality of the distribution of the
goods and ills of this life. The wicked may often be
seen to spend their days in prosperity, and the
righteous in adversity and sorrow. Such an anoma-
lous arrangement as this seei7is plainly to point
to a period of future adjustment, when each man
shall receive his final recompense, according to the
deeds done in the body, whether tliey liave been
good, or whether they have been evil. If there is a
just God, who sits iqion the throne of the universe,
the inference is undoubted, that it must ultimately bo
well with the righteous, and ill with the wicked.
Hence, among the uneidightencd heathen, in all ages,
the belief has uniformly prevailed of a general judg-
ment. In ancient times, the idolaters of CJreece and
Rome believed that when the souls of men left their
bodies at death, they appeared before certain judges —
Minos, Rhadamanthus, and iEacus — who, after an
impartial investigation, pronounced sentence upon
them, consigning them either to the abodes of bliss,
or to the regions of torment. The notions of the
heathen, however, referred solely to a j)rivate and
individual, not to a public and general judgment.
It is to the Holy Scriptures alone that we are in-
debted for the knowledge of a general judgment,
which will take place in the sight of an a.«sembled
universe. The following passages, among others,
clearly establish this point : Acts xvii. 31, " Be-
cause he hath appointed a day, in the which he
will judge the world in righteousness by that niaji
whom he hath ordained; whereof he hath given
assurauee unto all men, in that he halh raised him
from the dead ;" 2 Cor. v. 10, " For we must all
appear before the judgment-.seat of Christ; that every
one may receive the things done in his body, accord-
ing to that he hath done, whether it be good or bad;"
Mat. XXV. 31, 32, "When the Son of man shall come
in his glory, and all the holy angels with him, then
shall he sit upon the throne of his gloiy: and before
him sh.all be gathered all nations : and he shall sepa-
rate tliem one from another, as a slieplierd divideth
his sheep from the goats." " A general judgniefit,"
says Dr. Dick, ''at which all the descendants of
Adam will be present, seems necessary to the display
of the justice of God, to such a manifestation of it as
will vindicate his government from all the charges
which impiety has brought against it, satisfy all
doubts, and leave a conviction in the minds of all
intelligent creatures that he is righteous in all his
wa^-s, and holy in all his works. It is expedient
that, at the winding up of the scheme, all its parts
should be seen to be worthy of Him by whom it was
arranged and conducted. In this way, those who
have witnessed, with many disquieting thoughts, the
irregularity and disorder in the present system, will
have ocular evidence that there never was the
slightest deviation from the principles of equity, and
that the eau.re of perplexity was the delay of their
full operation. They will see the good and the bad
no longer mingled together, and apparently treated
alike, but separated into two classes, the one on the
right hand of the Judge, and the other on his left,
and distinguished as much at least by their respective
sentences as by the places which they occujiy. We
perceive, then, the reason that the judgment passed
iqion each individual at the termination of his life
will be solemnly ralilied at the end of the world.
There may be another reason for the public exercise
254
JUDICIUM DEI— JUGGERXATII.
of jusiicc in the final allotment of the human nice.
It may bo !nten>led to b.' a spectacle to tlie uiiivei>e;
it may bo an act of the divine atlmitiistration, which
will extend its influence to all the provinces of his
eniiiiie. Wo are sure that angels will witness it ;
Hnii if there are oilier orders of rational creatures, it
niav be a solenni lossun to thoni, by which they will
1)0 coiilimied in tiiloliiy to their Creator, and tilled
with more profound veneration of his infinite excel-
lencies."
The Day of .Indirinonl is tlie la.-t article in the
creed of the Muhaminedans. It will be ushered in,
as thev believe, bv tlie angel Isratil, who will sound
a trinnpet, the first blast of which will not ouly
overthrow cities, but level mountains : tlie second,
ihat of extermination, will annihilate all the inhabi
tants of earth, and lastly the angel of death ; and at
!he third, or blast of resurrection, they will be
restored to life, and rise to the final judgment. All
will appear naked ; but those wlio are designed for
Paradise will receive clothes, and, diu'ing the trial of
the wicked, will surround tlie throne of God. The
judgment, according to the Moslem notions, is thus
described in Algazali's creed : — " He .shall also be-
lieve in the balance wherein, with the weights of
atoms and mustard seeds, works will be weighed
with the utmost exactness. Tlion the books of the
good works, beautiful to behold, will be cast into the
scale of light, by which the bal.-iuce shall be depressed
according to their degrees witli God, out of the
favour of God and the books of evil deeds into the
scale of darkness, by which the balance shall lightly
ascend, by the justice of the Most High. It must
also be believed that there is a real way extended
over the middle of hell, sharper than a sword, and
liner than a hair, on which, by the divine decree, the
feet of unbelievers shall slip, so that they shall fall
into the fire, wliile the feet of believers will remain
firm on it, and they will be led into an habitation
that will last. It must also be believed that the
I'aiihful will then drink out of Mohammed's lake,
which will prevent their thirsting any more. Its
bre.adtli is a month's journey, and tlie water is whiter
than milk and sweeter than honey ; the cups placed
round are as numerous as the stars, and it is supplied
by two pipes from the river Cauther. Men must
also believe in the final reckoning, which will be
strict with some, with others more indulgent, while
they who are near to God will enter the garden
wiiliout any. Then God will question any of his
prophets whom he pleases concerning his mission,
and whom he jilcascs of the unbelievers the reason
of their accusing as liars those who were sent to
them. He will also inteirogate heretics concerning
the Honnah, and the Moslems eoncerning their
works."
Throughout almost the wliole of the tenth century,
Kurojie was agitated with the cxpeclation that the
ilay of general juilgmont and final consummation was
at hand. The idea was founded on Uev. xx. 2 — 4,
" And he laid hold on the dragon, that old serpent,
wdiicli is the Devil, and Satan, and bound him a
thousand years, and cast him into the botlomless
pit, and shut him up, and set a seal upon him, that
he should deceive the nalions no more, till the thou-
sand years sliould be fulfilled ; and after that he must
be loosed a little season. And 1 saw thrones, and
they sat upon them, and judgment was given unto
them : and I saw the souls of them that were be-
headed for the witness of Jesus, and i'ur the word of
God, and which had not worshipped the beast, neither
his image, neither had received his mark ujion their
foreheads, or in their hands; and they lived and
reigned with Christ a thousand years." This passage
was iuterpreled to mean, that after a thou.sand years
from the birth of Christ, Satan would be let loose,
Anticlirist would appear, and the end of the world
would come. .Accordingly, the utmost excitement
and alann pa-e\ailed. Many, transferring llieir pro-
perty to the churches and monasteries, set out for
Palestine, whore they supposed Christ would come
down from heaven to judge the world. Others
gave up their all to the pricsis and monks; while in
many instances the deed of gift distinctly bnrc as its
reason these words, '• 'I'hc end of the world being
now at hand." Not before the close of the century
did the delusion finally pass away. Prom that period
down to the present day, individuals have occasion-
ally been found who have persuaded theniselves, and
sought to convince otlier.s, that the final judgment
was near. But the precise time when that great
event will happen is wisely concealed, ihat men may
be always on the watch, seeking e\er to be ready ;
for at sucli an hour as we think not the Son of man
Cometh.
JUDICIUM DKI. See Oudeal.
JUGA, or JuGAUS, a surname of Juno (which
see), as presiding over marriage. She had a temple
under this name in the forum at Koine,
JUG.VriXUS, a god of marriage among the an-
cient Romans.
JUGGERXATH, or Jagai-Nath ^the lord
of the world), a popular object of worship in the
district of Cultack, on the sea-coast of Orissa, in
Hindustan. This Hindu deity is a form of Vi^him.
The pagoda or temple dedicated to the worship
of Juggernath stands close to the sea-shore, and,
from its jieculiar prominence, serves as an impor-
tant sea-mark in guiding mariners to the nioiifh
of the Ganges. The image is a carved block of
wood, of frightful aspect, painted black, with a dis-
tended mouth of a bloody colour. On festival days,
the throne of the idol is jdaced upon a stupendous
moveable tower, sixty feet high, resting on wheels.
Juggernath is accoinpanieil with two other idols, of a
white and yellow colour, each on a separate tower,
and silting upon thrones of nearly an equal height.
Attached to the jirincipal tower are six ropes, by
which the people drag it along. The oflicialing high
priest is stationed in front of the idol, and all around
JUHLES-JUiMPERS.
255
it are thoiisaiuis of massive sculptures, wliich em-
bleuKitically represent those scenes of revolting in-
ilecency and horrid cruelty which are the essential
characteristics of this worship. The procession of
the idol is thus described by Mr. Sterling, in his
' Account of Orissa :' — " On the appointed day, after
various prayers and ceivmonies, the images are
brought from tlieir throne to the outside of the Lion-
gate, not with decency and reverence, but a cord
being fastened round their necks, they are dragged
by the priests down the steps and through the mud,
while others keep tlieir tigures erect, and help tlieir
movements by shoving from behind, in the most in-
ditVerent and unceremonious manner. Thus the mon-
strous idols go, rocking and pitching along, through
the crowd, until they reach the cars, which they are
made to ascend by a similar process, up an inclined
platform, reaching from the stage of the machine to
the ground. On the other hand, a powerful sen-
timent of religious enthusiasm pervades the admiring
multitude of pilgrims when the images first make
their appearance through the gate. They welcome
them with shouts and cries; and when the monster
.Juggernaut, the most hideous of all, is dragged forth,
the last in order, tlie air is rent with ticclamations.
After tlie images have been safely lodged in their
vehicles, a box is brought forth, containing tlie golden
or gilded feet, hands, and ears of the great idol, wliich
are Hsed on the proper parts with due cereinony, and
a scarlet scarf is carefully arranged round the lower
part of the body, or pedestal. The joy and shouts
of the crowd on the lirst movement of the cars, the
creaking sound of the wheels, as these ponderous
machines roll along, the clatter of hundreds of harsh-
sounding instruments, and the general appearance of
such an immense mass of human beings, produce an
astounding elVect."
As the car moves with its monstrous idol, numbers
of devotees cast themselves under its wdieels, and are
instantly crushed to pieces; while such instances of
self-immolation are hailed with the acclamations of
applauiling thousands. The worship of this idol in
his temple exhibits only a scene of the most disgust-
ing obscenity. The temple of Juggernath is regarded
as the most .sacred of all the Hindu places of worship,
and immense crowds of pilgrims resort thither an-
nually, calculated by the late Dr. Carey to amount
to 1,200,000, multitudes of whom die by the way
from want, disease, or exhaustion. At fifty mile.s'
distance, the sands are whitened with the skulls and
bones of pilgrims, who liave perished before reaching
the sacred s])ot.
The temple of this deity at Oris.sa is undoubtedly
the most celebrated of all the buildings erected tor his
worship, but many other shrines sacred to Jugger-
nath are found throughout Hindustan. " As there
are numbers of sacred rivers in India," says Dr. Dut)',
" but the Ganges, from being the most sacred, has
acquired a monopoly of fame — so there are many
shrines of Juggernath in India, though the one at
I'uri, from being tlie largest and most ^■enerated, has.
in like manner, acquired exclusive celebrity, in
hundreds, or rather thousands of places, wliere tlieie
are no toinples, properly so called, there are still
images and cars of Juggernath, fashioned after the
model of the great prototypes at Orissa. There is
scarcely a large village in all Bengal witliout its car
of .Juggernath. In Calcutta and its neighbourhood
there are scores of them— varying in size from a few
feet up to thirty or forty in height. What a view
must open up to you of the fearful extent and mag-
nitude of this destructive superstition, when you try
to realize the fact, that, on the anniversary oociision
of the car-festival, all the millions of Bengal are in
motion ; that, when the great car at Puri is dragged
forth amid the shouts and acclamations of lumdreds
of thousands assembled from all parts of India, on
the very same day, and at the very same hour, there
are hundreds of cars rolled along throughout the
widely scattered districts and cities and villages of
the land ; so that there are not merely hundreds of
thous.auds, but literally millions, simultaneously en-
giiged in the celebration of orgies, so stained with
licentiousness and blood, that, in the comparison, we
might almost pronoimce the liacchanalia of Greece
and Home imuicent and pure!"
jniU^ICS. a name given to aerial spirits ordenions
among the Laplanders, from whom they receive a
sort of adoration, though no statues or images of them
exist. This spirit-worsliip is conducted imder par-
ticular trees. On Christmas Kve, and the day i'ol-
lowiiig, they celebrate what is called the I'^estival of
the Juhles. On this occasion there is a strict absti
nence from animal food ; and of the articles used for
refreshment, they carefully reserve some fragments,
which are thrown into a box nitide of birch, and sus-
pended from the branch of a tree behind the house,
that the spirits may have an opportunity of feasting
upon them. Scheffer considers this festival as par-
taking partly of a Christian and partly of a Pagan
character.
JU-JU. See Fetish- WoKSHip.
JUMALA, the supreme deity of the inhabitants
of Lapland. He was reiu-esented by a wooden idol
in human form, seated on a sort of .altar, with a crown
On liis head and a bowl in his lap, into which the
devotees threw their voluntary oblations. See Lap-
I.ANDtJRS (RlOI.IOION OF).
JUMNOUTRl, a village on the banks of the river
Jumna, and considered by the Hindus as a sjiot of
remarkable sanctity — Hindus who perform the pil-
grimage to this place from the low countries being
themselves almost deitied after this ttdventure. Along
the banks of this river are a race of Hindus wdio, like
the Parsees, worship the sun. The devout among
them will on no account taste food while the orb is
above the horizon, and m.any are found wdio refuse to
sit down during the day while the sun is visible.
JU.MPLR.S, a name given to those who practised
jumping or leaping as an exercise of divine worshiji,
256
JUXO^JUSTICERS (iTrNERANT).
and expressive of liolv joy. This strange practice
was commenceil about tlie year 17G0 in tlie west-
em part ot" Wiiles, among tlie I'ollower.s of Tliuris,
Rowland, Williams, and others, who were instru-
mental in giving rise to a serious awakening among
the people in that district. The novel cnstom was
disapproved by not a few of those wlio waited on the
ministry of these pious and zealous men ; but it was
seriously defended in a pamphlet published at the
time by Mr. William Williams, who is generally
termed the Welsh poet. The arguments of thi.s
singular production were ehiolly drawn from Scripture.
The practice which gave rise to the name of Jump-
ers, spread over a great part of Wales, and it was no
micommon thing to tind congregations when engaged
in solemn wdrship disturliod by indiviiliials groaning,
talking aloud, repeating tlie same words thirty or
forty times in snccession ; some crying in Welsh,
glory, glory, others bawling Amen with a loud voice,
and others still jumping until they fell down quite
exhausted. Mr. Evans, in his Sketcli of the Deiio-
min.ations of the Christian world, describes a meet-
ing among Jumpers which he himself witnessed.
" About the year 178.5," says be, " I myself happened
very accidentally to be present at a meeting, which
terminated mjiinqiing. It was held in the open air,
on a Sunday evening, near Newport, in Monmoulh-
shire. The preacher was one of Lady Huntingdon's
students, who concluded his sermon with the recom-
mendation o( jumping ; and to allow him the praise
of consistency, he got down from the chair on which
he stood, and jumped along with them. The argu-
ments he adduced for this purpose were, lliat David
danced before the ark — that the babe leaped in the
womb of Elizabeth — and that the man whose lame-
ness was removed, Irnprd and praised God for the
mercy which be had received. He expatiated on
these topics witli uncommon fervency, and then
drew the inference, that t/ieij ought to show s-iniilar
expressions of joy, for the blessings which Jesus
Christ had put into their possession. He then gave
an empassioned sketch of the sufferings of tlie Sa-
viour, and hereby roused the passions of a few
around him into a state of violent agitation. About
nine men and seven women, for some little time,
rocked to and fro, groaned aloud, and then jumped
with a kind of frantic fury. Some of the audience
flew in all directions; others gazed on in silent
amazement ! They all gradually dispersed, except
ih& jumpers, who continued their exertions from eight
in the evening to near eleven at night. I saw the
conclusion of if, they at Inst kneeled down in a
circle, holding each other by the hand, while one of
them prayed with great fervour, and then «// rising
lip from otV tlieir knees, departed. Hut previous to
their dis|)ersion. they wildly ]iointed \\\i Inwards the
eky, and reminded one another that they should
soon meet there, and be verer again se]iai(ited ! I
quilted the spot with astonishment." Such scenes as
that now ilescribed could oidy have occurred among
people of a warm, fervid, enthusiastic temiierainent,
whose feelings had been wrought up to a high pitch
of religious excitement.
JUXO, a lieathen goddess regarded by the an-
cient Romans as the Queen of Heaven. She cor-
responds to the ni;u.\ (which see) of the (ireeks.
This female divinity was worshipped at Rome from
very early times, and at a later period she liad a
temple reared to her honour on tlie Aventine hill.
She was the special protector and jiatron of the fe-
male sex, and presided over all connected with mar-
riage. Women sacriliced to her on their birth-day,
but more especially at the festival oi \\\c Mutronalia,
on the 1st of March. The month of June, which
received its name from this goddess, was considered
in ancient times as a parliculaily suitable period for
marriage. A law was passed at Rome in the reign
of Numa, that no prostitute should lie allowed to
touch the altar of Juno, and if she did happen to
touch it, that she should appease the ofl'ended god-
dess by offering a female lamb in sacrifice.
.JUPITER, the lord of heaven among the ancient
Romans, who presided over all celestial phenomena,
such as thundrr, rain, Ifilil, and all atmospheric
changes. He was the husband of Juxo (which
see.) When the people wished for rain, they di-
rected their prayers to Jupiter. He was regarded
as the best and greatest of the gods, and therefore
his temple occupied a conspicuous position on the
summit of the Capitoline hill. He was the sjiecial
guardian and protector of Rome; hence the first offi-
cial act of a consul was to sacrifice to this god, and a
general who had been successful in the field offered
up his special thanks to Juiiiter. The Roman games
and Ferije were celebrated in his honour. All hu-
man events were under the control of this deity, and,
accordingly, Jupiter was invoked at the commence-
ment of any undertaking, wdiether sacred or secular.
Hams were sacrificed to Jupiter on the ides of every
nionlh, and in the beginning of every week. He
was the guardian of law, and the patron of justice
and virtue. The white colour was .sacred to him,
and white animals were sacrificed to phxijiiliale him.
Tlie Jupiter of the Romans was identical with the
Zeus of the Greeks, and the Ainmon of the Egyp-
tians.
JUSTICE, an essential attribute of the Divine
Being as he is described in the Word of God, where
we are informed that he is "just and true in all his
wavs," as well as " holy in all his works." This
tnoral attribute of Deity has been distinguished iiilo
absolute and relative, univer.sal and particular. The
one refers to the absolute rectitude of bis nature, the
other to his character and actings as a moral gover-
nor. The one, therefore, regards what he is in him-
self, the other what he is in relation to his creatures.
JUSTICEUS (Itinf,i;.\nt), officers appointed by
Richard Coiur de Eion, king of England, to watch
over the interests of the Jews resident within the
kingdcun. They were iiislnictcd to prntccl the lie-
JUTURNA— KAABA.
257
brews against all oppression, to secure tliem in tlieir
[ interests and property, to Jccicle all controversies or
I quarrels between them ami the Christians, to keep
I the seal of their corporation, and the Ueys of their
; public treasury. The Justieers. in short, were to
superintend the civil all'aiis of the Jews throughout
all parts of England.
JUTL'liXA, the nymph of a well in Latiimi, the
water of which was considered so peculiarly sacred,
that it was used in almost all sacrilices. A chapel
was dedicated to this nymph at Kunie in the Cam])us
Jtartius, and sacrifices were ollered to her on 11th
January both by the state and by private individuals.
JUVEXTAS. See IIi;be.
K
KA.\BA, a buildijig at Mecca, in Arabia, which
has long been famed as the annual resort of nud-
titudes of jMohaunuedan pilgrims. The legendary
history of its origin is curious. When Adam and
Eve were driven oat of Paradise, Adam fell on the
mountain in Ceylon which is still known by the
name of Adam's Peak, where the print of Adam's
foot is still shown ; and the mountain is regarded as
sacred both by the Biulhists and Mohaunviedans.
Eve, on the other hand, fell on the shore of the Red
Sea, where the fort of Jeddah now stands, and the
tomb of Eve, at the gate of the tosvn, is one of the
sacred places to be visited in the Ha{|j. For two
hundred years our first parents are said to have wan-
dered over the earth in search of each other, and at
length they met together on Mount Ararat. De-
lighted at discovering his beloved partner, Adam
lifted up his hands in thanksgiving to God, and im-
plored tliat another of the blessings he had lost might
be restored to him, namely, theshrine in Paradise at
which lie had been wont to worship, and round which
the angels used to move in adoring processions. His
prayer was heard, and a tabernacle formed of radiant
clouds was lowered down by the hands of angels,
towards which Adam thenceforth turned in p ayer,
and walked round it daily seven times, in imitation
of the sacred processions of the angels.
When Adam died, the tabernacle of clouds was
again taken up into heaven, and another similar in
I'orm was built of stone and clay in the same |ilace by
Seth, the son of Adam. The Deluge, of course,
wa.shed this building away, and it is said to have
been rebuilt by Lshmael, assisted by his father Ab-
raham. While engaged in rearing this building, the
angel Gabriel brought them a slone, said to have
been one of the precious stones of Paradise, which
they inserted in a corner of the outer wall of the
Kaaba, where it remains to this day, to be devoutly
kissed by the Hadi or pilgrim to Mecca. The pi'c-
sent Kaaba is of no great antiipiity, having been
renewed no fewer than eight times, and, as far as
cotdd be, with the old materials, a reddish sandstone.
The singular appearance of the structure, however.
alTords strong evidence th.it it has been scrupulously
restored after the (ui-mal design. The last building
was nearly washed away by a torrent which inun-
dated the town, and the present was erected so late
as 1624 by Amuraili IV. It was rebuilt before Mo-
hammed had connr.euced his public career, and it is
curious that he should have been the person chosen
to lil't the black stone into its place.
The appearance of the Kaaba is thus described by
Burckhardt the traveller : — " It contains but one
small apartment, then level with the ground, but now
raised so much above it, ihat it can only be entered
by a moveable ladder. The walls are hung with a
rich red silk, interwoven wiih flowers and silver in-
scriptions, which was replaced by the Pasha, and the
old hangings were cut up and sold to devotees at
enormous prices. The room is opened only three
days in the year, and many pilgrims never enter it,
for it is not obligatory : it can receive very few at a
time, and a fee is exacted, to the indignation of the
devout, who regard it as desecrating the holiest spot
upon earth. It is customary to pray on entering, and
I overheard ejaculations which seemed to come from
the heart : — ' 0 God of the Koran, forgive nie, my
parents, aiul my children, and deliver our necks from
hell fire.' The Kaaba must have a singular appear-
ance, for it is visible for no more than a fortnight,
being constantly clothed with a black dama.sk veil,
in which prayers are embroidered, and as this mate-
rial, an animal product, is unclean, it is lined with
cotton. Openings are left for the sight of the black
and white stones. Both are said to have been once
of the same colour, which the first is reported to have
lost in consequence of sin ; but the surface has pro-
bably been blackened by time, aided by the ki.«ses
and touches of a long succession of pilgrims. It is
au irregular oval, seven inches in diameter, appa-
rently a mass of smaller stones conglomerated in a
cement, and encircled by a silver band. It is pro-
bably an aerolite, and owes its reputation, like many
others, to its fall from the sky. This house of God,
as it is called, is said to have been first clothed by
the Hamyante kings of Yemen, seven centuries be-
258
KA13IU PANTIIIS.
fore the birtli of tlie Propliet ; and these covers used
to be put on one over another, till tlie end of the Ih-st
century of Islam. It has since been yearly renewed,
and the old cover cut up. The prisilegc of clothing
it, which was assumed by Kelan, Suhan of Egypt, on
the conquest of that country by Selini, pa.^sed over
to him and liis successors. An adequate idea of the
building may be fonned from the views in Relaiid
and S.-de, and e.-peciallv tliat in D'Ohson's work. It
stands in an obloug square 250 i«\i;es by 200, but as
it lias been enlarged, it no longer occupies tlie centre.
It is nearly enclosed by a circle of slight pillars at a
little distance, around which are the foiu- stations fur
the orthodox sects."
The Mohammedans generally believe that if all
the ]iilgrims were at the same moment to visit the
Kaaba, the enclosure would contain them all. Burok-
hardt calculates that 35,000 might attend, but lie
never could count more of tliem than 10,000.
KABIR PAXTHIS, the followers, among tlie
Hindus, of Kabir, whom they allege to have been the
incarnate Deity, who, in the form of a child, was
found floating on a lotus in a lake or pond near
Benares, by the wife of a weaver named Ninia, who,
with her husband Xnri, was attending a wedding
procession. The Kahir Paidhk believe that their
founder was present in the world three hundred years,
or from a. D. 1149 to a. D. 1449. The probability
is, that he lived at the latter of these two periods,
more especially as Xanak Shah, who began to teach
about A. D. 1490, and who originated the Hindu sect
of the Sikhs, is considered to have been deeply in-
debted to the writings of his predecessor Kabir.
The Moslems claim Kabir as having been a professor
of the faith of Islam, and a contest is said to have
arisen between them and the Hindus respecting the
disposal of his corpse, the latter insisting on burning,
the foimer on burying it. In the midst of this dis-
pute, Kabir hiinsclf is said to have appeared, and
desiring them to look under the cloth supposed to
cover his mortal remains, immediately vanished ; but,
on obeying his instructions, they found nothing under
the cloth but a heap of flowers, one-half of which
was removed to Benares, and burnt, whilst the head
of the Mohammedan party erected a tomb over the
other portion at the place where Kahir had died.
The Kphir Pnntlns being chiefly favourers of
Vi.-hnu, are included among the Vaishnava sects;
but it is no part of their faith to worship any Hindu
deity, or to observe any of the riles or ceremonies of
the Ilinilus, whether orthodox (U'schisniatieal. Those
of the members of the sect who mingle with the world,
conform outwardlj- to all the usages of their tribe and
caste, and some of them even pretend to worship the
Hindu gods, though this is not considered consislcnt
with their tenets. Those, however, who have retired
from the world, and given themselves up to a lite of
seclusifin, absiain from all the ordinary practices of
the Hindus, and employ thems(d\cs chicllv in chant-
ing hymns to the invisible Kabir. They use no
Mantra nor iixed form of salutation; they have no
peculiar mode of address. The frontal marks, if
worn, are usually those of the Vailinava sects, or
they make a streak with sandal-wood or gopichandana
along the ridges of the nose. A necklace and rosftiy
of Tuktsi iu-e also worn by them ; but all these out-
ward signs are considered of no importance, and the
inward man is the only essential point to be attended
to.
Professor 11. II. A\'ils(in thus explains some of the
cliaracleristic doctrines of the Kabir Pauthis: — "They
admit of but one God, the creator of the world ; and,
in opposition to the Vedanta notions of the absence
of every quality and form, they assert that he has
body, foiTiied of the five elements of matter, and that
he has mind endowed with the three Gunas, or qua-
liiies of being; of cour.se of inefi'able purity and irre-
sistible power: he is free from the defects of human
nature, and can assume what particular shajie he
will : in all other resjiects he does not dill'er from
man, and the pure man, the Sddh of the Kahir sect,
is his living resemblance, and after death is his asso-
ciate and equal ; he is eternal, without end or begin-
ning, as, in fact, is the elementary matter of which
he consists, and of which all things are made, residing
in him before they took their present form, as the
parts of the tree abide in the seed, or flesh, blood,
and bone may be considered to be present in the
seiuinal fluid : from the latter circum.-tance, and the
identity of their essential nature, proceeds the doc-
trine, that God and man are not only the same, but
that they are both in the same manner, every thing
that lives and moves and has its being : other sects
have adopted these phrases literally, but the followers
of Kabir do not mean by tlieni to deny the indivi-
duality of being, and only intend these texts as asser-
tions of all nature originally particiiiating in common
e'ementary principles." •• The moral code of the
Kabir Panthis," .says the same eminent Orientalist,
" is short, but, if observed faithfully, is of a rather
favourable tendency. Life is the gift of God, and
must not, therefore, be violated by his creatures.
Humanity is, consequently, a cardinal virtue, and the
shedding of blood, whether of man or animal, a
heinous crime. Truth is the other great principle of
their code, as all the ills of the world, and ignorance
of God, are attributable to original falsehood. Re-
tirement from the world is desirable, because the
passions and desires, the hopes and fears, which the
.social state engenders, are all hostile to tranquillity
and purity of spirit, and jirevent that undisturbed
meditation on man and God which is neces.sary to
their comprehcnsicm. The last great point is the
usual sum and subsiance of every sect amongst the
Hindus, implicit devotion in word, act, and thought
to the Guru, or spiritual guide: in this, liowe\er, the
characteristic sjiirit of the Kabir Pauthis appears, and
the pupil is enjoined to scrutinize his teacher's doc-
trines and acts, and to be flrst satisfled that be is the
sage he pretends to be, before he resigns himself to
KADR (Al)— KAFFIUS (Religion of the).
259
his control. This sect, indeed, is remarkably liberal
in tliis respect, and the mo.st frennently recun-ing
texts of Kabir are those wliicli enforce an attentive
examination of the doctrine that lie otiers to his
disciples. The chief of each comnumity has absolute
authority over ins dependants: the only punishments
he ciin award, however, are moral, not physical —
irregular conduct is visited by rejiroof and admoni-
tion : if the oft'ender does not refonn, the Uuru
refuses to receive his salutation; if still incurable,
the only fiu'ther inlliction is expulsion from the
l^aternity."
The sect of Kabir Faiithis is very widely dill'used
throughout Hindustan. It is sjjlit into a variety of
subdivisions, and there are actually twelve brauclies
of it traced up to the founder, among whom a dif-
ference of opinion as well as descent prevails. Of
the establishments of this sect, tlie Kabir Chaura at
Benares is pre-eminent in dignity, and it is constantly
visited by wauderiu,' members of the sect. The
Kabir Panthis are very numerous in all tlie provinces
of Upper and Central India, except, perhaps, iu
Bengal itself. Their doctrines are taught in a great
variety of works in different dialects of India; but
the great authority to which they are wont to refer
is the Vijek, which, however, rather inveighs against
other systems than explains its own.
K.ADR (Al), the title of the ninety-seventh chap-
] ter of the Koran, which contains an account of God's
sending down the Koran to iMohanimed from heaven.
I Hence it represents God as saying, "The night of
Al Kadr is belter than a thousand months." Mo-
hammedan doctors are by no means agreed what
night .Al Kadr really is, but the majority of them
consider it to be one of the ten last nights of the
Ramadan. They believe that in this night the
divine decrees for the ensuing year are anmuilly fixed
and settled.
KAFFIUS (RicLiGiON of the;. The word Knjjii-,
which signitie-; unbeliever, is now contuied to the in-
habitants of KaiVnland, in South Africa. It was
given, however, by the Moorish navigators of the
Indian Ocean to the iidiabitants of the south-eastern
coast of Africa, and was borrowed from them by the
Fortnguese. The Kaffirs form one tribe of the great
Bcchuana family, and their country, which lies be-
yond the Fish River, is bounded by the ocean on the
south, and a range of mountains on the north, and
beyond them lie the Aniapondo and Zoolu tribes.
Tlie KatHrs are iu personal appearance a remarkably
handsome race of men, bold and warlike in their
character, of lofty stature and graceful deportment.
They wear no clothing but a cloak of skin. They
are a pastoral people, and their Hocks and herds
constitute their chief care. They have been gene-
rally alleged to be altogether destitute of a form of
religion of any kind, and that the utmost which can
be said of them in this respect is, that they retain
a few unmeam'ug rites and ceremonies of a supersti-
tious kind. It is of importance, however, to remark,
that, for fifty years past, the Kaflirs have been in
contact with Christian missionaries and colonists, and
thus have been learning something about God; so
that it is now di.flicult to distinguish between their
former and their present knowledge. Mr. Moffat
says that they are utterly destitute of theological
ideas. Dr. Vauderkemp, the first missionary who
laboured among iheni, gives this teslimiaiy as to the
extent of their religious knowledge : — " If by religion
we me.aii reverence feu- God, or the external action
by which that reverence is expressed, I never could
perceive that they had any religion, or any idea of
the existence of God. I am speaking nationally, for
there are many individuals who have some notion of
his existence, which they have received from adjacent
nations. A decisive proof of the truth of what I
here say with respect to the national atheism of the
Kaffirs is, that they have no word in their language
to express the idea of the Deity, the individuals just
mentioned calling him 'Thiko, which is a corruption
of the name by which God is called in the language
of the Hottentots, liieially signifying, one that in-
duces pain."
We learn, however, from Mr, Moli'af, who has
laboured for many years as a missionary in South
Africa, that the KafSrs uie the word Ulihinrja to de-
note the Supreme Being; but the probability is, that
the god whom they describe by this name is no other
than a deified chief or hero, who at some remote
period had attained distinction in their country.
Their ideas of the most eleiiieutary religious trullis
are undoubtedly obsctire and indistinct, and yet they
have some su|jers;itions rites which deserve to be
noticed. Mr. Laiug, a missionary now labouring in
Kaffirlaiid, has kindly communicated to ns an account
of their present customs, which we present in his
own words: — " 1. Circumcision. Young men are
circumcised about the age of puberty. I cotdd never
observe anything of a religious nature connected with
this custom. When the rite is performed, the young
men are separated from society, and paint themselves
white. A hut is made for tliein, and they live a few
months apart from the rest of the people ; but at the
\arious kraals from which they come, dances from
time to time are held, the young men being painted
white, and dressed in a short kilt made of the leaves
of a particular tree, which are kept con.stautly shaking
by tlie motions of the body. When the term of sepa-
ration conies to an end, the young men, after burning
their clothes and hut, and peiforiniug certain washings,
are admitted into the society of men, and treated as
such, ThisseemstofixtheKaffireircumcisiou as a civil
rite. A person who has not lieen circumcised, tliough
a man by years, was formerly, and in heathen dis-
tricts is still, desjii-sed. A number of Chri.^tian young
men, who left oil' the custom of circumcision so far
as I know, are able to maintain a respectable position
in life even in the eyes of their heathen neighbours,
though uncircumcised. There are immoral practices
connected with the dani'.es which, not to rpeak of the
200
KAIOMOKTd— KALI (Maha).
apostolic lettei- wliicli frees us iVoin Uiis Inirdeii,
reudei' tliis custom incoiu|iatible witli Clu-isliuuiiy.
"2. Tsiviviuie. Any tiiivcUei-goiug tlu-ou liKaHir-
land, will see Iiere auil there heaps ol' stoues thrown
down, without any reference to order. Some of these
heaps are large, iudicatiui,', I think, that the Katlirs
must have been a considerable time in possession of
the country. What are these Tsivivane? Tliey are
lasting proofs that the Katlirs sought success in their
enterprises from some unseen being. When out on
a journey, they were accustomed to throw a stone to
one of these T.sivivane, and to pray for success in
their expedition. They could, however, give no de-
finite account of the nature of the being from whom
they souglit aid. Along the paths it is not uncom-
mon to see the tall grass knotted. This I understaml
to be a custom similar to the Tsivivane, viz., a means
of seeking good speed in their journey.
" 3. Witchcraft. In common with many, perhaps
all nations in some period of their history, the KalHrs
believe in witchcraft, and have been in the habit of
punisliing witches in the most cruel manner. Tliey
looked on these characters as the most wicked of
manlvind, and not fit to live. I never could lind that
they liad a correct idea of the general de(iravity of
man, and tlieir view of sin is best explained by our
word crime. They would ot'ten deny that they had
sin, but as to witches being sinners they never had a
doubt. They connected the eS'ects of witchcraft with
certain substances, such as hair, blood, nail-parings,
or other fragments of tlie human body, and this thing
which bewitched they called Ubtiti. Other sub-
stances were used, as they held, for the purpose of
bewitcliing. These witches (I mean the word to be
applied to men and women) were believed to exert
a powerfid thougli unseen influence over their vic-
tims, even to the depriving tlicm of life.
" 4. Idini — Sacrifice. This rite is performed to the
ancestors of the Kaffirs, not to the Supreme Being.
They seem to think that by burning fat, or rather
bones to them, they can appease their auger. These
Idiuis, so far as I know, were seldom ofl'ered. The
idea of sacrifice seems to be connected with them, as
they were practised for the purpose of averting evil.
"5. Hero worship. 1 luive heard an intelligent
man, yet a rude Iieathen, avowing that he and his
peo[)le wore worshippers of famous ancestors. There
must have been some traces of such idolatry, from
what I have heard ; but this kind of worship ajipears
to have been dying out about the time the mission-
aries arrived.
" C. Future state. When we spoke to the Kaffirs
as to the inniiortality of the soid, thry told us tliat
they knew nothing of its existence after the death of
the boily. Prom some cxiu-essions which tlicy nnike
use of to the dying, or in reference to them after they
are dead, it seems that at one time they must have
believed in the imniorlality of the soid. Kor example,
to a [jerson who is aliout to die they will say, ' Voii
are going home today — look on us.'
■' 7. liy touching a dead body, they lie
Kime un-
cle.-ii
" 8. When a husband dies, his wife or wives go
out to the field or woods for a time.''
From all tljat can be ascerlained on the religion of
the Kallirs, it seems that those of them who are still
in tiieir heathen state have no idea, (1.) of a Supreme
Intelligent liider of the imiverse ; (2.) of a Sabbath ;
(3.) of a day of judgment ; (4.) of the guilt iuid
pollution of sin ; (5.) of a Saviour to deliver them
from the wrath to come.
KAIOMOIITS, the primitive man, according to the
Zendavesta, of the ancient Persians. See Abicsta.
KALA (Maha), the male form of the Hindu god
Sliwa, in his character of Time, the great destroyer
of all things.
Iv,\LliX])KRS (ptu-e gold), wandering Dn-vhilir.i
among the Molianmiedans, wliose souls are su|)po.'-ed
to be purified by son ere penances. To this degraded
class belong the spies, the assassins, and tlie plun-
derers that we read of among the Dervishes; and
from them also liave sprung numerous false prophets
at ditl'erent times. Their pretensions, however, are
encouraged oidy by the lowest ranks of society, ami
they are not acknowledged as brethren by the mem-
bers of the regular coniVateruities. In India these
jMiissulman mendicants are not numerous, and they
are held in little esteem. They wear in that country
a peculiar costume, consisting of a conical felt hat
worked into chequers of white, red, and black ; and
their gown, which descends from the neck to the calf
of the leg, is of diamond-shaped patches of the same
colours. A few gourds for carrying water are hinig
over the shoulder or at the waist; and usiudly a,
bright steel rod, sometimes lieaded with a trident,
completes their ecjuipment. They never marry, but
are of habits exceedingly dissolute and debauched,
and are always most sturdy and importimate beggars.
They regard themselves as objects of the special
favour of Heaven.
KALI (M.\iia), a Hindu goddess, the personified
energy or consort of Shiva under a peculiar form.
This is the most cruel ar.d revengeful of all the
Hindu divinities. Such is her thirst for blood, that
in one of her forms she is represented as having
"actually cut her own throat, that the blood issuing
thence might spout into her mouth." Im.iges of this
disgusting spectacle are at this d.ay to be seen in
some districts of Bengal. All tortm-es which a de-
votee can possibly inflict upon himself are considered
as agreeable to her. If he sliould cut off a poriiou
of his own flesh, and present it as a burnt sacrifice,
the ollering woidd be most acceptable. Dr. DutI
informs us that " by the blood drawn from fishes and
tortoises the goddess is pleased one month ; a croco-
dile's blood will please her three; that of certain
wild animals nine; that of a bull or guana a year;
an antelope or wild boar's twelve years; a bulialo's,
rhinoceros's, or tiger's, a hundred ; a lion's, a rein-
deer's, or a ni.-iu's (mark the cond)inaiion), a thousand.
KAI.I-AGE— K AXTI AXS.
2C1
But by the blood of three men slain in sacriiice slie
is pleased a luuulrcd thousand years." Kobbei'S,
thieves, and miwdercrs, lawless desperadoes, in sliort,
of every kind, worship Kali iis their avowed patroness,
and oiler bloody sacriiices to propitiate the favour
and seenre the protection of the goddess. The
Thiir/s, in particular, conduct their sanguinary depre-
dations under Iter special auspices. In honour of
Kali, one of the most popular of the Hindu festivals
is annually observed with great pomp and ceremony
— the CnAiiAK Pu.J.\ii (which see), or swinging fes-
tival. Private sacriliees are sometimes ol'ered to
Kali, an instance of which is quoted by Dr. Uulf,
from tlie statement of a British oflicer of high char-
acter:— "A Hindu Faquir, dressed in a fantastical
garb, worked upon t)ie mind of a wealthy high-ca>te
Brahman woman, to the extent of making her believe
that he was her siiiritnal guide, charged with a mes-
sage from the goddess, demanding a human sacrifice.
She declared herself ready to obey the divine order,
and asked who was tlie victim. The Faquir pointed
to her own son, a young man about twenty-five years
old, the heir to the family property. The deluded
mother wailed till the unconscious youth was asleep,
and in the silence of the night slie struck In'm on the
head willi an axe, and killed him. This done, she
cut up the body, under the direction of her spiritual
guide, the Faqiur — presented a jiart, boiled with rice,
as a peace ofi'ering, with the usual ceremonies, to the
image of the goddess ; part to the wretch who per-
sonified the spiritual messenger: the rest she buried
with so little care, that the place of its dejiosit was
discovered by the vultures hovering over the ground,
ami thus brouglit to the notice of the Knglish com-
missioner by the I'olice."
KALI-YIIO, the last of the chronological cyilcs
of the Hindus, through wdncli the world is said to be
at present passing, when the powers of darkness and
disorder have become predominant in the soul of man,
and when external nature groans beneath the burden
o.f iniquity.
K.A.L1KA PURAXA, one of the divine writings
of the Hindus, which ie chiefly devoted to a recital
of the dirt'ercnt modes of worshipping and appeasing
the goddess Kali (which see).
KALKI AVATAR, the tenth and last of the
AvATAits (which see), when 'Vishnu, in Iniman form
and se;ited on a white horse, shall gi\e the signal for
the destruction of this visible universe.
KALPA, in Hindu chronology, a d.ay of Br<thmn,
equal to four thou.sand three hundred and twenty
millions of solar years.
KAMAC, the god of love among the Hindus.
KAMIMITSI. See Sintoists.
KAMISIMO, a garment of ceremony among the
Japanese, worn on festivals and other solemn occa-
sions. It consists of two parts, a short cloak, with-
out sleeves, called IcaUujcuo, and a sort of petticoat
called valai/in, fastened about the waist by a band.
Both are of a particular form, and of coloured sturiis.
They are used only on days of ceremony and at
funerals.
KAMTSCHADALES (Ki;ligion of). See Siia-
MANISTS.
lv,A-iMYU-MURUNU (desire for death), modes
of suicide formerly prescribed in the Shaslras or
Sacred Books of the Hindus. The conmionest mode
is drowning in the Ganges, but sometimes the self-
murderer submits to being buried alive. In certain
temples in India tliere was formerly an instrument
by wliich a person could decapitate himself. It con-
sisted of a sharp crescent- shaped instrument, with a
chain and stirrup at each horn. The devotee placed
llie sharp edge on the back of his neck, and his feet
in the stirrups, then gave a violent jerk with his
legs, and his head was instantly severed fruin liis
body.
KANCHELIYAS, a sect of Hindus winch is said
to be not micommon in the south of India, and wdiose
worship is that ol' Sakti, the personified energy of the
divine nature in action. It is said to be distinguished
by one peculi.ar rite, the object of which is to con-
found all the ties of female alliance, and to enforce
not only a community of women amongst the vuiarics,
but disregard even to natural restraints.
KANTIANS, a sect of German thinkers in the
last century, who adopted the philosophical principles
<if Emmanuel Kant. This eminent philnsopher was
born at K()nigsberg in 1724. His mind early dis-
pl.ayed a taste for the study of abstract truth, ^^llich
rendered him so conspicuous in this ilepartment, that,
while yet a comparati\ely young man, he was ap-
pointed professor of logic and metaphysics in the
university of his native town. In tlie course of a
long life, lie made such valuable discoveries in ab-
stract science, that lie gave rise to a new school of
German pliilosophy, the influence of which has ex-
tended down to the present day. The work in wliich
lie flrst develo]ied his own peculitir prinidples was his
' Critique of Pure Reason,' which he^Tublislied in
1781, following it up by various other treatises ex-
jilanatorv of his philosophical system in its dil'.erent
hearings.
The Kantian philosoidiy was de.-igiied, in the first
instance, to meet and to neutralize the sceptical
principles set forth by David Hume, wlio, by attempt-
ing to trace all truth fo experience, unsettled the
foundations of human knowledge. The philosopher
of Konigsberg, however, showed that, independently
altogether of experience, there are n /)?■/(»•( princi]ples
which originate solely from the operation of the mind
itself, and are distinct from any sensible element.
Tims Kant pointed out the very imporlant distinction
between a priori and a poshiiori knowledge.
Another distinction of great importance was tir.'^t
clearly developed by Kant, that, namely, between
analytic and synthetic judgments. In the former, as
he showed, the attribute or predicate is necessarily
contained in the subject ; while in tlie latter it is not
contained in, but is distinct from the subject. 'J'he
i»G2
KANTIANS.
former jiidjmcnfs, therefore, arc o;>noiv, and tlie latter
are some of tliem a prinri a,m\ otliers n pnstcriDri. 11 ii-
maii knowledge, accordiiij; to this system, is composed
of two elements, tlie empirical or ii ;)(«te-/o;-j element,
and tlie transeendental orrt^))vV)/-/elenient. which is de-
rived from theinlelli.^'ciice. In tlie Kantian iiliilosophy
there are lliree taculties: Perception, which has to
do with single objects; Undcrsiaiidini,' witli notions;
and lleason with ideas. Time and .space are the
universal forms of things. Understanding thinks
and judges according to certain categories which are
not in tlie objects, bnt in the mind itself. Reason
lias the ideas, universe, soul, God; but, as lOmt be-
lieved, the existence of these ideas cannot be proved.
l)r. Kahilis gives a rapid sketch of the Kantian prin-
cijiles in these words: — "The luinian mind has, in
its (1 /Hv'on medimn, forms to which nnivcrsalit}- and
necessity belong ^in opposition to sccpticisin), but
only a subjective one ; but it eaniiot claim to know
objective being — tlie thing in itself ^in opi)Osiiion to
dogmatism). If, then, our theoretical reason iniist
allow the things external to it not to be cogniEable,
practical reason lias a firm, immoveable ground. It
demands, wiili absolute necessity (cati'rjnviad impe-
rative) : Act .as a general being, i.e., as a niembor of
the univoise, as a rational being. 15ut man has within
himself de.sires, llic common aim and oliject of which
is the gratilieation of >elf. While jiractical reason
says, Act as a genor.al rational being, tlic desires .say.
Act as a particular being, in an arbitrary way. lie
only is virtuous who, in his actions, is not determined
by desires, but by reason. 15ut virtue would be
without a sphere, unless objects of action were
brought to it by the desiriw. Tlie territory of virtue,
and that of desires, mutually require one another.
Now, t is here that the ideaofOod, which was given
up (Jii the territory of pure reason, obtains its right
a.s a postulate of practical reason. The domain of
virtue, and tliat of desires, are hetcrngeiieous worlds,
but yet ordained for one another. Hence there must
be a power which has harmonized both of these do-
mains, and that power is God. As virtue does not
reach the highest good in tliis world, which highest
good consists in the tuiity of that which reason and
the desires seek after, i.e., worthiness and happiness,
this ideal musi needs be realised in another life after
death. The theological results of his criticism, Kant
lias developed in his ' Reli.gion within the limits of
reason.' He rejects any stand-point which places
itself in opposition to the positive in Christianity
{rudurriliHiH), but is in favour of a lation.al faitli
{rationaliim) connecting itself with it. This connec-
tion lie gained by changing, by means of an allego-
rical exposition, the doctrine of the Scriptures and
the Ohnrcli into moral religion."
Tims Kant held (hat pure reason li.as no [lower to
make any certain statement eoneerning supernatural
truths, and that the existence of God, lil)erty, and
immortality, are postulates of lu-actical reason. Thus
it was that lliUiuiitiliwi, which from that liine formed
a constant opjiosition to Siiin-a-niiturnlism, had its
origin in the critical philosophy of Kant, which
limited itself within an order of ideas purely subjec-
tive, from which it could not find an outlet without
having recourse to practical reason, which again was
founded on ideas drawn from speculative reason,
Keligion, in the view of Kant, consists in this, that
ill reference to all our duties, we consider God the
legislator, who is to be reverenced by all, lie com-
bated the idea that reason is competent to decide
what is, and what is not, revealed. He introduced tlie
system of moral interpretation according to which
Scripture ought to be ex|)laiiied, apart from it.s
original historical meaning, in such a manner as is
likely to prove beneficial to the moral condition of
the people.
The opinions of Kant on the subject of the Divine
existence are thus noticed by Ilagenbach in his
' History of Doctrines :' — " In his opinion the exist-
ence of God can be proved on speculative grounds
only in a threefold manner; either by the phy.sico-
theolo.gical, or the cosinological, or the ontological
ar.gument. These are the only modes of argumenta-
tion, nor is it possible that there slionld be more.
The ontological proof is not admissible, becau.se its
advocates confound a logical predicate with a real.
' A linndred real dollars do not contain anything
more than a hundred possible. . . . Bnt in reference
to my property, a luindred real dollars are more than
the mere idea of that sum ij.r.. of its possibility).'
. . . ' The idea of a Supreme Being is in many
respects a very i>rofilable idea; but because it is a
mere idea, it cannot by itself enlarge our knowledge
of that which exists;' for ' a man might as well in-
crease his knowledge by mere ideas, as a merchant
augment his properly by adding siaiie ciphers to the
sum-total on his books.' In opposition to the tos-
mologic.al proof, lie urged that its iidvocatcs promi.se
to shov,' us a new way, but bring us back to the old
(ontoliigical) proof, because their argument is also
founded on a dialectic fiction. In n^ference to the
physico-tlieological [iroof ho said, ' This argument is
alw.ays deserving of our respect. It is the earliest,
clearest, and most adapted to coinnion sense. It
enlivens the study of nature, from which it also de-
rives its existence, and through which it obtains new
vigour. It shows to ns an object and a design where
we should not have discovered them by indepcndeiit
observation, and enlarges onr knowledge of nature by
m.aking us acquainted with a particular unity whose
principle is above n.atnre. I5ut this knowledge exert,s
a reacting iniluence upon its cause, viz., the idea
from which it derives its origin, and so confirms the
belief in a supreme Creator, that it becomes an irre
sistible conviction. Nevertheless lliis argument can-
not secure apodiclic.al certainty ; at the utmost it
might prove the existence of a builder of the world,
but not that of a creator of the world. Morality and
a degree of happiness eorresiionding to it are the two
elements constituting the supreme good. But the
KArALIKA-KAUlCXS (Relic.ion of}.
203
=]
virtuous do not always attain it. There must, thore-
t'ofe, be a compensation in the world to come. At
tlie same time there must be a lieing tliat posses.scs
both the requisite intelligence and ihe will to bring
about this compensation. Hence the existence of
God is a postulate of practical reason.'"
Kant held tlie doctrine of innate evil in n^an, but
he did nut understand Ijy it original sin in the sense
in whicli that expression is used by theologians gene-
rally. In his opinion the Scriptural narrative of
Ad.am's fall is only a symbol, which he explains
according to the principles of moral interpretation.
The proposition, " Man is by nature wicked," he
explains as meaning simply, " He is wicked bcciiuse
he belongs to tlie liuman race." Hence he comes to
the conclusion, "That whicli man, considered from
the moral point of view, is, or is to be, wlietlicrgood
or bad, deiiends on his own .actions." In connection
with the docirine of original sin, Kant maintained
the restoration of man by means of his liberty. To
reach tliis end, man stands in need of an ideal, which
is presented to him in the Scriptural doctrine con-
ceiTiing Clirist, whom he regards as the personified
idea of the good principle. The idea has its seat in
our reason; for the practical purposes of an example
being given, a character is sulficient which resembles
the idea as much as possible.
Kant considered the dentli of Christ as having
only a symbolico moral signiticance, and lie main-
tained that man must, after all, deliver himself. "A
substitution, in the jiroper sense of that word," says
he, '■ cannot take place. It is impossible that liabi-
lities should be transmissible, like debts. Neither
does the amenduient of our life pay otf former debts.
Thus man would have to expect an inllnite punish-
ment on account of the inliuite guilt which he has
contracted. Nevertheless the forgiveness of sin is
possible. For inasmuch as, in consequence of the
contrast existing between moral perfection and ex-
ternal Iiappiness, he who amends his conduct has to
undergo the same suHeriugs as he who [lerseveres in
his evil course, and the former bears those sufferings
with a dignllied mind, on account of good, he will-
ingly submits to them as the punishment due to his
former sins. In a physical aspect he continues the
same man, but, in a moral aspect, lie has become a
new man ; thus the latter suffers in the room of the
former. But that which takes place in man himself,
as an internal act, is manifested in the person of
Christ (the Son of God) in a visible manner, as the
personified idea; that which the new man takes upon
himself, while the old man is dying, is set forth in
the representative of mankind as that death which he
sutfered once for all."
In regard to the mode of innn's deliverance from
sin, Kant held that man possesses the power of
amending his cotidiicl by his own efforts, and at the
same time he plainly states in his ' Religion within
the Boundary of Pure Reason' — " The moral culture
of man must not commence with the amenduient of
his conduct, but with a complete change of his mode
of thinking and the establishment of liis character."
The importance of faith was also maintained by the
Kbnigsberg philosopher, but he made a distinction
between faith in the doctrines of the church and the
faith of religion; that is, in his view, tlie religion of
reason, ascribing only to the lafter an influence upon
morality. He pointed out the importance and neces-
sity of a society based upcui moral princijiles, or the
cstablislnnent of the kingdom of God upon earth,
whicli he viewed in no higher than a merely moral
a-pect.
The philosophy of Kant was completely opposed
to the boasted [irinciples of ilhiminism, which had
diffused themselves so widely in Germany towards
the middle of the eighteenth century. Various
writers, accordingly, among whom may be mentioned
Eberliard and Mendelssolin, hastened to protest
against the Kantian doctrines. A large circle of
pupils, however, gathered around the sage of Ki3iiigs-
berg, and, in their enthusia.sm. they eagerly sought
to make the abstract doctrines of their master intel-
ligible and agieeable to the public mind. But the
most influential organ of the new pliilosophy was the
' Jenaische Literaturzeitung,' or Jena Literary Ga-
zette, edited by Schiitz. Nor was the admiration of
the Kantian system confined to literary circles ; the
theologians also expounded its doctrines from the
pulpit, and the whole country rang with the praises
of Kant. Accordingly, the R.VTtONALisTS (which
see), who had arisen out of the Kautians, soon be-
came a muncrous and inHuential class in Germany,
(dacing human reason far above divine revelation,
and bringing down the theology of Heaven to a
level with the weak and erring fancies of men.
KA1'AL1K.\, a sect of Hindus who, seven or
eight centuries ago, sacrificed human victims tu Kali,
and other hideous personifications of the Sukti iif
S/iira. The Knpalllca is thus described in one of the
Hindu records: ••His body is smeared with ashes
from a funeral pile, around his neck haiig.s a string of
human skulls, his f'orehead is streaked with a black
line, his hair is woven into the matted braid, his
loins are clothed with a tiger's skin, a hollow sknil
is in his left hand for a cup, and in his right he
carries a bell, which he rings inces.-antly, exclaiming
aloud, Ho! Sumbhu JJ/mmn-a — Ho! lord of A'';/?."
KAPILA, a celebrated Hindu sage, supposed by
many of liis followers to have been an incarnation of
Deity. He was the founder of the Sankhya school
of philosopliy. See Sankhy.\ SvsTiiM.
KAK.\ LING IS, a sect of Hindu ascetics, found
only occasionally among the most ignorant portions
of the community. They wanrler up and down in a
state of nudity, and are professed worshippers of
S/iifa.
KARAITES. See Caeaites.
IvARENS (Ri^LiGioN ov). The Karens are a
race of aboriginal inhabitants of the hilly parts in the
south and east of I'.uruiah. Numbers of them .-u^e In
2G4
KAIIEXS (KiCLlGION OF).
be foimd iilso in 8i.-iiii and I>aos. Tliey ai'e a quiet,
iiitcilii;cnt ii<>o|iIe, living cliiitily by aijricultiire. Tlie
lirst iiotii'e of this interesting race is t'onnd in tlie
travels of Marco Polo, in tlio fonnoenth century.
The Rev. E. Kineaiil, n-lio visited tlieni so recently
as 1837, tells ns tliat they regard themselves as the
first and most extensive of all the races in the world.
It is a curions tact, that in tlieir oral song.s are to be
found remarkable traditions in reference to the crea-
tion of the world and of the human race, the apos-
tasy of man, the loss of divine knowledge, and pro-
mises in reference to their future enlightenment; all
of them beautifully accordant with tlie Mosaic records.
" When America," s.ays Jlr. Kincaid, " was inha-
bited only by savages, and our ancestors in Britain
and Germany were dwelling in the rudest tents, and
clothed with the skins of beasts, and, in dark forests
of oak, practising the most cruel and revolting forms
of heathenism, the Karens stood firm in the yreat
truth of one eternal God, the Creator of all things,
and the only rightful object uf adoration. From age
to age, they chanted songs of praise to Jehovah, and
looked, as tlieir songs directed, towards tlie setting
sun, from whence white men were to come with the
gnodhool; and teach them the wor.ihip of the living
God. Buddhism, claiming to embody all science
and literature, and all that pertains to the physical
and moral world — jn-opounding a system of morals
admirably suited to carry the understanding, while it
fosters the pride and arrogance and sellishness so
deeply seated in fallen humanity — reaching back in
its revelations tlirougli illimitable ages, and obscurely
dejiicting other worlds and systems, and gods rising
and passing away for ever — surrounding itself with
pagodas and shrines and temples and priests, as im-
posing as pagan Uoine, and a ritual as gorgeous as
Rome papal — has failed to gain an ascendancy over
the Karen nice. Arbitrary power, surrounded by
imperial pomii and splendour, has neither awed nor
seduced them fron^ their simple faith. The preser-
vation of this widely-scattered people from the de-
grading heathenism which darkens every part of tliis
vast continent, is a great and unfathomable mystery
of God's providence. They have seen tlu; proudest
monuments of heathenism rise around them — many
of them glittering in the sun like mountains of gold,
and in their construction tasking the energies of an
empire; still they chanted their oral songs, and
looked towards the setting sun for white men to
bring the |)romiscd book of Jehovah. They ha\e
seen dynasties rise and fall, age after age, and yet
their faith has never failed them."
This remarkable people, though widely scattered
over the Burinan Empire, are completely distinct
from the Burinans, by whom they are looked upon
as inferiors and slaves, wliom tlioy are entitled to
treat with harslmess and cruelty. To escape from
their opprc.ssors, the Karens are often compelled to
wander from place to place, and establish temporary
dwelling-places in remote districts. They Iia\e no
outward form of religion nor established priesthood
but believe in tlie existence of God and a state of
I'uture retribution. Among their ancient traditions,
which they fondly cherisli, and carefully transmit
from sire to son, are some strange prophecies, which
predict their future elevation as a race, and that
white strangers from across the sea would come to
bring them the Word of God. Accordingly, when,
about thii'ty years since, Mr Boardman, an American
missionary, appeared among them, they were quite
prepared to listen to his preaching, and evinced a pecu-
liar interest in the truths of the Gospel. The tidings
of tlie arrival of a white teacher soon spread among
th ■ Karens, and great numbers Hocked to the house
of the missionary. Jlr. Newcomb, in his ' Cyclo-
pjedia of Missions,' relates .an interesting story of the
deified book, which, taken in connection with the
brief career of ^h\ Boardman, shows the Karens in a
very favoiu'able light : — " It had been left in one of
their villages some twelve years before by a travelling
Mussulman, who was understood to have told the
people it was to be worshipped as sacred. Though
entirely ignorant of its contents, the person with
whom it was left carefully preserved it, and, in virtue
of possessing it, became a kind of sorcerer, of great
importance among the people. It was brought one
d.ay to Mr. Boardman, and on being unrolled from
the coverings in which it was enveloped, it proved to
be the ' Book of Common Prayer and the Psalms,'
jirinled at OxI'ord. From this period Jlr. Boardman
devoted the icmnant of his too brief life almost ex-
clusively to labours among the Karens. ICarly in
1829, he made an excursion to the jungle and moun-
tains where their villages were most numerous, and
saw much of their condition and modes of lite in their
native wilds. lie also conferred with the Brilish
Commissioner for the district, and fornied liberal
jilans lor schools, and other agencies of civiliz.-ilion.
while he ga\e a large part of every day to preaching
and conversation among the jieople. In the sumincr
of 1830, liowcvcr, his strength had become exceed-
ingly reduced by repealed attacks of ha-.morihage of
the lung.s, and he .sailed for Maulmain. Here he
regained a temporary strength, and altera few months
returned to Tavoy, where he found many coiivcrts
waiting to be baptized, and still many more daily
visiting the zayat for religious inquiry and instruction.
A large number were baptized by Moung-Ing, one of
the native Burnian preachers, under the direction of
Mr. Boardman. Just at this time Mr. and Mrs.
Mason .arrived at Tavoy as auxiliaries to the mi.ssion,
and ill their comjiany, and that of Mrs. Boardman,
tills excellent missionaiy made an excursion into the
country for the purpose of meeting and baptizing a
large number of converts, who had often visited him
in the city. The journey of three days was accom-
plished, and the baptism of thirty-l'our persons was
performed in hisjjrcsenceby theUev. Mr. Mason. But,
ere he could reach his home in Tavoy, he sunk be-
neath tlie exhausting malady which had long pressed
KAItMA— KASI.
265
upon liis constitution. His tomb is at Ta\uy, and
the marble slab wliich covers it is inscribed witli a
simple epitaph, which records bis heroic services
t'ur the Karons of the neighbouring forests and inuun-
tains."
Tlie labours of Mr. Boardman were followed np
by Mr. Mason, his successor in the mission among
the Karens, and it is gratifying to know that a people
to whom so nnich interest has attached, have received
the Gospel with far greater readiness than tlie Bur-
mans among whom they live. In 1832, Mr. Mason,
writing from a Karen village, says — " I no longer
date from a heathen land. Heathenism has Hed these
banks. I eat the rice and fruits cultivated by Cln'is-
tian hands, look on the fields of Cliristians, see no
dwellings but those of Christian families. I am
seated in the midst of a Clu-istian village, surroinided
by a people that love as Christians, converse as
Christians, act like Christians, and, in my eyes, look
like Christians."
The Karens, though many of them are acquainted
with the Burman language, have, nevertheless, a
language of their own. which, liowever, previous to
the arrival among them of the American missionaries,
had not been reduced to writing. Accordingly, the
niissioiiaries, with the aid of some Christian Karens,
tnade an alphabet of its elemental soinids, compiled
a spelling-book of its most common words, and trans-
lated two or three tracts. This was the beghming
of a most useful and important work, which has
since been carried onward with activity and zeal, and
the Karens now rejoice in a written language taught
in their schools, and in a Christian literature, at least
in its rudimental state. A number of villages have
been formed wholly composed of Christian Karens,
who are supplied with churches and ministers of the
Gospel, who are several of them converted natives.
In 1840, nearly two liundred of these simple-hearted
and interesting people were baptized, and during the
year 1844, uiiwards of 2.000 prufessed their faith,
and were admitted to baptism. An entire change
came over the population of the district in which the
missionaries laboured, and the people generally as-
sumed an aspect of higher civilization. In 1843 they
were subjected to cruel persecution on the part of
their Burman oppressors. Large numbers of the
Clu-istian Karens were seized, and chained together,
and conveyed to distant prisons, from which they
were liberated only by the payment of a large ran-
som. These sufierings were endured with heroic
fortitude, and witli so firm and unflinching adherence
to the faith which they had embraced, that many
were thereby induced to join the ranks of the Cliris-
tians. Worn out with the violence of the persecu-
tion, large companies of the Karens left their homes,
and fled across tlie mountains to Arracan, where they
obtained a peaceful settlement, and attracted no small
sympathy from the Europeans who were resident in
tluit i|uarter. Early in 18-19, the Karen mission was
sej'arated from the Burman mission, and organized
IT.
on an independent footing. From this date both
these missions greatly extended the sphere of their
influence, and in 1850 the Karen churches at Maul-
niain were reported as containing upwards of 1,700
members. A theological school was formed for
educating Karen preachers, and a normal school for
training teachers, besides a number of other schools.
In the mission at Tavoy, which has been established
ahnost exclusively for the Karens, there were in that
same year stated to be twenty-seven churches, con-
taining about 1,800 members. The Arracan mission
consisted of two stations. In the Sandoway mission,
which was designed for the Karens in its immediate
vicinity, and also for those beyond the mountains in
Burmah proper, where the gospel could not be
preaclied, the number of churches was thirty-six, and
the whole number of church members about 4,500.
In the commencement of 1852, war broke out
between Great Britain and Burmah, and in the end
of the same year the entire snuthcrn portion of the
kingdom of Burmah, including the ancient province
of Pegu, was incorporated with the territories of
Britisli India. A change was now eft'ected in the
whole aspect of atJ'airs in so far as the Karens were
concerned. They were no longer exposed to per-
seciuion, and multitudes of tliem, no longer deterred
by the tjranny of priests or rulers, eagerly embraced
the gospel. In consequence of the changes efi'ected
by the war, the American missions in Bumiah have
been entirely re-organized, and such has been the
success of missionary work among the Karens, that
there are about 12,000 church mendicrs, and a Cliris-
tian popidation little short of 100,000.
KAUMA, a term used in the system of the
Bu(//i!sfs to denote action, consisting both of merit
and demerit ; that is, moral action, which is con-
sidered as the power that controls the world. When
a human being dies, his Karma is transferred to some
other being, regulating all the circumstances of his
existence. See Budiiists.
KARMA-WISAYA, one of the four things which,
according to the Budhist system, cannot be under-
stood by any one wlm is not a Budha. This point,
called Karma-wisai/a, denotes how it is that ell'ects
are produced by the instrumentality of Kaema
(which see). The other three things which only a
Budha can conqirehend are, {I.) Irdhi-u-kaya, how
it was that Budha could go, in the snapping of a
finger, from the world of men to the Braltma-hlas ;
(2.) L6ka-ii;!saya, the size of the universe, or how it
was first brought into existence ; (3.) Biidha-wisaya,
the power and wisdom of Budha.
K.ARTIKEYA, tlie son of Shim or Maliadera,
the Hindu god of war. He is famous for having
destroyed a demon named Tarika, who set himself
up against tlie gods.
KASI (the niagnilicent), the ancient name of
Ben.\kes (which see), and the name by which it is
still called among the Brahmans. The Hindu priests
are fond of extolling the glory of the holy city, and
2G6
KASIXA.
lieiice tliey sedulously propagate amoug the people
legends of the strangest description, which they
allege have come to theiu from the gods. Thus, in
reference to the origin of A'«,v/, they give the follow-
ing description : — " The world itself, since the day of
its creation, has remained supported upon the tliou-
s:uid heads of the serpent Auaiita (eternity), and so
it will continue to he upheld until the command of
Brahma shall be proclaimed for it to be for ever en
veloped in the coils of that interminable deity. Now,
when the judgment takes place, the city of Kasi,
with a circumference of seven kos (about ten miles)
from its centre, will alone remain (inn ; for it rests
not upon the heads of Auanta, but is fixed upon tlie
tliree points of tlie trident of Siva or Mahadeo, to
wliuse care it will be entrusted. All who now die
within its walls are blessed, and those who are fonnd
within it on that eventful day shall be blessed a
thousandfold. Ages before the Mahommedan con-
quest of this city by Sultan Mahommed, which hap-
pened iu the eleventh century ; ages before it was
made subservient to the Patans, which was a hundred
centuries earlier; ages before Kasi was the second
capital of the Hindoo kingdom of Kanaoj, which was
the case a hundred centuries before that; ages before
history has any record, Si\a built this wonderful
city — of the purest golil, and all its temples of pre-
cious stones ; but, alas ! the iniquity of man conta-
minates and destroys the beauty of everything divine;
in consequence of the heinous sins of the people, the
precious material of this sacred place was deteriorated,
and eventually changed into stone, by permission of
tlie founder .Siva." Kasi is emphatically a city of
priests, for it has been computed that out of the
000,000 souls who I'onn its population, 80,000 are
officiating I5rahmans attached to the temples, exclu-
sive of the thou.»ands who daily visit it from other
parts of the country. The greater number of the
temples are dedicated to Shiva, or to his son Ganesa,
and are endowed some of them with overflowing
funds for their support, while to others are attached
the revenues of large tracts of land.
ICVSINA, an ascetic rite among the Bndhists, by
which it is supposed that a miraculous energy may
be received. There are ten descriptions of this rite.
1. Pal/uiwi, earth; 2. Apo, water; 3. Tcjo, fire;
4. Wayo, wind; 5. JVila, blue; 6. Pita, golden;
7. LohiUi, blood-red; 8. Odata, white; 9. Aloka,
light ; 10. Akasa, space.
The priest who performs the lir.st of these kinds of
Ka^-iiia must form a small circle, wliieh he can easily
fix his eye upcjn. The circle must be formed of clay
of a light-red colour, placed upon a frame made of
four sticks, covered over with a piece of cloth, a
skin, or a mat, upon which the clay must be spread,
free from grass, roots, pebbles and sand. The clay
must be kneaded into a proper consistency, and
formed into a circle one span and four inches in
diameter. The lU'iest must now take water that falls
from a rock, and render the clay perfectly smooth ;
then, having bathed, he must sweep the place where
the frame is erected, and place a seat, which must be
quite smooth, and one span four inches high, at the
distance of two cubits, and one span from the frame.
Remaining upon this seat, he must look steadfastly
at the circle, and engage in meditation on the evils
arising from the repetition of existence, and the best
modes of overcoming them : on the benefits received
by those who practise the dhyaiuis and other modes
of asceticism ; on the excellencies of the three gems ;
and he must endeavour to seciu'e the same advantages
He must notice the colour of the circle, and not only
think of it as composed of earth, but remember that
the earthy particles of his own body are composed ot
tlie san;e element. He must continue to gaze and
to meditate until the uimitta be received, that is,
inward illumination, by which all scepticism will be
removed, and purity attained.
The Apo-Kasiiia is performed by catching a por-
tion of water in a cloth as it falls from the sky in
rain, before it has reached the ground ; or, if rain-
water cannot be procured, any other water may be
used. The water is poured into an alms-bowl or
similar vessel, and the priest, having chosen a retired
place, must sit down and meditate, gazing upon the
water, and reflecting that the perspiration and other
fluids of his own body are composed of the same
material.
The Tcjo-Kasiim is practised by taking wood, dry
and firm, cutting it into siiiall pieces, ami placing it
at the root of a tree, or in the court of the iciliara,
where it must be ignited. He must then take a mat
made of shreds of bamboo, or a skin or a cloth, and
making in it an aperture one span and four inches in
diameter, he must place it before him, and looking
through the aperture, he must meditate on the fire,
and reflect that the fire in his own body is of a
similar nature, flickering and inconstant.
The Wayo-Kasina is performed by sitting at the
root of a tree, or some other convenient place, and
thinking of the wind [jassing through a window or
the hole of a wall ; the Xila-Kusina b}- gazing on a
tree covered with blue Howers, or a vessel filled with
blue flowers, or a blue garment covered with flowers;
the Piln-Kii.s-iiia, by gazing on a golden-coloured
object ; the Lohita-Kn.'.ina on a circle made with
vermilion ; and in Odnta-Kaxina on a vessel of lead
or silver, or the orb of the moon. In AloK-a-Kasina,
the priest must gaze uiion the light passing through
a hole in the wall, or, belter still, upon the light
wiiicli passes through a hole made in the side of an
earthen vessel which has a lamp placed within it
\^'hen the Akasa-Kasiim is jiractised, the sky is
looked at through a hole in the roof of a hut, or
through a hole of tlic prescribed dimensions made in
a skill.
I'Voiii the ]iractic.e of Kaxitia in any one of its
forms, a ISiidliist priest expects to derive many ad-
vantages. More particularly, he acquires the power
of working miracles according to the species <jt'Ka.iina
KASWA (Al)— KEITHIANS.
2G7
praetised. 'Hius Mr. Spence Hardy, in his ' Eastern
Muuaclusm,' informs us of tlie kind of power received
from eacli ; — " By the practice of Patluiwi-Kaxina,
tlie priest will receive the power to multiply himself
many times over, to pass through the air, or walk
on the water, and to cause an earth to be made on
which lie can walk, stand, sit, and lie. By Apo-
Kusina he can cause the earth to float, create rain,
rivers, and seas, sliake the eartli and rocks, and the
dwellings thereon, and cause water to proceed from
all parts of the body. By Tejo-Kashm he can cause
smoke to proceed from all parts of the body, and lire
to come down from heaven like rain, by the glory
that proceeds from his person ; he can overpower that
which comes from the person of another; he can
dispel darkness, collect cotton or fuel, and other
combustibles, and cause them to burn at will ; cause
a light which will give the power to see in any place
as with divine eyes ; and when at the point of death,
lie can cause his body to be spontaneously burnt.
By Wayo-Kanna he can move as fleetly as the wind,
cause a wind to arise wdienever he wishes, and can
cause any substance to remove from one place to
another without tlie intervention of a second person.
By the other Kasinas respectively, the priest who
practises them in a proper manner can cause figures
to appear of different colours, change any substance
whatever into gold, or cause it to be of a blood red
colour, or to shine as with a bright light ; change
that which is evil into that which is good; cause
things to appear that are lost or hidden ; see into the
midst of rocks and the earth, and penetrate into
them ; pass through walls and solid substances ; and
drive away evil de.-ire."
KASWA (Al), the favourite camel on which llo-
hannned entered Mecca in triumph.
KE. one of the entities and essences in the dualis-
tic svstem of the Chhiese philosophers. It consists
of "matter most ethereal in its texture, and may be
stvled the ultimate nuiterial element of the universe,
the primary matter which acts as the substratum on
which things endued with form and other qualities
rest, or from which they have been gi-adually evolved.
The Ke, when resolved into its constituent elements,
gives birth to two opposite essences, to Yim(]'Ani Yin,
which are the phases inider which the ITltiniiite Prin-
ei|>le of the universe displays itself in the phenomenal
world. From the constant evolution and interaction
of these opposite essences residted every species ol'
forinnl matter and the mi.ved phenomena of the
world.
KEBLA, or Kii'.L.^, the name which the Mo-
hammedans give to that part of the world where the
temple of Mecca is situated, towards which the face
of the Moslem worshipper is turned when he recites
his jiravers. In the Koran, the express command is
given by the Arabian prophet, '-Thou shalt turn thy
face towards the sacred temple of Mecca." In
another ]iassage, however, are these words, " God is
Lord of the east and west, and which way soever you
turn your face in prayer, you will find the presence
of Uod."
KEITHIANS, an ofl'shoot from the Society ot
Friends or Quakers in North America. They de-
rived their name from their originator, George Keith.
This individual was a native of Scotland, a man of
considerable ability and literary attainments, and for-
merly a rigid Presbyterian. He was educated at the
university of Aberdeen, where he took the degree ol
M.A. The circumstances attendant on his conver-
sion to the opinions of the Friends cannot now be
discovered, but it is well known that for many years
he was subjected to sore trials, long imprisonments.
and heavy lines, because of his zeal in the cause
which he had conscientiously embraced. His acute
and powerful mind fitted him peculiarly for public
disputations, and, accordingly, he was not unfre-
quently employed in defending the Society from
iniinst aspersions. He wrote also several povverfid
treatises in suppiort of the doctrines of the Friends.
About the year 1G82, he left Scotland to conduct
a Friends' school at Edmonton, in the county ot
Middlesex; but the persecution to which he was
here exposed led him to remove to London, where,
Iiowever, instead of receiving the protection he liad
looked for from priestly domination, he was im-
prisoned for five months in Newgate. It was
at this time that George Keith began to im-
bibe some strange specuhitive opinions, chiefly de-
rived from the writings of Van Hehnont. Among
other absurd notions, he embraced the doctrine of
the transmigration of souls. He held some curious
notions respecting our first parents, and alleged that
much of the Mosaic narrati\e in the Old Testament
was to be regarded as allegorical. In a work which
he published in 16.)4, entitled, ' Wisdom advanced
in the correction of many gross and hurtful errors.'
he gave to the world some of the wild fancies in
which he now indulged. His opinions found no
favour with Friends in England, and probably from
this cause, as well as from a desire to escaiie per-
secution, he emigrated to New Jersey in America.
After being employed for a time in determining the
boundary line between East and West Jersey, he
removed to Philadelphia, where he was intrusted
with the head-mastership of the grammar school,
which, however, he retained for only a single year,
at the end of which he began to travel as a minister
in New England. In wandering from place to place,
he engaged in public disputations, but, in conducting
them, lie evinced so nnich acrimony, that he injured
perhaps rather than advanced the cause which he
professed to advocate.
Naturally proud and vain-glorious, George Keith
soon began to find fault with the Society, more espe-
cially in the matter of discipline. Friends treated
him with great forbearance and tenderness, but he
became increasingly captious and self-willed, and at
length he quitted the Society, along with several
other Friends who adhered to him. The unhappy
2G8
KEITHIANS.
apostasy of George Keitli gave rise to a spirit of
discord ainoiig Friends in PeniisvUania, wliioh gave
mueli concern to the members of the Society, ncit
only iu America, but also in England. Some Friends
in Aberdeen who had long known George Keith, ad-
dressed an earnest appeal to him on the subject of tlie
diri'erences to whicli lie had given rise in the Society.
An admonitory letter was also sent from Friends in
En:,'land to Friends in America on the points in dis-
pute. Nothing, however, would move the unliappy
man, but proceeding from bad to worse, he and his
adherents set up a separate meeting of their own,
under the designation of Christian Quakers and
Friends.
But though George ICeilh had now assumed an
independent position, he did not cease ou that ac-
coiuit to harass and annoy the Society at large, pre-
ferring charges of imsonndness against them. At
the Quarterly Meeting of Jlinisters, held in January
1692, Keith accused tliem of meeting " to cloak
heresies and deceit, ' and maintained " that there
were more damnable heresies and doctrines of devils
among tlie Quakers than among any profcBsion of
Protestants." Such audacious and unmeasured abuse
could not be passed over in silence. Two Friends
were appointed to visit Keith, and to call upon him
to retract his words. lie received the deputation
with the utmost liaughtiness, and instead of listening
to tlieir counsels, he told tliem that " he trampled
upon the judgment of the meeting as dirt under his
feet." All hopes of a reconciliation were now gone,
and the Society came to the resolution of issuing a
declaration of disunity with him. The testimony
issued on the occasion was drawn up in the form of
an address to the Society, in which the grounds of
the proceeding were set forth. Before publishing
the document, it was thought right to give George
Keith or those of his party who might wish, an oppor-
tunity of perusing it. He declined tlie offer, however,
and not only so, but he maliciously published to
the world that in the proceedings with respect to
him, all gospel order and Christian kindness had
been violated. Against the judgment of tlie Quar-
terly Meeting of Ministers, Keith deterniined to ap-
peal to the ensuing Yearly Meeting. Meanwhile he
published several pamphlets in vindication of liim-
self, which excited so strong a feeling in his favour,
that many Friends united with him and his party,
and a wide and distressing schism ensued. Separate
meetings were set up at Philadeljihia, Burlingicm,
Ncshamiuy, and other places. Families were divided.
and the ties of frieiidsliip broken. Husbands and
wives, professedly of the same faith, no longer wor-
shipped in the same bouse, and seldom, in short, has
a more painful spirit of division prevailed in any
Christian body than was displayed on this occasion.
At the Yearly Meeting in 1G'.)2, which was hold
at I'urlington, it was fully expected that George
Keith would follow n[) the appeal which he had taken
against the judgment of tlie Quarterly Meeting.
When, however, the Yearly Meeting had convened,
instead of proceeding in the usual course of the dis-
cipline, he and his party met separately, calling
themselves the Yearly Meeting, and proceeded to
give judgment in favour of their leader, and issued
an epistle to that effect. They also drew up a Con-
fession of Faitii, with the view of vindicating iheir
claim to genuine Quakerism. In these circumstances
Friends judged it right to give forth a testimony iu
condemnation of the conduct of Keith, and a paper to
that purport was signed by two hundred and foin-teen
Friends. Similar testimonies condemnatory of Keith
and his adherents were given forth at the Yearly
Meeting in New England, in Maryland, and in Long
Island.
Finding his conduct so generally cnndemned in
America, Keith resolved to seek the judgment of the
Yearly Meeting of London on his case. Thither,
accordingly, he proceeded in 1C94, and after a full
investigation of the Avhole matters hi dispute, a com-
mittee was appointed to prepare a document em-
bodying tlie sense and judgment of the meeting on
the case, with the special injunclion that those "that
have separated be charged in the name and power of
the Lord Jesus Christ, to meet together with Friends
in the love of God." The document having been
drawn up. and approved by the Yearly Meeting,
was conimiiiiicated to George Keith as the deliberate
judgment of Friends, but instead of receiving it in
a proper spirit, he a.sseited that the advice was that
of a party, and not of the Society itself. He sought
also to attract sympathizers and friends, but in vain ;
only a few evinced the slightest feeling in his favour.
The Yearly Meeting in London perceiving that the
decision affected not Keiih alone, but all those in
America who had separated with him, addressed a
Christian exhortation to them in reference to their
separation from Friends as a body, and calling upon
them to seek a reconciliation with their brethren.
All efforts to accomplish an object so desirable were
utterly unavailing. At the next Yearly Meeting in
London, the unsatisfactory conduct of George Keith
was again brought mider notice. He was allowed to
read a written statement in vindication of his con-
duct, coneluding, however, with an offer to prove that
the writings of Friends eontaincd gross errors. On
his witlidra\val the meeting deciiled not to own nor
receive him nor his testimony while he remains
therein, but to testify against liim and bis evil works
of strife and division. On the following day Keith
was admilted to hear, and if he inclined, to reply to
the decision of the meeting. On this occasion he
broke forth into the most bitter and intemperate
language towards Friends, and left the meeting
abrujitly. The Yearly Meeting now unanimously
agreed no longer to recognize this turbulent man as
one in religious profession with them. Accordingly
they issued the following minute : '• It is the sense
and judgment of this meeting, that the said George
Keith is gone from the blessed unily of the peace-
KELAM— KERBELA.
209
able Spirit of our Loi'd Jesus Christ, aiirl hath there-
by separated hiiiiselt' from the holy t'ellowship of the
Church of Christ ; aiirl that whilst he is in an unre-
conciled and uncliaritable state, he ought not to
preacli or p ay in any of Friends' meetings ; nor be
owned or received as one of us ; until, by a public
and hearty acknowledgment of the great otl'ence he
hath given, and hurt he hath done, and condennia-
tion of himself, therefore, he gives proof of his un-
feigned repentance, and does his endeavour to remove
and take oil' the reproach he hath brought upon
Truth and Friends ; which, in the love of God, we
heartily desire for his soul's sake."
George Keith was thus formally cut oli' from the
Society of Friends, as no longer worthy of church
fellowship, and he therefore commenced holding se-
parate meetings at Tiu'ner's Hall in London, where
he attracted crowds for a time to hear his discourses,
which were full of the most bitter invectives against
Friends. While this factious individual was thus
endeavouring to gain adherents in England, his par-
tizans in America were busily engaged in disturbing
the peace and unity of Friends in thai country. In
a short time, however, the Transatlantic Keithians
became divided among themselves, and were split
into difl'erent sections. "The Separatists," say Friends
from Philadelphia in 1698, "grow weaker and weak-
er; many of them gone to the Baptists, some to the
Episcopalians, and the rest are very inconsiderable
and mean, some of whom come now and then to our
meetings, and some have lately brought in letters of
condemnation." The following year tliej' had .so far
dwindled away that we tind Friends declaring them
to be almost extinct. In an account of this sect
written by Edwards, he makes a similar statement
in regard to them. "They soon declined," he says;
" their head deserted them, and went over to the
Episcopalians. Some followed him thither; some
returned to the Penn Quakers, and some went to
other societies. Nevertheless many persisted in the
separation. These, by resigning themselves, as the\'
said, to the guidance of Scripture, began to find
water in the connnission, Matt, xxviii. 19 ; Bread and
Wine, in the command. Matt. xxvi. 26, 30; Com-
munity of goods, love feasts, kiss of charity, right
hand of fellowship, anointing the sick for recovery,
and washing the disciples' feet, in other texts — The
Keithian Quakers ended in a kind of transformation
into Keithian Baptists. They were called Quaker-
Baptists, because they still retained the language,
dress and manners, of the Quakers. But they ended
in another kind of transformation into Seventh-day
Biiptists, though some went among the First-day
ISaptists, and other societies. However, these were
the beginning of the Sabbatarians in this province."
F(M' some years after he had been disowned by the
l)ody, Keith continued to wear the garb and to use
the langiuige of a Friend, but about the year 1700
he laid aside these peculiarities, and joined the Epis-
copal Churcli, accepting ordination at the hands of a
bishop. In the course of two years after his ordina
tion he proceeded to America as a missionary, umler
the au.spices of the " Society for the Propagation oi
the Gospel in Foreign Parts." One of the chief ob
jects of his mission he declared to be to "gather
Quakers from Quakerism to the Mother Cluu'ch,"
and during the two years he now spent in America, he
frequently engaged in public disputation with Friends
on their peculiar tenets. At length he returned to
England, where he boasted of the reniaikable success
which had attended his labours on the other side ot
the Atlantic. Whether true or false, his statements
were credited, and gained for him such favour that
he was i-ewarded witli the living of Edburton in Sus-
sex. He did not long survive to enjoy his promo-
tion, for in 1714 his labours in the work of the min-
istry were brought by death to a final termination.
It is said that his last hours on earth were disturbed
with feelings of bitter remorse on account of the
turbulent life he had led. He was even alleged to
have given utterance to these words, " I wish I had
died wlien I was a Quaker; for then lam sure it
would have been well with my soul." Before tbi^
death of their founder the Keithians had been wholly
scattered, some having joined the Baptists and other
denominations of Christians, while the great niajoiity
returned to the Society of Friends.
KELA M, the science of the Word, a term used by
the Mohammedans to describe their scholastic di\i-
nity. On this part of their system the writings of
Mohammedan doctors are very numerous, their opi-
nions being much divided.
KEItAAIIANS, a Mohammedan sect, who main-
tained that God was possessed of a bodily form.
They derived their name from the originator of the
sect, Mohammed ben Kerani.
KERAKI, a Hindu sect who worshipped Der! in
her terrific forms, a]id were wont to ofier up human
sacrifices. The only votaries belonging to this sect
still remaining in India are those who inflict upon
themselves bodily tortures, and pierce their flesh
with hooks or spits, following such practices as are
carried on in Bengal at the Chaeak Puja (which
see).
KERBELA, a place esteemed peculiarly sacred by
the ScHilTES (which see), in consequence of the tomb
of Hossein the son of All ha\ing been erected there.
It is a favourite place of pilgrimage to the Persian
Mohammedans, who are wont even to carry ofl' a
small portion of the sacred soil, and to put it in pads
or bags for the purpose of placing it before them at
their devotions, that their foreheads may rest upon
it as they prostrate thenjselves. They thus flatter
themselves that they are worshipping on holy ground.
The Schiite pilgrims resorting annually to Kerhehi
are estimated at 80,000, and the stream is incessant,
for this pilgrimage has not, like that to Mecca, a fixed
season. Another peculiar difl!'erence is the succes-
sion of caravans of the dead carried in coffins to be
interred at Kerbela ; and the revolting custom is pro-
270
KKIir aii.i KETIB— Keys (Power of the).
moted bv tlie idea tliat by this act of posthumous
lui-rit they shall atone for the greatest crimes. Eight
thousand corpses are said to be broughi annually trom
Persia. Kcrbcla rivals the Kaaba as a place of pil-
grimage, the former being the favourite resort of the
Sc/iiilex, the latler of the Stmvitf.
KEKI and KETIB (Heb. read and written). In
many Jewi.>.h manuscripts and printed editions of the
Old Testament, a word is often found with a small
circle attached to it, which is called AehV) or written ;
or with an a.sterisk over it and a word written in the
margin of the .same line, this being the A'm or read-
iug. The intention of tliese two Masoretic marks is
to give direction to write in this manner, but read in
that manner. They are supjiosed by some Jewish
writers to have been invented by Ezra ; but otliers
maintain, with mitch greater probability, tliat their
origin is to be dated no farther back than the time
of the Afasorites. Where there occurs a various
readnig, the wrong reading, the Ketib is written in
the text, and the true reading, the Keri is written
on the margin. The Jews do not always insist that
as an invariable rule, we should follow the Keri ; on
the contrary they hold that we should piefer the
Ketib when it is authorized by the ancient versions
and gives a better meaning.
KETUBIM. See H.\GiOGnAPHA.
KEYS (The Power of the). This expression,
wliich has, since the Reformation, formed the siib-
ieet of a keen controversy between the Romanists
and the Protestants, is derived from Mat. xvi. 19,
" And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom
of heaven : and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth
j Bhall be bound in heaven : and whatsoever thou shalt
j loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven." The key
is often used in Scripture metaphorically as a sym-
bol of government, power, and authority. Thus Isa.
xxii. 22, "And the key of tlie house of David will I
lay upon his shoulder ; so be shall open, and none
shall shut ; and he shall shut, and none shall open."
Ill the East, a key was generally worn by the stew-
ards of wealthy families as a symbol or token of their
otlice. To give a per,-ou a key was therefore frequently
used to denote the investing him with a situation of
aniliority and trust. Hence, when our Saviour as-
sures Peter tliat he would give him the keys of the
kingdom of heaven, many Protestant writers inter-
pret his words as implying the power of preaching
the gospel officially, of adudnistering the sacraments
as a steward of the mysteries of God, and as a faith-
fid servant whom the Lord hath set over his bouse-
liold. Other Protestant divines again allege that to
Peter personally and exclusivelv was assi;;ned tlie
power of the keys, that is the honour of opening the
gates of the kingdom of heaven, or in other words,
the Christian or gospel dispensation to the Jews at
the day of Pentecost, and then to the Gentiles when
lie went down to Cornelius at Casarea. The Roman
Catholics, on the other band, maintain that by the
power of ihe keys we iiiusi iiudersland a special au-
thority given to Peter over the church of Christ, a
supreme ecclesiastical jurisdiction which they allege
belongs also to the Pope, as being tlie successor ot
Peter, and, therefore, having the power of excommu-
nicating and absolving, as well as of opening and
shutting the gates of Paradise at ]ileasure.
The ancient Jewish Rabbis or Doctors, if we may
credit the statements of later Jewish writers, received
a key in entering upon their ofliee as an emblem of
the grand official duty which it was incumbent upon
them faithfully to discharge, that of opening the
meaning of the law by their public teaching. The
expression, " the power of the keys," is exegetically
explained by the phrase, " binding and loosing,"
which Liglitfoot, Schoetgen, and others skilled in
Rabbinical lore, explain as denoting the [lOwer of
declaring what was binding on men's consciences ;
and that from the obligation of which they were
loosed or free. It is worthy of notice, that the
power of binding and loosing which is mentioned by
our Eord as an exercise of the power of the keys in
Mat. xvi. 19, already quoted, is stated elsewdiere as
having been conferred not on Peter alone, but on all
the apostles. Thus in Mat. xviii. 18, Jesus savs,
addressing the whole apostolic college, '' Verily 1 say
unto you. Whatsoever ye shall bind on earth shall
be bound in heaven : and whatsoever ye shall loose
on earth shall be loosed in heaven." The Fathers
also generally agree in ascribing to all the apostles
the power of the keys. Jesus claims for himself the
power of the keys when be .says, " I am he that hath
the key of David, that openeth and no man shuttelh,
and shutteth and no man openeth." Such expres-
sions plainly indicate that Christ lias sole power and
authority in his church. Whatever may therefore
be the eytent of the power which is given to the
apostles in conferring upon them the power of the
keys, it must be something essentially ditierent from
the kingly power and authority of Christ.
The power of the keys as exercised by the apos-
tles and their associates was jieculiar to themselves.
They sometimes inflicted miraculous punishment
upon notorious offenders, as upon Ananias and Sap-
phira, and Elymas the sorcerer. And in many cases
also they loosed jiersons from supernatural diseases.
But the power of the keys, in so far as it has de-
scended to the Christian ministry, .simiily implies
two things — an authority to preach the gospel, and
an authority to administer discipline in the church
by binding and loosing, by inflicting and removing
censures. And their proceedings, when conducted
agreeably to Scripture, are believed to be ratified in
heaven.
The Church of Rome considers the power of the
keys as extetiding beyond the intliction of church
censures to the reniis.sion or retention of sins. Ac-
cordingly, in the Roman Pontilical a prayer occurs
in the consecration of a bislioj), beseeching that the
power of the keys, of remitting and retaining sins
might be given to every one ordained to that oliite
KHAKIS— KHATA.
271
The Council of Trent also confirms this view of the
matter by their decision, which declares tlie power of
tlie keys to have been left by Christ to " all priests
his vicars as presidents and judges, to whom all
mortal sins were referred into whicli the faithfid
might fall." Dens again says, " That Peter did not
receive tlie keys as a private person, but as supreme
pastor, and for the benefit of the Clun-ch ; and from
him. by ordinary riglit, the power of the keys is de-
rived to other superiors. bisliO|)S, and pastors of the
Church." The theory of the Papacy, however, wliicli
is taught by many Romish divines, is, that the power
of the keys, which was conferred upon Peter, belongs
to tlie Pope as the successor of Peter; and even ad-
mitting that it was given by Christ to all the apostles,
and therefore has descended to the priests and bishops
their successors, they hold that it must be principally
vested in tlie Pope as the bi-shop of bishops, and the
liead of all ecclesiastical influence and authority in the
church on earth. Tims Romanists seek to vest in the
Pope a supremacy over the church, and in the highest
sense in which the words can apply to any one on
earth, in liiin is vested the power of the keys. In
opposition to tliis claim which Romanists allege for
the Pope, Protestants contend tliat it rests on a series
of unfounded assumptions; for instance, on the su-
premacy of Peter, his having actually been bi.sliop of
Rome, and tlie transmission of his power to all future
bishops of Rome.
KHAKIS, one of the Vaishnava sects of Hindus,
founded Ijy Kil, a disciple, though not immediately,
of Ramanand. The history of the sect is not well
known, and it seems to be of modern origin. Its
members, though believed to be numerous, appear to
be either confined to a few particular districts, or to
lead a wandering life. The Kliakis are distinguished
from the other Vaishnavas by the ajjplication of clay
and ashes to their dress or persons. Those who
reside in fixed establishments generally dress like
other Vaishnarus, but those who lead a wandering
life, go either naked, or nearly so, smearing their
bodies with the pale gray mixture of ashes and earth.
They also frequently wear the Jata, or braided hair,
afier the fashion of the votaries of S/iira, some of
whose characteristic practices tliey follow, blending
tliein with the worship of Vishnu, of Sita, and par-
ticularly of llanuman. Many KhakU are found about
Farakhabad, but their principal seat is at Hanuman
Gerk, in Oiide.
KHALIF. See Caliph.
KHAND.VS, the elements of sentient existence
among the Budhists, of which there are five con-
.stituents: — (1.) The organized body, or the whole of
being, apart from the mental processes ; (2.) Sensa-
tion ; [?>.) Perception ; (4.) Discrimination ; (5.) Con-
sciousness. The four last Khandns are results or
properties of tlie fir.st, which must be understood as
including the soul as well as the body. At deatli,
tlie Budliists believe tlie Khandas entirely vanish.
Gotama says that none of the Khandas, taken sepa-
rately, are the self, and that, taken conjointly, they
are not the self There is no such thing as a soul
apart from the five Khandas.
KHANDOHA, an incarnation of Shiva, the same
which is called also Bh.-mr.w (which see). Tlie
principal temple of Kliandoha is at Jejuri. It was
endowed by Holkar with an annual siun of 10,000
rupees, and the Peshwa's government granted a like
sum. A large sum also accrues to the temple from
its oti'erings, part of which were demanded back by
government, till, on Cliristian principles, this branch
of revenue was ab;iiiiIoned li)' Sir Robert Grant. A
fraternity of Vira, amounting to about fifty men, is
attached to the temple, besides a sisterliood of twice
the number of ilurali. One of the Vira is required
at the annual festival to run a sword through his
thigh, and afterwards to walk through the town as if
nothing had happened to him. Tiie Murali are un-
married females, consecrated by their parents to the
god, and sent, when tliey grow up, to the temple at
Jejuri, that they may lead a life of sacred pros-
titution.
KHAREJITES, or revoltcrs. a Mohammedan sect,
wlio originally witlidrew from Ali, and maintain that
the Imam need not be of the tribe of Koreish, nor
even a freeman, provided he be just and qualified.
They maintain too, that if unfit he may be deposed,
and tliat the office itself is not indispensable.
KHATA, or Scarf of Blessings, an article
which is considered in Tliibet as conveying to the
individual on wliom it is bestowed many ble.ssings
from above. It is thus described by M. Hue, in his
'Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China:' — "The
Khata is a piece of silk, nearly as fine as gauze, and
of so very pale a blue as to be almost white. Its
length about triples its breadth, and the two extre-
mities are generally fringed. Tliere are Kliatas of
all sizes and all prices, for a Kliata is an object with
which neither poor nor rich can disjiense. No one
ever moves unless provided with a supply. When
you go to pay a visit, when you go to ask a favour,
or to acknowledge one, you begin with displaying the
Khata; you take it in both hands, and offer it to the
person whom you desire to honour. AA'lien two
friends, who have not seen each other for a long
time, meet, tlieir first proceeding is to interchange a
Khata ; it is as much a matter of course as shaking
liaiids in Europe. When you write, it is usual to
enclose a Khata in the letter. We cannot exaggerate
the importance wliicli the Thibetians, the Si-Fan, the
IIoung-Mao-Eul, and all the peo]de who dwell to-
wards the western shores of the Blue Sea, attach to
tlie ceremony of the Khata. Witli them, it is the
purest and sincerest ex]iression of all the noblest
sentiments. The most gracious words, the most
magnificent presents, go fornolhing, if unaccompanied
will) the Khata; whereas, with the Kliata, the com-
monest objects become of infinite value. If any one
comes, Khata in hand, to ask you a favour, to refuse
the favour would be a great breach of propriety.
KHATIB— KHONDS.
This Thiljelimi custom is very general aiiujiig tlie
Tartars, and especially in tlieir Lamaseries; and
Kliatas, accordingly, I'orni a very leading I'eature of
coininerce witli the Chinese at Tang-Keou-Kid. The
Thibctian embassy never passes tlirongli the town
without purchasing a prodigious number of these
articles."
KHATIB, an ordinary Mohammedan priest, who
conducts the worship of the mosque on the Fridays.
He recites the prayers, and often preaches a sermon.
KH.VTMEH, a recitation of the whole Koran,
wliich occupies about nine hours, and is customary
at the funerals, weddings, and public festivals of
Mohammedans, being regarded as meritorious in
those who bear the expense.
KHE.MAH, one of the principal female disciples
of Bui>UA (which see).
KHntKHAH (Arab., a torn robe), a name given
to the dress generally worn by DicKVisniiS (whicli
see). The Mussulmans pretend that it was tlie dress
of the ancient jiropbets.
KHLESTOVSHCIHKI (from Slav., klilestat, to
flog), a sect of dissenters from the Ritsso- Greek
church. They are a kind of Flagellcuits, and a
branch of the Skoptzi (which see). They impose
upon themselves flagellation and some other pen-
ances, and they are said to have mysterious doc-
trines and rites, marked by the wildest superstition.
Tliey are accused of tlie same guilty extravagances
wliich were ascribed to tlie Ad.\mites (which see).
The police of Moscow, it seems, surprised one of
their meetings in 1840, and it was proved, by the in-
vestigation which followed on this discovery, that
the Kliksiovshchlki are only a lower or preparatory
grade of the Skoptzi; that they have a community
of women, although, in order to conceal it, they live
in couples, married by priests of the established
church. At their meetings they often jump about
luitil tliey fall down from exliaustion ; a practice
not allo:ether unknown even in England. (See
Jumpers.)
KHONDS (Rr.LiGlON of the). The Khonds are
a wild aboriginal tribe in Orissa, that portion of Hin-
du.stan which lies between the mountains of the
Dekkan and tlie sea-coast. Their religion is very
peculiar, and in its whole features entirely distinct
from liiiidiiisin. Their supreme god is called BURA-
I'ENNdU (wliich see), the god of light, who created
for himself a consort, the earth-goddess called Tari-
Pennnu, the source of evil in the world. The god of
light arrested the action of physical evil, while he
left man at perfect liberty to reject or receive moral
evil. They who rejected it were deified, while the
great mass of mankind who received it were con-
demned to all kinds of jihy-sical snil'eriiig, with death,
besides being deprived of the immediate care of the
Creator, and doomed to the lowest state of moral
degradation. Biira-I'ennou and hi~ consort, mean-
while, contended for superiority, and tlnis the ele-
iiiciits of good and evil came to be in constant collision
both in the heart of man and in the world around
him. At this point the Khonds diverge into two
sects, which are thus described by Major Macpherson
in an interesting memoir read before the Asiatic
Society, and inserted in their Journal : — " One sect,"
says he, '■ holds that the god of light completely
conquered the earth-goddess, aud employs her, stiil
the active principle of evil, as the instrument of his
moral rule. That he lesohed to provide a partial
remedy for the consequences of the introduction of
evil, by enabling man to attain to a state of moderate
enjoyment upon earth, and to partial restoration to
communion with the Creator after death. And that,
to efl'ect this purpose, he created those classes of
subordinate deities, and assigned to llieni the office —
lirst, of instructing man in tlie arts of lil'e, and regu-
lating the powers of nature for his use, upon the con-
dition of his paying to them due worship ; secondly,
of administering a system of retributive justice
through subjection to which, and through the prac-
tice of virtue during successive lives upon earth, the
soul of man might attain to beatification. The other
sect hold, upon the other hand, that the earth-god-
dess remains unconquered; that the god of light
could not, in opposition to her will, carry out his
purpose with respect to man's temporal lot ; and
that man, therefore, owes bis elevation from the state
of physical sutl'ering into which he fell through the
reception of evil, to the direct exercise of her power
to confer blessings, or to her permitting him to receive
the good which flows from the god of liglit, through
the inferior gods, to all who worship them. "With
respect to man's destiny after death, they believe
that the god of liglit carried out liis piir|iose. And
they believe that the worship of tlie earth-goddess
by human sacrifice, is the indispensable condition on
which these blessings have been granted, and their
continuance may be Imped for; the virtue of the rite
availing not only for tliose who practise it, but for all
mankind.
" In addition to these human sacrifices, which still
continue to be oft'ered annually, in order to appease
the wrath of Tari, and iiro|pitiate her in favour of
agriculture, there is a fearful amount of infanticide
among the Khoiid people. It exists in some of the
tribes of the sect of Boora to such an extent, that no
female infant is spared, except when a woman's fir.st
child is female; and that villages containing a hun-
dred houses may be seen without a female child.'
The revolting rites of human sacrifice and female
infanticide have prevailed from time immemorial
aiiiotig these barbarous people. The British govern-
ment, however, has happily succecdi'd ui almost com-
pletely abolisliiiig these bloody riles. Many children,
who had been stolen from their parents, and sold to the
Khonds for sacrifice, have been rescued from a cruel
death, and put into asylums for Chrisiian education
and training. The manner in which the revolting
human sacrifices were conducted by the Khonds is
thus described by Mr. Fry, a government agent, who
KHORS-KIIOTREII.
273
has rescued luimbers from the sacrificial knife : —
" The victim," he informs us, " is surrounded by a
crowd of half-intoxicated Khonds, and is dragged
around some open space, when the sax'ages, with
loud shouts, rusli on the victim, cutting the living
Hesh piecemeal from the bones, till nothing remains
but the head and bowels, which are left untouched.
Death lias by this time released the unhappy victim
from his tortiu'c ; the head and bowels are then
burnt, and the ashes mixed with grain." 'I'hese
Meriah sacrifices, as they are calleil, are almost
abolished.
KHORS, a god worshipped by the ancient Slavo-
nians, an image of whom existed at Kiott' before the
introduction of Christianity. They were wont to
offer to this deity the hormay, or wedding-cake,
and to sacrifice hens in honour of him.
KIIOTBEH, a prayer which Mohammed was
accustomed to recite, and in which example be was
followed by his successors. It consists of two parts.
The first is appropriated to the Deity, the prophets,
the fir.st four caliphs and their contemporaries. The
second includes the prayer for the reigning sovereign.
The Khotheh at present in use on the Fridays in tlie
Moliammedan mosques in Turkey is as follows : — -
" Thanks be to tlie Most High, that supreme and
immortal Being who has neither wife nor children
nor equal on earth or in the heavens, who favours
acts of compunction in his servants, and pardons
their ini(iuities. We believe, we confess, wo bear
W'itnes.s, that there is no God but God alone, tlie sole
(xod, who admits no association. Hajipy belief, to
which is attaclii'd heavenly blessedness. We also
believe in our Lord our supiiort. our master Moham-
med his servant, bis friend, bis prophet, who has
been directed in the true way, favoured by divine
oracles, and distinguished by marvellous works. May
the divine blessing be on him, on his po.sterity, on
liis wives, on his disciples, (m the orthodox khalifs
endowed with doctrine, virtue, and sanctity, and on
the viziers of his age, ])articularly on the Imam, the
true khalif of God's prophet, the prince of believers,
Abuhekr, tlie pious certifier, pleasing to the Eternal;
on the Imam, the true khalif of God's prophet, the
prince of believers, Omar, the pure discriminator,
pleasing to God ; on the Imam, the true khalif of
God's prophet, the prince of believers, Othman, the
posses.sor of the two lights ; on the Imam, the true
khalif of God's prophet, the prince of believers, AH,
the generous, tlie upright, pleasing to God ; on the
two great Imams, jierfect in virtue and doctrine, dis-
tinguished in knowledge and in works, illustrious in
race and in nobility, resigned to the will of God and
the decrees of destiny, patient in reverses and mis-
fortunes, the princes of the heavenly youth, the pupils
of the eyes of the faithful, the lords of true believers,
Hassan and Hosscin, pleasing to God, to whom may
all be equally pleasing. 0 ye assistants, O ye faith-
ful, fear God, and submit to Him. Omar, pleasing
to God, has said, Tiie propbet of God pronounced
n.
these words : Let there be no actions but those
founded on good intentions. The prophet of God is
truthful in what he .said. He is truthful in what he
said. Ali, the friend of God, and the minister of the
heavenly oracles, said. Know that the best word is
the Word of God, most powerful, most merciful, most
compassionate. Hear his lioly commandment. Wlien
you bear tlie Koran, listen to it with respect, and in
silence, for it will be made to you piety. I take
refuge with God from the stoned devil. In the name
of God, the merciful, the compassionate in truth,
good deeds eflace bad ones."
Here the preacher repeats several verses of tlie
Koran, to which the imipz::>ns chant Amen. He then
commences the second Khotheh, which runs thus : —
" In honour to bis propbet, and for distinction to bis
pure soul, this high and great God, whose word is an
order and a command, has said, Certainly God and
bis angels bless the prophet. Bless him, ye believers,
address to him pure and sincere salutations. O God,
bless Mohammed, the Einir of Emirs, the chief of the
prophets, who is perfect, accomplished, endowed with
eminent qualities, the glory of ihe human race, our
lord and the lord of both worlds, of temporal and of
eternal life. O ye who are enamoured of bis beauty
and of bis fame, address to him pure and sincere
salutations. Bless, O God. Mohammed, and the
posterity of Mohammed, as thou hast blessed Abra-
ham and the posterity of Abraham. Certainly thou
art adorable, thou art great ; sanctify Mohammed,
and tlie posterity of Mohammed, as thou hast sanc-
tified Abrah.am and the posterity of Abraham. Cer-
tainly thou art adorable, tluju art great. O God,
have pity on the orthodox khalifs, distinguished by
doctrine, virtue, and heavenly gifts, with which thou
hast laden those who have acted with truth and
justice. O (jod, assist, sustain, and defend thy ser-
vant, the greatest of sultans, the most eminent of
khalifs, the king of Arabs, and Ajene, the servant of
the two holy cities, sultan, son of a sultan, Sultan
, whose khalifat may the Supreme Being make
eternal, and perpetual his empire and power. Amen.
0 (iod, exalt those who exalt religion, and lower
those who lower religion. Protect the Moslem sol-
diers, the orthodox armies, and grant us health, tran-
quillity, prosperity to us, to pilgrims, to the military,
to citizens, as well to those at home as to those who
travel by land and sea ; finally, to the whole Moslem
people. Health to all the prophets and all the
heavenly messengers. Eternal praises to God, the
Creator and Governor of the universe. Certainly
God commands equity and benevolence, he com-
mands anil recommends the care of our relations, he
prohibits unlawful things, sins, prevarications. He
counsels you to obey his precepts, and to keep them
carefully in your memory."
A Khotheh, in substance the same, is used on the
first Friday after the New Year. Besides the bene-
diction on the prophet, his four successors, and the
two sons of Ali, a blessing is invoked on their mother
'2 a
274
KHUMBANDAS— KIRCHENTAG.
Fatimiili, and graiirlniutlier Kliadijali ; Ayeslia, the
motliei' of the taitlifiil, and tlie rest of tlie propliet's
pure wives; on tlie six who remained of tlie ten
noble and just persons who swore allegiance inider
the tree, Talha. Alzobier, Saad, Said, Ahdulraliman,
Ibn Auf, and all the companions, and the two suc-
ceeding generations. This prayer, and frerpiently a
moral discourse, is delivered from the pulpit by the
Khatib, wlio holds a wooden sword reversed, a cus-
tom said to be peculiar to the cities taken from tlie
unbelievers.
KHUMBANDAS, an order of beings among the
lindhu^ts, who are believed to be the attendants of
WinliVia, who is one of the foiu' guardian dewas.
The Khumhandiis have blue garments, liuld a sword
and shield of sapphire, and are mounted on blue
horses. They form one of the thirteen orders of in-
telligence, exclusive of the supreme Bndhas. They
are monsters of immense size and disgusting form.
KID-WOU.SHIl*. A remarkable |-.rohibilion oc-
curs in- three di:i'erent passages of the Old Testament,
couched in these words, •■ Thou shalt not seethe a
kid in his mother's milk." This precept has been
supposed to be intended to guard the Hebrews
against some idolatrous or superstitious practice of
the neighbouring heathen nations. In this explana-
tion some of the Jewish expositors coincide, though
they have not been able to cite any instance of such
a practice. Dr. Cudworth, however, in his Treatise
on the Lord's Supper, states, tliat in an old Caraite
commentary on the Pentateuch, it is mentioned as
having been a practice of the ancient heathens when
they had gathered in all their fruits, to take a kid
and boil it in the milk of its dam, and then in a
magical way to go about and besprinkle with it their
trees, lields, gardens, and orchards ; thinking that by
this means tliey would fructify and bring forth fruit
more abundantly the following year. Horace seems
to allude to a custom of this kind. Abarbanel also
refers to such a practice as followed, in some parts of
Spain, even in his time. Sjiencer mentions a similar
rite as in use among the Sabians. Bloody sacritices
of cocks and kids are wont to be otiered to the Hindu
god Vis/inu.
KIEW, a holy city among the ancient Slavonians.
It was situated on the right bank of the Dnieper or
Borysthenes. In this city nearly all the gods of tlie
Slavic race were at one time assembled. The inhab-
itants of Kiew, in their annual voyages to the Black
Sea in the month of June, were wont to disembark
on an island, at the di.stance of four days' journey
from the moiiih of the river, and there they offered
their sacritices under .an oak.
KILHA.MITES. See .Mf.TiionisT (Weslkyan)
NkW CONNKXION.
K1N(t, the canonical sacred books of the Chinese,
which are believed to be the most ancient literary
monuments of China, and to possess an authority far
higher than any other :incient writings. All these
productions of the s/niii/-jiii, or liuly man, are consi-
dered to be absolutely and inl'allibly true. The old-
est of the sacred books is the Ytli-kiinj^ said to have
been written by l*"uh-he, the reputed Ibimder of the
Chinese civilization. The second of the Chinese
sacred books is the S/wo-Miii/, which is chietly his-
torical, stretching from the reign of Yaoii, one
of the very earliest emperors, to the life-time of
Confucius. The She-kimj is the third of the sacred
book.s, comprising 311 odes, and other lyrics, gen-
erally breathing a moral tone. Inferior in autho-
rity to these three, but still regarded as a sacred
book, is the Le-ke, the Chinese book of rites and
manners. The four just mentioned, along with the
2\-im-Ueie, a historical work by Confucius, form the
Woo-king or Five Sacred Writings of the Chinese,
tlie monuments of the " holy men" of antiquity, and
hence regarded as the foundation of all historv and
etliics, politics, pliilosuphy, and religion in China.
KlXti OF SACKIFICES. See Ke.v S.\(ror-
UM.
IONIAN SUDDAR. See Cloth ^ruKciiASK
OF the).
K!XSM.\N. See Avenger oe Blood.
KIKCHENTACt (Ger. church diet), a free asso-
ciation of pious professors, ministers, and laymen of
Protestant Germany, for the discussion of the I'eli-
gious and ecclesiastical questions of the day, and for
the promotion of the interests of practical Chris-
tianity embraced under the term Inner Mission
(which see). It was originated in 1848, and meets
annually in one of the leading cities of Geniiaiiy.
Its doctrinal basis is the Bible as explained by tlie
ecumenical symbols and evangelical confessions of
the sixteenth century. It comprehends four Protes-
tant denominations, the Lutheran, German Keforin-
ed. United Evangelical, and the Moravian, but it
holds fraternal intercourse with all foreign Evangeli-
cal Societies and Churches, who hold the basis of the
Diet, and inay choose to send delegates to represent
them at its meetings. All parts of Germany, espe-
cially Prussia and Wiirteniberg, send delegates to this
body ; but it is discountenanced and disowned by
tlie rationalists and semi-rationalists as well as tlie
rigid Lutherans.
This German Church Diet originated with the
most eminent evangelical ministers and laymen cif
Germany, headed by a true Christian nobleman, von
Bethniann Ilollweg, who has presided at every one
of its meetings. The first Kircheiitag, wdiidi consisted
of live hundred members, met on the 21st of Septem-
ber 1848 in Wittenberg, and in that very church to
the doors of which Luther athxed his ninety-tive
theses. "It was indeed," says Mr. Thomas II. Glad-
stone, " a new and interesting sight to behold the
learned professor seated side by side with the simple-
minded Christian, the dignified ecclesiastic taking
brotherly counsel with the hunible lay-inissiunary or
provincial school teacher. It was no less a strangely
novel spectacle to see the strongest upholders of the
respective orthodoxies, Lutheran and Kcl'ormed, lor-
KIRCHENTAG.
275
petting doctrinal (iitl'ereiices in tlie liannony of
Clii-istian pin-pose and Clu-istian love ; still inore to
see the object of tlieiv common jealonsv, the 'Unit-
ed' Church, as well as the Moravian and other dis-
senting communities, completing the picture of Chris-
tian imion and brotherly love by being admitted to
their association without question of their ecclesias-
tical polity or church rule. All seemed to point to
the dawning of a better day. And the tempest of
persecution with which the church was assailed, ap-
peared already converted into a blessing, in the re-
cognition of its essential unity, and the sense of the
mutual dependence of its parts as members of that
mystic body which is one in its living Head. Tliis
feeling of Christian fellowship was heightened to the
sublime, and received an expression too deeply af-
fecting ever to be erased from the memory of those
who witne^sed the scene, when, at a solemn monicnt
on the last day, the earnest Krnmmacher, in one of
his fervent addresses, pledged tlie members to stand
true to one another in the day of persecution, which
seemed about to burst upon them, and recei\-ed in
tlie prolonged affirmation of the whole assembly, the
assurance that they would bear each other as mem-
bers of one family in their hearts and prayers, would
receive each other in the day of persecution to house
and home till the storm should be overpast, and
woidd account as their own sisters and their own
children the widows and orphans of the brother who
should seal his testimony by the m.artyr's death."
This first meeting of the Kirchentag lasted for
three days, and the result of its deliberations, which
were conducted with the greatest order and solem-
nity, was that two veiy important resolutions were
unanimously passed : —
" 1. That an invitation should be addressed to all
the Protestant churches of Germany, to hold on the
5th of November 1848, the Sunday following the
anid\ersary of tlie lleformation, a day of general
jirayer and humiliation, in order to begin the work
of the regeneration of Protestantism with the same
spirit of true evangelical repentance, with which
Luther commenced the Reformation, and which he
so clearly expressed in the very first of his ninety-
five theses.
"2. A resolution to form a confederation of all
tho.se German churches which stand on the ground
of the reformatory confessions, not for the purpose of
an amalgamation of these churches and an extinction
of their peculiarities and relative independence, but
for the representation and promotion of the essential
unity and brotherly harmony of the evangelical
chin-ches; for imited testimony against everything
nnevangelical ; for mutual counsel and aid; for the
decision of controversies ; for the furtherance of ec-
clesiastical and social reforms, especially Inner Mis-
sion ; for the protection and defence of the divine
and human rights and liberties of the evangelical
church; for forming and promoting the bond of
uuioii with all evangelical bodies out of Germany."
The Kirchentag, like the EvangeHcal Alliance, is
not a union of churches, but a union of Christians,
both ministers and laymen. It is not a legislative
assembly, but a meeting of Christians from all parts
of the world, for the purpose of consulting about the
common interests of the Redeemer's kingdom. But
at the same time it difl'ers from the Evangelical Al-
liance in one point, that from its tir.st formation it
contemplated a confederation of the churches of the
Reformation.
From its first formation in 1848, the Kirchentag
h.as met every year except 1855, when it would have
met, as had been fully an-anged, at Halle, had not the
cholera broken out in that cit)'. Its two first meet-
ings took place at Wittenberg, but ever since they
have been held at different towns, ajid the attend-
ance of members has of course varied in amount.
The meetings of the Ivirchcntag continue for four
days, two of which are devoted to the congress of
Inner Mission. Each ses.si(m is opened and closed
with devotional exercises, and the business is exclu-
sively of a spiritual character, and separate sessions
are held early in the moniing, and late in the even
iug for special objects of a practical kind, such as
Sabbath observance, prison discipline, the cstabli.sh-
nient of houses of refuge, the cultivation of religious
art, and similar matters.
The meeting of the Kirclientag at Berlin in 185.^,
was jierhajis the most important of all the meetings
which have been held. On that occasion the Augs-
burg Confession of 1530 was unanimously adopted as
the fundamental symbol of the entire Evangelical
Chiu'ch of Germany in all its branches, with tlie dis-
tinct understanding, however, that the tenth article
on the Lord's Supper should not exclude the Re-
formed doctrine on the subject, and that this whole
act shoidd not interfere at all with the peculiar posi-
tion of those churches which never adopted the
Augsburg Confession. Two thousand members of
the Kirchentat) solemnly gave their assent to this
decision, which was hailed by the king of Prussia,
and the pious Protestants of Germany, as a most
gratifying testimony of the doctrinal unity which
prevailed in thegi'eat sections of German Protestant-
ism, while at the same tinje it was a most powerful
protest against both Romanism and Rationalism.
The meetings which have been held since 1853
have been characterized by a spirit of union and
Christian love. Questions of gi'eat practical im]iort-
ance have been discussed with the utmost indepen-
dence of mind, and yet vpith the most commendable
meekness and forbearance. Thus the Kirchentag
has exercised a most salutary Christian influence,
not only upon the cities in which its meetings are
held, but even upon the remotest parts of Germany.
It has promoted the cause of Christian union both at
home and abroad. But the imjudse wdiich it has
given to the work of Inneu Mission (which sec},
may well be regarded as the crowning act of the
KirclicntiKj, and though it is possible that the pro-
■i7G
KIRIATII SIIEMA— KISS OF PEACE.
gress ofa hidi-cluireh Lutlicraii spirit may iillimatoly
break up this friendly confederation of Christian
ministers and laymen, the benefit which has already
accrued from it to the cause of practical Christian-
ity and CIn-istian philanthropy will not soon be for-
gotten.
KIRr.\TII SIIEMA (Hel). the reading of the
Shema\ the recital by the .lews of certain passages
of the Old Testament Scri|)tures called Sukma
(which see).
KIllIN, a monster which occupies a conspicuous
place in the fabulous legends of the Chinese and the
tiapancse. It is supposed to be not only gentle, in-
nocent, and inoffensive, but virtuous and holy. It is
never seen, therefore, but at the appearance of a par-
ticular constellation, and at the nativity of some
worthy benefactor of his race. The Kirin of Japan
is a dragon with three i-laws, and that of China with
five.
KIRK Ger. hirrhe. (Jr. hiriali'.. Sax. or Tent.
Icer/ce), a place set apart for divine worship. It is
also applied to the congregation which assembles in
one place, and to tlie various congi'egations wliich n
their collective capacity form one coinmimion.
KISLAR .AG-.\, the chief of the black eunuchs
in Turkey, who is intrusted with superintendence of
all the nvisqnes.
KISSING (SAfiiED;. The ancient heathens were
accustomed to hiss the hands, the feet, the knees, or
even the mouths of the gods. It was al.so accounted
a part of devotion to kiss the doors of the temples,
the pillars and the posts of the gates. Among ido-
laters, in times as remote as the days of Job. it
seems to have been a customary act of worship to
their distant or unseen deities to kiss the hand. To
this there is an evident allusion in Job xxxi. 26. 27,
" If I beheld the sim when it shined, or the moon
walking in brightness ; and my heart hath been se-
cretly enticed, or my mouth hath kissed in)' hand."
At the inaugiu'ation of the ancient Jewish kings, the
principal men of the kingdom, as an expressiim of
their homfige to the new monarch, kissed either his
feet or his knees. A reference to this act of homage
seems to be made in Ps. ii. 12, " Kiss the Son, lest
he be angry, and ye perish from the way, when bis
wratli is kindled but a little. Blessed are .all they
that put their trust in him." An Oriental shows hi'i
respect to a superior by kissing his h.and .and putting
it to his forehead; but if the superior be of a kind
and condescending turn of mind, he will snatch
away bis luuid as soon as the other h.as touched it ;
then the inferior puts his own fingers to his lips, and
afterwards to his forehead. The .Mohanunedjin pil-
grims, as a religicMis duty, kiss the black stone in the
KAAn.\ (which see) at Mecca. Kissing as a mark
of idolatrous reverence is referred to in liosea xiii.
2, •' Let the men that sacrifice kiss the calves ;" and
1 Kings xix. 18, ".And every mouth which hath not
kissed him," that is, Baal. The Roman Catholics
make very frequent use of this ceremony in religious
worship. Thus they kiss the crucifix and the relics
of saints. In sprinkling the holy water, the priest
kisses the aspergilhim or sprinkling brush ; and at
the procession on Palm-Sunday the deacon kisses the
palm which he presents to the priest. In the rite of
ordination, as laid down in the Romish Pontifical,
the ordained priests kiss the hand of the Pontiff.
On numberless occasions the ceremony of kissing as
a religious rite is practised among Romanists. One
of the most extraordinary instances, however, of the
use of this mode of expressing sacred homage and re-
spect is that of kissing the Pope's foot or toe, which
has been required by Popes as a token of respect frum
the secular power since the eighth century. The
first who received this honour was Pope Consfantine
I. It was paid him by the Emperor Justinian II. on
his entry into Consfautinople in A. D. 710. But tlie
first Pope who m.ade it imperative was Valentine I.
about A. D. 827, who required every one to kiss his
foot ; and from that time this mark of reverence ap-
pe.ans to have been expected by all the Popes.
When this ceremony is to be performed, the Pope
wears a slipper with a cross upon it which is kissed.
KISS OF PE.ACE. One of the most conspi-
cuous features hi the character of the early Chris-
tians, was the love which they bore one to another;
.and in token of Christian affection they were accus-
tomed when they met together to kiss each other.
This outward ex])res.sion of love was manifested in
their priv.ate houses, at their public meetings, and on
all suitable occasions. Such a practice, however,
was a\ oided on the public streets, lest it should be
misunderstood and misrepresented by their heathen
fellow-citizens. When they met their pastor they
were accustomed to bow their heads, and to receive
his benediction, but afterwards, when greater rever-
ence was attached to the clerical otlice, the jiractice
was introduced of kissing the hands of their pa.stor,
and embracing his feet. In the early Christian
church after baptism had been administered to a con-
vert, he was received into the church by the first
kiss of Christian brotherhood, the salutation of peace,
and from that time he had the right of saluting all
Christiiins with this fr.atenial sign. But Clement of
Alexandria conqilains that even in his day the kiss
of peace had become a mere form, a matter of out-
ward display, which excited the suspicion of the
heathen. This e.arly Father objects to such a cere-
mony on the ground that love shows itself not in the
brotherly kiss, but in the disposition of the heart.
This outward fomi of .salutation, however, as a token
of Christian afVection, appears to have been an apos-
tolic custom, as it is frequently mentioned in tlie
writings of the apostles. Thus, for example, it is
referred to in Rom. xvi. IG, 1 Cor. xvi. 20, 2 Cor.
xiii. 12, 1 Thess. v. 26, and 1 Pet. v. 14. This
practice continued in use for several centuries. It
was usual after baptism, both in the case of infants
and adults, as late as the fifth century, but after that
time it seems to have been superseded by the simple
KITCHI MANITO— KNEELING IN PRAYER.
277 |l
•salutatiou, Pax tecum, Peace be with you. The kiss
of peace was also one of the i"ites of the sacramental
service, and not only so, Init it was observed on com-
mon occasions of [uiblic worship. It was omitted on
(iood Friday in commemoration of the traitorous
kiss of Judas Iscarlot. To prevent the abuses wliich
might naturally arise out of this practice, the diii'er-
ent sexes were not permitted to interchange this
salutation with one another. The kiss of peace was
often a matter of taunt and reproach on the part of
the enemies of Christianity, but it was still con-
tinued through the eighth and ninth centuries, even
to the thirteenth, when it appears to have ceased.
According to tlie canons of the council of Laodicea,
the presbyters were appointed tirst to give this kiss
to tlie bishop, and then tlie laity were to exchange
it among tliemselves. At the ordination of a bishop,
it was customary after his consecration for all the
bishops and clergy present to salute him with a Iioly
kiss in the Lord. The soleum kiss formed also an
essential part of the ceremony of espousals or be-
trothal among the ancient Christians. Such impor-
tance, indeed, did Constantine attach to this token
of contract between the parties betrothed to each
otlier, that he laid it down as a law, and it was
afterwards embodied in the Code of Justinian, tliat
if a man betrothed a woman by the intervention of
tlie kiss, then if either party died before marriage,
the heirs of the deceased party were entitled to half
the donations, and the survivor to the other half;
but if the contract was made without the interven-
tion of the solemn kiss, then upon the death of either
party before nuirriage. the whole of the espousal
gifts must be restored to the donor or his heirs at
law. A corru])t practice crept into some places,
but was strictly forbidden by the canons, — that
of giving the kiss of peace to the dead ; and such
a practice receives a favourable mention from the
author who calls hbnself Dionysius the Areopa-
gite. It was evidently the offsjjriug of a blind su-
perstition, and accordingly, when it began to creep
into France abotit A. D. 578, the council of Auxerre
passed a decree declaring it unlawful to give the kiss
of ]ieace to the dead.
KITCHI MANITO, the name by which the
Great Sjiirit was known among various tribes of the
old American Indians. This is the foremost mem-
ber in the series of good divinities. See M.4nitoes.
North A.mekican Indians (Religion of the).
KITO, a god whom the Chinese soldiery lionour
as their patron.
KITOO, a parficidar prayer which is used by the
Japanese in all seasons of public distress.
KITU, homage or reverence paid by one person
to anotlier, among the natives of Japan. Inferiors
being seated ou their heels according to the Japanese
fashion, testitied their respect for their superiors by
laying the paht.s of their hands on the floor, and
bending their bodies so low that their fureheads
almost touched the ground. This is called the Kitu.
The superior responded by laying the palms of bis
hands upon his knees, and nodding or bowing, more
or less low, according to the rank of the other party.
KNEELEltS. See Genuflectentes.
KNEELING IN PRAYER. This seems to be
a proper and becoming attitude in devotion, and
abundant authority for the practice is found in Scrijj-
ture. Thus we find it distinctly mentioned in
2 Chron. vi. 13, Dan. vi. 10, Luke xxii. 41, Acts vii.
GO, and Eph. iii. 14. The expression to bow the
knee, is referred to in 1 Kings xix. 18, as denoting
to i)erform an act of worship ; and in this sense it is
used in the Hebrew, in Isa. Ixvi. 3, " He that wor-
ships idols," is literally " He that bows the knee" to
them. In the early Christian church, the act of
kneeling was regarded as a sign of humiliation before
God ; hence it was imiformly required of all who
had fallen under the censure of the church for their
otlences. Basil calls it the lesser penance, in dis-
tinction from the act of prostration which was termed
the greater penance. Constantine, followed by Tlieo-
dosius, enacted a law that on festival days prayers
were to be ofi'ered by the congregation not kneeling
but standing. The primitive Christians conducted
their devotions in a kneeling posture during six days
of the week, but in a standing attitude ou the Lord's
day. Justin Miirtyr accounts for the ditierence
thus, '■ Forasmuch as we ought to remember both
our fall by sin, and the grace of Christ, by which we
rise again from our fall ; therefore we pray kneeling
sis days as a symbol of our fall by sin ; but our not
kneeling on the Lord's day is a symbol of the resur-
rection, whereby, through the grace of Christ we are
delivered from our sins, and from death, that is moi-
tititd thereby." The standing attitude, instead of the
kneeling, was adopted also diu'ing the time of Pentecost.
The practice, however, of refraining from kneehng
on the Lord's day, and the time of Pentecost, seems
not to have been uniformly observed by all the
churches, for we tind the council of Nice decreeing,
'■ Because there are some who kneel on the Lord's
day, and in the days of Pentecost ; that all things
may be uniformly performed in every parish or dio-
cese, it seems good to the holy synod that prayers
be made to God standing." Hilary also speaks of it
as an apostolical practice, neither to fast nor worship
kneeling on the Lord's day, or the fifty days between
Easter and Pentecost. Jerome reckons it among
tlie traditions of the universal church. Cassian says
of the Egyptian churches, that from Saturday night
to Sunday night, and all the days of Pentecost, they
neither kneeled nor fasted. On all other occasions
kneeling was a common and ordinary postiu-e of de-
votion, so that prayer was often termed bending the
knees. It is the almost uiuversal practice of Clnis-
tians to kneel in private prayer, and even in the
public devotions of the sanctiuiry ; some churches
prefer the kneeling, while others prefer the standing
attitude.
KNEPH. See Cneph.
•ilH
KNIGHTHOOD (Ecclesiastical Orders of)— KORAX (Al).
KN'IGHI'IIOOD (Ecclesiastical Orders of).
During the time of tlie Ckusades (wliich see), a spi-
rit of cliivalry developeil itself in various parts of
Europe, wliich aecomiteJ it tlie liigliest of all deeds
of piety to do battle with the iuliduls. The warlike
spirit came to be combined with tlie monastic, and
from this apparently incongruous union arose the
several Orders of Christian Knighthood.
In A. u. 1119, nine knights of Jerusalem first con-
stituted themselves hito an ecclesiastical order, uuder
Hugh de Payens as grand-master. This new order
of knighthood attracted the notice aud the approval
of St. Bernard, who quickly spread their fame
throughout the western world; and in 1128 they
received the sanction of the church through a decree
of the synod of Troves. This of com'se led to tlieir
rapid increase in numbers, wealth, and influence.
Their example was speedily followed by the brethren
of the Hospital of St. John in Jerusalem. Both
orders having been invested with special privileges
by the Pope, were not long in attaiidug property and
power. A spirit of jealousy, however, arose be-
tween them, and they showed themselves to be more
zealous for the honotn- and advantage of their re-
spective orders, tlian for the Holy Land. Com-
plaints, accordingly, began to arise in all quarters on
the immorality, faithlessness, and pride of these
knights, particularly the Temphu-s. Alter the con-
(juest of Ptolemais in 1291, they first withdrew to
Cyprus. Then the Hospitallers in 1309 settled in
Rhodes. Tlie Templars, however, repaired to the
west, and took up their abode chietly in Paris.
In the twelfth century, other lesser orders of eccle-
siastical knighthood sprung up, which were for the
most part connected with the order of the Cisteu-
ClANS (which see). During the siege of Ptolemais,
in A.D. 1190, the Order of German or Teutonic
knights came into existence ; but having, in 1226,
withdrawn into Prussia to conquer tlie Pagan inha-
bitants of that country, they joined in 1237 with the
Order of the Brethren of the Sword against the in-
fidel Livonians. Another minor order of knights
was formed, under the direction of the Duininicans,
for conducting the war against the AUiif/ensa: in the
south of France. Afterwards, this order settled in
Northern Italy, and was known by the name of the
Rejoicing Brothers. The tliree principal orders of
Christian knighlhood, however, which wore formed
in the twelfth century for tlie del'ence of Christianity
against the infidels, were, 1. The Knights of St. John
of Jerusalem, wliose primary object was to relieve
and assist the crowds of pilgrims who visited the
Holy Land. 2. The Knights Templars, who were a
strictly military order, intended to guard the roads,
and to protect the Christians from the assaults of tlie
Mohammedans. 3. The Teutonic Knights of St.
Mary, whose olfice it was to care for and specially
tend the soldiers wounded in the holy wars. The
two latter orders liave been long extinct, the Templars
!ia\ing been abolished by Pope Clement in 1311 ;
but the Knights of St. John have found an asylum
in the islaml of Malta, where they still exist.
KNIPPERDOLINGS, a section of the An.vuap
tists (which see) who appeared m Germany in the
sixteenth century, deriving their name from their
leader, Bertrand Knipjierdoling. They are alleged
to liave denied original sin, and justification by faith,
and to have rejected infant baptism. They are also
accused of iiaving alleged the riglit of every Chris-
tian to preach and administer the sacraments, and to
have held that all things ought to be in common.
KODESII, a certain prayer in the daily morning
service of the Jewish synagogue, so efiicacious, in
tlie opinion of the modern Jews, that when the sou
says it publicly, he delivers his father and his mother
out of hell. Hence, in the case of a Jewish funeral,
when the relatives return home, and the prayers for
the dead have been repeated, the sous of the deceased,
or his nearest male relatives, repeat the Kodeslt.
Tills prayer, which is supposed to be possessed of
the most wonderful elficacy, runs as follows: — "O
may the mighty power of the Lord be now magnified,
as thou hast declared, saying, O Lord! remember thy
tender mercies and thy loving kindnesses, lor they
have been of old. May his great name be exalted
and sanctified throughout the world, which he hath
created according to his will. May he establish his
kingdom in your lifetime, and in the lil'etime of the
whole house of Israel; soon, and in a short time, and
say ye Amen — Amen. Slay his great name be
blessed and glorified for ever and ever. May his
hallowed name be praised, glorified, exalted, magni-
fied, honoured, and most excellently adored : blessed
is he, far exceeding all blessings, hymns, jiraises, and
beatitudes, that are repeated throughout the world;
aud say ye Amen. May our prayers be accepted
with mercy aud kindness. May the prayers and
supplications of the whole house of Israel be accepted
hi the presence of their Father who is in heaven :
and say ye Amen. Blessed be the name of the Lord,
from henceforth and for evermore. iMay the fulness
of peace from heaven, with life, be granted imto us
and all Israel : and say ye Amen. My help is from
the Lord, who made heaven and earth, ilay he who
maketh peace in his high heavens, bestow peace on
us and on all Israel : and say ye Amen."
KOUOJI (SoMmona), another name tor Bldiia
Gotama (which sec).
KOIIATIUTKS, a division of the Levites, who
were of the I'amily of Kohatli. Their special duty,
as laid down in Num. iv. 1 — 15, was to carry the
ark and sacred ve.ssels of the Tabernacle during the
marches of the Israelites. See Levites.
KOIVE, the high-priest of the Pagan inliabitants
of ancient Prussia. When it thimdered, they be-
lieved that their Koive was conversing with their god
Pekun (which see), and hence they fell down in
adoration of that deity, and implored of him to send
them more propitious weather.
KORAN (Al), (Arab., the Reading), the sacred
KORAN (Al).
27J
book of tile Mohaiiiineflans, wliicli probably derives
its name from the passage wliicli the angel Gabriel
is said to have first revealed to the prophet : " Read!
ill the name of thy Lord who hath created tliee, who
hath created man of congealed lilooil — read ! for thy
Lord is most botmteoiis. He it is who has taught by
the pen, who has (atiglit rnan what he did not know."
The Koran claims to be possessed of a liigher inspira-
tion than the Christian Scriptnres, inasmuch as in
their ciise the inspiration was conveyed through the
medium of holy men, while in the Koran God himself
is the only speaker. This book is said to have been
delivered not all at once, but in successive portions,
extenduig over a period of twenty-three years. To
accoimt for this, it lias been alleged that the Koran
had existed from eternity with God, and had been
conveyed from the preserved table in the divine
presence to the lowest heaven, from which it was
communicated in greater or less portions, as needed,
by the angel Gabriel. In one pas.«age, indeed, the
Koran professes to have been sent down in a night,
the blessed night of Al Kadr ; but the numerous
contradictions which occur in the book, aftbrd ample
proof that it must have been written at diti'erent
times, if not by diii'erent persons. Thus in prayer
the faithful are ordered in one passage to turn to-
wards Jerusalem, and in another pa.ssage they are
commanded to tuni towards Mecca, while in a third
they are taught that it is of no importance in what
direction they tuni in prayer. Idolaters are ordered
in one passage to be tolerated, and in another to be
exterminated. But passing from the internal evi-
dence, which the book itself aftbrds, that it is not
eternal, but must have been created, some Moham-
medan doctors are accustomed to argue against its
eternity, on the ground that there cannot be two
eternal Being,s, the Deity and the Koran ; and the
Caliph Ahnamim held this opinion so tirnily, that
he persecuted those who declared the Koran to be
uncreated and eternal. After a protracted contro-
versy on the subject, both parties came to acquiesce
in the opinion of Algazali, which he thus expressed :
— " The Koran is pronounced with the tongue, writ-
ten 141 books, and kept in the nieniory, and yet is
eternal, subsisting in the Divine essence, and not
separate from it."
In the preparation of this .«acred book, it has been
generally alleged that while the uniformity of style
which characterizes it, and tlie frequent recurrence
of the same identical terms and phrases, show it to
have been the production of one man, it is not un-
likely that for many of the facts and ideas, at all
events, Mohammed was indebted to other persons.
Hence the Mohammedan authors mention several
assistants, and in particular Salman, a Persian, who
communicated to him from the Zend Aresta some of
the Zuroastrian doctrines, such as the description of
heaven and hell, but more especially of the narrow
bridge Al Sir.-it (which see\ and of the houris or
black-eyed damsels which enhance the joys of the
MohamiTiedan Paradise. The early Cliristian writers
a'4ain speak of a Nestorian monk called Sergius as
lending Mohammed valuable assistance in the com-
position of the Koran. There is no satisfactory evi
deuce, however, that Mohammed received aid in his
great work, but there is every reason to believe that
he was its sole autlior. When the prophet died, the
record was left in tlie utmost confusion. Not being
able himself to write, he was under the necessity
of employing a secretary or amanuensis. Of these
he is said to have had in the course of his life no
fewer than lifteen, the most eminent of them being
Abubekr and Otliman, both sons-in-law, and both in
successi(m reacliing the Caliphate. It would appear
that even while Mohammed lived, the faithful were
allowed to make copies for their own use, while
many people committed them to memory. When
the prophet, accordingly, had closed his earthly
career, the Koran consisted simply of scattered leaves,
which had never been brought together, and many
passages existed only in the memories of some of tlie
faithful. Abubekr was the first who collected the
scattered fragments into a volume, without regard to
date, but putting only the long cliapters first. It
was soon discovered, however, that other copies, at
least of portions, were in circulation, having a variety
of diti'erent readings. To secure an accurate text,
therefore, Othman, in the thirtieth year of the Hegira,
ordered all the versions to be submitted to a com-
mittee of learned men, who were directed, whenever
they difiered about a word, to translate it into its
equivalent in the Koreishite dialect of the Arabic,
which was the original language in wdiich the book
was written. Having thus secured a perfect text,
Othman publislied a new and standard edition of the
Koran, ordering all others to be deslroyed. Hence
there are no various readings of any consequence,
though some minor discrepancies are still found, in
consequence of the text having been anterior to the
nse of vowels and signs.
Mohammedan doctors have in many cases been
puzzled to account for the evident inconsistencies
and direct contradictions which occur occasionally
throughout the Koran. Unless satisfactorily explained,
these must necessarily militate against the alleged
character of the book as being directly inspired. To
obviate this serious objection, accordingly, an inge-
nious theory has been devised, which is termed the
doctrine of abrogation. Learned Minsulmans have
alleged three kinds of abrogation, to which all pas-
sages in the Koran may be referred : — 1. Where the
letter is abrogated, though the sense remains. 2.
AVliere the sense is abrogated, but the letter remains;
and, 3. Where both the letter and the sense are in
palpable contradiction to some other letter and sense
in some other chapter, or else to the known practice
of tlie faithful. A convenient doctrine of this kind
enables a commentator on the Koran to reduce its
mo.st contradictory passages to complete order and
consistency ; not, however, by explaining, but by
•.'«0
KOUNBOUiM.
uxplHinini,' iiwiiy tlio (litlkuiltit's; not by imloosiiig,
but by siiiiiinarily cutting the knot.
Tlie Koran consists of 114 portions or chapters,
some \ery long, otliers containing; no more than two
or three sentences. The inlroiliietory eliapter, called
the " Opening'," consists of seven verses, and is used
l)v .Moliannneilans as freipiently as tlie Lord's Prayer
by Christians. Tlie rest of tlie vohune is arranged
aeeordiiig to the length of the. chapters, which, as a
whole, are called Asinii: Each chapter is desig-
iiate<l by a name drawn from tlie subject, or from a
pniminent word. The title of cacli chapter states
where it was revealed to the prophet ; and thus we
learn that eighty-three of these clKi|iters wore re-
vealed at Mecca, twenty-eight at Mi'dina, and three
are doublfiil. There i.s a marked dilierenco between
the lirst class of these chapters and the second.
Those rcveaU'il at Mecca are full of admonitions;
those at jMedina are full of eonnnands, evidently dic-
tated with the authority of a sovereign.
The literary merit of the Koran is undoubtedly of
a high order, considering the time of its produc-
liun, and the circumstances of its author. The
materials hiive been drawn from a variety of soin'ces,
Jewi.'.h, Uhristian, and Zoroastrian, and the stylo is
soniewliat obseinv from its elliptical character; but
many of those skilled in Arabic literature Iiavo not
hesitated to regard it as on the whole a work of
wonderl'ul merit. To the English reader, who has
access only to the transhition of 8ale, much of its
beauty disappears from the foolish legendary stories
and the tiresome repetitions with which it abounds.
Even Cibbon declares, speaking of the Koran, "Tlio
European iiilidel will peruse with iinpatieiiee the
endless incoherent rhapsody of fable and precept and
declamation which seldom excites a sentiment or an
idea, which sometimes crawU in (he dn.st, and is
sometimes lost in the clouds. The Divine attributes
e.\alt the fancy of the .Arabian Missionary, but his
loftiest strains must yield to the sublime simplicity
of the book of .lob." From the pen of the sceptical
historian, this estimate has at all events the merit of
imparliidity. The Koran, indeed, can never, even as
A literary composition, stand a comparison with the
Scriptures, whetlier of the Old or the New Testa-
ment. Yet the niatehless beauty of the Koran is
regarded by the followers of the I'rophct of Arabia
a» an article of faith, which it is heresy to denv or
oven to doubt.
The Miihxniinedan looks upon the Koran as the
Word of (iod, and iherel'ore he regards it with a re-
verence which degenerates into super.-tition. The
Faitbl'ul consider it not only as containing a sacred
nies.sage, but lus in itself a .sicred object. Thev dare
not touch it with nnwashen hands, and the warning is
genersiliy wrillen upon the cover, " Let none touch
it but those who are purilied." They hold it with
great cjire and respect while they read, keeping it
hIiovb tlieir girdles. All of them who understand
the Arabic language are in the habit of reading it.
In the schools it is the schoolbook which they learn
to road, and a title equivalent to "Kememberer" is
given to those who have committed it wholly to
memory. It is a high religious act to transcribe the
entire book; and sovereigns have accounted it an
honourable and sacred employment to perform this
laborious task. On festivals, at funerals, and other
public occasions, iis recital by hired readers is es-
teemed an act of piety, benedcial alike to the living
and the dead. For the guidance of public reciters,
it is divided into sixty portions, or into thirty sec-
tions, each of which is subdivided into lour.
The Koran is often used or rather abused I'or su-
perstitious purposes. Thus the whole volume is
sometimes transcribed in a very small cliaracter,
put in a case, and hung round tlie neck as a charm.
Some favourite chapters are worn about the person,
and considered to carry good fortune with them, as
well as to deliver from diseases and calamities of
every kind. Fourteen chapters when recited reipiire
prostration. Two are recommended on the authority
of Mohammed, according to the Traditions, as the
best for repeating in jirayer, namely the 113tli and
the 114th chapters; both of which the conimenta-
tors say were revealed to (ree Mohammed from the
incantations of a Jew and his daughters. The lllith
eliapter, tli.at on the unity of Clod, is said to be worth
a third of the Koran.
Mohammed admitted that there had been divine
rovclatiuiis before his lime, among which were the
Law given to Moses, the l's;dter to David, and the
Goi^pel to Jesus; but all I'ormer comnniiucalions
from God to men are considered by the Faitht'ul as
having been abrogated by the liook given to the
Arabian I'rophet. The coiuest is still carried on
among Mohammedan theologians as to tlie origin of
the Koran, whether it was eternal like (iod himself,
or created at the moment of its revelation ; and the
very continuance of such a controversy clearly shows
the high estimation in which the Book is held, not
only among the great mass of illiterate Mo.sleins, but
even among the learned portion ot the Mohamme-
dans, who have made the study of the Koran the
object of their lives, t^ee JloliA.vt.Mi:!) Mhii.vji.me-
DANS.
KOUN'liOU.M ^Thibetian, ten thousand images),
a place in the country ot Amdo in Tliibet, where
grows a vvondcrtul tree, known by the name of the
Tree of Ten Thousand Images. According to a
legend which is credited by the people, this wonder-
ful tree sprung from the hair of Tsong-Kaba, a
celebrated IJudhist reformer, who founded the grcit
monastery of Khal-dan, near Lha.-^.sa. in 1409. and by
whose intiuence a number of changes was eli'ected
both in the administration and the ritual system of
Thibelian Hudhisni. (See LamaIjTS.) The Tree
of Ten Thousand Images is tlius described by M.
Hue, who personally visited it: ''At the loot of the
mountain on which the Lamasery stands, and not far
from the principal liuddhist temjile, is a great sijuaro
s
KOUREN OF THE THOUSAND LAMAS— KRISHNA.
281
enclosure, t'oniied by brick walls. Upon entering
this we were able to examine at leisure the marvellous
ti"ee, some of the branches of which hail already
manifested themselves above the wall. Our eyes
were iirst directed with earnest curiosity to the
leaves, and we were tilled with an absolute conster-
nation of astonishment at finding that, in point of
fact, there were upon each of the leaves well-formed
Thibetian characters, all of a green colour, some
darker, some lighter than the leaf itself. Our tirst
impression was a suspicion of fraud on the part of
the I jamas ; but, after a minute examination of every
detail, we could not discover the least deception.
The characters all appeared to us portions of the
leaf itself, etjually with its veins and nerves; the
position was not the same in all ; in one leaf they
would be at the top of the leaf, in another, in the
middle ; in a third, at the base, or at the side ; the
younger leaves represented the chariicters only in a
jiartial state of forjuation. The bark of the tree and
its branches, which resemble that of the plane tree,
are also covered with these characters. When _you
remove a piece of old bark, the young bark under it
exhibits the indistinct outlhies of cluiracters in a
germinating state, and, what is very singular, these
new characters are not unfrequently diH'ereiit from
those whiclt they replace. We examined everything
with the closest attention, in order to detect some
trace of trickery, but we could discern nothing of
the sort, and the perspiration absolutely trickled
down oiu- faces under the influence of the sensations
which this most amazing spectacle created. More
profound intellects than ours may, perhaps, be able
to supply a satisfactory explanation of the mysteries
of this singular tree ; but as to us, we altogether give
it U|J. Our readers possibly may smile at our igno-
rance; but we care not, so that the sincerity and
truth of our statement be not suspected.
"The Tree of the Ten Thousand Images seemed
to us of great age. Its trinik, wliich three men
could scarcely embrace with outstretched arms, is
not more than eight feet high ; tlie branches, instead
of shooting up, spread out in the shape of a plume
of feathers, and are extremely bushy ; few of them
are dead. The leaves are always green, and the
wood, which is of a reddish tint, has an exquisite
odour, something like that of cinnamon. The Lamas
informed us that in summer, towards the eighth
moon, the tree produces large red flowers of an ex-
tremely beautiful character. They informed us also
that there nowhere else exists another such tree ;
that many attempt have been made in various La-
maseries of Tartary and Thibet to propagate it by
seeds and cuttings, but that all these attempts have
been fruitless.
'• The Emperor Khang-Hi, when upon a pilgrimage
to Kounbouni, constructed, at his own private ex-
pense, a dome of silver over the Tree of the Ten
Thousand Images; moreover, he made a present to
the Grand Lama of a tine black horse, capable of
travelling a thousand lis a day, and of a saddle
adorned with precious stones. The horse is dead,
but the .saddle is still shown in one of the Buddhist
temples, where it is an object of special veneration.
Before quitting the Lamasery, Khang-Hi endowed
it with a yearly revenue, for the support of 350
Lauias."
The Lamasery of Kounbouni, in which there are
nearly 4,000 Lamas, is so famous, that the worship-
pers of Biuilia resort thither in pilgrimage from all
parts of Tartary and Thibet, so that not a day passes
in which there are not pilgrims arriving and dejiart-
ing. On the four great festivals, particularly the
Feast of Flowers, which takes place on the fifteenth
day of the first moon, the congregation of strangers
is immense.
KOUREN OF THE THOUSAND LAMAS,
a celebrated Lamasery in Tariary. which dates from
the invasion of China by the iMantchous. When the
founder of the now reigning dynasty in China was on
his way to Pekin, he met a Thibetian Lama who en-
couraged him in his warlike enteri)rizc by predicting
his success, whereupon tlie Mantchou chief invited
the friendly Lama to visit him when he should be
installed in the imperial palace at Pekin. The re-
sult of the war was, as the Lama had foretold, fa-
vourable to the Mantchous, and in token of gratitude
the new Emperor presented the Thibetian priest with
a large extent of laiul on which to construct a Lama-
sery, and revenues sufiicient for the maintenance of
a thousand Lamas. The Lamasery has made such
progress in prosperity, howe\'er, from the time of its
erection that it now contains more than four tliou-
.sand Lamas. The Grand Lama of this Lamasery is
also the governor of the district, who makes laws,
administers justice, and appoints magistrates. When
he dies his subjects go in search of him in Thibet,
where he is understood to pass into another person
who is to be his successor.
KRISHNA, the eighth of the Avatars (which
see), or incarnations of Vinkim. His name does not
occur in the Sig- Veda, the earliest of the Vedas, so
that he cannot be considered as a deity of the Vai-
dic period. The tirst appearance of Krishna-worship
is in the Bhaoavat-Gita (which see), a work wliich
Mr. J. C. Thomson, its recent editor and translator,
is disposed to place no farther back than between
B. c. 100 and A. D. 300. In this poem, which chietiy
consists of a conversation between two friends, Ar-
junaand Krishna, the latter of them plainly declares
concerning himself, " ' I am the cause of tlie produc-
tion and dissolution of the whole universe. There
exists no other thing superior to me. . . On me is
all the universe suspended, as numbers of pearls on
a string;' adding also, that he was the mystic syl-
lable AuM (which see) in all the Vedas." Arjuiia,
recognizing the divinity of Krishim, offers up to him
the following remarkable prayer: "The universe, 0
Krishna! is justly delighted with thy glory, and de-
voted to thee. The Kakshasas [e\il spirits] tlee.
282
KRISHNA
Mt'riglited, to tlie divei-s qiinrteis of lieaveii, and all
tlie iiiultinulos of tlie Slddlias [demi-,LCods] saUue
tlii-c. And, indeed, why slioiild tliey not adore tliee,
O v'leat one ! tliee. the lirst creator, more iniporlant
even than Bralnnii himself? 0 infinite king of gods !
habitation of the universe! thon art the one indivi-
sible, the existing an<l not existing [spirit and matter],
that which is supreme. Tliou art the first of the
gods, the most ancient person. Thon art the supreme
rciepiacle of this imivcrse. 'J'hou knoH-esf all, and
mayest be known, and art the supreme mansion.
Bv thee is this universe caused to emanate, O thou
of endless forms. . . Thou All! Of infinite power
and immense might, thou compreheudest all ; there-
fore thou art .\11. As I took thee merely for a
frienil, I beseech thee without measure to pardon
whatever I may, in ignorance of this thy greatness,
have SJiid from negligence or affection, such as, 0
Krishna! 0 son of Yadn! O friend! and everything
in which I may have treated thee in a joking man-
ner, in recreation, repose, sitting, or meals, whether
in private, or in the presence of these, eternal One !
Thou art the father of the ainmate and inanimate
world."
In the earlier (ivnlars, Vislnm had only exliibited a
portion of his godhead, but Krishna was a full mani-
festation, an actual incarnation of the preserving
deity. But although the Bliagavat- Gita plainly
acknowledges Kriihmi as Vishnu in human shape,
and claiming all the attributes of Supreme Deity,
being even called " the Lord of the world," •' the
Creator," " the I>ord of Brahma, Vishiui, and Shiva,"
yet ages elapsed before Krislmaworsliip became a
prominent feature in the Hindu system. La.ssen
thinks it was introduced in the hope of counter-
balancing the influence of Budhism at a time when
that .system was threatening to overspread the wliole
of Hindustan; and this view coincides with that of
Elpliiiistone, who refers this and all the other forms
of worship addre.ssed to particular incarnations, to a
period later than the begiiming of the eighth century
of our era. Even then indeed Krislniaism, if we
may so speak, was in a compar.-itively undeveloped
form, and it was not till several centuries after, that
the legend of Krishna came to exhibit the fullness
and completeness in whicli it appears in the Hindu
Pun-tnils.
Several Orientalists of high name have been struck
with the remarkable coincidences of the legend of
Krishna and the narratives of Holy Scripture. To
account for these. Sir William Jones advances the
Hupposition that " K|)nrions Gospels which abounded
in till! first age of Christianity had been brought to
India, and the wildest part of them repealed to the
llinihis, who engrafted them on the old fable of
Cesava, the .\poUo of Greece." This theory has
been adopted by other writers, who have pointed
out the Gospel of St. Thomas, better known as the
"Gospel of Infancy," which was circulated at an
early period on the coast of Malabar. And when wu
reflect that the B/i<iyarat-Gita in which Rrishiia is
set forth in his highest aspect, as an incarnation of
and identical with the Supreme Being, is generally
believed to be a production of an age long posterior
to the publication of the Sacred Volume, it is quite
possible that some of the ideas of tlie Hindu legend
ni.ty have been borrowed from the narratives of the
Chrislian Scriptures.
Krishna-worship prevails to a great extent among
the Hindus of the Vaiihnava sects, jiartieularly
among the wealthy and the women. Another form
of this worship, however, which is more popular still
is the Bala Gopala, the infant Krishna, the worship
of whom is very widely diti'used among all ranks ol
Indian society. This species of worship is called from
the title of its teachers, tlie religion of the Goku-
hisfha Gosains ; and in their temples and houses
the image of Krishna represents a chubby boy of
the dark liue of which Vishnu is always represented,
and eight times a-day the homage of the votaries of
this god is paid to the image. The eight daily cere-
monials are thus described by Professor H. H. Wil-
son: ^' 1. Maiigala: the morning levee. The image
being washed and dressed, is taken from the couch,
where it is supposed to have slept diu'ing tlie night,
and placed upon a seat, about half an hour after
sunrise : slight refreshments are then presented to it,
with betel and Pan: lamps are generally kept burn-
ing during this ceremony. 2. Sroiyui-a: the image
having been anointed and jierl'umed with oil, cam-
phor, and sandal, and splendidly attired, now holds
his public court : this takes place about an hour and
a half after the preceding, or when four Gheris of the
(lay have elapsed. 3. Gwala: the image is now visit-
ed, preparatory to his going out to attend the cattle
along with the cow-herd ; this ceremony is held about
forty-eight minutes after the last, or when six G/ieris
have passed. 4. Eitja Bhuga : held at midday,
when Krishna is supposed to come in from the pas-
tures, and dine; all sorts of delicacies are placed be-
fore the image, and both those, and other articles of
food dressed by the ministers of the temple, are dis-
tributed to the numerous votaries present, and not
uufrcquently sent to the dwellings of worshipi/ers
of some rank and consequence. 5. UUh&pan: the
calling up. The summoning of the god from his
siesta: this takes place at six Ghcrls, or between
two and three hours before sunset. 6. B/ivga ; the
afterno(/n meal : about half an hour after the pre-
ceding. 7. SaiiMga ; about sunset: the evening
toilet of the image, when the ornaments of the day
are taken oli', and fresh ungueyt and jierfunie ap-
plied. 8. Sayan; retiring to repose: the image,
about eight or nine in the evening, is placed upon a
bed, refreshments and water in proper vases, toge-
ther with the betel-box and its ap|)urtenances, are
left near it, when the votaries retire, and the temple
is shut till the ensuing morning."
On each of these occasions similar rites are gone
through, flowers, perfumes, and food beiiig presented
KRITA— KUTUCIITA.
283
before the image, while the inaises ot' Krisliiia are
repeated in Sanskrit stanzas, accompanied witli a
variety oi' prostrations and obeisances.
KlilTA, or Satya Age, tlie age of trutli, accord-
ing to the Hindu system, being tlie earliest in the
liistory of tlie lunnan race, in which man sprung
i'roni tlie hand of his Creator, pme and sinless, not
divided into conHicting orders, and with all his facul-
ties working together in harmony.
KSHATTKYA, the military caste of the Hindus,
sprung from the arm of Brahma, whose office it is to
defend their fellows from internal violence and out-
ward assault. The duties of this caste as laid down
in the Code of Menu are to defend the people, give
alms, and read tlie Vedas; and at any age up to
twenty-two and twenty-foiu-, lliey must be invested
with the mark of the caste. The Ksliattrya caste is
e.\tinct, or in other words, it is no longer found as a
distinct division of society. But the wliole coimtry of
llajputana claims to be inhabited by Kshattryas, al-
though they want the sacrificial thread with which
the members of this caste were originally invested.
KTISTOL.VITLE. See Aphtii.vrtodocites,
Crkaticol^.
KULIKA, one of the chiefs of the Xagns or ser-
pents (see Serpent Worship), in the Hindu my-
thology, who complained to the Lord of the universe
that for no fault of his he was continually tormented
by the Suras or inferior gods. In answer to the
prayer of Kulika, or Kulikdtu, as lie is sometimes
termed, Brahma is said to have enjoined that he
should henceforth receive adoration like the devas
from each human being, and that mortals wlio re-
fused to pay sueli worshiii to him, should be cut off
by some unnatural death, and deprived of the power
of rising higlier in the scale of created beings. In
regard to the right interpretation of this myth, Mr.
Hardwick,iii his 'Christaudother Masters,' ingenious-
ly remarks: '• It du-ects us to behold in Kuliketu an
emblem of the earth before it had been subjected to
human culture, when it felt itself tormented by the
Suras, or, in other words, assaulted by the aniiies of the
firmament — the rain, the lightning, and the tempest.
In the midst of this disorder, man, who had been
hitherto regardless of the soil on which his lot is
cast, and the material out of which his body is con-
structed, was bidden by the Lord of creation to ren-
der homage to the powers and processes of nature,
to propitiate the ungenial elements, and welcome in
all forms around him the immediate presence of
Divinity. According, therefore, to this myth, the
serpent was not absolutely and directly charged with
the origination of all evil; yet suspicions of such
agency were nevertheless implied from first to last
in the conception of the story. There was lurking
under its fantastic imagery an idea that matter, in
tlie whole compass and duration of it, was intrin-
sically evil, and might therefore be identified with
that which was the recognized embodiment of the
evil principle."
KU JIAXO-GUU, a species of ordeal in use among
the Jajianese for the detection of crime. The Gvu
is a piece of paper, formally sealed with the signet
of the Jamjiabos (wlach see), wliereon are drawn
several mysterious characters, and the figures of
ravens as well as other ill-omened birds. This
charm, they hiiagine, defends them against the at
tacks of all malicious spirits ; and for this reason
every householder nails one of them upon the street
door. All Gods, however, have not an equal efficacy.
The most powerful, and tliose which are most dreaded
by the demons, come from a place called Kumaiw.
The ordeal of Kumanu-Guu consists in making the
party accused swallow a small piece of Guo in a
certain quantity of water. If lie be really guilty,
tlie Goo twinges and gripes him in the most violent
manner, till he is obliged to confess his guilt.
KUSA, the sacred grass of the Hindus. On the
Kuaa, the Yot/i, or Hindu ascetic, whose business is
the restraining of his jiassions, must sit, with his
mind fi.\ed on one object alone, keeping his head,
his neck, his body, steady without motion, his eyes
fixed upon the point of his nose, looking at no other
place around.
KUSALA. nieiil among the Biulhists, which is
included in Kakma (which see). "There are three
princijial meanings," says Mr. Spence Hardy, " of
the word kusala, viz., freedom from sickness, exemp-
tion from blame, and reward; but as used by Budha,
its primary idea is that of cutting, or excision. It
has a cognate use in the word kiisa, the sacrificial
grass that cuts with both its edges the hand of him
who lays hold of it carelessly. That which is cut by
kusala is klesha, evil desire, or the cleaving to exist-
ence. Akusala is tlie opposite of kusala. That
which is neither kusala nor akusala is awyakrata ;
it is not followed by any consequence ; it receives no
rewai-d, either good or bad."
KUTUCHTA, tlie chief priest of the Calmuc
Tartars and AVesteni Jlongols. In former times he
was subject to the Dalai-Lama (which see) of
Thibet, but in course of time, being far distant from
his superior, he made a schism among the Laniaists,
and established himself as an independent ecclesias-
tical ruler, on an equal footing with the Dalai-Lama
himself. The chief magistrates and persons of dis-
tinction are alone allowed to approach his sacred
presence ; and when he gives them his blessing, he
lays his hand upon their foreheads, having a chaplet
in it at the same time, similar to those carried by the
Lamas. The Kutuchta never exposes himself to
public view, but on some particular days when he
comes fortli surrounded with the utmost jionip and
ceremony. He is carried in procession to a tent,
covered with Chinese velvet, where he sits cross-
legged on a throne, erected on a large square enn-
nence, surrounded with a large number of cusliiyns
on which are seated the sub(u-dinate Lamas. On
either side of the chief pontifl' are placed two idols,
w hich represent tlie Divine essence As soon as the
2U
KWAMliAK— KYUKO KAD.
Ku(uclita liHs taken his seat upon the throne, the
music with which lie w;is iislieied into the tent censes,
Mill the whole ii.-scuihiy lirst prostnite themselves on
the jjroinul, ami then hurst fortli into lund acclama-
tion.- ot" praise to ilie Deitv, ami lot'iy eiilogiums upon
the Kutnchta. Tlie Lamas now tiirow oduril'erous
lierhs into their censers, and with lliese they |iert'ume
the idols, the pontirt', and the whole eongieg;ition.
As soon as this ceremony is over, each Lama depo-
sits his censer at the feet ol' the pontitf, and the
leading one of their number talces seven separate
cups tilled with dillerent ingredients, such as milk,
honey, tea, or brandy, presenting them as an offering
to the idols. Then he takes seven other cups, Idled
with the same ingredients, and presents them to the
Kutnchta. During this part of the ceremony, the
crowd of people present rend tlie air witli their cries
in praise of the sovereign ponliil', who first tastes
the oblations, and then distributes the remainder to
the heads of the several tribes. The Kutuclita now
withdraws with the same pomp and pageantry as he
entered. " To the idea of innnortality," says I'icart,
'• which these people entertain of tlieir Kutuclita,
another is added, which is altogether as whimsical
and extravagant, and, no doubt, as deeply imprinted
on their imaginalions as the former; viz. that after
the Kutuclita is grown old witli the decrease of the
moon, he renews his youth at the change of the same
planet. The whole mystery of this fantastical no-
tion consists in the holy father suti'ering his beard to
grow from one new moon to another, and never
shaving himself, but at her lirst appearance ; at which
time he dresses himself in all liis splendour, jiaiiits
his face; and besmears it all over with white and
red, as is customary among the Moscovites. As to
tlie notion of tliis grand pontiti's immortality, the
origin and foundation of it is tliis. All tlie.-e Tartars
hold the metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls ;
and this received opinion induces them to imagine,
that the soul of the expiring Kutuclita enters, imme-
diately after his decease, into the body of bis succes-
sor; or, at least, that the soul of the latter receives
all the operations, and is endowed with all tlie jiowers
and faculties of the soul of the deceased. For which
rex^on, he who is intended to be the old pontili's
guccessor, must constantly attend him, that the soul
of the holy lather may qualify the young one, if I
may be allowed the expression, for his apiiroachiiig
t,'odhead; that the young soul may every day have
familiar converse with the old one, possess all her
(|iialilie», and become, as if were, the very same."
KWA.MIJAK, the liisf ollicer at the court of the
iMllil [which see; in Japan, and iTprc.M'iiis that
liontifi' when the dignity devolves on a woman or a
child.
KVVAN-SIII-IX, one of three divinities unknown
to the original Budhists, but vvoisliipped in China ;is
scarcely inferior to Gautama Budha himself. He is
also known by the name of Padma-pani, or lotus-
bearer, and he is considered as the author of all joy
and happiness in the family circle, and has even been
de|iiited to administer the government of the whole
earth. In many districts of Thibet he is incarnate,
under the name of Padma-pmd, in the person of the
I).\lai-Lama (which see), and no cry so often meets
the ear of the traveller in that country as Om!
Maid-Padiiie! Hum. — "Glory to the lotus-bearer.
Hum !" Both in Thibet and in Mongolia this deity
is represented sometimes with innumerable eves and
hands, and sometimes witli as many as ten heads, all
bearing crowns, ami rising conically one above another.
Throughout C\mvA KiiMH-shi-in Is exhibited with a fe-
male figure, and decorations usuallv worn by females.
KYKIE KLKISON (Gr., O Lord, have mercy),
a response made by the people, and an earnest sup-
pliciUlon for mercy, introduced at an early period
into the Christian church. According to Augiisiin,
it was in use in the Syrlac, Armenian, and other
Oriental languages. The Council of Vaisen, A. D.
492, ordered its introduction into the churches of
France in both the morning and evening prayer and
the comintniion service ; and in the preamble of the
decree, it is declared to be a very useful and agree-
able custom in the Roman Church, and all the pro-
vinces of Italy and the Fast. Gregory the CJreat
introduced a threefold fonn : 1. O Lord; 2. Lord,
have mercy ; 3. Christ, liave mercy. And each, it
would seem, was to be thrice repeated with reference
to the sacred Trinity.
KYIiKO-HANliBOK, the ritual of the Swedish
Church, revised and published in 1811. It is divided
into lifteen chapters, containing the P.salnis; the
morning prayer and communion service; the evening
prayer and the holy -day service; the Litanj' ; the
foniis of baptism, confinnatlon, marriage, and clmrch-
ing of women ; the funeral service ; the forms of con-
secration of churches and of bishops ; the form of
ordination of priests, &c.
KVUKO ORDNIXGEN, a work first published
in l(J8t), cuiitainlng the laws regulating the govern-
ment and discipline of the Church of Sweden.
KYKKO-liAD (Swed. church council), a church
court in Sweden, inferim' to the diocesan consistorle.s,
ami nearly answering to a presbytery. It is com-
posed partly of laymen, who are elected by the par-
ishioners. See SwEDi^N [CuuHcii of).
LAB ADISTS— LABRADOR and GREF.NLAND.
285
L
LABADISTS, a sect wliieli arose in Ilnllmid in
the seventeenth century, originated b\' John La-
badie, a Frenchman, of an ardent and enthusiastic
temperament. Originally reared in connection with
the Chiircli of Rome, lie entered the order of the
Jesuits, from wliich, however, he was dismissed in
1639. He now joined the Reformed church, and
became a devoted and exemplary pastor, performing
the ministerial functions with reputation in France,
Switzerland, and Holland. At length he began to
preach and to propagate new and [lectdiar opinions,
which resembled in many points the doctrines of the
Mystics (which see). He speedily gathered around
him a nnndjer of followers, who were allied Lnhidkts.
and who resided first at Middleburgh, in Zealand,
and afterwards at Amsterdam. In 1(570 the sect
settled at Herwordcn, in Westphalia, inider the
special patronage of the Princess Elizabeth, daughter
of the Elector Palatine. After a time, Labadie was
compelled to remove his establishment to Altona,
in South Holland, where its founder died in 1674,
when the community tinally removed to AViewert,
in North Hollaml, and soon after sunk into ob-
livion.
Till' I.abadists agreed with tichwenkfeld and the
.\naba|itists in attaching great importance to internal
revelation, by wliich the external revelation is ren-
dered intelligible, and from wliich it receives its
authority. They also enteitained very strong view.s
as to the purity of the visible church, maintaining
that it ought not to consist of professing disciples of
Christ, but of really sanctitied Christians, striving
after perfection in holiness.
L.\B.\ltli.M, the military standard of the first
Christian Emperor, Constantine. Tlie circumstances
wliich led to his adoption of the Labarum are de-
tailed by Euseliius, and are in substance as follows.
Constantine had resolved to make an attempt to
deliver Rome from the tyranny of Maxentius, but
feeling that he needed a higher than human aid, he
prayed earnestly to God tliat he would assist him in
the diflicult enterprise in which he was engaged.
About mid-day, when crossing the country with his
army, he offered up this prayer, and immediately
there appeared in heaven near the sun a bright
shining cross, on which was inscribed these words in
the Greek language : " By this sign. Conquer." This
sign, which was seen in tlie sky both by the soldiers
and their leaders, was followed by a secret vision, in
which the Son of God appeared to the Emperor,
holding in his hand the svmbol of the cross, and
commanded hiin to form a standard on the same
model, under which his soldiers would march to
victory. Constantine hastened to obey the solemn
command, and forthwith a standard was framed by
the most skilful artificers, under the inniiediate direc-
tion of the Em|)eror himself. It was in the form of
a long spear, overlaid with gold, and having a cross
beam towards the top. Upon the summit there was
a golden crown, enclosing the two first letters of the
name Christ intersecting each other. From the cross
beam was susjiended a silken veil, in which were
inwrought images of the Emperor and of his chil-
dren.
The name given to this slaiiilard was Liiliiirniii, a
word the literal meaning and correct derivation of
wliich are unknown. The monogram containing the
two initial letters of the name of the Messiah, and
which were so fomied as also to represent a cross,
was afterwards engraved upon the shields of the
soldiers, and fixed upon their helmets. Fifty men,
chosen for their strength, valour, and [liety, were
appointed to the care of the Lahnrnni, whicli long
continued to be carried at the head of I he Roman
army, and to be considered the sure token of victory.
It is only right to state that the account of the mira-
culous sign is related by Eusebius alone, and that the
information of the historian was derived from the tes-
timony of Constantine himself, confirmed by an oath.
Eusebius considers the testimony of the Emperor as
satisfactory, but at the same time he states that if
the narrative had been given by any other person,
he would not easily have been believed.
LAlilS, the name wliich the modern Greeks give
to the spoon used in administering the consecrated
bread and wine to the laity.
L.\150RANTES, a name sometimes applied in
the early Christian writers to the Copiat^ (which
see).
LABRADOR a.nd GREENLAND (Religion
of). These remote countries, bordering on the
Arctic regions, are deeply interesting in a religious
aspect, being the seats of two missions of the United
Brethren, which have been maintained in these cold
inhospitable regions for more than a liundred years.
Hans Egede. a Danish missionary, who is often
styled the Apo.stle of Greenland, first took up his
abode in that country in 1721 ; and fiom that time
down to the present day, have the Moravians con-
tinued to send thither laborious and selfdenving
missionaries, who, amid the severest privations, and
almost insuperable difficulties, have carried on the
286
LABRADOR AND CHEKXLAND (Ri-uoiox or).
work of evaiigcliz;itioii among the beniglited natives
of tlicse desolate regions. It wonld appeal- tliat sii
early as the end of the tentli centiu-y, a colony t'roiM
leelaiid, headed by Kirek, siirnamed the Red. settlcil
in Greenland. F-eif, the son of Eirek, liavhig made
a voyage to Norway, was there persuaded to embrace
Christianity, and on his return lie was accompanied
by a priest to convert the new colony. The settle-
ments in (xreenlaiid adopted Chrisliaiiity, and coii-
tinueii to increase and flourish. Tliey were divided
into the Enst and the West Bygd or inhabited dis-
trict.s, the uninliabited country being termed Ubygd.
.\t a later period tlie West Bygd contained ninety
t'anns, with four chm-ches; the East Bygd, one hun-
dred and ninety farms, and two towns, with one
cathedral, eleven eluirches. and three monasteries.
Tlie (irst bishop was ordained in A. D. 1121, the seven-
teenth and l.ist in 1404. After this nothing more is
known of tlie lirst Greenland colonies. " The learned
men of tlie .seventeenth cent uiy," .says Mr. Blackwell
in his valuable edition of .Mallet's ' Nortlieni .Anti-
quities,' "when they recalled to mind that a Chris-
tian comnuiiiity had existed on these remote shores
for upwards of four centuries, could only account for
its extinction by a snd<len catastrophe. Some sup-
posed that the settlements had been ravaged by the
pirates who infested the north seas at the close of
the fourteenth century: otliers, that the great pesti-
lence of 1,34S, called tlie Black Death, had swejit off
the greater part "f tlie populatimi, and that the sur-
vivors had been massacred by the Esquimaux. ]?ut
it seems very unlikely that pirates would have di-
rected their marauding expeditions to such a poor
country as (rrcenland, and although the colony may
probably have been visited by the temble scourge
so gi-apbically described by Boccaccio in the iiitro-
diiulion to his Decameron, we believe there is no
documentary evidence to show that tliis was actuallv
the case. We know at least that upwards of half a cen-
tury later there was still a bishop at (iarda, and mav
therefiire conclude that the colonisis were able to
resist the attacks of the Esquimaux, with whom they
appear to have been in constant hostility. The real
cause of the gradual decay and tiual extinction of
tlic.se settlements was, no doubt, the pernicious sys-
tem of commercial policy iiursned bv tlu- motlier
country."
Along with the first colonies their religion seems
also to have disappeared, for when Egedc settled on
the West coast ol Grecnlaud in 1721, he found the
people in a staie of darkness and heathenism, having
no other priests but angelohs, wlio were little betler
than sorcerers. The Greenlanders, when Egede
came among them, held that there was a spiritual
Being, whom they called Tonir/rinni/,% to wliom they
ascribed a supernatural power, ihoiigh not recogniz-
ing him as the Creator. The itn;iel,(ih< were divided
ill the ideas which they entertained of this great
Being. Some alleged that he ia without fcn-m or
shape; others gave him the form of a bear; others
pretended that he had a large body and only one ami ;
while others still considered him so small that he was
no larger tlian the linger of a man's hand. Some con-
sidered him as immortal, while others believed that a
puti'of wind conli' drive him out of existence. They
assigned him his abode in the lower regions of the
earth, and they said also that he lived in the water.
They maintained that a spirit resided in the air, which
tlipy named Iiinertirrirsoh ; and another called Er-
loi'rsotok, who fed upon the intestines of the dead,
and was said to have a ghastly, haggard coimte
nance, with hollow eyes and cheeks. Each element
they believed had its governor or president, which
they called Tmmre, and from these the angekoks re-
ceived their tonignk or familiar spirits, which again
in the case of others were simply their own deceased
parents.
The aiigekok or conjuring priest is thus described
by Egede : — " If one aspires to the office of an aii-
gekok, and lias a mind to be initiated into these
mysteries, he must retire from the rest of mankind,
into some remote place, from all commerce ; there he
must look for a large stone, near which he must sit
down and invoke Torngarsuk, who, without delay.
|)reseiits himself before him. This presence so ter-
rifies the new candidate of angekokism, that he ini-
meitiately sickens, swoons away, and dies ; and in tliis
condition he lies for three whole days ; and then he
comes to life again, arises in a newness of life, and
betakes himself to his home again. 'J'lie science of
an angekok consists of three things. 1. That le
mutters certain spells over sick people, in order to
make them recover their former health. 2. He com-
munes with Torngarsuk, and from him receives in-
struction, to give people advice what course they are
to take in atlairs, that they may have success, and
jirosper therein. 3. lie is by the same informed of
the time and cause of any body's death ; or for what
reason any body comes to an untimely and uncom-
mon end ; and if any fatality shall befall a man."
'i'hese impostors persu.ade the poor ignorant peojile
that with their hands and feet tied they can mount
up to heaven, or descend to the lower regions of
the earth, where the fierce Torngarsuk holds his
court. A young mnjekok CJin only undertake this
journey in the fall of the year, because at that time
the rainbow, which they believe to be the lowermost
heaven, is nearest to the earth. Tliis wonderful feat
is thus perfonned : " A number of spectators assemble
in the evening at one of their houses, where, after it
is grown dark, every one being seated, the angekok
causes himself to be tied, his head between his legs
and his hands behind his back, and a drum is laid at
his side ; thereupon, after the windows are shut and
the light put out, tlie assembly sings a ditty, which,
they say, is the composition of their ancestors ; when
they have done singing the angekok beguis wiih
conjuring, muttering, and brawling; invokes Torn-
garsuk, who instaiilly jiresenls himself, and converses
with him (here the masterly juggler knows how to
LABRADOR AND GREENLAND (Religion of).
■2S7
play his trick, in clianging tlie tone of his voice, and
countert'eitint; one dirt'erent from his own, which
makes the too-crediilons hearers believe, that this
counterfeited voice is that of Tonigarsiik, who con-
verses with the angekok). In the meanwhile he
works himself loose, and, iis they believe, nionnls up
into heaven through the roof of the house, and passes
through the air till he arrives into the highest of
lieavens, where the souls of angekok poglit, that is,
the chief angekoks, reside, by whom he gets infor-
mation of all he wants to know. And all this is doriB
in the twinkling of an eye."
The anrjelohs pretend to cure all kinds of diseases,
simply by muttering inarticulate sounds or blowing
upon the sick. One mode in which they exercise
their medical power is, by laying the patient upon
his back, and tying a ribbon or string round his
head, having a stick fastened to the other end of the
string with which they lift up the sick person's head
from the ground and let it down again ; and at every
lift the angekok connnunes with his Torguk on fami-
liar spirit about the state of the patient whether he
shall recover or not ; if the head is heavy, it is a
sign of death, and if light, of recovery. These ab-
surd conjurers actually persuade sick persons, in
some cases, that they have the power to create within
them new souls, provided they are sufliciently re-
munerated for their trouble. The heathen Green-
laiulers are very credidous, and therefore much
addicted to the use of amulets or charms, wdiich they
wear about their arms and necks. These potent
spells consist of some pieces of old wood, stones or
bones, bills and claws of birds, or anything else which
they suppose to be efficacious in pre.serving them from
diseases and other cabnnities, or in bringing them
success in their tishing expeditions.
Strange notions as to the origin and creation of all
things are entertained by the inhabitants of the.se
northeni regions. Their own people they believe to
have sprimg from the ground, but foreigners, whom
they call Kahluiuvt, they suppose to have desceiuled
from a race of dogs. The dead, as they imagine,
pass into the land of souls ; some go to heaven, and
others to the centre of the earth, which last they re-
gard as a delightful country, where the smi shines
contiimally and the iidiabitants are supplied with an
inexhaustible stock of all soits of choice provisions.
The centre of the earth, besides, being tlie residence
of Torngarsuk, is also inliabited by a notorious fe-
male personage, whom the missionary Egede thus
describes, along with the mansion in which she holds
her residence : " She is said to dwell in the lower
parts of the earth under the seas, and has the empu-e
over all tishes and sea-animals, as unicorns, morses,
seals, and the like. The bason placed under her
lamp, into which the train oil of the lainp drips down,
swarms with all kinds of sea fowls, swimming in aiid
hovering about it. At the entry of her abode is a
corps de garde of sea dogs, wlio mount the guard,
and stand sentinels at her gates to keep out the
crowd of petitioners. None can get admittance thei-e
but angekoks, provided they are accompanied by
their Torngak, or familiar spirits, and not otherwise.
In their journey thither they first pass through the
mansions of all the souls of the deceased, which look
as well, if not better, than ever tliey did in this
world, and want for nothing. .Vfter they have
passed through this region, they come to a very
long, broad, and deep whirlpool, which they are to
cross over, there being nothing to pass upon but a
great wheel like ice, which tunis about with a siu--
prising rapidity, and by the means of this wheel the
s])irit helps his angekok to get over. This ditli-
culfy being sunnounted, the next thing they en-
counter is a large kettle, in which live seals are put
to be boiled ; and at last they an-ive, with much ado,
at the residence of the devil's grandame, where the
familiar spirit takes the angekok by the hand
through the strong guard of sea dogs. The entry is
large enough, the road that leads is as narrow as a
stnall rope, and on both sides nothing to lay hold on,
or to support one ; besides that, there is underneath
a most frightful aby.--s or bottomless pit. Within
this is the apartment of the infernal goddess, who
oti'ended at this unexpected visit, shows a most
ghastly and wrathfid coimtenaiice, pulling the hair
otf her head : she thereupon seizes a wet wing of a
fowl, whicli she lights in the tire, and claps to their
noses, which makes them very faint and sick, and
they become her prisoners. But the enchanter, or
angekok (being beforehand instructed by his Tonigak
how to act his part in this dismal expedition) takes
hold of her by the hair, and drubs and bangs her so
long, till she loses her strength and yields; and in
this combat his familiar spirit does not stand idle,
but lays about her with might and main. Roimd
the infernal goddess's face hangs the agleiTutit,
which the angekok endeavours to rob her of. For
this is the charm by which she draws all fishes
and sea animals to her dominion, which no sooner is
she deprived of, but instantly the sea animals in
shoals forsake her, and resort with all speed to their
wonted slielves, where the Greenlanders catch them
in great plenty. When this great business is done,
the angekoks with their Tonigak, [iroud of success,
make the best of their way home again, where they
iind the road smooth, and easy to what it was before.
" As to the souls of the dead, in their travel to
this happy countiy, they meet with a sharp-pointed
stone, upon which the angekoks tell them they must
slide or glide down, ,as there is no other passage to
get tin-ough, ami this stone is besmeared with blood;
perhaps, by tliis mystical or hieroglyphical image,
they thereby signify the adversities and tribulations
those have to struggle with who desire to attain to
happiness."
It was to a people whose whole religion thus
consisted of a mass of absurd superstitions that
the apostolic Egede devoted twenty-tive years of
acti\e missionary work. For ten -weary years.
•288
LABRADOR A XI) GREKNLAXD (Religion of).
alter tirst entering upon his work, he persevered
in his labours, with very little apparent success. But
at length a new era beg.in to <lavvri upon benighted
Greenland. In I7.'31, two baptized Greenlauders,
who had been taken to Denmark, gave such inter-
esting inl'oruiaiiou as to the state of their country-
men, that a little band of devoted Christian brothers
was .sent from the congrogatiuir at llerrnhiu as a
reinforcement to the Danish mission to Greenland.
On reaching their destination, they fixed upon a
place of settlement, to which they afterwards gave
the name of New Herrnhut. Having made all neces-
sary preparations, they engaged in their missionary
work with the utmost diligence and assiduity. Nor
did they labour in vain. By the Divnie blessing,
they soon succeeded in gathering around them a
small company of Christian converts, who, feeling the
power of tlie truth on their own he.arts, songlit to
communicate the glad tidings of salvation to others
also. Thus the mission prospered more and more
From time to time, the hands of the missionaries
were .strengthened, aiu) their hearts encouraged, by
the arrival of other brethren, who came to aid them
in their glorious work. Two settlements were in
course of time formed, where a goodly company of
Chri.stian Greenlanders composed the elun-ch. In
the winter of 17G8, an aged mirjekok renounced his
mode of life, and confessed that he and the other
sorcerers had deceived the jieople. This unexpected
event gave a new imimlse to the good cause, and so
extensive was the awakening among the natives, that
in little more than twelve months "200 Greenlanders
were added to the church by baptism. From this
periud the work was carried on with redoubled
energy. In 1774. a tliird settlement was formed in
the .south of Greenland, at a place which they termed
l.,ichtenau. Here the Jabotu-s of the missionaries
met with remarkable success, so that in the eour.se
of a few years the numbers of church members e.t-
ceeded those at either of the other stations.
In 1801, .so great had been the progress made in
the work' of the mission at all the stations, that tlie
people on the western coast of Greenland had nearly
all embraced Christianity, ;inil of the women, the last
one that remained in heathenism was baiitizinl in
January of this year. Ximdjers were now added to
the inendjersliip of the church from time to time.
The year 182:5 was rendered reuuvrkalile by the
printing and circulation of the lirst complete New
Testament in the Greenland language. At this time
the three congregations under the care of the
Bretliren consisted of 1,278 persons. In the follow-
ing ye.ir a new .Moravian settlement was formed at
the most southern extremity of (xreeidand, at a place
called by the mi.s.sionaries Frederick.sthal. Of this
Rlalion the missionary had the gratilication of writ-
ing, under dale October 1825— " Since oiu- arrival
here in .lime 1824, 104 liealhens have been bap-
tized." Thus four .Moravian seillements are now in
«ucce.'<sful operation in Greeidand. The ini.'-sionaries
however, have been not a little discouraged by the '
conduct of the Danish government, in repeatedly
issuing prohibitions to the Greenland converts against
their residing in communities near the Moravian
settlements. The obstacle thus put by the govern-
ment in the way of the succe.ss of the mission has,
in the good providence of God, been overruled for
good. It has led to tlie formation, in 1851, of a
seminary at New Herriduit for training native assist-
ants. The most recent report of the (Jreeidand Mo-
ravian mission conveys the gratifying statement that
there are in all twelve missionaries, and that the
churches contain 842 communicants, while the num-
ber of persons under instruction amounts to 2,001.
The mission to Labrador commenced at a ccui-
siderably later period than that to Greenland. An
attempt was made, indeed, in 1752 to establish a
settlement in tlie country, but it proved unsuccess-
ful, and it was not until 17G9 that George III. pre-
sented 100,000 acres of land to the Moravian brethren
to aid tlicm in commencing a mission on the coast ol
Labrador. The same yeax a society was established
in London to assist in the prosecution of the -same
important object. The enterprise was headed by
Jens Haven, who h.ad pre\ionsly laboured as a mis-
sionary in Greenland. The spot on which the settle-
ment was established received the name of Nain, and
is situated on the east coast of Labrador. The Ks-
quimau.x showed themselves uniformly friendly to the
missionaries from the date of their tirst arrival in the
country. The angcloks here, as in Greenland, pos-
sessed great influence over the people, who were, in
fact, ferocious savages, habituated to the gratification
of the most brutal passions. But no sooner did the
missionaries commence operations, than, to their
.igreeable surprise, they found the people ready and
even eager to receive instruction. In the course of
a few years two additional settlements were estab-
lished, one at Okkak, about 150 miles north of Nain,
and ariother at Hopedale, some distance to the south
of Xain. The cause now made rapid progress among
the Esrpdmanx, and in the spring of 1804, the hearts
of the devoted missionaries were refreshed by the
maiiilcstation of a decided revival of religion, wliicli
commenced at Nain, and soon spread to tlie other
stations. This work of grace continued several
years, and many, both old and young, were added
to the church of Christ. Early in 1811, the northern
coast of Labrador was explored, with a view to the
formation of a settlement in that quarter ; but, after
five mouths spent in minutely examiinng the country,
the idea was abandoned, and has never since been
revived. About the year 1820, iioriions of the New
Testament were translated and |irinted in the Esqui-
maux langn.age by the British and Foreign Bible
Society, and so highly was the gift prized by the
people, th.at they began, of their own accord, to
collect seals' blubber, by way of making up a small
contribution towards the expenses of that .societ\'.
In Labratlor, as in Clreenland, the labours of the
LACE OF BLUE— LAMAISM.
289
misbionaries liave, iVoiii the beginning, been carried
on amid many discouragements and privations; but
their trials have been borne witli patience and resig-
nation, while their hearts are cheered by the ample
tokens which they are from time to time recei\ing
that they are not labouring in vain, uor spending
their strength for nought or iu vain. From recent
accounts, the state of the mission is very encouraging.
There are fifteen missionary brethren canying on
their operations in the.se inhospitable regions. The
connuunicants iu the churches amoimt to 394, and
those under instruction to 1,357 persons.
LACE OF BLUE, or Sacred Fringe. No
small importance, botli among the ancient and the
modern Jews, has been attaclied to the hem or
border of the upper garment. On turning to tlie
law of Moses, we find, in Num. xv. 38 — 40, the
command given, " Speak unto the children of Israel,
and bid tliem tliat they make them frijiges iu the
borders of their garments throughout their genera-
tions, and that they put upon the fringe of the bor-
ders a ribband of blue : and it shall be unto you for
a fringe, that ye may look upon it, and remember all
the commandments of the Lord, and do them ; and
that ye seek not after your own heart and your own
eyes, after which ye use to go a whoring: that ye
may remember, and do all my commandments, and
be holy unto your God." In Exodus xxviii. 28, in
the directions for the dress of the high-priest, it is
said, " They shall bind the breastplate by the rings
thereof unto the rings of the ejiliod with a lace of
blue, that it may be above the curious girdle of the
ephod, and that the breastplate be not loosed from
the ephod." The Pharisees were blamed by our
blessed Lord for ostentatiously making broad the
borders of their garments. Among the modern
Jews, every male is obliged to have a garment with
fringes at the four corners ; and every morning when
he puts on this garment, he must take the fringes
in his hands, and say, '• Blessed art thou, O Lord
our God, king of the universe ! who halh sanctified
us with his commandments, and commanded us the
commandment of the fringes." Our Lord, in ful-
filling all righteousness, wore also the garment with
the fringes, and this being tlie part of the dress
which more peculiarly marked out the Israelite, the
sick often sought to touch it, that they might be
healed.
LACERATIONS. See Cuttings in the Flesh.
LACHESIS (from Gr. lancliano, to allot), one of
the Fates (which see) among the ancient Greeks
and Romans. The office of Lucliexis was su]ipose<i
to be to tuni the wheel of fate, and thus to determine
the fortune of life.
LACHRYMATORIES, small glass or earthen
vessels, in which, among the ancient heathen, were
put the tears which surviving friends or relatives
wept for the dead. These, with their contents, were
buried with the urns and ashes of the deceased.
LACINIA, a surname of Juno j^which see), under
11.
which she was worshipped in the neighbourhood ot
Croton, where she had a sanctuary.
LACTURCIA, a goddess among the ancient
Romans, who preserved tlie tender plants with theij
milky juice.
LACTURNUS, an ancient Roman divinity, who
was believed to protect the young fruits of the Held.
Some have considered Lactumus to be a surname of
Sattu-n.
LAUY-DAY. See Annunciation.
LAFS-AL-JEMIN (Ileb. the thief on the right
hand), a festival observed by the Syrian Christians
in commemoration of the penitent tliief. This fails
upon the Octave of their Easter.
LAG, the name given by tlie modern Jews to the
festival of the thirty-third of Omer, the Hebrew word
Lag repre.sentiug the number thirty-three. See
O.VIER (Festival of the Tiukty-Thikd of).
LAHA, a tablet suspended in a Budlilst \Vih.4R.4
(wliicli see) in Ceylon, upon which any matter might
be written, about whicli it was intended that the
priests should be informed.
LAITY (Gr. luos, people), a term used, from an
early period in tlie history of Christianity, to denote
the body of the church in contradistinction from the
clergy. The word is not found in the New Testa-
ment, but it occurs in ancient Christian writers.
According to Rheinwald and Gieseler, the distinc-
tion between laity and clergy was unknown till the
second century. Previous to this, all performed
the office of priests as they had occasion, and even
after that time laymen were sometimes heard in the
public assemblies. See Clergy.
LAKSHANA, characteristic beauties or signs of
a supreme Bud'ta. These were di\ided into three
kinds : 1. The 216 Mangahja-lukshima, of which
there were 108 on each foot. 2. The 32 Muha-
purusha-lakshana or superior beauties. 3. The 8
Anairyanjana-lakshana or inferior beauties.
LAKSHMI, a Hindu female divinity, one of the
many consorts of Vishnu, and therefore worshipped
by the Vaishnuva sects, but particularly the followers
of Eumanuja. In the Mahabharat, all divine beings
are alleged to proceed from Krishna, and among
these Lakshmi comes from liis mind; but in one of
the Puranas, Ganesa is represented as calling her
the great Lakshni, the mother of the world, who
was made from the left side of Radha, the lavourite
consort of Vishnu. This goddess is usually described
as possessed of singular beauty and grace, and she is
considered as the goddess of wealth.
LAMAISM, the name which Budhism has assumed
in Thibet. It seems to have found its way into tiiat
country at nearly the same date, — the first century
of our era, — as it was introduced into China, where it
is known by the name of Foism. In Thibet, how-
ever, the divinities, which were worshipped before
the entrance of Budhism, namely, the genii of the
hills and valleys, and woods and rivers, are still
adored by the poorer classes with the express sane-
2 b
290
LAMAISM.
tioii of the Ijuiias; but wliile tliese leimiaiits of the
HiK'ient n-lijrioii are still tolerated, Budhism. which
found a ready acceptance at an early period among
the great mass of the Thibetans, has, since the middle
of the seventh century, continued with sciucely a
siui;Ie interruption to be recognized as the religion
of the whole country. Hence the extensive preva-
lence ill Thibet of a system of religious mendicants.
Lamas or monks are to be foiuid swarming in every
town and district. Jn their olHcial ceremonies they
wear silken vests, adorned witli images, and have a
lettered bonier of sacred texts woven into the scarf.
At every turn the traveller meets some of these
Budhist priests, each of them oirrying in his hand
the Tc/iu-c/ior or prayer-cylinder, a single revolution of
which is considered to be equivalent to a roll of prayers.
In every family, one at least of the children is trained
up to the priestly office. And the peculiar moditi-
cation which Budhkta has assumed in passing into
the form of Lamaisui, fully accounts for the enor-
mous increase in tlie number of Thibetan and Tartar
Lamas over those of other Uudhist countries, lu
Tartary we learn that, with the exception of the eldest
son of each family, all the rest of the children are
reared as Lamas, and accordingly the Ltwiuseries of
that coimtry are built so large as to contain ten,
twenty, and even thirty thousand of these mendicant
monks. In consequence of the enormous number of
priests which are found in Thibet and Tartaiy, the
ordinary law of Biulhism in Ceylon and elsewhere,
which prohibits mendicants from earning their bread
by any manual enqdoyinent, is totally abandoned in
both these countries, so tliat the Lamas are allowed
to follow various trades even while residing in tlie
convents.
The most important of all the moditications which
have been introduced into Budhisni in Tartary and
Thibet is the doctrine of the Grand or 1)al.\i-L.\ma
(which See). This high ofticial ruler, who in former
times was the sole depositary both of temporal and
spiritual power, is believed to be an incarnation of
Gautaiiiii liiid/id, whose spirit still wanders about in
Buccessive births and deaths from Lavui to Lama.
\t hile each of the ordinary jiriests is a cIiaberoH or
incarnate lUiillia (see Huuil.\, LiviNCi), this is more
especially and in a still higher sense true of the
Dalai-Liiiiin. who siis in the shrine of the temple
and is worshipped as a deity, while his supremacy is
acknowledged by all the other inmates of the Lam.v
Dcries in Thibet, Tartary, and China. This notion
of hereditary incarnations seems to have existed
Revei^il centuries before it was introduced into these
countries. Thus Major Cunningham, in his work on
the History and Statistics of Ladak, tells us of one
Urgyan Uiiipcche, who, in the eighth century, was
invited into Thibet, and founded the confraternity of
red I>amas, and who, the Major alleges, was believed
to have been an incarnation of the Hudlia AiaitaUia
iir ()-me-lo, the fourth of the celestial liiulhas of that
rei;iou. We have no mention of any other incarna-
tion until the commencement of the fifteenth cen-
tiuy, when Tsong-l'waba, the Budhist reformer, ap-
peared, who was regarded as an incarnation either of
0-me-to, or of Manjusri. It was not, ho«eser, till
the latter half of the same century that the idea of
perpetual incarnations was fully matured. "Then it
was," says Mr. Hardwick, in his 'Christ and other
Masters,' " that one chief abbot, the ' perfect Lama,'
instead of passing, as he was entitled, to his ultinuite
condition, determined for the benefit of mankind to
sojoimi longer on the earth ami be contimiously new-
born. As soon as he was ciirried to his grave in
1473, a search was instituted for the personage who had
been destined to succeed him. This was found to be
an infiuit, who established its title to the honour by
appearing to remember various articles which were
the property of the Lama just deceased, or rather
were the infant's owni property in earlier stages of
existence. "When the proofs of such identity were
deemed irrefragable, the new candidate was formally
promoted to the vacant chair: and in the fifth abbot
of this series originated the famous hierarchy of the
Dalai-Lamas (in 1040). So fascinating grew the
theory of perpetual incarnations, tliat a fresh succes-
sion of rival Lamas (also of the ijelluiii order) after-
wards took its rise at Teshu-lamby, while the Dalai-
Lamas were enthroned in Lhassa; and at present
every convent of importance, not in Tibet only, but
in distant parts of Tatary, is claiming tor itself a like
prerogative. Kach confraternity believes that the
departed abbot is still actually present with his sub-
jects though enshrouded in a difi'erent body. Con-
scious of the dark malignity of demons, quivering at
the thought of men who practise demoidacal arts and
lead astray by their enchantments, these Tibetians
are 'in bondage to fear;' their oidy refuge is the
presence and superior holiness of one who, by liis
mastery over all the adverse forces of creation, is
believed to rescue his true fiillowers from the lage of
tlieir oppressor. The religion of Tibet is thus from
day to day assuming all the characteristics of man-
worship. Anxious cravings after some invincible
protector, there impel the human spirit to fashion for
itself a novel theory of salvation; and the sight of
one who styles himself incarnate deity excludes all
living faith in Ciod and in the things in\isible."
The Buclhism of Thibet in the form of Lamaism is
not the Budhism of CliAKi.\-MouNl (which see), nor
is it the Biidliism of the earliest race of its disci-
ples as it is seen in Ceylon. The doctrine of an
Al>l-Bui)llA (which see), or a Supreme Creator,
evidently a modern graft upon the ancient syslein of
Budhism, which is essentially athei.slic, is foimd in
Nejnil and portions of Thibet, borrowed probably
from the adjacent Bralimanism of India. And this
origin of the theistic notion of an Adi- Biallia is still
further confirmed by the fact that other ideas have
been derived from the mystical system of the Hindu
I'aiitri.^ls, such as the theory of the liiuihist Hid.lis.
or the female energies of the Dhyani Budlias. Fron.
LAMAISM.
291
the essence of the Adi- Biidlia are beheved to have
sponiaiieoiisly emaniited live iiiteIh;;eMces of the first
order, called celestial Biidhas, which in turn give
origin to other live intelligences of the second order
called BoDHiSATWAS (which see). These last, which
are called in China Pusas, and are esteemed by the
ordinary Foists as gods, are simply links connecting
the Supreme Being or Adi-Bud/ia with the lower
orders of created beings.
Tlie Chakya-Mouni of the Mongolian Tartars has
indeed his votaries in Thibet, not only as the Shakya-
Thubba of Ladak, but as the Sommuna-Kodom or
Gautama of other regions. The Thibetan sacred
books, which extend to one hmidred volumes, are
called Kd-g>/iir, that is, translation of Conunandment,
on account of their being translated from the Sanskrit,
or from the ancient Indian language, by which may be
understood the Pracrita or dialect of Magadlia, tlie
principal seat of tlie Budhist faith in India at that
period. These sacred books were imported into
Thibet, and translated there between the seventh and
thirteenth centmies of our era, but mostly in the
ninth. They are in substance the same as the .sacred
books of Ceylon, though the account of their origin
is widely different.
There is undoubtedly a nearer approximation to
the truth in regard to the nature of the Divine Be-
ing, in the Lamaism of Tartary and Thibet than in
the Budhism of Ceylon. Ajiother jieculiar feature
of Lamaism, is that there are imiumerable liv-
ing Budlias, at the head of which is the Dalai-
Lama. Budha is, neverthele.ss, the sole sovereign
of the universe, with a body, a spiritual sub-
stance, without beginning and without end. But
while there is thus evidently at the foundation of
the system of Lamaism a firm belief in the existence
of one Supreme Being, invisible and incorporeal, it
is mixed up in the doctrine of living Budhas with a
strange species of man-worship, which is so preva-
lent and so engrossing, as to make the great mass of
the people lose sight of all higher notions of the
Divine Being.
Among the Lamaists of Thibet, the doctrine of
metempsychosis occupies a prominent place in their
religious creed ; so that in their opinion to kill any
living creature whatever is to incur the danger of
homicide, since the smallest insect may happen to
be the transmigration of a man. But while the Thi-
betan Lamaists are thus strict in this matter, the
Foists of China have little or no scruple on the sub-
ject of destroying animal life ; and yet to show
some regard for the great Budhist principle, they
now and then dedicate some pigs to Budha, which
are permitted to live their usual term, and die a na-
tural deatli.
■ 4. remarkable analogy has sometimes been pointed
out iLJ rites and customs between the Lamaism of
Thibet a..,d the Christianity of the Middle Ages. This
has been pcarticularly noticed, and partly accounted
fur by M. Hue, himself a Romanist missionary, in his
'Travels in Tartary and Thibet ;' "Upon the most
superticial examination," .says he, " of the reforms
and innovations introduced by Tsong-Kaba into the
Lamanesque worsliip, one must be struck with their
affinity to Catholicism. The cross, the mitre, the
dalmatica, the cope, which the Grand Lamas wear
on their journeys, or when they are performing some
ceremony out of tlie temple ; the service with double
choirs, the psalmody, the exorcisms, the censer, sus-
pended from five chains, and which you c;m open or
close at pleasure ; the benedictions given by the
Lamas by extending the right hand o\'er the heads
of the faithful ; the chaplet, ecclesiastical celibacy,
spiritual retirement, the worship of the saints, the
fasts, the processions, the litanies, the holy water,
all these are analogies between the Budlii.vts and
ourselves. Now, can it be said that these analogies
are of Clu'istian origin ? We think so. We have
indeed found, neither in the traditions nor in the
moiunnents of the country, any positive proof of
their adoption, still it is perfectly legitimate to put
forward conjectures which possess all the character-
istics of the most emphatic probability.
" It is known that, in the fourteenth century, at
the time of the domination of the Mongol emperors,
there existed fiequent relations between the Euro-
peans and the peoples of Upper Asia. We have al-
ready, in the former part of oiu' narrative, referred to
those celebrated embassies which the Tartar conquer-
ors sent to IJome, to France, and to England. There
is no doubt that the barbarians who thus visited Eu-
rope must have been struck with the pomp and splen-
dour of the ceremonies of Cathohc worship, and must
have carried back with them into the desert enduring
memories of what they had seen. On the other hand,
it is also known that, at the same period, brethren of
various religious orders undertook remote pilgrim
ages for the purpose of introducing Christianity into
Tartary ; and these nuist have penetrated at the
same time into Thibet, among the Si-Fan, and among
the Mongols on the Blue Sea. Jean de Montcorvin,
Archbishop of Peking, had already organized a choir
of Mongol monks, who daily practised the recitation
of the psalms, and the ceiemonies of the Catholic
faith. Now, if one reflects that Tsong-Kaba lived
precisely at the period when the Christian religion
was bemg introduced into Central Asia, it will be no
longer matter of astonishment that we tind, in re-
formed Buddhism, such striking analogies with Chris-
tianity."
It is not a little remarkable that these striking
points of similarity between Lamaism and Romanism
are confined to the countries of Tartary and Thiljet.
Lamaism, it must be borne in mind, is not oldei
than the thirteenth century of the present era. Bud-
hism was, no doubt, unknown in Thibet 600 years
before ; but it was only under Kublai-Khan, A. D.
1260, that the adherents of that system were reduced
under the dominion of a regular luerarchy, by the
appointment of the first Grand Lama. At this very
292
LAMAS.
time, wlieii the introduction of the new iiieiarchy was
likely to be accompanied witli otlier changes and
inoditications, the Thibetians were broiiglit into com-
munication with Christianity, more especially in [lie
form of Uomanism. Tlic Khans had at their court
not only Jews. .Mohammedans, and Budhists, but
liomaii Catholic and Nestorian missionaries ; and in
the fourteenth century, the arrival of a strange l^ama
from the far west is said to lune made great changes
ill the aspect of religious worship in Thibet. Hence
ill all probability those peculiar analogies, wliich have
been so distinctly noticed by the Abbe Hue. M.
Abel-K(5uiusat, in hie ' Melanges Asiatiques,' thus
explains the processes by which the innovations re-
ferred to may have been introduced into Lamainm.
" At the time,'' he says, " when the Budhist pa-
triarchs esttiblished thein.selves ia Thibet, the jior-
tioBs of Tartary which adjoined that country were
full of Christians. The Nestorians had founded
cities there, and converted whole uation6. At
a later period the conquesis of the followers of
Giiighis-Khan collected there strangers from all
countries ; Georgians, Armenians, Ivussiaus, French,
Mussulmans, sent thither by the caliph of Bagdad ;
Catholic monks, charged with important nii.-sions by
the sovereign I'ontiff and by St. Louis. These last
carried with them church ornaments, altars, and re-
lics, ' to see,' says Joiuville, ' if they could attract
those people to our faith.' They celebrated the
ceremonies of their religion in the presence of the
Tartar jirinces. These gave them an a.sylum in their
tents, and permitted them to rear chapels, even with-
in the precinets of their palaces. An Italian arch-
bishop, established in the imperial city by order of
Clement V., had built a church there, in which
three bells summoned the faithful to worship, and
he had covered the walls with pictures representing
religious sidyects. Syrian Christians, Roman Ca-
tholics, Schismatics, Mussulmans, Idolaters, .-dl lived
mingled and confounded together at the court of the
Mongol emperors, who were always ready to receive
new modes of worship, and even to .adojit them, pro-
vided that they demanded on their part no belief,
and more especially provided that they imposed upon
them no constraint. We know that the 'i'artars
passed willingly from one sect to another, embraced
a ni-w faith with the utmost ease, and just as readily
rcn<mnced it to relapse again into idolatry. It was
in the midst of these changes that the new seat of
the IJudhisi patriarchs was foimded in Thibet. Is it
at all wondernd, then, that interested in multiplying
the numbiT of their followers, anxious to impart more
•plendi.ur to their W()rshi[., they should have appro-
priated to themselves some liturgical practices, some
of those foreign pompous ceremonies which attracted
the crowd ; that they should have even introduced
wiine of those institutions belonging to the AVcst,
which the ambassadors of the caliph and of the sov-
ereign I'oiiliti' united in praising so highly, and which
<;ircuin8taiicex di.<po.sod them to imitate. The coin-
cidence of places and times authorizes this conjecture,
and a thousand peculiarities, which I cannot men-
tion here, would convert it into demonstration."
The Lamaists of Thibet are strict in their atten-
tion to religious observances of all kinds. Pilgrim-
ages, noisy ceremonies in tlie Lamaseries, prostra-
tions on the tops of their houses, are favourite
exercifies; and even when engaged in ordinary busi-
ness, they carry about with them rosaries, which
they are ever turning and twisting while they lae
incessantly murmuring prayers. Hue meruions
that at Lha-Ssa, where the Dalai-Lama resides,
the people are in the habit of gathering together in
groups in the evening in the jirincipal parts of the
town, and in the public squares, where they kneel
down and chant prayers, which vary according to the
seasons of the year. The prayer, however, which
they repeat on the rosary is always the same, and
consists only of six syllables, Om! Muni-Padme,
Hum, or as it is generally called by way of abbre-
viation simply Mani. This sacred formula is
regarded as of such importance tliat it is in every
one's mouth, and inscribed on the walls and public
places, as well as in the houses.
LAMAS, the Budhist priests of Tartarv and Thi-
bet. They are regarded as incarnations of Budba or
living Budhas, and are presided o\er by the Dalai-
Lama, wiio possesses a readily acknowledged spirit-
ual authority over the whole priesthood, and until a
recent period was possessed of large tracts of coun-
try, over which he exercised imdisputed temporal
sovereignty. Formerly, indeed, the DahiiLama
was the sufjreme ruler of the nation, but at length
one of the royal family, at the death of the principal
Lama, declared that the spirit of the deceased eccle-
siastic had entered into his body, and by this means
be regained the power which had been usurped by
the priests. The dress of the Grand Lama is yel-
low, and that of other Lamas of inferior rank is
red. The Lamas of Chinese Tartary are so muner-
ous, that they amount to about a third of the entire
population; and being luider a law of celibacv, the
Chinese government readily encourage their increase
by gifts and endowments of every kind to check the
growth of the population of the Mongolian Tartars
from a natural tear that, as formerly, they mav j-et
again revolutionize the empire. The Lamas reside
in convents called L<i,maeeric'\ which are built round
about the Budliist temples, like the iciharos of Cey-
lon ; and their time is chieHy spent in prayers for
the people, which are generally conducted by the
Tcilu-cilOK (which see) or prayer cylinder, and in
pursuing the occupation of mendicants to increase
the revenues of the Lamaserii. These convents,
which generally contain thousands of priests, are so
libcndly eudoued, that nearly two-thirds of the p'"''"
ductive lands of Thibet are .said to be appropriated
to the support of the priesthood.
M. Hue represents the Lamas as geneiAlly distin-
guished by their skill in the decorati\o( arts both ol
/
/
LAMAS.
293
painting and sculpture. On tliis subject he says :
'■The Lamas are tlie only artists wlio contribute to
the ornament and decoration of the temples. The
paintings are quite distinct from the taste and the
principles of art as understood in Europe. The fan-
tastical and the grotesque predominate inside and
out, both in carvings and statuary, and the person
ages represented, with the exception of Buddha, have
generally a monstrous and satanic aspect. The
clothes seem never to have been made for the per-
sons upon whom they are placed. The idea given
is that of broken limbs concealed beneath awkward
garments.
" Amongst these Lama paintings, however, you
sometimes come across specimens by no means des-
titute of beauty. One day, during a visit in the
kingdom of Gechekten to the great temple called
Alfon-Somne (Temple of Gold), we saw a picture
which struck us with astonishment. It was a large
piece representing, in the centre, Buddha seated on
a rich carpet. Around this figure, which was of life
size, there was a sort of glory, composed of minia-
tures, allegorically expressing the Thousand Virtues
of Buddha. We could scarcely withdraw ourselves
from this picture, remarkable as it was, not only for
tlie puritv and grace of the design, but also for the ex-
pression of the faces and the splendour of the colour-
ing. All the personages seemed full of life. We
asked an old Lama, who was attending us ovci- the
place, wliat he knew about this admiralile wurk.
'Sirs,' said he, raising his joined hands to his fore-
head in token of respect, ' thisi)icture is atreasm-e of
the remotest antiquity ; it comprehends within its
surfeee the whole doctrine of Buddlia. It is not a
Mongol painting ; it came from Thibet, and was exe-
cuted by a saint of tlie Eternal Sanctuari/.'
" The artists here are, in general, more successful
in the landscapes than in the epic subjects. Flowers,
birds, trees, mythological animals, are represented
with great truth and witii infinitely pleasing effect.
The colouring is wonderfully full of life and fresh-
ness. It is only a pity that the painters of these
landscapes have so very indiiferent a notion as to
per.-;pective and chiaro-oscuro.
" The Lamas are far better sculptors than paint-
ers, and they are aecorditigly very lavish of carv-
ings in their Buddhist temples. Everyvvliere in and
about these edifices you see works of tliis class of
art, in quantity bespeaking tlie fecundity of the
artist's chisel, but of a qn.ality which says little for
Ids taste. First, outside the temples are an infi-
nite number of tigers, lions, and elephants croncliing
upon blocks of granite ; then the stone balustrades
of the steps leading to the great gates are covered
.with fantastic sculptures representing birds, reptiles,
110 i beast.s, of all kinds, i-eal and imaginary. Inside,
five g-ills are decorated with relievos in wood or
more th-ecuted with great spirit and truth."
lishments, .-as are considered as of two parties, which
city reside n'ly the names of Red Cap Lamas and
Yellow Cap Lamas. The former are by fsir the
most ancient of the confraternities, having originated
as early as the eighth century after Christ ; while
the latter did not exist until the middle of the
fourteenth century, when they arose under the aus-
pices of the great Budhist reformer Tseng Kaba.
By degrees the Yellow Caps became the predomi-
nant sect, and the reforms proposed by Tsong Kaba
were adopted throughout Thibet, and afterwards be-
came, by imperceptible degrees, established in all the
kingdcnns of Tartary. The Bonzei of China still
retain the ancient rites, witli the exception of some
innovations whicli belong to particular localities ; but
the distinction between the two classes of Lamas is
retained in Ciiina. those who adliere to the reformed
faith of Tsong Kaba being known as the Yellow,
while those who cleave to the old worship are termed
the Grey Lamas. Tliese two sects were at one time,
doubtless, violently opposed to each other, but now
they live together in perfect harmony.
From the immense numbers of Lainas found in
Tartary and Thibet, the traveller cannot fail to be
struck with the difficulty of meeting the expenses of
such a large staff of priests by public endowments.
In addition to the lands which go towards their
maintenance, the authorities make a distribution oi
meal every third month to all the Lamas without dis-
tinction, but the quantity is altogether inadequate ;
and, accordingly, this government grant is supple-
mented by the voluntary oflerings of the jiilgrims,
which, however, are divided among the Lamas ac-
cording to the position which each holds in the hier-
archy, and, accordingly, there are many who receive
nothing at all from this source. In addition to the
ofl'erings which are made, either in tea or money,
the Lamas earn a subsistence for themselves by
some handicraft trade or by engaging in commerce ;
and some of tliem by printing and transcribing the
Lamauesqne books. The art of medicine, also, is
wholly in the hands of the Lamas, chiefly from an
impression which prevails among the Tartars, that
every disease is caused by the visitation of a demon,
who must, therefore, be expelled by a priestly exor-
cism before the patient can possibly recover.
The Materia Medkaoithe Lamas is almost wholly
limited to pulverized vegetables, either in the form
of infusion or pills ; but if no medicine should hap-
pen to be at hand, the Lama, not in the least dis-
concerted, simply writes the names of a few reme-
dies upon scraps of paper, which having moistened
he rolls up into the form of pills, administering them
to the patient, who confidently swallows them, be-
lieving that to swallow the name of a remedy is
equally efficacious with swallowuigthe remedy itself.
Having acted the physician, the Lama next proceeds
to act the priest, repeating prayers suited to the
rank of the Tchutgour or demon lo be expelled. If
the patient be poor, the exorcism is a brief oft"hand
process, but if he be rich, the process is lengthened
out by numerous prayers and ceremonies. M. Hue
294
LAMAS.
mentions the case of a wealthy chiefs aunt, who
havini; faUen sick, a Lama was sent for, who in-
stantly declared that the jmtient was under the in-
fluence of a demon of considerable rank, who must
be forthwith expelled at whatever cost. Eight otlier
Lamas were called in, who set about constructing
from dried herbs, a large figure which they called the
Demon of Intermittent Fevers, and which when
completed they placed on its legs by means of a stick
in the patient's tent.
"The ceremony," .says M. Hue, "began at eleven
o'clock at night ; the Lamas ranged themselves in a
semicircle round the upper portion of the tent, with
cymbals, sea-shells, bells, tambourines, and other
instruments of the noisy Tartar music. The re-
mainder of the circle was completed by the members
of the family, .squatting on the ground close to one
another, the patient kneeling, or rather crouched on
her heels, opposite the Demon of Iiitermitteal Fevers.
The Lama doctor-in-chief had before him a large
cop|ier basin tilled with millet, and some little images
made of paste. The dung-fiiel threw, amid much
smoke, a fantastic and quivering light over the
strange scene.
'■ Upon a given signal, the clerical orchestra exe-
cuted an overture harsh enough to frigliten Satan
himself, the lay congregation beating time with their
hands to the charivari of cknging instruments and
ear-splitti:ig voices. The diabolical concert over, the
Grand Lama opened tlie Book of Exorcisms, which
he rested on his knees. As be chanted one of tlie
forms, he took from tlie basin, from time to time, a
handful of millet, which he threw east, west, north,
and south, according to the Uiibric. The tones of
his voice, as he prayed, were sometimes moin-nful
and suppressed, sometimes vehemently loud and
energetic. All of a sudden, he would quit the re-
gular cadence of prayer, and have an outburst of ap-
parently indomitable rage, abusing the herb puppet
svith tierce invectives and furious gestures. Tlie
exorcism terminated, he gave a signal by .stretching
out his arms, right and left, and the other Lamas
struck up a tremendously noisy chorus, in hurried,
dashing tones; all the instruments were set to work,
and meantime the lay congregation, having started
up with one accord, ran out of the tent, one after the
other, and tearing roitnd it like mad people, beat it
at their hardest with sticks, yelling all the while at
the pitch of their voices in a manner to make ordi-
nary hair stand on end. Having thrice performed
this demoniac round, they re-entered the tent as pre-
cipitately as they had cpiitted it. and resumed their
scats. Then, all tlie others covering their faces with
their hands, the Grand L.ima rose and set tire to the
herb figure. As soon as the llanies rose, he uttered
H loud cry, which was repeated with interest by the
rest of the company. The laity immediately rose,
seized the burning figure, carried it into the plain,
away from the tents, and there, as it consumed,
anathematized it with all sorts of imprecations; the
Lamas meantime squatted in the tent, tranquilly
chanting their prayers in a grave, solemn tone.
" Upon the return of the family from their valor-
ous expedition, the praying was exchanged for joy-
ous felicitations. By-and-bj", each person provided
with a lighted torch, the whole party rushed simul-
taneously from the tent, and fonned into a proces-
sion, the laymen tirst, then the patient, supported on
either side by a member of the family, and lastly, the
nine Lamas, making night hideous with their music.
Li tliis style the patient was conducted to another
tent, ])ursuant to the orders of the Lama, who had
declared that she must absent herself from her own
habitation for an entire month.
" After tills strange treatment, the niaLidy did not
return. The probability is, that the Lamas, having
ascertained the precise moment at which the fever-
fit would recur, met it at the exact point of time by
this tremendous counter-excitement, and overcame
it."
The Lamas are invited also to officiate at funerals,
not, however, in every case, but oidy when the de-
ceased is wealthy, and in consequence the process of
burning the corpse is conducted with great solemnity.
On such occasions the Lamas suiTOund the tomb
during the combustion and recite prayers. The pro-
cess of burning being completed, they destroy the fur-
nace, and carry the bones to the Grand Lama, who
reduces them to a tine powder, and having added to
them an eipial quantity of meal, he kneads the
whole with care, and constructs with his own hands
cakes of different sizes, which be places one upon the
other in the form of a jiyramid. These cakes thus
prepared by the Grand Lama are conveyed with
great pomp to a little tower which has been built
beforehand to receive them.
In the ordinary prayers in the Budliist temples,
the Lamas having been summoned by the loud soujid
of a sea-conch, enter barefooted and in solemn si-
lence, and after three prostrations to the living
Budha, take their seats on a divan cross-legged and
always in a circle. The whole service consists of
prayers, which are murmured with a low voice, and
psalms which are sung in a grave, melodious tone,
interrupted, however, at certain intervals by instru-
mental music, so loud and harsh and dissonant as to
be altogether out of keeping with the rest of the
exercises.
The Lamas, though all of tliem possessing a sa-
cred chai'acter, and held in great reverence by the
people, are by no means uniform in their mode of
life. Some of them, under the name of Domestic
Lamas, either settle in the small Lamaseries, or live
at home with their families, retaining little more of
their priestly office than its red and yellow dre.ss.
Another class consists of Wandering Lamas, w'"'
travel from place to place all over their own anrf tbe
adjacent countries, subsisting on what provisions
they may pick up on their Journey. A, 'bird cla.ss
is composed of the Lamas who live iii/conimuniry,
LAMASEKY,
295
aud pay more attentiou than the otiier Lamas to
prayer and study. These form the inmates of a
Lamasery (which see). In Tartary tlie Lamas do
not embrace the profession of the pnesthood from
intelligent and deliberate choice, but are destined to
it from birth by their parents. As they jji'ow up
tliey become accustomed to the life of a Lama, and
in course of time they come generally to prefer it to
every other. Some are found to retire to places of
seclusion, and pass their days in comtemplation and
devotion. Such contemplative Lamas, however, are
by no means numerous.
L.A.MASERY, a collection of small houses built
around one or more Budhist temples in Tartary and
Thibet as a residence for the Lamas. Its size and
elegance is wholly dependent on the means of the
proprietor. In Tartary tiie Lamaseries are all con-
structed of brick and stone. Oidy the poorest
L;imas build their dwellings of earth, and even these
are so well whitewashed that it is difficult to distin-
guish them from the rest. In some cases grants are
made from the public treasury to assist in the erec-
tion of Budhist temples, with their accompanying
Lamaseries, but the greater part of the expense is
defrayed by voluntary subscription. Lama collec-
tors go forth properly attested to gather the neces-
sary funds, carrying with them a sacred basin for
the purpose. " They disperse themselves through
out the kingdom of Tartary, beg alms from tent to
tent in the name of the Old Buddha. Upon enter-
ing a tent and explaining the object of their journey,
by showing the sacred basin in which the ofierings
are placed, they are received with joyful enthusiasm.
There is no one but gives something. The rich
place in the ' badir' ingots of gold and silver; those
who do not possess the precious metals, oli'er oxen,
horses, or camels. The poorest contribute according
to the extent of their means ; they give lumps of
butter, furs, ropes made of the hair of camels and
horses. Thus, in a short time, are collected immense
sums. Then, in these deserts, apparently so poor,
you see rise up, as if by enchantment, edifices whose
grandeur and wealth would defy the resum-ces of the
richest potentates."
Some of the Tartar Lamaseries are so large — for
exauiple the Great Kouren — that they are capable of
accommodating 30,000 Lamas. The plain unassuming
residences of the Lamas contrast strongly with the
elegance of the temples around which they are
placed. The houses of the superior, however, dider
from those of the other Lamas, by ha\ing each of
them a small pagoda or tower, at the top of which
Hies a triangular tlag of some gay colour, with the
rank of the inuiate inscribed upon it hi letters of
gold. Blue Town in Tartary is more particularly
noted for its Lamaseries, there being within its walls,
five great buildings of this kind, each inhabited by
more than 2,000 Lamas, besides fifteen lesser estab-
lishments, connected with the former. In that single
city reside no fewer than 20,000 regular Lamas, nut
to speak of a multitude in ditierent quarters of the
town engaged in commerce. The rinest of all the
Lamaseries in Blue Town, is that which is termed
the Lamasery of the Five Towers, in which the
Hobilgan lives, that is, a Grand Lama, who after
having been identitied with the substance of Budha,
has already undergone several times the process of
transmigi'ation.
The Ijamaseries in Tartary have generally endow-
ments from the public funds, and at certain seasons
of the year the revenues are divided among tlie
Lamas according to their ecclesiastical dignity. The
Chaberons or Living Budhas are generally placed at
the head of the most important Lamaseries, aud to
receive the benediction of one of these incarnations
of Budha, is imagined to convey so many advantages,
that the convent in which he resides soon becomes a
place of great resort, and rapidly rises to fame in the
country. " There is no Tartar kingdom," says M.
Hue, the only authority on the subject, " which does
not possess, in one of its Lamaseries of the first
class, a li™ig Buddha. Besides tins superior, there
is always another Grand Lama, who is selected from
the members of the royal family. T'he Thibetian
Lama resides in the Lamasery, like a living idol,
receiving every day the adorations of the devout,
upon whom in retm-n he bestows his blessing. Every-
thing which relates to prayers and liturgical cere-
monies, is placed under his immediate superinten-
dence. The Mongol Grand Lama is charged with
the administration, good order, and executive of the
Lamasery ; he governs whilst his colleague is con-
tent to reign.
"Below these two sovereigns, are several subal-
tern officers, who direct the details of the adminis-
tration, the revenues, the sales, the purchases, and
the discipline. The scribes keep the registers, and
draw up the regulations and orders which the gover-
nor Lama promulgates for the good keeping and
order of the Lamasery. These scribes are generally
well versed in the Mongol, Thibetian, and some-
times in the Chinese and Mantchou languages.
Before they are admitted to this employment, they
are obliged to undergo a very rigorous examination,
in presence of all the Lamas and of the principal
civil authorities of the country.
" After this stati' of superiors and officers, the in-
habitants of the Lamasery are divided into Lama-
masters and Lama-discipies or Chabis ; each Lama
has under his direction one or more Chabis, who live
in bis small house, and execute all the details of the
household. If the master possesses cattle, they take
charge of them, milk the cows, and prepare the but-
ter and cream. In return for these services, the
master directs his disciples in the study of the
prayers, and initiates them into the liturgy. Every
morning the Chabi must be up before Ins master;
his first task is to sweep the chamber, to light a
tire and to make the tea; after that he takes his
prayer-book, presents it respectfully to his master
r-
296
I.AMI.E -LAMPADON HEMEUA.
»nd prostrates himself thrice before liiin, witliout
baying a single worii. This sign of respect is equi-
valent to a reiiiiest tliat tlic lesson he has to leani in
the course of the ilav may be markeil. The master
opens th(>. book, and reads some pages, accoi'ding to
the capacity of his scholar, who then makes three
more prostrations in sign of thardcs, and returns to
his ati'airs.
"TheChabi studies his prayer-book, when he is
disposed to do so, there being no lixed period for
tliat ; he may spend his time, sleeping or romping
with the other yoimg pupils, without the sliglitest
interference on the part of liis master. When the hour
for retiring to bed lias arrived, he recites the lesson
assigne<I him in the morning, in a monotonous man-
ner; if the recitation is good, he is looked upon as
having done his duty, the silence of his master being
the onl}' praise he is entitled to obtain ; if, on the
contrary, he is not able to give a good account of his
lesson, the severest punishment makes him sensible
of his fault. It often happens, that under such cir-
cumstances, the master, laying aside his usual gra-
vity, rushes upon his .scholar, and overwhelms him
at once with blows and terrible maledictions. Some
of the pupils, who are over maltreated, run away
and seek adventures tar from tlieir Lamasery; but
in general they patiently submit to the puuishmeut
indicted on them, even that of passing the night in
the open air, witliout any clothes and in full winier.
We often had opportunities of talking with Chabis,
and when we asked them whetlier there was no
means of learning the prayers without being beaten,
they ingenuously, and with an accent manifesting
entire conviction, replied, that it was impossible."
Among the Budhists, a devotee acquires peculiar
merit by making the circuit of a Lamasery, prostrat-
ing himself with his forehead to the ground, at every
step he takes. This ceremony must be performed
without intermission, so strictly that the pilgrims are
not permitted, on pain of losing all spiritual benefit,
to pause for even a single moment. Each prostra-
tion must he iierfcct, so that the body .'shall bo
stretched Hat along the ground, and the forehead
touch the earlh, while the arms are spread out in
front, and the hands joined as if in the exercise of
prayer. Before rising the pilgrim describes each
time a .semicircle on the ground bv means of a goat's
horn, which he holds in either hand, the line being
completed by drawing the arm down to the side.
All devotees, however, do not subject themselves to
this difficult and even painful exercise. Sonielimes,
instead of prostrating themselves while they are per-
forming the circuit, they carry with them instead, a
load of prayer-books, and in tliis case, when they have
completed the circuit wilh their heavy burden, tliey
are considered to have recited all the prayers con-
tained in the books they have carried. Another
mode of performing the pilgrimage round a Lama-
sery ia by simply walking the circuit, wliile the de-
votee employs himself in counting the beads of his
long chai)let, or turning the wheel of hi.s Ti-liu-Clior
or prayer-cylinder.
Lha-Ssa in Thibet is the chief seat of Budhist
worship, being the residence o( the Dalui-Lama. In
tliis district alone there are counted more than thirty
large Lamaseries, the principal of which, those of
Khaldan, of Prebomig, and of Sera, contain each of
them nearly 15,000 Lamas. The last mentioned of
these convents is remarkable for three large temples
of several stories high, all the rooms of which are
entirely gilt. Hence the name Sera, which in Thi-
betian signities golden. In the chief of these three
temples is contained the famous Toutche (which
see), or .sanctifying instrument, which is held in
great veneration, and at the New Year's festival is
carried in procession with great pomp to Lha-Ssa to
be adored by the people.
LAMB OF GOD. See Agnu.s Dei.
LAMB PASCHAL. See Passover.
LAMBETH ARTICLES. See Ajcticles (Lam-
beth).
LAMIvE, evil spirits, believed by the ancient
Greeks and Romans to assume tlie form of beautiful
women, and to entice away young children for the
jiurpose of devouring them. The notion w.as thought
to have had its origin in iin ancient legend, which
represented Lamia, a Libyan queen of singular
beaiUy, to have attracted the regards of Zms, and
thus brought upon herself tlie jealou.'-y of Hem, who
in revenge robbed her of her children. Lamia, in
revenge and despair, robbed others of their children,
and cruelly devoured them. Hence arose the story
of Lamia or cruel spirits, who excited great alarm.
Horace mentions them in his Art of Poetry.
LAMMAS-DAY, a festival celebrated in the
Romish church on the 1st of August, annually, in
memory of the imprisonment of tlie Apostle Peter.
LAMPADARY^, an officer in the Greek church,
whose duty it is to light up the church as occasion
requires, and supply the lamps with oil.
LAMPADEPHORIA, (Gr. tampan, a torch, and
jilicro, to carry), games among the ancient Greeks,
which consisted in carrying an unextinguished torch
through certain distances by a successive chain of
runners, each taking it up at the point where another
left it. The iir.st. after running with it a certain
distance, handed it to the second, and the second, in
like manner, to the third, those who let the torch go
out, losing the game. It is difficult to ascertain what
was the precise origin of these games ; but in all pro-
bability they were connected with the worship of
Prometheus, who was alleged to have been the first
who brought tire down from heaven for the use of
man. But as the race-course extended from the
altar of the three gods, who were the patrons of
lire, namely, Pr(mielheiui, Athena, and Hepluiisins, to
the Acrojiolis. the Lampac/eplioria were, no doubt,
intended to do honour to these three deities, who
had given and tantrht men the use of tire.
LAMPAItOX HEM ERA (Gr. theday of torches),
L AMP— I.AM PETI ANS.
297
the name given to the fifth day of the Eleusinian
Mysteries (which see), because on that day the
initiated marched two and two in procession, eacli
witl> a torch in liis hand, into the temple of Ceres at
Eleiisis. In tliis procession the Dadtioli with a large
torch led the way. The torches were passed from
hand to liand, and the smoke and flames whicii tliey
caused were believed to impart a purifying influence
upon all around. The use of torches on this occa-
sion is supposed to have originated from the circum-
stance that Ceres, while wandering through the
earrh in search of her lost child, liglited her path by
torches.
L.-V^IP (The), a ceremony practised by the Ma-
RONITE Church (which see), by way of anoint-
ing for the sick. They make a cake somewhat
larger than the consecrated water of the Romanists,
and put upon it seven pieces of cotton twisted with
little pieces of straw, and put all together into a ba-
son with some oil. Having read a portion of one of
the gospels and epistles, with some prayers, they set
fire to all the cottons. They now anoint with this
oil the forehead, breast, and arms of every one pre-
sent, and ])articularly of the sick person, saying at
each unction, '' May the Almighty, by this sacred
unction, pardon all thy sin.s, and strengthen thy
limbs as he did those of the poor man who was trou-
bled with the palsy." Then they let the lamp biu'u
till all the oil is exhausted. This rite is administered
not to the dying, as in the case of the extreme unc-
tion of the Romish church, but to tliose who are
sick, even though not mortally.
LAMPS. In all ages we liiid lamps used in the
religious rites and customs of various nations. A
burning lamp is inentir)ued at a very early period in
connection with tlie ratilication of the covenant made
with Abraliam. Thus Gen. xv. 17, " Audit came to
pass, that when the sun went down, and it was dark,
behold a smoking furnace, and a burning lamp that
passed between those pieces." In illustration of this
very ancient mode of ratifying a covenant, Roberts
remarks, " It is an interesting fact, that the burning
lamp or tire is still used in the East in contirmatioii
of a covenant. Should a person in the evening make
a solemn promise to perform something for another,
and sliould the latter doubt his word, the former will
say, pointing to the flame of the lamp, ' That is the
witness.' On occasions of greater importance, when
two or more join in a covenant, should the iidelity of
any be questioned, they will say, ' AYe invoke the
lamp of the Temple.' AVhen an agreement of this
kind has been broken, it will be said, 'Who would
have thought this, for the lamp of the Temple was
invoked.'"
The Jews were accustomed in ancient times to
light lamps at their festivals, and particularly at the
feast instituted by Judas Maccab?eus, whicli, from
that circum.stance, received the name of the Feast of
Lights. Herodotus, the father of profane history,
mentions a feast under this name, which was cele-
11.
brated among the ancient Egyptians. "They also
meet," he says, " at Sais to otier sacrilice during a
certain night, when every one lights in the open air
a number of lamps around his house. The lamps
consist of small cups filled with salt and oil, having
a wick floating in each, which burns all night. This is
called the ' Feast of the burning of Lamps.'" In the
il/((ffe)«n.sof the Singhalese Budhists, where the sacred
books are read, lamps ,and lanterns are suspended in
great profusion and variety, and it is accounted an
act of merit for the people to hold lamps in their
hands or upon their heads while the priests are
reading. In many ancient nations the scpidchres
were wont to be lighted up with lamps, which were
kejrt constantly burning. This is still the custom in
Japan, where, in the case of a wealthy man who has
died, 150 lamps are kept constantly buriung in his
tomb. Lamps, indeed, have in all ages been a com-
mon ornament in the temples of the heathen, espe-
cially on festivals. Tertullian and Lactantius both
of them speak of this custom as prevailing among
the heathen. The Christians, also, seem to have
learned this custom from the idolaters around them.
Keiice we find one of the Apostolical canons forbid-
ding Christian.? to cairy oil to any heathen temple,
or Jewish synagogue, or to .set up lights on their fes-
tivals under j)cnalty of excommunication. In a
canon also of the council of Eliberis, Christians are
prohibited from setting up lamps in public under the
same penalty. It is plain, therefore, from the very
exi.stence of such canons, that siune tendency must
have been shown by the Christians to imitate the
heathen in the use of lamps as an essential part of
certain religious rites.
L.\.\IPS (Festival of'!, celebrated ammally in
Rajast'han, in honour of the Hindu goddess Laksh-
Jll (which see). This brilliant festival is called the
DeiraU, when every city, village, and encampment
exhibits a most brilliant .spectacle. For week.s be-
fore workmen are busy night and day in the
manufacture of lamps for the occasion, and all ranks,
from the palace to the cottage, jirovide themselves
with these means of illumination in a form more or
less costly. Stuffs, pieces of gold, and sweetmeats,
are carried in trays, and consecrated at the temple
of Lakshnii, to whom the day is consecrated. The
Rana, on this occasion, honours his prime minister
with his presence at dhnier, and this chief officer of
state, who is always of the mercantile caste, pours
oil into a terra cutta lamp, which his sovereign holds ;
the same libation of oil is permitted by each of the
near relations of the minister. On this day it is in-
cumbent upon every votary of Lak-/imi to try the
chance of the dice, and from their success in the
dewali, the prince, the chief, the merchant, and the
artizan foretell the state of their coffers for the en-
suing year.
LAMPETIANS, an early Christian sect who
maintained that the Sabbath ought to be lield as a
fast. Another sect, bearing this name, was founded I
2c i
298
LAMPTEU— T.AXTERNS (Chinese Feast of).
in tlie seveiiteemli ceiiturv by Lampetiiis, a Syrian
monk, wlio seeins to liave embraced opinions unfa-
vourable to monastic vows. He held tliat as man is
born free, no Christian ought to do any thing com-
pulsorily or by neces.sity. Hence lie denied the
lawl'uhiess of all vow.s even those of obedience.
LAMPTKR, the torchbearer, a .surname of Dw-
uyaus, under which he was worshipped at Pellene, in
Achaia, where a festival c;illed Lamptn-ia was cele-
brated in liommr of this god.
L.AXITHO, a demon of the air, worshipped among
the inhabitants of the Molucca islands.
L.VNTEUN'S fCHiNESE Fe.4ST of), a festival ob-
.served on the first full moon of the New year. Its
chief characteristic seems to be,that it affords a display
of ingenuity and taste iu the construction and meclia-
ni.sm of an infiiute variety of lanterns made of silk,
varnish, horn, paper, and .glass, some of them sup-
plied with moving figures of men galloping on horse-
back, fighting or performing various feats, togetlier
with numerous representations of bpasts, birds, and
other living creatures, the whole in full motion. The
moving principle is a horizontal wheel turned by the
draught of air created by the heat of the lamp. The
circular motion is coninumicated in various directions
by tine threads attached to the moving tigures. The
following is a graphic description of the gay specta-
cle which a Chinese town presents on this strange
festival: "The scene by night was sutficiently gay
and exciting. Thousands upon thousands of large
transparent lanterns of all colours, and covered with
tigures and large black Chinese characters, lined the
sides of the street, in which men, women, and chil-
dren were walking to and fro, dressed in their gay-
est and best holiday suits. Here Chinese music
broke on the ear as some merry parties went by in
hired carriiiges, and here a stationary orchestra sent
forth still louder and more joyous strains. Here was
a theatre, quite open in front and on both its flanks,
on which grotescpiely attired actors were performing
popular comedies and farces : and here a highly ex-
cited group was listening attentively to a street-
reader or itinerant story-teller, who was reciting. some
great and marvellous incident that occiuTed thou-
Hands of years ago. Other groups of t^hinamen were
listening with eager ears to inventive fortune-tellers,
who were promising wealth, health, long life, and
unalloyed baiipiness, to all such as coidd afford to
pay well for the predictions. Children belonging to
the upper classes, decked out in the gayest-coloured
and most fantastic clothing, were slowly drawn about
in little low carls, and increased the universal hidi-
bub with their shrill voices. Here an immense crowd
was amused with the tricks of a lad dressed up as a
tiger, with a monstrous head and two glaring lamps
for eyes, who crouched, sprang, and Jumped about
like the real wild beast, to the accompaniment of a
most unearthly music ; and here a .still greater crowd
was collected round .several men. who had their bo-
dies painted like tigers, a tail stuck on behind, and
a chain round the waist, which was held by other
men supposed to be their keepers. This was the
true Chinese ' game of tigers.' The fellows, mus-
cular and exceedingly nimble, imitated the mo>e-
iTients of the wild beast admirably, and some of tliein
so fully entered into the character and worked them-
.selves up to such a pitch of excitement, that they
seized and tore to pieces with their teeth a live kid
that was thrown among them. The profession is
hereditary : there are whole families that bear the
soubriquet of ' Tigers,' and in which the boys, as soim
as they are strong enough to bear the fatigue, aie
taught by their fathers to personate the animal, and
imitate its every action or movement.
"The brilliantly illuminated junks were gliding
over the tranquil bosom of the lake, and ininmiera
ble kites, with small bright lanterns appended to
them, -were Hying in the calm blue heavens, now
surmounting and now crossing each other like so
many gigantic fire-flies ; and as kite-flying is not in
China solely a juvenile amnsement, many of these
toys or playthings were put up and held by men of
mature age and with portentous pig-tails. In a sort
of amphitheatre, lighted up with lanterns and torches,
other men, yoiuig and old. were busily engaged in
shuttle-cock, using, not their hands and battledores
as we do, but their feet.
"In another endosm-e were quail fights and cock
fights, with people betting desperately on the issue.
But gambling of some kind or other was rife in
nearly every quarter, as was also the noxious prac-
tice of opium-smoking. On either side of the streets
were low stalls, illuminated with coloured lamps, be-
hind which were seated the retailers of all manner of
sweets and confectionery, who, to attract the passers-
by, knocked two pieces of wood together, and pro-
claimed with stentorian voice the excellence of their
connmjdities ; and from the pathway on this side
and on that, merry parties were seen in the open
shoiis, enjoying themselves with cards, dice, songs,
instrumental music, frolics and games, and other
amusements. Unhappily, besides the opium-smnking
and the gambliiig, other vices were exhibited in the
most barefaced manner, and scenes occurred which
made the good missionary thrill with horror, and feel
more than ever how blessed a thing it would be to
instil into these benighted profligate people the pre-
cepts of the gospiel and the saving spirit of Chris-
tianity."
The Chinese ascribe the origin of this strange fes-
tival to a misfortune which befell a certain mandarin
whose daughter, as she was walking one evening on
the bank of a river, accidentally fell into the water
and was drowned. The disconsolate fatlicr ran to
her assistance, attended by all his domestics. In order
to discover the body of his child, he put out to sea
altmg with the inhabitanis of the place, bearing each
in his hand a lighted lantern. The whole night was
spent in search of the corpse, but in vain. The
vear following, on the same davofthe month, the
LANTERNS Japanese Feast op)— LAPLANDERS (Religion of).
299
banks of tlie river were again liglited np with num-
berless lanterns, and from tliat time the custom was
annually observed, of holding a Feast of Lanterns.
Tiie classical reader, in perusing the account of this
Chinese festival, will probably call to mind the Ce-
renlia of the ancient Romans, when women ran up
and down with lighted torches in memory of the
mode in which Ceres wandered in search of her
daughter Proserpine. It has been supposed, how-
ever, that the Chinese borrowed the notion of tliis
festival from a similar practice adopted by the an-
cient Egyptians in honour of Isis. (See L.\MPS.)
Another Chinese legend gives a different origin to
the feast, deriving it from an extravagant project of
one of their emperors, who shut himself up with liis
concubines in a raagniticent palace, which he |)ur-
posely erected, and liglited up with immense lan-
terns suspended from the roof, tliat he might always
have a serene and Inminous sky over liis head, whicli
might, in course in time, make him forget the va-
rious revolutions of the old world. The subjects of
the foolish emperor, enraged at his conduct, rose in
rebellion, and dcniolislied his splendid palace. Li
order to transmit to posterity this event in tlieir his-
tory, the Chinese instituted the Feast of Lanterns,
which has been ever since recognized as an estab-
lished festival.
LANTERNS (Japanese Feast ok), the lifteenth
day of tlie seventli Japanese month is set apart as a
festival devoted to the honour of parents and ances-
tors. Every .Japanese, whose jiarents are still alive,
considers this a happy day. On the evening of tlie
thirteenth, the Ifays (whicli see), are taken from
their cases, and a repast set before tliem of vegeta-
bles and fruits. In the middle is set a vase in wliich
perfumes are burnt, and other vases containing
flowers. Towards e\'ening lanterns suspended from
long bamboos, are lighted before each gravestone,
and a supply of provisions laid down for the refresh-
ment of the spirits of the dead. The same cere-
mony is repeated on the fifteenth day of the month.
Before daylight on the sixteenth, the articles placed
at the gi-aves are packed into small boats of straw,
provided with sails of paper or cloth, which are car-
ried in procession with vocal and instrumental music
to tlie water-side, where they are launched by way
of dismissing the soids of the dead who are supposed
now to return to their graves. "This festival," says
Titsingh, speaking of its celebration at Nagasaki,
'' produces a highly picturesque effect. Outside the
town, the view of it from the island Desinia is
one of the most beautiful. The spectator would
almost imagine that he beheld a torrent of fire pour-
ing fi'om the hill, owing to the immense number of
small boats that are carried to the shore to be turned
adrift on the sea. In the middle of the night, and
when there is a brisk wind, the agitation of the
water causing all these lights to dance to and fro,
])i-odnces an enchanting scene. The noise and
bustle in the town, the sound of gongs and the
voices of the priests, combine to form a discord that
can scaixely be conceived. The whole bay seems to
be covered with iynes fatui. Though these barks
have sails of paper, or stronger stuff, very few of
them pass the place where our ships lie at anchor.
In spite of the guards, thousands of paupers rush
into the water to secure the small copper coin and
other things placed in them. Next day, they strip
the barks of all that is left, and the tide cjirries them
out to sea. Thus terminates this ceremony."
LANTHILA, a malignant deity worshijiped by
the inhabitants of the Molucca Islands. To this
evil being all the Nito-' or wicked spirits are subject.
LAOSYNACTES, officers in the Greek church,
whose duty it is to coUfict together tlie deacons and
the people.
LAO-TSE, the founder of the Chinese sect of the
Taoists (which see).
LAPIIR.^US, a surname oi Ai]olh< at Calydon.
L.A.PHRIA, a surname oi Artanis atCalydon. It
was also a surname of Athena.
L.\PHRIA, a festival celebrated every year at
PatrsB in Achaia, in honour of Artemis. Pausauias
gives a minute description of tlie mode of its cele-
bration. Around the altar of the goddess were
placed a number of pieces of green wood, each six-
teen vards long, and steps were made to lead up to
the altar. The festival opened with a gorgeous pro-
cession, which marched to the temple of Artemis,
followed by the priestess, who rude in a chariot
drawn by stags. On the second day animals of dif-
ferent kinds were sacrificed, by being thrown alive
on a pile of dry wood, which had been previously
laid upon the altar, and was now set on fire. Thus
the animals were consumed.
L.-VPHYSTIUS, a surname of Zcit.t, and also of
D!(>mi>iiis, probably derived tVuni a mountain in
Bieotia.
LAPIS (Lat. a stone), a suniame of Jiip/ter at
Rome, a stone being sometimes set up as a symbol
of the god, and ui several representations of this
deity he was made to carry a stone in his hand hi-
.stead of a thunderbolt.
LAPL.A.NDERS (Religion of). This country
is the most northenily part of Europe, bordering in-
deed upon the Arctic Ocean. Both the Lapps and
the Finns appear to have occupied a much larger
portion of Scandinavia than they at present possess.
These two people, however, are supposed to belong
to distinct races, ch;u-acterizcd by diiferent physiolo-
gical and p.sycbological peculiarities. The Lapji is
remarkable for his obstinac)', suspicion, and child-
ishness, while the Finn is noted for his energy and
austere earnestness. The Lapps consider it an hon-
our to belong to the Finns, but the Finns look upon
the Lapps with the most contemptuous disdain. It is
not unlikely that the Lapps were the aboriginal in-
habitants of Finland and Esthonia ; and that at
some I'eninte period they had been conquered by thf
Finns. The whole country of Lapland is divided
300
LAPLANDERS (Uni.iGiON of).
into tliree parts, hearing tlie name if Russian, Swed-
ish, and Norwegian Lapland and Finniark.
The religion of the Lajips approaches at various
points to that of the Finns. (See Finns, Rkligion
OF.) They seem to have had the same Supreme
Deity, under the name o( JunwiUi, who was probably
the same wiih T/ior, whom fliey worsliipp<'d in con-
junction with Stoijind-are and Baiva, the latter being
considered as the god of the sun or tire. Tlicy wor-
shipped also Ajrka, whose image was of wood, and
iStouira Ptinne, who was always represented un<ier the
figure of a stone. Ajeka was adored as the author of
hfe, and the supreme ruler of the lumiau race. His
image was usually kept in a sort of rustic temple, form-
eil of branches of tirand birch, and raised in the re;ir
of their huts. A rude table placed in the middle of
the sanctuary served at once for an altar and a
pedestal for the idol, which was the trunk of a birch-
tree. In selecting the special tree for the purpose,
a bircli with a round root was sought as being Lest
adapted to represent a human head. For the con-
venience of the deity, a nail with a small flint was
put into the hand of the idol that he might strike a
light wlienever he chose. Behind him, and round
the I dge of the table, the horns of the deer that had
been sacrificed to his honour were arranged in heaps,
and immediately in front was placed a box filled
with small [jieces of flesh, taken from every part of
the victim, with mclied grease poured over them.
The Laplanders held Stourra Passe as a favourite
household deity, every family having an image of
him in the form of a rough stone, which they might
happen to have found in the mountains, with a re-
semblance, however remote, to a human flgure, whicli
they imagined to have been impressed upon it by the
god himself. The .stone, wliich was usually large,
was placed upon a little moimd with a pile of rein-
deer's horns behind it ; other smaller stones were
ranged around tlie large one, that which was nearest
in size to it being called the wife of the god, tlie tliird
in degree his son or daughter, ami the rest his ser-
vants. Regnard, a Frenchman, who travelled in
Lapland in 1C8L mentions having seen such stones
as those now described, wliijh he alleges were still
secretly worshipped by the I^aplaiiders, though at
tliat time they were avowedly Christians. It was
plain to Regnard that they regarded these stones
with reverence, from the alarm which they mani-
fested on his attempting to carry them away. They
expressed great dread of the vengeance of the of-
fended god, and their fears were instantly quieted
when tlie traveller desisted from liis threatened
spoliation.
The La[)lander8 usually sacrificed to llicir deities
at the fall of the year, and none but men were allowed
to officiate or even be present on such occasions.
It was usual at these .sacred times to erect a new
statue to Ajeka, who was allowed one every year.
Uefore sacrificing a deer to the deity, they inquired
by means of the magic drum (sec DuuM, S.vcuiiu),
whetherthe intended victim would be acceptable or not
to the god. The mode of solving this important ques-
tion was by fastening to one of their magic rings a
few hairs taken from the neck of the victim, ami by
laying them upon the head of the drum, which was
then beaten by one of the party. If, in consequence
of the concussion, the magic ring should turn and
point to the figure of tlie god who was to be propi-
tiated, such a movement was regarded as an infal-
lible sign that he would be well plea-sed with the
oblation. But if, notwithstanding the violent con-
cu.ssion made by beating the drum, the magic ring
remained motionless, it was considered to be an un-
favourable omen in so far as that particular deity
was concerned. The oft'eriiig, therefore, was devoted
to another deity, and the same ceremony was re
newed, with the hope of better success.
In their sacrifices the Laplanders presented tlie
bonis of the reindeer as an oblation to the deity, and
the mouth of the idol was smeared with fresh blood.
AVhen the image was placed on the top of an inac-
cessible height, the victim was .sacrificed at the font
of the mountain, and a stone dipped in its blood was
thrown as far as possible towards the image. By this
ceremony they imagined that they had fully acquitted
themselves of their duty to the god. Anotlier pe-
culiar custom was to place branches of trees u]ioii
the consecrated stones twice a-year, pine branches
in the summer, and birch branches in the winter.
While tlius engaged, they were in the habit of judg-
ing of the disposition of the god by the weight o(
the stone which represented him. If it was light,
the god was thought to be propitious, but if it was
so heavy as to be immovable, the god was imagined
to be angry, and his vengeance was dreaded. The
sjiots where these idols of stone were found were
called holy mountains, a name which some of them
retain to this dav. The Laplanders seem to have had
no oflicial priesthood, but any one who wished to pro-
pitiate a deity, consulted the drum, and performed
the .sacrifice himself. Reindeer were their principal
offerings, but in some cases dogs were also used as
sacrificial victims. Divine honours were anciently
(laid in Lapland to the sun, and also to the spirits of
the dead, but neither the one nor the other was
worshi[iped under any material representation. AVlicn
victims were destined to be sacrificed to Baive or the
Bun, they were distinguished by a white thread ; and
when they were destined to be devoted to the spirits
of the dead, they were marked by a string of black
wool. In most cases it appears that a part of tlie
deer offered in sacrifice was eaten by the worship-
pers ; sometimes it was buried, but little seems to
have ever been given to the gods except the bones
and horns, and occasionally a portion of the en-
trails.
Besides the spirits of the dead, the Lajjlandeis
believed in the existence of JunLKS (which see), or
aerial spirits, and paid them a sort of adoration.
SchelTer supposes that the idea of these spirits is
LAPSKD CHRISTIAKS.
EOI
connected witli tlie appearance of tlie ani^els to the
slieplierds of Bethlehem at tlie birth of our blessed
Ijord. At Christmas Eve, the Juhks are supposed
to float in the air in greater numbers, and the re-
mainder of the articles of food used on that occasion
are put into baskets and suspended on the branches
of trees for the refreshment of these spirits.
LAPSED CHRISTIANS, a name given to those
among the early Christians who, amid the severe
persecutions to which they were exposed, lost their
courage, and resorted to measures which were re-
garded as a virtual denial of the faith, and which
actually excluded them from the coinnuuiion of the
cluu-ch. Many of these were afterwards seized witli
strong feelings of remorse, and made earnest appli-
cation for restoration to the fellowship of the faitli-
fid. Hence nunierous cases of this kind came under
the consideration of the church, which I'rom their
novelty and delicacy led to considerable diti'erence of
opinion. The state of the controver.-y in the third
century on the subject of tlie restoration of the
lapsed is thus clearly stated by Neander: "The
question now arose, whether their wishes should be
complied with : — was their petition to be absolutely
rejected, or should a middle course be pursued, by
holding out to them, indeed, the hope of being re-
stored to the fellowship of the church ; but before
the privilege was actually granted them, by subject-
ing their conduct to a longer probation, and requiring
evidence of continued penitence? Should the same
course be pursued with all the lapsed, or should the
treatment be varied according to the dilTerence of
circumstances and the character of tiie oflences?
The Church at this time was still without any gen-
erally acknowledged principles of Church penance in
cases of this sort. There was one party who were
for refusing to grant absolution, on any conditions,
to such as had violated their baptismal vow by one
of the so-called mortal sins. Following that Jewi.sh
principle which did not allow aH duties to be regard-
ed alike as duties to God, and all sins alike, as sins
arjainut God, men made an arbitrary distinction, —
for which they cited as their authority the passage
1 Samuel ii. 25, — between sins against God and
against man ; and to the former was reckoned every
act of denying the faith, though the degree of guilti-
ness, if the denial was simply a yielding to the weak-
ness of sense, might be far inferior to that involved
in some of the so-called sins against man. Cyprian,
who was in the habit of calling Tertullian especially
his teacher, might perhaps, from the study of that
fatlier's writings, have received a bias towards the
principles of the more rigid party with regard to
penance.
" But if Cyprian was an advocate of l/iis iirinciple
when he first entered on the episcopal office, yet,
cherishing as he did the heart of a father towards
his church, lie could not fail to be .shaken by the
great multitude of the lapsed, who, sometimes with
bitter tears of repentance, entreated him to grant
them absolution. iMust all these, n.auj' of whom, as
for example, the libdlulicl, had fallen only from de-
fect of knowledge, and others from simply yielding
to the flesh under the severity of their tortures, re-
main for ever excluded from the blessed community
of their brethren, and, in Cyprian's view, from that
Cluirch in which alone was to be found the way to
heaven? The paternal heart of the bishop revolted
at the thought, but he dared not act here upon his
own responsibility. In this state of indecision he
declared that the fallen should be received and ex-
horted to repentance; but that the decision of their
fate should be reserved to that time when, on the
restoration of peace, the bishops, clergy, and churches,
in joint and cautious deliberation, after having exa-
mined the question in all its bearings, should be able
to unite on some common princij.les, in relation to a
matter wdiere every Christian was so deejily inter-
ested. Besides, there was a great diiVerence between
the oflences of these fallen brethren. While some,
merely to avoid the sacrifice of their worldly posses-
sions, had, without a struggle, even hastened up
to the altars of the gods ; others had fallen only
through ignorance, or under the force of torture.
The disorders of the times made it impossible to
examine carefully into the diti'erence of oH'ences, and
the difference of moral character in the individuals.
Moreover, those that had fallen should, by practical
demonstration of their penitence, render themselves
worthy of re-adinission to the fellowship of the
Church, — and the persecution itself presented them
with the best opportunity for this. 'He who can-
not endure the delay,' says Cyprian, ' may obtain
the crown of martyrdom.'"
While some pastors were disposed to adopt \eiy
severe measures in the case of the lapsed, the great
majority agreed in following a uniform course of
discipline which subjected the lapsed penitents to a
term of probation, shorter or longer according to the
aggravation of their fall. Those who had been com-
pelled against their will to engage in idolatrous
practices were restored immediately on application.
Those who apostatized as soon as they were brought
before a heathen tribunal, or who after boldly avow-
ing their belief in Christianity, lapsed into idolatry
while confined in prison, were .subjected to a proba-
tion \aried according to circumstances. Tlio.«e, how-
ever, who deceived tlie magistrates by purchasing
an indulgence, or by allowing their slaves to be tor-
tured instead of them, were visited with a heavier
discipline. But those of the lapsed who underwent
the most rigorous treatment \\'ere the Traditores, as
they were called, who had given up their Bibles to
be burned by the heathen. This was accounted a
most heinous ofieiice, and such as were convicted of
it were excluded from the church for ten, twenty,
and even thirty years; nay, some were not admitted
to the fellowship of the faithful till they had reached
their dying bed. It sometimes happened that lapsed
Christians, who had been sentenced by the church
R02
LARARIUM— LARES.
to a protractt'ii probation, bcciime impatient under
tlie iiirticlion, and procured testimonials in tlieir
favour from faithful confessors wlio liad boldly con-
fronted martyrdom in tlie cause of Christ, and whose
certiticate would naturally carry great weight with
it in the estimation of their fellow-Christians. This
practice, in course of time, gave rise to great abuse,
exciting in the minds of the confessors themselves a
feeling of spiritual pride, which was deeply injurious
to their progress in the divine life, and leading some
of them to indulge the nnscriptnral notion, that by
tlieir sutVeriiigs I hey had expiated their sins. Some
of then), accordingly, in their certificates to the
lapsed, expressed themselves with a tone of autho-
rity as if their word was sufBcient to exculpate and
discharge their fallen brethren.
Cvprian took a determined stand against the ex-
aggerated reverence paid to these confessors, and the
false coulidence which men put in their interces.sion.
But while thus faithfully protesting against the un-
due respect shown to the confessors, Cyprian was so
inconsistent as himself to yield to tlie prevailing
spirit of the midtitude, which was not a little en-
couraged by tiie countenance received from the Ro-
man church. In A. D. 251, a council was held of the
North African church, to which Cyprian belonged,
and the vexed question of the lapsed having been
carefully considered, it was resolved to adopt a mid-
dle course between that excessive severity which
cut them oft" from all hope, and a lax indulgence in
complying with their wishes. In regard to those,
however, who evinced no signs of repentance in their
conduct, but who first expressed a desire for the
communion when on their sickbed, the .synod de-
clared that such a desire should not be gi-anted.
The guilt of the Lapsed Christians was more or less
heinous according to circuin>tances. Hence the
distinction into the Thurificuti, the Sacrificati, and
the LibeUatici, whose dift'erent characters led to dis-
|)Ute8 upon the .subject of discipline in the early
Christian church.
In the case of clergymen who lapsed in time of
persecution, it was laid down as a rule that they
might on repentance be restored to the peace of
the church a.s laymen, but they were not allowed
to officiate or commmncate as ecclesiastics any
longer. Cyprian says, that this was the rule at
Rome and over all the world, if bishops or any
other lapsed in time of persecution, to admit them
to do penance in the church, but withal to remove
them from the finiction of the clergy ami h(m-
our of the priesthood. It was accounted a heinous
crime in any minister to refuse to receive and recon-
cile penitent lapsers after they had made canonical
datisfaction. The clergyman who was guilty of such
a manifest abu.-e of ministerial authority was to be
deposed, because he was thereby guilty of grieving
Christ, who said. " There is joy in heaven over one
sinner that repeiitcth." See Ai'OSTASY, Censures
,'ECCLKSIASTICAL).
LAR.\RIUM, that part in the iuteriorof an ancient
Roman house which was appropriated to the Larea
or household gods, and where the morning devotions
were wont to be oft'ered up.
LAREXTALIA, a festival among the ancient
Romans, which was held in honour of AcCA La
RENTIA (which see), the tmrse of Romulus and Re-
mus. It was also observed in honour of the Lares
generally.
L.\RE\TIA (Acf a). See Acca Laricntia.
LARES, the household gods of the ancient Ro-
mans. The word is most probably derived from toe,
friendly, because families regarded them as spe-
cially watching over their interests. The Lares, as
tutelary spirits, were sometimes confounded with the
souls of decea.sed |ier.sons. Thus A-^puleius considers
the private or domestic Lares to have been the spirits
of the dead who had acquitted themselves well in
this world; while the spirits <if the unhonoured dead
wandered about, frightening people under the name
o( LaiTCE ov Lemures. The Lares were believed to
watch over the interior of every man's household,
and to preserve from injury both his family and his
jiroperty. Yet they were not regarded as divinities
like the Penates, but as guardian spirits, whose place
was the chimney-piece, ami whose altar was the
domestic hearth, on which each individual made
oft'erings of incense to them in his own house. Ovid
speaks of only two Lares, and these, like the Pen-
ates, were worshipped in the form of little figures or
images of wax, earthenware, or terra cotta, and of me-
tal, especially silver. Their dress was short, to indi-
cate their readiness to serve, and they held a sort ot
horn of plenty in their hands, as the emblem of hos-
pitality and good housekeeping. Tatius, king of
the Sabine.s, is said to have built a temple to the
Lares. Plutarch distinguishes them, like the genii,
into good and evil ; and they were also divided into
jiublic and private. Tiie public Lares were placed at
the intersection of roads, and on the highways, being
esteemed tlie patrons and protectors of travellers.
There were Lares of the cities, and Lares of the
country. When the Roman youth laid aside the
bull, which was a heart-shaped ornament worn till
they were fourteen years of age, they dedicated it to
the Lares. Slaves, also, when they liad obtained
their freedom, hung up their chains to these deities.
At an early period the Romans offered young people
in sacrifice, both to the Lares and Penates; but in
course of time human sacrifices were abolished, and
animals substituted, particularly hogs, in the case of
public ollcrings ; while in private, wine, incense,
popjiy-heads, woollen bandages, and images of straw
were presented. The Tjir faiii/lidn's was regarded
as an essential part of the household furniture, aiul
was carried with the family wherever they went.
Servius Tullius is said to have instituted the wor-
sldp of the public Lares, and though for a time it
declined in importance, it was renewed by Augus-
tus. There was a temple to the Lares at Rome in
LAT— LATIN CHURCH (Eastern).
30;j
the Via Sacra, in wliich there were two images, sup-
posed to be tliose of Ruimilus and Reimis, witli the
stone figure of a dog placed in front of tliem. The
apartment in a wealthy house where the images of the
Lares stood, was called the Lararium [which see).
Pious people prayed to them every day, but they
were more especially worshipped on the Kalends,
Nones, and Ides of every month. When a Roman
household sat down to meals, a portion of the food
was otTered to the Lares. On any joyfid occjision
wreaths of flowers were tastefully thrown around their
images. When a bride entered the house of her
husband for the first time, she made a solemn sacri-
fice to the Lares, invoking them to be propitious to
her throughout her married life.
That the practice of having household gods or
Lciffs existed in early times is plain from the ter-
apldiii, which were in tlie possession of Lnhan in
Mesopotamia, as we tind noticed in Gen. xxxi. 19,
" And Laban went to sliear his sheep : and Rachel
had stolen the images that were her father's." These
terapliim, which are mentioned frequently in the
Old Testament, are alleged by the Jewish writers to
liave been images in tlie shape of men, or at least with
a human head, and to have been placed in niches in
the wall with lamps burning before them. See Ter-
APHI.M.
L.Vr (Al). The deity having this name, which
means in Arabic, " the goddess," was worshipped by
the ancient Arabian tribe of Thakif, wlio dwelt at
Taif to tlie eastward of Mecca. The temple of Lat
■was at a place called Naklah.
LATERAXUS, a deity mentioned by Arnobius
as presiding over hearths made of bricks. Some
have supposed him to be identical with Vulcan.
L.VriALIS, a surname of Jupiter, as the presid-
ing deity of Latium. In his honour tlie Latin Ferkc
were annually observed on the Alban Mount.
LATIN/E FERLE. See Ferle Latinjj.
LATIN CHURCH. See Rome (Church
of).
L.^TIN CHURCH (Eastern). In those parts of
the East where the Latin tongue was spoken, Chris-
tianity had many of its early converts, and Cajsarea,
which was the Roman capital of Palestine, gradually
rose in ecclesiastical importance until it asserted a
superiority even over Jerusalem. In the fourth cen-
tury, when Christianity became the established reli-
gion of the Roman Empire, multitudes of devout pil-
grims resorted to the Holy Land, tliat they might
visit the hallowed scenes of Bible history ; and
when monasticism was introduced from Egypt into
Syria, various establishments of monks were formed
in different parts of the country. These institutions
were available both for the Eastern and the West-
ern churches. But when the Monophysite contro-
versy, toward the end of the sixth century, divided
the inmates of these Syrian monasteries intoditferent
religious parties, and tlie eager contest for superiority
was commencing between the bishop of Constantino-
ple and tlie Pope of Rome, Gregory VIII. raised a
hospice at Jerusalem tor the special accommodation
of the Western pilgrims. One efl'ect of the crusades
was to advance the interests of Rcmie in the East,
while the professed object of these expeditions was
to liberate the Christians of the Greek or Eastern
church. Tims has the Latin church ever maintained
a branch in close communion with her in the East,
but in comparison of the Orthodox Apostolic or
Greek church, it has always been a feeble remnant.
The only remains, indeed, of the church of the cru-
sades are the monasteries of the Terra Santa, whose
inmates are Franciscan monks, to whom are intrusted
both the guardianship of the holy places, and the
spiritual superintendence of that small part of the po-
pulation which adheres to the Latin ritual. The supe-
rior of these monks, who bears the title of the
" Most Reverend Warden," holds his appointment
directly from Rome. The support of the monaste-
ries, which are twenty-two in number, is derived from
the Society de Propaganda Fide, as well as from
the gratuities bestowed by the travellers wlio avail
themselves of the liospitality which these institu-
tions afllord. Besides these monks of the Terra
Santa, there are other monastic establishments in dif-
ferent parts of Palestine. On Mount Carmel is
found the convent of Elias, which is among the
largest, most substantial, and best regulated in the
land, and the high altar of the chapel is reared over
the reputed cave where Elijah dwelt. The f(u-nier
building was rscently destroyed by Abdallah Pasha,
but it has been reconstructed on a more magnificent
scale. The Carmelite friars have had an institution
on this mountain from time immemorial. The Ca-
puchins, also, have missions at Beiriit, Tripoli, Da-
mascus, Aleppo, and on Mount Lebanon, where also
the Jesuits have long had a residence. Besides all
these, the Lazarites have four missions in Palestine,
and there is an apostolic vicariate of Aleppo. The
Jesuits, in various parts of the East, aware of the
unpopularity which attaches to their name, assume to
themselves the denomination of Lazarists, and other
titles, which may conceal their real character. Since
the origin of the Society, the Jesuits have had mis-
sions among the Eastern Christians, wliere, by the
establishment of schools and other means, they have
succeeded in gaining over large nundiers to Rome.
Dr. Wilson , in his ' Lands of the Bible,' gives an
account of the state of the Eastern Latin church at
Smyrna : " There are in Smyrna one Roman Catho-
lic bishop (archbishop) and sixty-seven priests. Of
the latter, forty are secular or parish clergy, nine are
Capuchins, seven are Zoccalonti, ten are Lazarists,
and one is a Dominican. . . . There are also
twelve ' Sisters of Charity.' In Smyrna there are
three large churches and two chapels. One of the
latter is in the French Seamen's hospital. There is
also a church at Bujah, and another at Barnab^t.
The churches in Smyrna are usually known by the
names of French, Austrian, and Lazarist. The re-
304
LATITUDINARIANS— LAYER.
giilarly ofBciatin;; cleriiy in tlie French chuicli are the
Capuehins ; in 1 he Austrian, the Zoccalonti ; and in
the Laairist, the l^azarist ]]riests. The Capiicliins
and the Zuccalonti have eacli a monastery. The La-
zarite priests have an elementary school of about tln-ee
hundred boys. The ' .Sisters of Charity' have a
school of about three hundred girls. . . The col-
lege of the I'ropasanda is under the direction of the
bishoj), and contains about two hundred pupils, fifty
of whom board in the establislunent. Most of the
professors are of the secular clergy. Among them
are three Armeno-Catholic priests. Languages are
chiefly taught in the I'ro|iagaiida. . . Few con-
versions to the Koman Catholic faith, as far as we
know, occur in Smyrna and the vicinity. The sys-
tem is principally aggressive, we apprehend, by
means of the .schools. Considerable nundiers of
youili, even Protestant youth, are thus brought un-
der the influence of the Kornan prieisthood ; and the
result will probably be, either that they will become
papists, or be indifferent to all religions. Among
the Protestants there are few who are decided-
ly ariti-Koman Catholic. Of the papal popula-
tion in Smyrna and the adjacent villages, we cannot
speak with certainty. There are probably from
eight to ten tliousand. This estimate docs not in-
clude a few papal Armenians and Greeks."
Xt Antioch there are Maroiiite, United Greek, and
Syrian patriarchs, and elsewhere an Armenian and
a Chaldean patriarch, all in communion with Rome,
and it is calculated that in Asiatic Turkey alone
there are not fewer than 1,000,000 who acknowledge
the sii|iremacy of Pope Pius IX. The adherents of
the Latin church at Constantinople are under the
apostolic vicar of that jilace, and enjoy the civil pro-
tection of the European and)as.sadors, not being con-
sidered as direct subjects of the Porte. The con-
verts from the Greek to the Latin church form a
distinct religious community under the name of the
Greelc-Cddiolic. or Mklciiite Ciiukch (which see,.
LATIN VEKSIONS. See Bihle.
LATITUDINARLVNS, a term applied to those
divines in England, who, in the seventeenth century,
endeavoured to bring Ei)iscopalians, Presbylerians,
and Independents into one connnunion, by compro-
mising their differences. Among these may be nten-
tioned the highly respected names of ChiUingworth,
Cudworth, Tillotsoii, and Stillingflect. Those men,
and others who agreed with them, were zealous sup-
porters of the Church of Englaiul, without, however,
regarding the Episcopal form of Church government
as essential to the constitution of the Christian
church. They were not disposed, therefore, to ex-
clude from the communion of the church those who
fiinply jjrefcrred other forms of worship and disci-
pline. Attaching less importance than many of
their brethren to a strict adherence to creeds and
confessions, they were ready to merge the Arminian-
ism wfiich then prevailed in the Clnireh of England,
aud the Calvinism which prevailed among the Pres-
byterians and Independents, in the wider and more
comprehensive designation of Chri-stians. Hence the
rise of the name Lutitudlnartcms, which was applied
to those men who, lamenting the divisions which
existed among Christians, were disposed to extend
the hand of Christian brotherhood to all who held
those points -which they regarded as essential to sal-
vation.
LATOXA. See Li:to.
L.\TRIA, that species of worship which by Ro-
manist writers is regarded as due to God alone. It
is yielded also to the host or consecrated wafer.
See Adoration.
LATTER-DAY SAINTS. See Mormons.
LAL'DISTI, a society which was instituted in
Florence A. D. 1316, for the performance of religious
lauds. This society still exists, and is in active
operation.
LAUDS, the name which was given to the ser-
vice which followed next alter the nocturn befoie the
Reformation. The Lauds are now merged in the
Matins. The term Lands is also frequently applied
to hymns in church music. In the Church of Rome
Lauds are appointed for cock-crowing, or before
break of dav. (See Canonical Hours.)
LAUD'S LITURGY. See Covenantkrs.
LAURA, a name given to a cluster of sni.all cells
in which monks in ancient times lived together in a
desert, each monk occupying a separate cell. The
most celebrated Lauras mentioned in ecclesiastical
history were situated in I'alestine.
LAUREL, a plant which was sacred to AjmUo the
god of proidiecy, and much used by those who pre-
tended to inspiration. The heads of ancient seers
were usually adorned with laurel wreaths, while they
carried in their hand a laurel branch by way of a
magic wand.
L.\URENCE (St.), Rkgular Canons of, a
Romish Order of Religious in the province of Daii-
phine in France. It is said to have been founded by
St. Benedict, in the sixth cenfiuy, and to have con-
tinued to flourish for a considerable time. At length
the irruption of the Vandals destroyed the monastery,
but it was rebuilt in the middle of the eleventh cen-
tury, and granted by Odo, Count of Savoy, to a monk
of the name of Gerard, and his canons. This donation
was conlirmed in 10G5 by Cumbert, bishoj) of Turin,
who added to it above forty additional churches. l!y
this means the Order was considerably eidarged, and it
speedily became so imp(n-tant that the Popes and the
Counts of Savoy bestowed U]ion it \arious special
privileges. It had formerly thirtv priories.
L.WACRUM. See Font.
LAVER, one of the vessels of the ancient Jewish
tabernacle, used by the priests to wash their hands
and feet before entering upon their holy nuiiistra-
tions. No detailed account is given in Sacred Scrip-
ture of its form or dimensions, but reasoning by
analogy from the brazen sea in (he temple, it has
been generally supposed that the laver was of a cir-
LAYER OF REGENERATION— LA W^'ERS.
305
ciilur i'orin. It stood between tlie table of the con-
gi-esHtion and tbe altar, and is described by Moses as
having had a foot, that is a basis or pediment upon
which the laver rested. This vessel was constructed
froni the brazen ornaments which the women had
presented for the use of the tabernacle. It is gen-
erally believed that the laver stood upon another
basin more wide and shallow, like a cup on a .saucer ;
and that the latter received from several .spouts in
the ujiper basin the water wliicli was allowed to
escape wlien the priests washed themselves with the
water which fell from the upper basin. How the
priests washed their hands and tlieir feet at tlie laver
is uncertain. " That they did not wash," says the
Editor of the Pictorial Bible, " in either the laver or
its base seems clear, because then the water in which
they washed would have been rendered impure by
those who washed before or with them ; and as we
know that Orientals do not like to wash in a basin,
after our manner, in which the water with which we
commence wasliing is clearer than that with which
we finish, but at a falling stream, where each succes-
sive affusion is of clean water, we incline to think
that the priests either washed themselves with the
stream as it fell from the spouts into the base, or
else received in proper vessels so much water as
they needed for the occasion. The Orientals, in
their washings, make use of a vessel with a long
spout, and wash at the stream which issues from
thence, the waste water being received in a basin
whicli is placed underneath. This seems to us to
illustrate the idea of the laver with its base, as well
as the ablutions of the priests. The laver had thus its
upper basin, from which the stream fell, and the under
basin for receiving the waste water; or it is quite
compatible with the same idea and practice to su))-
pose that, to prevent too great an expenditure of
water, they received a quantity in se[>arate vessels,
using it as described, and the base receiving the
water which in washing fell from their hands and
feet. This explanation, although it seems to us pro-
bable, is, necessarily, little more than conjectural.
The Jewish commentators say that any kind of water
might be used for the laver; but that the water was
to be changed every day. They also state that ab-
lution before entering the tabernacle was in no case
dispensed with. A man might be perfectly clean,
might be quite free from any ceremonial impurity,
and might even have waslied his hands and feet be-
fore he left home, but still he could by no means
enter the tabernacle without previous ablution at tlie
laver."
In the temple of Solomon there was a very large
laver of brass, called the molten sea, which was ten
cubits in diameter, five deep, and thirty in circum-
ference. In addition to the brazen sea, there were
ten smaller lavers of brass, which were situated five
on the north side, and five on the south side of the
court. The flesh of the victims that were sacrificed
was waslied ui these smaller lavers, which were each
four cubits in circumference, and rcstcil on bases
and wheels of brass.
In the second temple the laver stood between the
altar and the porch, not directly before the altar,
but removed towards the north. The size and mea-
sure of this vessel is not described in the Sacred
Writings, but the Jewish Rabbis have professed to
give a minute account of it. The mode in which the
process of bathing in tlie laver was conducted is thus
described. The prie-st laid his right hand upon liis
right foot, and his left hand upon his lei't foot, and
while the water ran from the spout he stood in a
stooping posture and washed his hands and feet. He
that went about the service with unwaslien hands
and feet in the morning was liable to death by the
hand of God; and if a priest was clean before, yet
he durst not officiate before lie had bathed. During
the service he must stand upon the bare pavement ;
his body must be bathed in cold water before he en-
tered ; then he was to wash his hands and feet, and
stand in thin linen and on the cold pavement all the
time of his ministration.
The typical design ot the laver was obviously to
teach the necessity of the inward ]iurification of the
soul, under the outward emblem of the washing of
the body; and if this inward ]iurity was necessary to
all who would serve God faithfully, more especially
W"as the cultivation of it incumbent upon those who
were officially engaged in the ministrations of tlie
sanctuary. Thus while the altar on which the vic-
tims were ofi'ered was a symbol of justification, the
laver with its purilying fountain was a symbol of
sanctification.
LAVER OF REGENERATION, a name some-
times given in the early Christian church to the or-
dinance of Baptism (which see).
LAVERNA, the Roman goddess, who patron-
ized thieves and fraudulent persons of every kind.
LAYIPEDIUiVI. See Pedilavium.
LAW, a term which is used in the Sacred Writings
under a variety of diftisrent significations. Sometimes
it is employed, as in the Book of P.sahns, to denote
the whole of the revealed will of God as contained in
the Bible. On some occasions it implies the whole
religion of the Jews, and on other occasions it is
limited to their ritual or ceremonial observances, and
also in a still more restricted sense to the Decalogue
or Ten Commandments. In some jias.sages, however,
it signifies the Law of Nature inscribed on the con-
sciences of men, and therefore binding upon them by
the authority of their Creator.
LAAV (Joy of the). See Joy of the Law.
LAW (Okal). See Okal Law.
LAW (Written). See Bible.
LAWYERS, a term applied by the Jews to those
who interpreted and expounded the Mosaic Law,
more especially the Traditionary or Oral Law. A
lawyer and a scribe were evidently synonymous
words, as is evident from a comparison of Mat. xxii
35, and Mark xii. 28, the same person being styled
306
LAY BAPTISM— LECHEATES.
in tlie tbrnipr passage a lawyer, ami in tlie latter a
scribe. Basiia.;e regards the lawyers as identiciil
witli tlie iiKniern Cakaitks (wliicli see), inasiniicli
as I hey adhered closely to the text of the Law, and
totally disregarded all traditions. Dr. Macknight,
however, alleges that the duty of the Jewish lawyers,
Btrietly so called, was to give themselves up to the
private study of the Law, while the employment of
the scribes was to expound the Law in public.
LAY BAPrIS^L In the early Christian church
it was required that none should dispense the ordi-
nance of baptism in ordinary cases, except the regu-
I.tr ministers, but in cases of extremity, where an
ordained minister was not at hand, and the candidate
was thought to be near death, a layman was allowed
to baptize. This doctrine is still maintained in the
Church of Rome, and even a midwife is allowed,
where a priest is not within re.ich, to baptize an in-
fant in its dying moments. Considerable difference
of opinion exists in the Church of England on the
subject of Lav Baptism.
LAY BKOTHEKS. See Brothers (Lay).
LAY CHANCELLORS. See Chancellors.
L.A.Y COMMUNION. See Communion (Lay).
L.\ZARITES, an order of monks instituted in
France in the seventeenth century by M. Vincent.
They have a seminary in the suburbs of Paris. The
Jesuits assume this name in various parts of the
Continent to conceal their real character.
LAZARUS (St.), Day of, a festival of the
Church of Rome, observed on the 21st day of Febru-
ary, in memory of l^azarus a painter, who lived in the
fourteenth century, in the reign of Tlieodosius Icono-
clastes. This saint was distinguished as a painter
of images, and on this account he incurred the re-
sentment of the Emperor. No sufferings, however,
could deter him from bis favourite employment, and
in spite of persecution, therefiu'e, he persisted in
painting images. On this account his memory is
held in veneration by Romanists.
LE, the nltim,%te immaterial element of the tnii-
verse, according to the philosophical system of Confn-
r.iuH, the Chinese sage. It is the Absolute regarded
in association with material essences, and manifest-
ing itself in virtue of sucli association as the cause
of organization and of order. With this principle
the spirit of man is strictly one and consubstantial.
The Le therefore is identical with the Tae-keih, the
Absolute or literally the (Jreat Extreme. Beyond it
as the highest pinnacle of heaven, the one ultimate
jMjwcr, the entity without an opposite, no human
thought whatever is capable of soaring. Itself in-
comprehensible, it girdles the whole frame of nature
animate and inanimate. Fniin it alone, as from the
founlainhead of being, issued everything that is.
Creation is the periodic flowing forth of it. "The
Absolute is like a stem shooting upwards; it is
parted into twigs, it puts out leaves and blossoms ;
forth it springs incessantly, until its fruit is fully
rijie ; yet even then the power of rejiroduction never
ceases to be latent in it. The vital juice is there;
and so the Absolute still works and works indefi-
nitely. Nothing hinders or can hinder its activity
until the fruits have all been duly ripened and acti-
vitv gives place to rest."
LEADER (Class), a lay-officer among the Wes-
levan Methodists. Every perscm connected with
the denomination is a member of some class over
which there is a Leader, whose duty it is to see each
person in liis class at least once a-week, in order to
inquire into their spiritual condition, and to give such
exhortations, consolations, warnings, or reproofs, as
may be suited to their jieculiar condition and circum-
stances. He must also receive whiit each is willing to
give to the poor, or to the support of gospel ordin;mces.
The Leader is required to meet the minister and
stewards of the society once a-week, in order to in-
form the minister of any that are sick, or of any that
walk disorderly, and will not be reproved. It is his
business also to pay to the .stewards every week what
he has received from his class in the week preceding,
and to show his accomit of what each person has
contributed. Tlie Class-Leaders being the most
numerous officers in the whole communion, have
great influence, more esiiecially from their permanent
residence, not being liable to removal as the minis-
ters are. No person can be admitted into the Wes-
leyan Society if he is objected to by the Class-
Leaders ; nor can .any one be excluded from church-
fellowship without their concurrence. Females are
also in many cases Class-Leaders, the members of
their class being females. See Methodists (\Vi;s-
leyan).
LEADERS' MEETING, the lowest of the infe-
rior courts among the Wesleyan Methodists. It is
composed of the travelling preachers stationed for
the time being in the circuit, along with the Stewards
and Class-Leaders whether male or female. In
every chapel, congregation, and society, there is a
Leaders' meeting. The consent of this court is
necessary to the admission of a member into the so-
ciety, or the appointment or removal of a Leader or
Steward. Along with the Trustees of the chiipcl,
the Leaders' meeting has the power of determining
whether or not the sacrament of the Lord's Supper
shiill be dispensed there ; and they have the charge
of the fund for the relief of poor and distressed
members of the society. See Methodists (Wes-
leyan).
LEAGUE AND COVENANT (The Solemn).
See Covenant (The Solemn League and).
LECANOMANCY, a species of divination per-
fornuid by means of a bason with wedges of gold or
siher inarked with certain characters. The wedges
were susjiendcd over the water, and the demon for-
mally in\dked, when he gave the response in a low
hissing souiul pa.ssing through the fluid. See Divi-
nation.
LECHEATES, a surname of Zcv.'i, under which
he was worsliipped at Aliphera. The name wai
LECTERN— LEGENDS (Komish).
307
applied to liini as tlic father of Athena, and tlie pro-
tector of women in cliildbed.
LECTEKN, tlie reading-desk in ancient clmrclios
in England. It was generally consirncted of wood,
but at a later period it was commonly made of brass,
and formed in the shape of an eagle with out-
stretched wings.
LECTICAKII, a name .sometimes given to the
COPIAT.E (which see).
LECTIONARIUM, a calendar of lessons to be
read during Divine service in Christian clun-ches.
The most ancient work of this kind is generally
thought to be Hippolytns's Canon Paschalis, which,
however, ponits out only those lessons suited to the
festivals. There exists a Lectionarlum which has
been attributed to Jerome, but is generally believed
to have been the production of a much later writer.
Some time after, however, there were several calen-
dars composed for the use of the French churches,
the oldest of which is the Lectlonnrium GaUicanum.
See Lessons.
LECTISTERNIUM, a ceremony observed by the
ancient Greeks and Romans on occasion of extraor-
dinary solemnities. It was performed by placing
the images of the gods on couches, with a rich feast
set before them. The most remarkable ceremony of
this kind was the Eiyidum Jovis or Feast of Jupiter
at Rome, which was celebrated in the Capitol where
the image of Jupiter was made to recline on a couch,
while the statues of Juno and Minerva were placed
on chairs by his side.
LECTORS. See Readers.
LECTURERS, a term applied before the Refor-
mation to persons who were appointed to read lec-
tures before the universities. Afterwards the word
was used to denote ministers in England who, deriv-
ing a stipend from a sum of money mortified by some
wealthy individual, or from voliuitary contributions
under the license of the bishop, preached in parish
churches at such times as not to interfere with the
ministrations of the regular incumbent. The appoint-
ment of lectureships, both in London and through-
out the country, was one of the modes by which
the Puritans sought in the reign of Elizal}eth, and
that of James I., to supply the lack of ability and
piety in the established churches. The High Church
party looked upon these efficient lecturers with great
contempt, and Archbishop Laud regarded them with
feelings of jealousy and no little uneasiness, more es-
pecially as many of the nobles retained private lec-
turers in their mansions, and employed them to preach
on their estates and in the neighbouring towns. At
Laud's suggestion tlie king instructed the bishops
to suppress lectures if preached in parish churches
in the afternoon, and to substitute catechetical lec-
tures in their place. Nay, the archbishop went
farther, and procured an act to be passed in 1G33,
confiscjiting to the king's use the money which had
been appropriated to the support of these lecture-
ships. This enactment, however, did not succeed in
abolishing these useful institutions, and in 1637
Land persuaded the king to issue instructions pro-
hibiting lecturers from preaching unless they would
consent to say the Conniion I'rayer in hood and sur
plice — a condition with which of course they refused
to comply. During tlie Comnionwealtli, lecturers
were favoured, and consequently increased in num-
ber. After the Restoration, however, the Act of
Unit'ormity inllicted a heavy blow upon the system
of lectureships, enacting as it did that no person
should be allowed or received as a lecturer unless he
declared his unfeigned assent and consent to tlie
Thirty-Nine Articles and the Book of Common
Prayer, and to the use of all the rites, ceremonies,
forms, and orders therein contained. The same act
enjoined that prayers should always be read before
a lecture was delivered. Lecturers of parishes in
En,i;land are now generally chosen by tlie vestry or
principal inhabitants, and are usually afternoon
preachers. There are also lectin'ers in connection
with most cathedral cliurches, and various lecture-
ships have been founded by private individuals, such
as the Boyle, the Bamjjton, and the Hulsean Lec-
tures.
IjEGATE, a cardinal or bishop whom the Pope
sends as his ambassador to sovereign princes. He is
the vicegerent and repre.'^entaiive of His Holiness,
invested with plenary powers to act in his stead at a
foreign court. There are three kinds of Legates.
1. Legates a latere, sent from his side, or directly
from him, invested with most of the functions of the
Pope himself. They can absolve excomnuinicated
persons, call synods, grant dispensations in cases re-
served to the Pope, till up vacant dignities or bene-
fices, and hear ordinary appeals. Cardinal Wolsey,
and also Cardinal Pole were legates of this kind.
2. Legati Nati, such as hold their commission by
virtue of office. Before the Reformation the Arch
bishop of Canterbury lield this species of legatine
authority in England. 3. Legati Dati, special Legates
liolding their authority from the Pope by special
commission. For the time being they are superior
to the other two orders. Such legates began to be
appointed after the tenth century, and they often
stretched their authority to a most unwarrantable
extent. They held councils, promulgated canons,
deposed bishops, and issued interdicts at their dis-
cretion. The functions of a Legate cannot be exer-
cised until he is forty miles distant from Rome.
LEGENDS (Romish), wonderful nanati\es pro-
fessing to treat of the lives and supernatural doings
of the saints of the Romish calendar. The Legend wns
originally a book used in the Roman Catholic church,
containing the lessons that were to be read at divine
service. Hence the lives of saints and martyrs came
to be called Legends, because chapters were to be read
out of them at matins, and in the refectories of the re-
ligious houses. The Golden Legend is a collection of
the lives of the saints, composed by John de Vora-
gine, vicar-general of the Dominicans, and afterwards
308
LEGIOX (The Thundering).
archbishop of Genua, wlio died in 1208. Tlie Bre-
vviry abounds in Legends of sjiiiits, wliicli every Ko-
inisli priest is bound daily to periuse. For tlie ediii-
dtion of the laity of tlie church of Konie, Albaii
Butler's laborious Knu'hsh work, entiiled ' Lives of
the Saints.' contains Legends of more than 1,500
saints, male and female. The grand treasury of Ro-
mish Leiiends is tlie f;iL:autic work of the Bollan-
di.sts in Latin, entitled ' Acta Sanctorum,' the Acts
of the Saints, which has already reached more than
Hfiy folio volumes, and will probably, before it is
completed, contain at least 30,000 saints. This
work wiis begun by a Jesuit of the name of Bollan-
dus, and was continued at Brussels by a succession of
editors, until the breaking out of the first French
Revolution, towards the end of the last century,
when it had reached its fiftieth volume. An addi-
tional volume has since been [lublished. A recent
addition has been made to the Legends of the Ro-
mish church by the publication, in 1846, of tlie
lives of five saints who were canonized in 1839.
This latest contribution to Romish Legends was the
work of Cardinal Wiseman, who has thus employed
himself in giving currency to stories which savour
more of the literature of the Middle Ages than of
the enlightened literature of the nineteenth century.
See BuKViARY.
LEGION (The Thundering), a name given to
a legion of Christian soldiers in the army of Marcus
Antoninus in his war against the Marcomanni, in
A. D. 174. Eusebius, on the authority of Apollina-
rius and TertuUian, relates that the soldiers of tlii.^ le-
gion, being reduced to extremities by a severe and
protracted drouglit, fell down upon llieir knees, and
prayed to God, when immediately a violent thunder
storm came on which dispersed the alfrighted Ger-
mans, and the copious shower.s which fell refreshed
the soldiers of the empeivr. The result was, that
the Roman army was victorious, and in conimemora-
fion of the event, the emperor conferred upon the
Chrisliaii soldiers the name of the thundering legion,
while he himself ceased to persecute the Christians.
The miraculous event as recorded by Eusebius, has
given rise to considerable dill'erence of opinion among
the learned, some attributing it to supernatural, and
others to natural causes. Tlie following view of this
much-controverted subject is given by Neander:
'■ In this account, truth and falsehood are mixed to-
gether. In the first place, it cannot be true that the
emperor was led to put a stop to the persecution of
the Christians by any event of this time ; for the
bloody persecution at Lyons did not lake place (ill
three year.s afterwards. Again, the 'thundering
legion,' or ' the twelfth of the Roman legions,' had
borne this name from the time of the Emperor Au-
gustus. The fact at bottom, namely, that the Ro-
man army, about that time, was rescued from a
threatening danger by some such rcunarkable provi-
dence, i.s undeniable. The lu'athen themselves ac-
knowledged it to be the work of llea\eii; they
ascribed it, however, not to the Christian's God. nor ]
to their prayers, but to their own gods, to their Ju- |
])iter, and to the prayers of the emperor, or of the
pagan army ; to .say nothing of the blind sujierstition
which attributed the storm to the spells of an Egyp-
tian necromancer. The emperor, it is said, siretelied
forth his hands, in supplication to Jupiter, with the
words, 'This liand, which has never yet shed human
blood, I raise to thee ' There were paintings in
which he was represented in the attitude of prayer,
and the army catching the rain in their helmets.
The emperor has expressed his own conviction of
the matter upon a medal, where Jupiter is exhibited
launching his bolts on the barbarians, who lie stretch-
ed upon the ground ; and perhaps, also, at the close
of the lirst Book of the Monologues, where he ineu-
tiotis, among the things for which he was indebted,
not to himself, but to the gods and his good fortune,
what had happened among the Quades. It is cer-
tain, therefore, that tliis rcmctrkable event can have
had no influence in changing the disposition of tlie
em]ieror towards the Christians. But it by no
means follows that the latter are to be charged with
making up a false story. The matter admits of a
natural explanation. It is not impossible that, in
the thundering legion, there were Christians ; per-
haps a large iiuinber of them ; for it is certain that
it was but a jmrty among them who condemned the
military profession. And although it was difficult
for Christians at all times, and especially under an
emperor so unfavourably disposed, to avoid partici-
pating, while connected with a Roman army, in the
rites of pagaiii.sm, yet they might succeed in doing
so under particular circumstances. The Christian
soldiers, then, resorted, as they were ever wont to do
on like occasions, to prayer. The deliverance which
ensued they regarded as an answer to their prayers ;
and, on their return home, they mentioned it to their
brethren in the faith. These, naturally, would not
fail to remind the heathen how much they were in-
debted to the peojile whom they so violently perse-
cuted. Claudius Apollinaris, bishop of Hierapolis
in Phrygia, might have heard the story, soon after
the event itself, from the Christian soldiers belong-
ing to this legion, which had returned to its winter
quarters in Cappadocia; and he introduced it, either
in an apology addressed to this emperor, or in other
apologetical works. Terlullian refers to a letter of
the emperor, addressed lu-obably to the Roman Se-
nate, in which he owns that the deliverance was due
to the Christian siddiers. But this letter, if it con-
tained, in so many words, a statement of this sort,
must, as appears evident from the above remarks,
have been either a .spurious or interpolated one. It
may be a question, however, whether the letter con-
tained any distinct allirination of this sort, — whether
the emperor may not li:ive spoken simply oi soldiem,
and Terlulliau explained it, according to his lyum \w.-
lief of C7))v.s7»(» soldiers. lie expresses himself, at
any rate, with some degree of hesitation. How tlm
LKIBNITZ (Philosophy of)— LENT.
300
Cliristiaiis iiiiglit possibly soinetimes iiitorpret the
religious profession of the heatlieiis acconling to tlie
principles of their own faith, is shown by another
account of this event, which we tind in TertulHan.
It is in these woivls : ' Marcus Aurelius, in tlie Ger-
man exjiefhtion also, obtained, through the prayers
oflfered to God by Christian soldiers, sliowers of rain,
during that time of thirst. When has not the land
been delivered from drought, by our geniculations
and fasts ? In such cases, the very people, when they
cried to the God of gods, wlio alone is mighty, gave
our God the glory, under tlie name of Jupiter.'"
IJ'iGIS'rS. See Decketists.
LKIliNITZ (Philosophy of). This eminent
German metaphysician was born at. Leipzig in 1648,
and died in 1716. His philosophy was throughout
a system of pm-e idealism. (See Inr.ALlSTS.) Spirit
was divorced from matter, soul from body, and the
sole principle of connection between tlie two was
that of a pre-established harmony, which enabled
them mysteriously to move in concert without in-
fluencing each other. Change, therefore, whether
occurring in matter or in mind, is caused not by an
influence from without, but by an internal moving
influence from within. Thought, therefore, while it
corresponds with external objects and events by a
universal law of harmony, is simply a consciousness
of changes which are taking place in the soul itself.
At the head of the whole .system of Monads, which
constitute the material and spiritual worlds, Leibnitz
placed the Deity, whom he termed the Monad of
ilonads. Each of these monads is in some degree a
mirror of the universe ; all of them are acting spon-
taneously, for it is the property of all beings to act,
and yet they are all of them subordinate to the order
of the best possible universe, for Leibnitz regarded
optimism as essential to the very notion of God.
Thus liberty is in this system combined with neces-
sity.
While Leibnitz sought to invent a philosophical
system which should harmonize all the apiiarent dis-
cordances of the universe, he aimed also at a recon-
ciliation between philosophy and Christianity, in
opposition to tlie sceptical dualism of Bayle, against
whom he wrote his Theodkee. He held with Des
Cartes and Spinosa, that clearness is the measure of
truth. The true, he alleged to be that which does
not contradict itself, and that for which a sufficient
reason can be adduced. The rtrst principle proves
the possibility, and the second the reality. The first
is the criterion of necessary matter, and the second
of contingent matter.
Leibnitz, however, though he laid down several
important principles, had been prevented from re-
ducing the whole to a regular system. This task
was reserved for Christian Wolff, his distinguished
correspondent and friend, who, on the death of his
master, was regarded as the most eminent exjiositor
of the Leibnitzian pliilosophy. While professing to
follow in the footsteps of his great predecessor.
WoW considerably nioditied the system of monads
so as to establish a decided ditl'erence between mat-
ter and mind in their real essence ; and while he
retained the theory of pre-established harmony, lie
confined it to the mutual influence of soul and body.
In conducting his philosophical researches, this dis-
tinguished commentator on Leibnitz adopted the
geometrical method, and considered all truths as
holding to each other relations analogous to those of
numbers. Thus mathematical demonstration came
to be applied to questions of pure metaphysics, and
following the examjile of Wolff, a school arose which,
though it flourished for a time, speedily gave way to
a more rational method of handling metaphysical
topics.
IjE-KE, one of the Sacred Books of the Conftici-
anists of China. It is the acknowledged guide to
rites and manners, prescribing rules for all the rela-
tionships of life, and the established orders of so-
ciety. See King.
LEMURES, spirits of the dead, wliich were be-
lieved bv the ancient Romans to return to the world,
and annov and torment the living, more especially in
the darkness of the night. Certain ceremonies were
resorted to annually on the 0th, 11th, and \?>\.\\ of
May, in order to avert the evils arising from the
visits of these mischievous spectres. The master of
the house rose at midnight, and going outside the
do(n- made certain signs. He then washed his hands
in spring water, and turning round took black beans
into his mouth, which he afterwards threw behind his
back that the Lemures might gather them. He then
littered some words, again washed his hands, made a
noise, and called to the spirits nine times to be gone.
From this time they lost their power to do injury.
On the three days set apart for these ceremonies, all
the temples were shut, and it was accounted unlucky
for women to marry not only during the three days
of the Lemm-alia, as they were called, but through-
out the whole of the month of May.
LEN.EA. See Dionysia.
LEN^EUS, a surname of Dionysus (which see),
as being the god of the Lenos or vintage.
LENT, a season of fasting which precedes the fes-
tival of Easter, and is supposed to have been intro-
duced with the view of commemorating our Saviour's
temptation, and his fasting forty days in the wilder-
ness. At first it seems to have been a voluntary
fast, continuing forty hours, corresponding to Friday
and Saturday before Easter, and comprising the en-
tire period during which our Redeemer lay in the
grave. In process of time this fast underwent con-
siderable clianges, and from a voluntary it became a
regularly prescribed fast, observed not by penitents
and calecliumens only, but by Christians generally.
In the fifth and sixth centuries the fast was extended
to thirtv-six days. The four days which were after-
wards added to make it forty days, were introduced
either by Gregoiy tlie Great in the sixth centdry, or
by Gregory H. in the eighth. Tliis fast, styled the
310
LEIPSIC CONFERENCE-LEOPARn- WORSHIP.
cnrnirni, from cnro vale, ' farewell flesh,' began wifli
Asli Wednesday, and ended with the Saturday be-
fore Easter, which was observed with great solem-
nitv, and was denominated tlie great sabbath. The
entire week before Easter was termed the Great
week, and Passion week. The forty days of the
Fast of Lent are sometimes accounted for by refer-
ring to the exami)1e of Moses, Elias, and onr Lord,
all of whom fasted forty days. The Fast of Lent
does not include all the days between Asli-Wednes-
dav and Easter, the Sundays not being counted be-
cau.'^e the Lord's Day has always been held as a fes-
tival, and not as a fast. See Easter.
LEIPSIC CONFERENCE, a disputation which
took jilace at Leipsic in 16,31, between certain Lu-
theran and Reformed divines in Germany, witli a
view to the accomplishment of a union between the
two churches. They discussed all the articles of the
Augsburg Confession, to wliich the Reformed were
ready to subscribe, and also set forth a formula of
union, or rather an exposition of tlie articles in
controversy. The Conference, however, led to no
satisfactory result.
LEIPSiC DISPUTATION, a public discussion
which was held at Leipsic in 1519, between John
Eckius on the one side, and Carlstadt and Luther on
the other. It began on tlie 27th of June, and con-
tinued till the 13th of July. Dining the first week
pjckius and Carlstadt disputed respecting free-will.
During the second week Eckius disputed with Lu-
ther respecting the primacy of the Pope. In the
third week Eckius again disputed with Luther on
repentance, purgatory, indulgences, and ju-iestly ab-
solution. The last tln'ee days were spent in dispu-
tatious between Eckius and Carlstadt. The univer-
sities of Paris and Erfurt were proposed and accepted
as judges of the disputation. Luther, however, re-
served to himself the power of apjieal from the uni-
versities to a council. Rut no decision was come to
on the discussion, and every one commented on it
according to his own feelings. " At Leipsic," said
Luther, " there was great loss of time, but no seek-
ing after truth." This important discussion, bow-
ever, was not without fruit. The arguments of
Luther, though they failed in convincing his oppo-
nent, sunk deep into the mii:ds of not a few, who
were simply present as hearers. Poliander, the
secretary and friend of Eckius, was won over by this
discussion to the cause of the Reformation. John
(.^ellarius, a learned professor of Hebrew, who bad
been one of the most violent opponents of the Re-
formed doctrines, underwent a complete change in
his religious views. Prince George of Anhalf, then
only twelve years old, was so convinced by Luther's
reasonings, that he fearlessly ranged himself onthe side
01 the Gospel. The effect upon the minds of the
students also was so strong, that great numbers of them
repaired to Wittemberg that they migh* sit at the feet
of Lulher. The I^cipsic disputation, however, acconi-
nlislied, above all, a signal benefit to the cause of truth,
in the holy impulse wliich it gave to Melanctho i
"From that hour," says D'Aubigii^, " his extensive
learning bowed before the Word of God. He re-
ceived the evangelical truth with the simplicity of a
child ; explained the doctrine of salvation with a
grace and perspicuity that charmed all his hearers;
and trod boldly in that path so new to him, for, said
lie, 'Christ will never abandon his followers.' Hence-
forward the two friends walked together, contending
for liberty and truth, — the one with the energy of
St. Paul, the other with the meekness of St. John.
Luther has admirably exiiressed the difference of
their callings. 'I was born,' .said he. 'to contend on
the tield of battle with factions and with wicked
spirits. This is why my works abound with war
and tempests. It is my ta.sk to uproot the stock
and the stem, to clear away the briars and mider-
wood, to till up the pools and the marshes. I am
the rough woodman who has to prepare the way and
smooth the road. But Philip advances quietlj' and
softlv ; be tills and plants the ground ; sows and
waters it joyfully, according to the gifts that God
has given him with so liberal a hand.'" The great-
est effect of the discussion, however, was that which
was produced on the mind of Luther himself.
" ' The scales of scholastic theology,' said lie, ' fell
then entirelv from before my eyes, under the triimi-
phant presidence of Doctor Eck.' The veil which
the School and the Church had conjointly drawn
before the sanctuary was rent for the reformer from
toj) to bottom. Driven to new inquiries, he arrived
at unexpected discoNeries. With as much indigna-
tion as astonishment, he saw the evil in all its mag-
nitude. Searching into the annals of the Church,
he discovered that the supremacy of Rome bad no
other origin than ambition on the one hand, and ig-
norant credulity on the other. The narrow point oi
view under which he had hitherto looked upon the
Church was succeeded by a deeper and more ex-
tended range. He recognised in the Christians of
Greece and of the East true members of the Catho-
lic Church ; and instead of a visible chief, seated on
the banks of the Tiber, he adored, as sole chief ot
the people of God, an invisible and eternal Redeem-
er, who, according to his promise, is daily in the
midst of every nation upon earth, with all who be-
lieve ill His name. The Latin Church was no longer
in Luther's estimation the universal Church; he saw
the narrow barriers of Rome fall down, and exulted
in discovering bevoud tlicm the glorious dominions
of Christ."
LEONES (Lat. lions), a name which, according
to Por])hyry, was given to the priests of Mit/irns
among the ancient Persians,
LEONISTS, an ap])ellation given sometimes tc
the WALnr.NSKS (which see), because of their con- I
nection with Leoiia or Lvons in France. J
LEOPARD-WORSlflP. The leopard is a fnr-
midable animal, and is held in great dread by the
natives of different parts of Africa. It is all the
LERN.EA— LESSONS.
311
more dreaded in eunseqiieiice of a superstitious no-
tion wliioh prevails, particularly in Southern Guinea,
that wicked men frequently metamorphose them-
selves into tigers, and commit all sorts of depreda-
tions without the liability or possibility of being
killed. Large villages are sometimes abandoned by
their inhabitants, because they are afraid to attack
these animals on account of their supposed superna-
tural powers. In Dahomey this animal is accounted
so sacred that if any one should kill it, he would be
held to have committed sacrilege, and would be of-
fered up in sacrifice to propitiate the offended god.
The people of that coimtry look upon the leopard as
representing the supreme god, whom they call Sell,
worshipping liim with the utmost reverence. Should
any man be killed by a leopard, his relatives, in-
stead of lamenting over the event, rejoice that he
has been taken, as they believe, to the land of good
spirits ; and in token of their satisfaction, they treat
the animal with the utmost kindness. Leopards
seem to have abounded in Egypt, as on the monu
ments the [jriests ottering incense are usually clothed
in a leopard's skin. Sir John G. Wilkinson tells us
that this leopard-skin dress was worn on all the
principal solemnities, and that the king himself
adopted it on similar occasions.
LEKN^EA, my.steries celebrated at Lerna in Ar-
golis, in honour of Demeter (which see).
LESSONS, portions of Scripture appointed in
many churches to be read in the course of Divine
service. In the ancient Jewish church the reading
of the Old Testament Scriptures formed a most
important part of the worship of the synagogue.
The Books of Moses were divided for this purpose
into fifty-four sections, corresponding to the Sab-
baths in a year, one being allowed for their in-
tercalated years in which there might be fifty-four
Sabbaths. These .sections were read successively one
on each Sabbath. When a less number of Sabbaths
occurred in a year, two sections were read together
as one on the last Sabbath, so that the whole Penta-
teuch might be read in the course of a year. Selec-
tions were also made from the historical and prophet-
ical books, wliich received the general name of the
Prophets. One of these selections was read every
Sabbath-day along with the corresponding portion of
the Law. Hence in Acts xiii. 15, we find the Jews
at Antiocli in Pisidia reading the Law and the Pro-
phets. In the early Christian church the reading of
the Scriptures was an essential part of public wor-
ship, at which all persons were allowed to be present.
The portions read were partly taken from the Old
Testament, and partly from the New. Justin Mar-
tyr is the first who mentions the reading of the
Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles together with
the Scriptures of the Old Testament. This writer
also mentions a special ofiicer in the church calleil a
Rcculer, whose duty it was to read the Scriptures,
after which an e.xhortation or exposition bearing on
the pa.ssages read was delivered by the minister.
The Apostolical Constitutions enjoin the reading of
the Scriptures as an important part of luiblic wor-
ship. At first there was no established order for the
reading of them, but afterwards the bishop appointed
the lessons. Even as late as the fourth and fifth
centuries, instances occur of such appointments by
the bishop. "The earliest division of the New Tes-
tament," says Coleman, •' was into the gospels and
the epistles, corresponding to the law and the pro-
phets of the Jewish scriptures. This division ap-
pears in the writings of Tertullian and Irenseus, and
must, accordingly, have been anterior to their time.
The reading was directed according to this division,
one lesson from each being read alternately. Be-
tween the reading of these Psalms were sung, or
selections from the Old Testament were read. When
there was nothing peculiar to direct the reading, the
scriptures were read consecutively, according to
their established order; but this order was inter-
rupted on their festivals, and other occasions. At
Easter the account of tlie resurrection was I'ead from
each of the evangelists successively. The season of
Pentecost, from Easter to Whitsuntide, was set
apart for the reading of the Acts of the Apostles.
The Western church connected with this the read-
ing of the Epistles and of the Apocalypse. Din-ing
Lent Genesis was read ; and as early as the third
century the book of Job was read in Passion-week.
In a word, though we have no complete order of the
lessons read through the year, it is to be presumed
that the reading was directed by an established rule
aiKl plan, especially on all the principal festivals and
solenniities of the church."
At the close of the lesson in the ancient church, the
audience knelt down and prayed in some such words
as these, " Lord have mercy upon us." The reading
began and closed with a set form. Cyprian alleges
that the reader saluted the audience by saying, "Peace
be with you." This, howe\er, was afterwards used
only by the presbyter or bishop at the commence-
ment of public worship, and before the sermon. It
was customary for the reader to awaken attention at
the outset by .saying, "Thus saith the Lord," in the
Lesson from tlie Old Testament or from the Gos-
pels, or " Beloved brethren, in the Epistles it is
written." At the close of the Lesson the people
frequently responded by saying, "Amen," or "We
thank thee, Lord," "We thank thee, 0 Christ." This
custom, however,gave rise to so many abuses, that the
people were forbidden to respond, and the minister
closed the reading of the Epistles by .saying, " Bless-
ed be God," and that of the Evangelists by saying,
" Glorv be to thee, O Lord." At first the reading
was performed from the Ampo (which see), but
afterwards the Gospel and the Epistle, out of rever-
ence for these parts of Scripture, were read, the for-
mer on the right hand, and the latter on the left of
the altar. It was the duty of the subdeacon to read
or chant the Epistles : and of the deacon to rehearse
the Gospels. The apostolical constitutions recom-
312
LETIIK-LKUCOPHRYNE.
mend both minister and people to stand during the
reailing of the Oospels, while, during the reading of
other portions of the Scripture, thev sat. Particu-
lar Lessons from the Gospels and Kpistles were
read on certain Salihatlis and festival days. These
special Lessons were temied Pen'mjim. Their ori-
gin has been much disputed among the learned.
Some have tr.iced them to apostolic times; others
allege that they originated in the fourth oentnry ;
while others still trace them back no farther than
the eighth century
The arrangements of the Church of England, in
reference to the Lessons .appointed to be read in
public worship, are thus described by T)r. Hook :
" For all the first Lessons on ordinary da3'S, she
directs to begin at the beginning of the year with
Genesis, and so continue till the books of the Old
Testament are read over, only omitting Chronicles,
which are for tlie most part the same with the books
of Samuel and Rings; and other pavticul.ar chapters
ill other hooks, either because they contain the
names of per.sons, places, or other matters less pro-
fitable to ordinary readers. The course of the first
Lessons for Sundays is regnhited after a diflerent
m.anner : from Advent to Septuagesima Sunday,
some particular chapters of Isaiah are appointed to
be read, because that book contains the clearest pro-
phecies concerning Christ. Upon Septuagesiina
Sunday Genesis is begun; because that book, which
treats of the fall of man, and the severe judgment
of God inflicted on the world for sin, best suits with
a time of repentance and mortification. After Gene-
sis follow chapters out of the books of the Old Tes-
tament, as they lie in order ; only on festival Sun-
days, such as Easter, Whitsunday, &c., the particLilar
history relating to that day is appointed to be road ;
and on the Saints' days the Church appoints Les-
sons out of the moral books, such as Proverbs, Ecclc-
siastes, &c., and also from the Apocr_vpha, as con-
taining excellent instructions for the coniluct of
life. As to the second Lessons, the Chin-cb ob.-erves
the same course both on Sundays and week-days ;
reading the Gospids and Acts of the Apostles in
the morning, and the Epistles in the evening, in the
order they stand in the New Testament ; excepting
on Saints' days and Holy-days, when such Lessons
are appointed as either exjilain the mystery, relate
the history, or apply the example to us." Thus the
Scripture Lessons are arranged throughout the year
with a view to the reading of all Scripture publicly
or privately, according to the calendar, and the Les-
sons for Sabbath are .such as to afford continuous
Scriptural instruction, and to lead the worshipper to
the personal reading of the Bible for his own edifi-
cation.
In the Romish missal each mass h.as two Scrip-
ture Lessons ; the one called ' the Epistle,' and the
niher ' the Gospel.' The Lessons from the aposto-
lic epistles arc generally much shorter than from the
'.jospcls. The Scripture Les.sons of the church of
Rome are, for the most [lart, taken from the Vidgate
version, the version of Jerome. In the Breviary ot
Prayer-Book of the Komish priests, there are selec-
tions given from Scrijiture by way of Lessons, which,
however, are neither continuous nor complete, thou'^h
the theory of the Breviary, undoubtedly, is that all
Scripture should be read through in the course of a
year.
LETHE, the personification of oblivion among
the ancient (xreeks and Romans. Tliey gave also
the name of Let/ie to a river in the infernal regions.
See Hell.
LETHON, the goddess of childbearing, known
by various names among ancient heathen nations.
She was worshipped by the Greeks under the name
of Artemis, while the Scythians termed her Tomyris,
and at a later period she was admitted into the mytho-
logy of Egypt under the name of Lethon. She is sup-
posed to have been identical with the Latona of the
Romans. In Egypt this goddess was represented by
a frog, probably on account of its prolific power ; but
soon afterwards she was worshipped under the name
of i?«to, and was thought to h.avc the power of driv-
ing away frogs. On the monuments she is some-
times called Tciic, and also Butn, and at other times,
in a compound form, Tcne-Riito. At first she ap-
pears with the head of a frog, and afterwards with
the head of a vul(m-e, and armed with a bow and
arrows,
LETHRA, now /.oVy, in the island of Zealand,
the city of the gods among the .ancient Danes. This
was the holy place where the nation assembled to
offer up their sacrifices, to present their prayers, and
to receive the choicest blessings from the gods.
LETO, the wife of Zeus, by whom she was the
mother of vl^io/to and -■Irto)?is-. She was only wor-
shipped in conjunction with her children. Hera be-
ing jealous of her, as being a favourite of Zens, pro-
cured her expulsion from heaven, and having been
changed into a quail, she found a resting-place in
Delos, where her children were born, and she and
thev were afterwards worshipped.
LETTERS CANONICAL. See Canonical
LiCTTERS.
LETTERS DIMISSORY. See Dimissohv 1,et-
TEltS.
LETTERS OF ORDERS. When a bishop in
England ordains a clergyman, either as a priest or
deacon, he gives him a certificate which is termed
Letters of Orders. Churchwardens are entitled to
demand a sight of these letters when any one offers
to olUciate in a parish church.
LEUCyEUS, a surname of Zeus, uiuler which he
was worshipjied at Leprous in Elis.
LEUCOPETRIANS, a class of people in connec-
tion with the Greek church, who adopted the views
of Leucopetrus, which proceeded on mi allegorical
interpretation of the Sacred Scriptures.
LEUCOPIIRYNE, a surname of Arlemls, under
which she was worshipped at Leucoplirys in Piny-
LEVANA— LEVITES.
313
gia, where slie had a temple, as well as at Magnesia,
on the Mscantler.
LEVANA (from levare, to raise), a Roman god-
dess, who presided over the rearing of new-born
children.
LEVIRATE, a law among tlie ancient Hebrews,
in virtne of which, when a man died without issue,
it became the duty of his next surviving brother to
marry his widow, with the view of raising up a first-
born son to succeed to the inheritance. Michaelis
derives the name from an old Latin word levir, which
is said to signify a husband's bi'other. The law was
more ancient than the time of iVIoses, having been in
operation in Palestine among the Canaanites and the
ancestors of the Israelites. Moses indeed, in Lev.
xviii. 16, explicitly forbids a man to marry his bro-
ther's wife, but he lays down an important exception
to this law in Deut. xxv. 5—10, and the reason of
this exception was, that families and inlieritances
might be preserved unbroken until the coming of
Messiah. The law, as it previously existed, was not
changed by Moses, but simply modified in various
respects. Tlius he expressly prohibited the mar-
riage of a brother's widow, if there were children of
his own alive. He, no doubt, allowed, and, indeed,
enjoined the brother to marry the widow of his child-
less brother, but if he was disinclined to take such a
step, he was not to be compelled to do so, but had
only to declare in court that he had no inclination
to marry his brother's widow, and then he was at
liberty. But if the brother did not choose to marry
her, she was not allowed to marry another man until
he had first set her at liberty. This ceremony of
giving a brother's widow leave to marry again is
called Caliz.\ (which see), or the loosing of the
shoe. When there were several brothers, tlie Mish-
na states, that if tlie eldest refused, ap|)lication must
be made to each of the younger brothers, and if none
of them would comply, the eldest was to be com-
pelled either to marry the widow, or to submit to
the indignity involved in the Caliza. By the Ge-
mara, both the obligation and the liberty of marry-
ing the wife of a deceased brother, are restricted to
the eldest of the surviving brothers. Among the
modern Jews, the rabliies invariably enjoin tlieir
disci|iles to refuse compliance with the precept, and
nothing remains of the original institution except the
ceremony of releasing both parties from a connection
which is never permitted to be formed.
LE'V^'ITES, the descendants of Levi, the son of
Judali, and forming one of the twelve tribes of Is-
rael. Not having joined in the worship of the golden
calf, they received the high honour of being chosen
oy Jehovah to be the priests of the Hebrews instead
of the first-born. From the tribe of Levi, Aaron
and his posterity were consecrated to the office of
the priesthood. The high-priest ranked as the head
both of the priests and Levites. The other Levites
discharged inferior religious duties, but for the more
menial employments they were allowed servants.
It would appear from Numb. viii. 5 — 22, that in the
first instance the Levites were solemnly separated
from the rest of the Israelites, and set apart for their
special sacred duties by a peculiar ceremony. Hav-
ing washed and shaved the whole body, they brought
a bullock, with a meat-ofl'ering and oil, to the altar
for a burnt-offering, and another bullock for a sin-
offering. Moses then sprinkled them with water,
after which the chief of the Israelites laid their
hands upon them, and thus consecrated them to the
work of the Lord. The Levites, in the presence of
the people, prostrated themselves before God in
token of entire surrender of themselves to his ser-
vice. Rising from the ground they laid hands upon
the bullocks, and then slew them. Sucli were the
ceremonies attending the consecration of the whole
body of the Levites. They were not enjoined to
wear any particular di-ess, but in the time of David
those who removed the ark were dressed in white
robes.
The duties of the Levites consisted in giving to
the priests all necessary assistance in the discharge
of tlieir duties, and in keeping guard round the Ta-
bernacle, and afterwards round the Temple. When
journeying through the wilderness, it was the office
of the Levites to carry the Tabernacle and all
its sacred utensils. They had the charge of the
sacred revenues, and purchased all needful supplies
of wine, oil, frankincense, and other articles used for
religious purposes. In the more recent periods of
the Jewish state, they slew the victims for the altar,
and after the time of David they seem to have acted
as singers and players on instruments in the Tem-
ple. The Levites were divided into three families,
the Kohuthites, the Gcrshonitcs, and the Merarites,
each of whom bore different parts of tlie Tabernacle
and its furniture during the journey through the
wilderness. The laborious duties which devolved
upon the Levites were only discharged between the
age* of thirty and fifty, while the lighter duties were
performed between twenty five and thirty, or be-
yond the age of fifty. In later times they com-
menced the performance of the easier duties at
twenty years of age.
From the date of the building of the Temple an
entire change took place in the an-angements made
as to the duties of the Levites. They were calcu-
lated to amount to 38,000, and were divided into
four classes ; 24,000 being set apart to assist the
priests, 4,000 as porters, 4,000 musicians, and 6,000
judges and genealogists. On the division of the
land of Canaan, the Levites had forty-eight cities
assigned to them as places of residence, thirteen of
which were appropriated to the priests, along with
the tithes of corn, fruit, and cattle. The Levites
paid to the priests the tenth ]iart of all their tithes.
In the ancient Christian church the deacons were
sometimes called by the name of Levites, to show
tiie harmony which existed between the Jewish and
Christian churches, the bishop corresponding to the
2d
314
LHA-SSA-MOROU— LIBELLI PACIS.
liigli-jiriest, the presbvters to the priests, and the
dcac'uns to the Leutes.
LIIA-SSA-MOUOU, a festival observed annually
by tlie Lamas ot'Tliibet on the third day of the first
moon. It is tlnis described by the Abbd Hue : '' All
the Uuddhist monasteries of the province of Oiii
open tlieir doors to their numerous inhabitants, and
you see great bodies of Lamas, on foot, on horse-
back, on asses, on o.xon, and carrying their prayer-
books and cooking utensils, arriving lumultiiously by
all the roads leading to Lha-S.'^a. Tlie town is
soon overwhelmed at all points, by these avalanches
of Lamas, ponrhig from all tlie surrounding moun-
tains. Tlio.se who cannot get lodgings in pri\ate
house.<, or in public edifices, encamp in the streets
iind scpiares, or pitch their little travelling tents in
tlie country. The Lha-Ssa-Morou lasts six entire
days. During this time, the tribunals are closed,
the ordinary course of justice is suspended, the min-
isters and ]iiiblic functionaries lose in some degree
tlieir authority, and all the power of the government
is abandoned to this formidable army of Buddhist
monks. There prevails in the town an inexpressi-
ble disorder and confusion. The Lamas run through
the streets in disorderly bands, uttering frightful
cries, chanting pr.iyers, pushing one another about,
quarrelling, and sometimes having furious contests
with their tists. Although the Lamas generally
ehow little reserve or modesty during these festive
days, it is not to be suppo.sed that they go to Lha-
Ssa merely to indulge in amusements incompatible
with their religious character ; it is devotion, on the
contrary, which is their cliief motive. Their pur-
pose is to implore the blessing of the Tald-Lama,
and to make a jiilgrimage to the celebrated Buddhist
monastery called Moron, which occupies the centre
of the town. Hence the name of Lha-Ssa-Morou
given to these six festive days."
LI B.A .M I XA, a name given by the ancient Romans
to denote the bunch of hair which was cut from the
forehead of a victim about to be .sacrificed, and
which was thrown into the fire as a kind of lirst-
fruiis.
LlBAXOM.ANCy (Gr. libanos, frankincense, and
manUiia, divinaiion), a species of divination, which
was performed by throwing a quantity of frankin-
cense into the lire, and observing the manner of its
biiniiiig, and the smell which it emitted. If it
burned quickly and sent forth an agreeable smell, the
omen was favourable, but if the reverse bapjiencd, it
was unfavourable.
LIl'.ATIUX, a jjractice followed from early times
of pom'ing licpiors, generally wine, upon sacrificial
victims. The quantity of wine used among the an-
cient Hebrews tor a libation was the fourth part of
a bin, or rather more than two iiints, which were
poured upon the victim after it was killed, and the
Beveral pieces of it were laid uiion the .nltar rcadv to
be consumed by the flames. (See MixcilA.) Li-
bations have among ail heathen nations also formed
a [lart of the sacrificial ritual, and no true worshipper
presumed to touch the cnp with bis lips before the
presiding divinity had his share. In regard to the
ancient Egyptians, Sir J. G. Wilkin-sou says : " A
libation of wine was frequently ofl'ered, together with
incense ; flowers were often presented with them
and many sacrifices consisted of oxen or other ani-
mals, birds, cakes, fruit, vegetables, ointments, and
other things, with incense and hbation. Wine was
frequently presented in two cups. It was not then
a libation, but merely an ottering of wine ; and since
the pouring out of wine upon the altar was a preli-
minary ceremony, as Herodotus observes, common
to all their .sacrifices, we find that the king is often
represented making a libation upon an altar covered
W'ith offerings of cakes, flowers, and the joints of a
victim killed for the occasion. The Egyptian artists
did not bind themselves to one instant of time in
tlieir representations of these subjects. The liba-
tion, therefore, appears to be poured over the mats
of ofl'erings collected upon the altar ; but the know-
ledge of their mode of drawing, and the authority of
Herodotus, explain that the libation was poured out
before the offerings were placed upon it ; and in-
stances are even found in the sculptures of tliis
preparatory ceremony. Two kinds of vases were
principally used for libation, and the various kinds
of wine were indicated by the names aflixed to
them."
Among the ancient heathens bloody sacrifices
were usually accompanied with libations, which w^ere
performed by throwing wine and incense upon the
flesh of the animal, while it was burning upon the
altar. In forming a treaty with a foreign nation,
libations always accompanied the sacrifices which
were ofl'ered on such occasions. But libations were
sometimes made indtpendently aliogether of sacri-
flccs. Thus at entertainments it was customary to
pour out a portion of wine as an ofl'ering of thanks-
giving to the gods. The wine used in libations was
always unmixed with water, but sometimes they
consisted of milk, honey, and other fluids, either pure
or diluted with water.
LIBELLATICI. In the persecution of the Chris-
tians by Decius Trajan, an edict was issued A. D.
2.00, requiring Christians to conform to the ceremo-
nies of the pagan religion, and if they declined to
sacrifice to the gods, threats and afterwards tortures
were to be employed to compel submission. Many
heathen magistrates, cither from avarice or a desire
to spare the Christians, exempted them from sacri-
ficing, provided they luirchased a certificate or libel
as it was called, attesting that they had satisfactorily
complied with the requisitions of the edict. Those
who procured such a certificate received the name ot'
Lihellatlri. See Lapskd Christians.
LIBELLI PACIS (Lat. certificivtes of peace). In
tlie persecutions under the Roman Emp.erors, it too
often happened that Christians through fear of man
denied the faith of Christ. Many persons in the.'^e
LTBELLI PCENITENTIALES— LIBERTINES.
315
sircuinstances tiiidiiig themselves excluded from tlie
privileges of tlie cliurcli, were seized witli remorse, :unl
eagerly longed for restoration to the fellowsliip of
the faithful. In order to facilitate their re-admis-
sion, some resorted to individuals who had earned a
higli Cliristian character by their readiness to endure
martvrdom fir Christ's sake, and sought from tliem
certificates of church fellowship, wliich they imagined
would lead to their speedier recoveiy of their lost
position among their fellow-Christians. These cer-
tificates granted by confessors to lapsed Christians,
were called by the name of Uhellipacis, and gave rise
to a keen controversy, in which Cyprian took an ac-
tive part.
LIBELLI PCENITENTIALES (Lat. certificates
of penitence), documents which came to be fre-
quently issued in tlie eighth century by the Komish
priesthood, grantin,' immediate absolution to those
wlio confessed their sins to the priest, and declared
themselves ready to fidfil the a|ipointed penance,
even though they were not prepared to partake of
the conmiimion. At the time when great effor.s
were made for the improvement of the church, as
was especially the case in the age of Charlemagne,
it was a main object with the church reformers of
the period to abolish the libdli pceniteiil!ale.<, which
had led to so many corruptions, and to restore the
primitive laws of the chiu'ch to their proper autho-
rity and force.
LIBENTINA, a surname of Vcmis among the
ancient Romans, as the patroness of licentiousness.
LIBER, the name used by the Roman poets to
denote the Greek Dionysus or the Bacchiis of their
own prose writers. The name, liowever, properly
belongs to an ancient Italian divinity, who, along
with the corresponding goddess. Libera, presided
over vineyards and fruitful fields. The worship of
these two deities was often combined with that of
Ceres ; and all three had a temple at Rome, near the
Circus Flaminius. Libera was considered by the
Romans as identical with Cora or Persephone, the
daughter of Demeter.
LIBERA. See Liber.
LIBERALIA, a festival observed anmially by the
ancient Romans on the 17th of March, in honour of
Liber (which see). It was much more innocent
and simple in its character than the Bacchanalia ;
and, accordingly, it continued to be celebrated at
Rome after that festival was suppressed. On the
day on which the Libei'alia were held, a procession
of i)riest9 and priestesses wearing ivy garlands,
marched through the city bearing wine, honey, cakes,
and sweetmeats, along with a portable altar, having
in the middle of it a firepan in which sacrifices were
burnt. On tliis joyful occasion the Roman youths,
who had reached their sixteenth year, were invested
with the totja virilii, or dress of manhood. Augus-
tin complains that in bis time the Liberalia were
celebrated with no little immorality and licentious-
ness.
LIBERATOR, a surname oi Jupiter, imder which
a temple was reared to liim by Augustus on the
Aventine hill.
LIBERTA3, a personification of liberty, worship-
ped as a goddess by tlie ancient Romans. Tiberius
Sempronius Gracchus built a temple to her honour
on tlie Aventine hill.
LIBERTINES. Li Acts vi. 9, we find mention
made of a synagogue at Jerusalem belonging to a class
of persons who are called Libertines. Tlie word Liber-
fo/ among the ancient Romans, denoted tliose persons
who had been released from legal servitude; and it
is not unhkely that the Libertines who had a syna-
gogue at Jerusalem may have been slaves of Jewish
origin, or proselytes after manumission. By Gro-
tius. Vitringa, and other writers, they are supposed to
have been the descendants of Jewish captives earned
to Rome by Pomjiey and others, but who had obtained
their liberty. That large numbers of such people
existed at that thne in Judea, is rendered highly pro-
bable from a passage which occurs in the second
book of the Annals of Tacitus, where the historian,
while he describes a certain class of persons as being
of the race of Libertines or freedmen, and infectel,
as he calls it, with foreign, that is with Jewish super-
stition, tells us at the .«anie time that they were so
numerous in the reign of the Emperor Tiberius, that
four thousand of them, who were of age to carry
arms, were sent to the island of Sardinia; and that
all the rest of them were ordered either to renounce
their religion, or to depart from Italy before a cer-
tain day. This statement of Tacitus, confirmed by
Suetonius, enables us to account for the number of
Libertines in Judea, and also for their having had a
synagogue in Jerusalem at the period of which Luke
was speaking, which was about fifteen years after
their banishment from Italy by the edict of Tiberius.
LIBERTINES, a sect which arose in Flanders in
the sixteenth century, calling themselves Spirituals.
It was founded by certain persons of extravagant
views, headed by Pocquet and Quintin. Though
originated in Flanders, the sect made its way into
France, where it found favour with many of the Re-
formed, and more especially with Margaret, the
queen of Navarre, and si.ster of Francis I. They
held that God works all things in all men, or is the
cause and author of all human actions, and, therefore,
they maintained that the distinction which is com-
monly alleged between good and bad actions is un-
warranted, immorality or sin being impossible. They
taught that true religion consists in the union of the
sold with God, and if any man shall succeed in at-
tainmg this by means of habitual contemplation on
spiritual and divine things, lie may thereafter impli-
citly follow the instincts of his own nature, and
whatever he may do he will be free from sin in this
world, and united to God in the world to come.
Mosheim siqiposes this sect to have been descended
from the Beffharch, or from the Brethren <./ the Free
Spirit, both of which flotu-islied in Flanders in the
316
LIBETHRIDE3— LIGHTS OF WALTON.
fourtcentli and fifteenth centuries. Calvin devoted
a special treatise to tlie exposure of tlie emirs of tlio
Libertine-', whicli were spreading rapidly among tlie
Reformed both in Flanders and in France. By liis
faithfulnee.s, in pointing out the erroneous nature of
tlieir opinions, Calvin gave great offence to the
queen of Navarre, who, though she had neither im-
bilied their sentiments nor joined their sect, was
favourably inclined towards the leaders, wliom she
regarded as good men. As soon as the Reformer
understood that his exposure of the Libertines had
offended the royal lady wlio had conferred so many
benefits upon the Church of Christ, he replied to
her with great meekness and moderation, at the same
time frankly censuring her imprudence in hospita-
bly receiving men whose opinions were opposed to
religion and sound morality, and not only so, but iu
admitting them to be authorized ministers of Clirist.
The Treatise of Calvin was successful in checking
the progress of the Libertines iu France, and lir.iit
ing their inHuenco to the country wliicli gave them
origin .
Tlie sect which we have thus briefly described has
Bometimes been confounded witli the Libertines of
Geneva, with whom Calvin maintained an almost un-
interrupted warfare tlirougliout the whole of his min-
isterial life. The Genevan Libertines were not, how-
ever, speculative heretics like the Libertines of Flan-
ders ; they were practical infidels, who disliked the
strictness of Calvin's discipline, as much if not more
than his sound theology. Fi'om such men tlie .stern
and uncompromising Reformer received violent op-
position, and even bitter persecution.
LIBETIIUIDKS, a name given to the Mnses. de-
rived, as some suppose, from a well called l^ibethra
in Thrace, or as others think, from a mountain in
Thrace, where there was a grotto sacred to the Nine.
LlBrnN.\, a goddess among the ancient Italians
who presided over funeral rites. In later times s'he
seems to have been identified with Persephone, pro-
bably in consequence of her connection with the in-
terment of the dead. The temple of Libitin/t at
Rome, contained every kind of article that was re-
qinred at funerals. Probably from this circumstance
these articles were called Libitina, but particularly
the bed on which tlic dead body was burned; and
the inidertakers at funerals were called Liititinarii.
In the Roman poets the word Libitina is often used
for death. At the temple of this goddess a register
wag kept of the names of all who died, and a small
regiatration fee was demanded.
LIBR.V (Lat. a pound', a name applied fminerly
to the sullVagans of the Bishop of Rome, because
they amounted in number to seventy, being the num-
ber of solidi in a Roman Libra. These assessors of
the Roman bishop constituted his provincial council.
LIBRI CAROLINI, a celebrated treatise which
appeared a. n. 7!)(), by way of protest against the
decrees of the Second Nicene council in favour of
Imaoe-Worship (which see). It was published in
the name of Charlemagne, but it is generally sup-
posed that he was assisted in the prejiaration of the
work by various theologians of his time, particularly
by the famous English monk, Alcuin.
LIFTERS, a small sect in the West of Scotland
in 1783, which held tliat the " lifting" of the elements
before the consecration prayer is an essentiid part of
the ordinance.
LIGHT (Friends of). These Liehtfrcunde, as
they are called in Germany, are a iew indejiendent
rationalistic congregations in the Saxon province of
Prussia. They owe their origin to the excitement
caused between 1841 and 1848, by Ulich of Magde-
burg, a preacher of eloquence and talent, but of the
lowest religiou.s views. These Friends of Lvjlit as-
sumed a completely political aspect, and were bitter
in their opposition to the Prussian government, but
at length they were entirely swept away by the Re-
volution of 1848.
LIGHT (Inward). See Friends (Society of).
LIGHT (Old) ANTIBURGHERS. See Old
Light Antiburgiiers.
LIGHT (Old) BURGHERS. See Old Light
Burghers.
LIGHTS (Feast of), a name apjilied by Jose-
phus to the Jewish Feast of Dedication (which
see).
LIGHTS (Feast of), an appellation given by
the Greek church to the festival of Epiphany
(which see), because on that day Jesus was baptized,
and the ordinance of baptism is with them often
called an Illumination.
LIGHTS IN BAPTISM. In the aneient Chris-
tian church the practice seems to have existed of
the baptized, after the ceremony W'as ended, cariying
lighted tapers in tlieir hands. Gregory Nazianzen
mentions this among other ceremonies as following
the administration of baptism. "The station," says
he, " when immediately after baptism thou shalt be
placed before the altar, is an emblem of the glory of
the life to come ; tlie psalmody with which thou
shalt be received is a foretaste of those hymns and
songs of a better life ; and the lamps which thou
shalt light are a figure of those lamps of faith
wherewitli bright and virgin souls shall go forth to
meet the bridegroom." Others suppose it to be an
emblem of the illumination of the Spirit in baptism,
and designed to lie an allusion to our Saviour's
words, " Lot your light so shine before men, that
others seeing your good works may glorify your
Father which is in heaven." In the ba|itism of per-
sons of high rank, it .sometimes happened that not
only the baptized jiarlies tliemsclves. but the whole
of their retinue and attendants, were clothed in white
garments, and carried lanqis in their hands.
LIGH rs OF WALTON, a class of enthusiasts
who appe.'ired in the seventeenth century at Walton-
on-Thanics, SuiTey, England. The story of the rise
of this people is curious. In the beginning of
Lent 1649, Mr. Fawcet, then minister of Walton,
LIGHTS ON THE ALTAR— LILITH.
317
havins? preached in the aftenioon, when he had con-
cluded, it was nearly dark, and six soldiers came in-
to the church, one with a lighted candle in a lantern,
and four with candles unliglited. The iirst soldier
addressed the people, declaring tliat he had been fa-
voured with a vision, and had received a message
frojn God, which they must listen to and be-
lieve on pain of damnation. This message con-
sisted of five lights : L The Sabbath is abolished;
and here, said he, " I should put out my first light,
but the wind is so high that I cannot light it."
2. Tithes are abolished. 3. Ministers are abolished.
4. Magistrates are abolished, repeating the same con-
cluding words as he had uttered under the first head.
Then taking a Bible from liis pocket, he declared
that it also was abolished, as containing only beg-
garly eleTuents, wliich were unnecessary now that
Christ was come in his glory with a full measure of
his Spirit. Then taking the lighted candle from bis
lantern, he set fire to the pages of the Bible, after
which, extinguishing the candle, he added, " and
here my fifth light is extinguished." This closed
the scene on the Lights of Walton.
LIGHTS ON THE ALTAK. An ancient cus-
tom, we learn on the testimony of Jerome alone,
existed in the Eastern churches of carrying lights
before the Gospel when it was to be read. They
lighted candles, he tells us, partly to demonstrate
their joy for the good news which the Gospel
brought, and partly by an outward symbol to repre-
sent that light of wliich the P.salmist speaks when
he says, "Thy word is a light unto my feet, and a
lamp unto my path." Though Jerome declares that
in his time no such custom existed in tlie Western
Church, it came at length to be the universal prac-
tice of that church to ha\e lighted candles on the
altar, as well as before pictures or images of the
Virgin and other saints. In the reign of King Ed-
ward VI., we find the injunction issued in 1547, that
" all deans, archdeacons, parsons, vicars, and other
ecclesiastical persons, shall suffer from henceforth no
torches nor candles, tajiers or images of wax, to be
set before any image or picture. But only two
lights upon the high altar before the sacrament,
which for the signification that Christ is the very
true light of the world, they shall sutler to remain
still." In the reign of Elizabeth, however, injunc-
tioiiS were given to the ecclesiastical visitors of 15.59
to remove from the parish churches in England all
crucifixes, relics, and lighted tapers, although her
Majesty long retained in her own chapel both the
crucifix and lighted tapers. Lights, however, still
continued to be used on the altar in many of the
parish churches in England, notwithstanding the
prohibition, and at tliis day they are found in some
churches, while the Tractarian party defend the prac-
tice by alleging that as no Act of Parliament or
Act of Convocation ever repealed the injunction of
Edward VI. in 1547, to which we have referred, it
is still in force, and therefore, the practice of having
two lights upon the altar is enjoined by the laws and
sanctioned by the usage of tlie Church of England.
LIKNON, a long basket in which the image of
Dionysus was carried in the festivals of ancient
Greece, wliich were called Dionyda. The Likiion
was the winnowing van into which the corn was
received after thrashing, and therefore being con-
nected with agriculture, it was naturally used in the
rites of both Bacdms and Ceres. It was also em-
ployed to carry the instruments of sacrifice, and the
first-fruits or other offerings.
LIKNOPIIOROS, the person whose duty it was
to carry the LiKNON (which seej, in the Dionysiac
processions. See C.\nephoros.
LILITH, the first wife of Adam, according to
Rabbinical tradition among the Jews. The strange
story is thus related in Jewish legends. '■ When the
blessed God created the first man, whom he formed
alone, without a companion, he said, It is not good
that the man should be alone : and therefore he
created a woman also out of the ground, and named
her Lilith. They immediately began to contend
with each other for superiority. The man said : It
behoves thee to be obedient ; I am to rule over thee.
The woman replied : We are on a perfect equality ;
for we were both formed out of the same earth. So
neither would submit to the other. Lilith, seeing
this, uttered the Shem-haniphorash,''' that is. pro-
nounced the uame Jeliovah, "and instantly tiewaway
throLigh the air. Adam then addressed himself to
God, and said : Lord of the universe ! the woman
whom thou gavest me, has fiown away from me.
God immediately dispatched three angels, Sennoi,
Sansennoi, and Sammangeloph, to bring back the
fugitive: he said to them: If she consent to return,
well ; but if not, 3-ou are to leave her, alter declaring
to her that a hundred of her children shall die every
day. These angels then pursued her, and found her
in the midst of the sea, in the mighty waters in
which the Egyptians were to be afterwards destroy-
ed. They made known to her the divine message,
but she refused to return. They threatened, unless
she would return, to drown her in the sea. She
then said : Let me go ; for I was created for no other
purpose than to debilitate and destroy young infants
my power over the males will extend to eight days,
and over the females to twenty da\'S, after their
birth. On hearing this, the angels were proceeding
to seize her and carry her back to Adam by force :
but Lilith swore by the name of the living God, that
she would refrain from doing any injury to infants,
wherever and whenever she should find those angels,
or their names, or their pictures, on parchment or
paper, or on whatever else they might be written or
drawn : and she consented to the punishment de-
nounced against her by God, that a hundred of her
children should die every day. Hence it is that
every day witnesses the death of a hundred young
demons of her progeny. And for this reason we
write the names of these angels on slips of paper 01
318
LIMA— LING A.
parcliinent, and bind tliein upon inliuits, that Lilitli,
on seeing tliem, may remember lier oatli, and may
abstiiin from doini; our iutaiits any injury." Au-
otlier rabbinical writer says : •' I have also iieard that
when the child laughs in its sleep in the niglit of the
sabbath or of the new moon, the Lilith laughs and
toys with it ; and that it is proper for tlie father, or
mother, or any one that sees tlie infant laugh, to
tap it on the nose, and say, Hence, begone, cursed
Lilith ; for thy aiiode is not here. This sliould be
Siiid three timesj and each repetition sliould be ac-
companied with a pat on the nose. This is of great
benelit, because it is in the power of Lilith to de-
stroy children whenever she pleases."
To the modern Jews, Lilith is an object of great
dread, more especially when a child is about to be
born, because they imagine that she has been trans-
formed into a female demon, and takes delight in
injuring and even destroying young children.
Hence when a Jewish woman a[iproaches the period
of her confinement, the husband inscribes on each of
the walls or partitions around the bed, along with the
names of Adam and Eve in Hebrew characters, the
words Chats Lilith, tliat is, " begone Lilith." (See
Birth.) On the inside of the doors also he writes
the names of three angels, which it is believed will
difend the child from the injuries which it might
otherwise receive from Lilith.
LILY (Sacked). See Lotus-Wou.'^hip.
LIMA, a goddess among the ancient Romans,
who protected the threshold of their houses.
LIMBUS INFANTUM, a place to which, ac-
cording to some Romish divines, the soids of those
children go who die without having been baptized,
and where they endure the eternal punishment of
loss, though not of sense. As no unbaptized child,
according to their view, can enter heaven, this place
will never be evacuated.
LIMBUS PATUUM, a place in which Homan
Catholic divines allege the souls of the ancient palri-
archs remained until the advent of Christ, who before
his resurrection appeared to them, and opened for
them an access to heaven. It is the same with
paradise or Abraham's bosom. " It is in Scripture
called 'hell,' or 'the lower parts of the earth.'
(Psalm xvi. 10 ; Eph. iv. 9.) The Rhemish aiuio-
tators, on Luke xvi. 22, describe it as follows: —
'The bosom of Abraham is the resting-place of all
them that died in perfect slate of grace before Christ's
time, heaven before being shut from men. It is
called in Zachary "a lake without water," and some-
times "a prison," but most connnonly of the Divines
Lirnbm Patrum, for that it is thought to have been
tlie higher part or brim of hell, the places of punish-
ment being far lower tliiin the same, which, there-
fore, be called Iiifernmu Iii/eriiix, " the lower hell."
WlhTe thi.f mansion of the Fathers stood, or whether
it be any part of hell, Augustine doubteth ; but that
lliere was such a place, neither he nor any Catholic
man ever doubted : as all the Fathers make it most
certain, that our Saviour, descending to hell, went
thither specially, and delivered the said Fathers out
of that mansion.' Papists say that this place is
now tenantless, as purgatory hereafter will also be."
See Purgatory.
LIMl'jNlA, a surname of several ancient heathen
deities, both male and female, such as Zeiis, Artemis,
Aphrodite, Priapiis, and Pan.
LIMENTINUS, the god among the ancient Ro-
mans, who presided over the thresholds of their
houses, to whicli they always attached a peculiar
importance approaching to sacredness.
LIMINA MARTYRUM (Lat. thresholds of the
martyrs), an expression sometimes used by Jerome
to denote Christian churches.
LIMNATIDES, inferior divinities who presided
over lakes in the ancient heathen mythology.
LIMNETES, a surname of several deities among
the ancient heathens, as for example, Dioiri/ms at
Athens, and Artemis at Sicyon.
LIMUS, an article of dress worn around the
loins by the ancient lioms.\\ popa, or officiating priest
at the sacrifices.
LIMUS, a Grecian god corresponding to the Ro-
man Famex, the personification of Hunger. Accord-
ing to Hesiod, Limiis was spriu)g from Eris ; and
Virgil places Fames among the monsters at the en-
trance of the infernal regions.
LINDIA, a surname of Atltena, derived from a
town of the same name in Rhodes, where a temple
was erected to her honour.
LINEA, an article of clerical dress, mentioned in
the Life of Cyprian, the precise nature of which is
not known. Baronius conjectures it to have been
the bishop's rochet, but of this there is no proof, and
the only thing that can be said is, that it was pro-
bably some garment made of linen.
LINGA, the emblem of the fertility and produc-
tiveness of nature, being one of the principal forms,
and indeed almost the oidy form, under which Shiva
has been worshipped in Hindustan for at least a
thousand years past. It is perhaps the most ancient
object of worship adopted in India posterior to the
period of the Vedas, which inculcate almost exclu-
sively the worship of the elements, })articularly fire.
It is doubtful bow far the Vedas sanction the wor-
ship of the Linga, but it forms the chief subject of
several of the Puranas. According to Creuzcr. the
Trinnirtti i as the first element in the faith of the
Hindus, and the second was the Linga. The extent
to which the Linga- worship |a"evails throughout
India is thus noticed by Professor H. H. Wilson in
the 'Asiatic Researches:' "Its prevalence through-
out the whole tract of the Ganges, as far as Benares,
is sufficiently conspicuous. In Bengal, the temples
are commonly erected in a range of six, eight, or
twelve, on each side of a Ghat, leading to the river.
At Kabia is a circular groupe of one hundred and
eight temples, erected by the Raja of liardwan
Each of the temples in Bengal consists of a single
LION-WORSHIP.
3 lit
chamber, of a square form, surmounted by a pyrami-
dal centre ; the area of eaoli is very small, the
Linga, of black or white marble, occupies the cen-
tre ; the offerings are presented at the threshold.
Benares, however, is tlie peculiar seat of this form
of worship : the principal deity, Visweswara, is
a Lhiga, and most of the chief obiects of tlie pil-
grimage are similar blocks of stone. Particular
divisions of the pilgrimage direct visiting forty-
seven Lingas, all of pre-eminent sanctity; but there
are hundreds of inferior note still worshipped, and
thousands whose fixme and fashion liave passed away.
If we may believe Siva, indeed, he counted a hun-
dred Pardrrdhyas in Kasi, of which, at the time he
is supposed to tell this to Devi, he adds sixty crore,
or six hundred millions, were covered by the waters
of the Ganges. A Pardrrd/zi/a is said, by the com-
mentator on the Kaai K/ianda. in which this dialogue
occurs, to contaiTi as many years of mortals as are
equal to fifty o? Brahma's years."
There can be no doubt of the universality of this
species of worship at tlie period of the Mohammedan
invasion of India in the eleventh century. At that
time there were twelve great Lingas set up in
various parts of India, several of which were
destroyed bj' the early Moliammedan conquerors.
One of them, demolished by Mahmud of Ghiziii,
was a block of stone of four or five cubits long, and
proportionate tliickness. It was called the idol of
Somnalh, whicli was .said by some historians to Iiave
been carried from the Kcuiba on tlie coming of Mo-
hannned, and transported to India. The Brahman-
ical records, however, refer it to tlie time of Krislma,
implying an antiquity of 4,000 years, — a statement
which must be considered as savouring of Oriental
exaggeration. It is very probable, however, that
the worship of Shiva, under the type of the Lini/a,
prevailed throughout India as early as the fifth or
sixth century of the Christian era.
One of the forms in wliich the Linga worship ap-
pears is that of tlie Lingayet's, Liiigawants, or Jan-
GAMAS (which see), the essential characteristic of
which is wearing the emblem on some part of the
dress or person. The type is of a small size, made
of copper or silver, and is commonly worn su.*pended
in a case round the neck, or in the tui-ban. The
morning devotions of the worshippers of tlie Liuga,
as an emblem of Shiva, is thus described by Dr.
Duff in his ' India and India Mission: "After as-
cending from the waters of the river, they distri-
bute themselves along the muddy baidvs. Each
tlien takes up a portion of clay, and, beginning to
mould it into the form of the Lingam, the symbol of
his tutelary deity, devoutly says, ' Reverence to
Hara (a name of Shiva), I take this lump of clay.'
Next addressing the clay, he says, ' Shiva, I make
thy image. Praise to Salpani (Shiva, the holder of
the trisuki, or trident). 0 god, enter into this image ;
take life witliin it. Constant reverence to Malie.sa
(Shiva), whose form is radiant as a mountain of sil-
ver, lovely as the crescent of the moon, and resplen-
dent with jewels ; having foin- hands, two bearing
weapons (the mace and the trident), a third con-
ferring'blessing, and the fourth dispelling fear;
serene, lotus-seated, wor.shipped by surrounding
deities, and seated on a tiger's skin. Reverence to
the holder of the pinaca (a part of the Lingam).
Come, 0 come ! vouchsafe thy presence, vouchsafe
thy presence : approach, rest, and tarry here. Tlie
Lingam, or symbol of Shiva, being now formed, he
presents to it water from the Ganges, and various
offerings, saying, ' Lave thy body in the Ganges, O
lord of animals. I ofter thee water to wash thy feet.
Praise to Shiva. Take water to wasli thy hands ;
smell this saudal-wood ; lake tliese flowers and
leaves ; accept tliis incense, and this flame ; con-
sume this offering of mine (consisting of plantains,
cucumbers, oranges, plums, and other fruits) ; take
one more draught of this stream ; raise thy mouth,
and now take betel-nut' (with various other roots
and vegetables). He then worsliips, rehearsing the
names and attributes of the god ; and offers flowers
all round the image, commencing from the east, —
adding, ' Receive, 0 Shiva, these offerings of flowers.
I also present these fragrant flowers to thy consort,
Durga. Thus do I worship thee.' As an act of
merit, he repeats, as often as he can, the names of
Shiva ; counting the number of times on his fingers.
Again and again he worships and bows, beating his
cheeks, and uttering tlie my.stical words, iom, bom.
He last of all throws tlie flowers into the water,
prays to Shiva to grant him temporal favours and
blessings; twines his fingcsrs one into the other;
places the image once more before him ; and then
flings it aivay." It may at first view appear incon-
sistent tliat Shii^a, tlie god of destruction, should be
worsliipped under an emblem denoting life-giving
productiveness, but this is explained by referring to
the doctrine of Metempsycliosis, which is a promi-
nent featm-e of Hinduism, and according to wliich,
to destroy is only to regenerate in a new form. The
Lingn was venerated also among the ancient Greeks
and Romans under a diflerent name. See Phallus.
L1NG.\YETS. See Jangamas.
LION-WORSHIP. In all ages the lion has been
looked upon as the noblest of animals, the king of
the forest, the most powerful of the beasts of prey.
We find very frequent references to this animal n
the Old Testament Scriptures. It was the symbol
of the tribe of Judah, and in the writings of the
Jewish projiliets it is frequently introduced to give
force and significance to their figurative language.
There is the most satisfactory evidence that the lion
anciently inhabited tlie deserts of Egypt, though it
is no longer foinid there. To what extent it was an
object of worship in Egypt may be seen from the
following remarks of Sir J. G. Wilkinson : " The
worship of the lion was particularly regarded in the
city of Leontopolis; and other cities adored this
animal as the emblem of niuiv. than one deitv. It
320
LION-WORSHIP.
was tlie svmbol of sireiigtli, and tlierelore tvpical of
the ligyptiaii Hercules. Witli this idea, tlie Egj'p-
tian sculptors frequently represented a powcrfid and
victorious monarch, accompanied by it in battle,
tliougli, as DioJorus says of Osymandyas, some sup-
pose the king to have been really attended by a
tame lion on these occasions. Macrobius, ProcUis,
Horapollo, and others, state that tlie lion was typi-
cal of the sun ; an assertion apparently borne out by
the sculptures, which sometimes figure it borne up-
on the backs of two lions. It is also combined with
other emblems appertaining to the god Re. In the
connexion between tlie lion and Hercules may be
traced the relationsliip of the sun and the god of
strength.
" Macrobius pretends that the Egyptians employed
the lion to represent tliat part of the heavens where
the sun, during its annual revolution, was in its gi-eat-
est force, ' The sign Leo being called the abode of the
sun ;' and tlie dilVei'ent parts of this aniinal are re-
puted by him to have indicated various seasons, and
the increasing or decreasing ratio of the solar power.
The bead he supposes to have denoted the ' present
time,' which Horapollo interprets as the type of
vigiltnce : and the tire of its eyes was considered
analogous to the ilery look wliich the sun constantly
directs towards the world. In the temple of Dak-
keh, the lion is represented upon the shrine or sacred
table of tlie ibis, the bird of Hermes ; and a monkey,
the emblem of the same deity, is seen praying to a
lion with the disk of the sun upon its head. Some
also believed the lion to be sacred to the Egyptian
Minerva ; and ^^lian says the Egyptians conse-
crated it to Vulcan, ' attributing the fore part of this
animal to tire, and the hinder parts to water.' Some-
times the lion, the emblem of strength, was adopted
as a type of the king, and substituted for the more
usual representation of royal power, the sphinx :
which, when formed by the human head and lion's
body, signified the union of intellectual and ]jhysical
strength. In Southern Ethiopia, in the vicinity of
the modem town of Sheiidy, the lion-headed deity
seems to have been the chief object of worship. He
holds a conspicuous place in the great temple of
Wady Owdteb, and on the sculptured remains at
Wady Benat ; at the former of which he is the tirst
in a procession of deities, consisting of Re, Ne]ih,
and i'thah, to whom a monarch is making otleriiigs.
On the side of the propylaium tower is a snake with
a, lion's head and human arms, rising from a lotus ;
and in the small temple at the same place, a god
with three lions' heads and two [lair of arms, holds
the principal jdace in the sculptures. This last ap-
peals to be peculiarly marked as a type of physienl
strength ; which is still farther expressed by the
choice of tl<e number three, indiaitive of a material
or physical sense. The lion also occurs in Ethiopia,
devouring the prisoners, or attacking tlie enemy, in
company with a king, as in the Egyiiliaii sculituies.
According to I'lutarch, ' the lion was worsliippcd by
the Egyptians, who ornamented the doors of their
temples with the gaping mouth of that animal, be-
cause the Nile began to rise when the sun was in
the constellation of Leo.' Horapollo says, lions
were ])laced before the gates of the temjiles, as the
symbols of watclifulness and protection. And ' be-
ing a type of the inundation, in consequence of the
Nile rising more abundantly when the sun is in Leo,
those who anciently presided over the sacred works,
made the water-spouts and passages of fountains in
the form of lions.' The latter remark is in perl'ect ac-
cordance with fact, — many water-spouts terminating
in linns' heads still remaining on the temples. jKlian
also says, that ' the people of the great city of He-
liopolis keep lions hi the vestibules or areas of the
temple of their god (the sun), considering them to
partake of a certain divine influence, according to
the statements of the Egyptians themselves, and
temples are even dedicated to this animal.'
" The figure of a lion, or the head and feet of that
animal, were frequently used in chairs, tables, and
various kinds of furniture, and as ornamental devices.
The same idea has been common in all countries,
and in the earliest specimens of Greek sculpture.
The lions over the gate of Myceiue are similar to
many of those which occur on the monuments of
Egypt. No mummies of lions have been found in
Egvpt. They were not indigenous in the country,
and were only kept as curiosities, or as objects of
worship. In jilaces where they were sacred, they
were treated with great care, being ' fed with joints
of meat, and provided with comfortable and spacious
dwellings, particularly in Leontopolis, the city of
lions ; and songs were sung to them during the hours
of their repast.' The animal was even permitted to
exercise its natural propensity of seizing its prey, in
order that the exercise might preser\e its health, for
which purpose a calf was put into the enclosure.
And having killed the victim thus ofiered to it. the
lion retired to its den, probably without exciting in
the spectators any thought of the cruelty of grant-
ing this indulgence to their favourite animal."
Mithras, which is a solar god, was represented
with a lion's head. In his mysteries the second de-
gree was that of the lion. At a later period the
armorial bearings of Persia have been a lion with
the sun rising on its back, and the Shah distributes
to his most honoured servants the order of the linn.
Adad, the god of the Syrians, was seated upon the
back of a lion, which represents his solar nature. In
South America the first discoverers found at 'I'abaseo
.in image of a lion, to which the natives otVcred hu-
man .sacrifices, whose blood flowed into a reservoir,
on the margin of which stood the statue of a man in
stone, who was represented looking attentively at
the blood.
Dr. Livingstone, in his 'Travels in Africa,' men-
tions a tribe who believe that the souls of their chiefs
enter into lions, and, therefore, they never altenqit
to kill them ; they even believe that a chief may
LIT^— LITERS FORMATiE.
321
metamorphose himself into a lion, kill any one he
chooses, and then return to the human form ; there-
fore, wlien tliey see one, they commence clapping
their hands, which is their usual mode of salutation.
LITjE, a personification of the prayers of peni-
tence among tlie ancient Greeks. Homer mentions
them as being daughters of Zeiis.
LITANIES. This word was anciently used to
denote all kinds of prayers, whether otfered publicly
in the churcii, or privately by individuals. Euse-
bius and Chrysostom, as well as other early writers,
use it in this general sense. In a law made by Ar-
cadius, in tlie fourth century, against Arians, that
heretical sect was forbidden to make Litanies within
the city, either by night or by day, evidently refer-
ring to the whole exercises of their religious assem-
blies, including hymns and psalmody, as well as
prayers. Special prayers, under the name of Lita-
nies, appear to have been used in the Eastern Church
in the fourth and tiftli centimes ; while in the West-
ern Church such prayers received the name of Ro-
gations, which was afterwards exchanged for that
of Litanies.
In this limited sense, Litanies are said to have been
first introduced by Mamercus, bishop of Vienna, in
France, about the year 450. It is probable, how-
ever, that they were in use before his time, and tliat
the merit of the French bishop consisted in the ap-
plication of them to Rogation days. The first coun-
cil of Orleans, A. D. 511, established three days of
solemn fasting, and ordered them to be kept with
Rogations or Litanies. In the Spanish churches
decrees in regard to the use of Litanies were passed
by several councils of Toledo ; and in A. D. 694, the
seventeenth council held in that city ordain-
ed that Lib-inies should be used in every month
tlu'oughout tlie year. By degrees they became more
frequent, and at length tliese solemn supplications
were employed on Wednesdays and Fridays, the an-
cient stationary days in all churches.
Litanies were divided hito two classes in former
times, the Greaterand the Lesser Litany. The Greater
Litany was originated by Gregory the Great, who
appointed it for the twenty-fiftli day of April, under
the name of the seven-formed Litany, because on
that day he ordered the church to go in procession
in seven distinct classes; first, the clerg\', then the
laymen, next the monks, after them the virgins, tlien
the married women, next the widows, and last of
all the poor and the children. French writers
allege that the Litany of Mamercus, and not that
of Gregory, was termed the Great Litany. As to
the Lesser Litany, Bingham conjectures it to have
been simply the Kyrie Eleiwn, or Lord have mercy
upon us, which short form of supjilication was used
in all churches, and as a part of all their daily offi-
ces. The Greater Litany was sometimes termed
ExoMOLOGESis (which see).
It occasionally happened, as early as the time of
Chrysostom, that the Christians went barefoot in
n.
processions into the open fields, where they made
their Litanies, carrying crosses upon their shoulders
as the badge of their profession. The laws of Jus-
tinian expressly appointed that these Litanies should
not be celebrated without the bishop or the clergy,
and that the people on these occasions should be
dressed in a simple and plain manner. In the Litan-
ies of the ancient churcli no prayers or invocations
were made to saints or angels as in the modern
Litanies of the Romish church.
The Litany of the Church of England, though not
copied from any ancient form, is evidently of great
antiquity. At one time it formed a distinct service,
but afterwards it was combined with the morning
prayer, though occupying a separate place in the
Prayer-Book. Formerly it was appointed by the
rubric that, '-after morning prayer, the people being
called together by the ringing of a bell, and assem-
bled in the church, the English Litany shall be said
after the accustomed manner," and it was also re-
quired that " every householder, dwelling within
half a mile of the church, should come, or send some
one at the least of his household, fit to join with the
minister in prayers." The practice was formerly
observed, and, indeed, still exists in some Engli.sh
churches, of holding morning prayer at eight o'clock,
and tlie Litanv and comnumion at ten.
LITAOLANE'. The Bechuanas in South Africa
have a curious tradition, that a monster of an im-
mense size, at a very remote period of time, swal-
lowed up all mankind, with the exception of a single
woman, who conceived miraculously, and brought
forth a son, to whom she gave the name of Litao-
lan^. This progeny of the woman attacked the
monster, who swallowed him up alive, but being
armed with a knife, he cut open an outlet for himself
from the belly of the monster, and thus he and all
the nations of the earth in him obtained deliverance.
But though rescued from death, men sought to de-
stroy their deliverer, who, however, defies all their
threats. In this tradition there seems to be a remote
allusion to the Deluge, and also to the Messiah.
LITERS CLERICjE (Lat. clerical letters), a
name given by Cyprian to letters written by a bishop
in ancient times to a foreign chin-ch, and which were
sent by the hands of one of the clergy, usually a
subdeaeon.
LITERS FORMAT.E (Lat. formed letters}, let-
ters of credence given by a bishop or pastor in the
early Christian church, to such members of the
church as proposed to travel to foreign countries.
They were called FormatcB, or formed, because they
were written in a peculiar form, with some particular
marks or characters, so that they coidd be easily
distinguished from counterfeits. It was the sole
prerogative of the bishop to grant these letters, which
were generally of three kinds : — 1. Commendatory
Letters, those which were granted to persons ol
quality, or to persons whose reputation had been
called in question, or to the clergy who had occasion
2e
t' 322
LITIIOMANCY— LITURGIES.
to travel into foreign conntries. 2. Canonical Let-
ters, tliose which were granted to all who were in
the peace and comnumion of the church. 3. Dimi^-
sonj Letters, tliose which were only granted to the
clergy when tliey removed from one district to an-
other.
LITnOM.A.XCY(rrr. lilJios, a stone, and manteia,
divination), a species of divination perfonned by
means of stones. The stone used for this purpose
was washed in spring water by candle light, and the
person engaged in divining, having puritied himself,
covered his face, repeated a form of prayer, and
placed certain characters in a certain order. Then
the stone was said to move of itself and in a soft
gentle murmur to give the answer. By this sort of
divination Helena is said to have foretold the de-
strncfion of Troy.
LITURGIES. The Greek word leitargin occurs
frequently in the New Ttstanient inider the sense
of public ministry, inohuling all the ceremonies
belonging to Divine service. It was pi-obably used
in the same signitication by Chrysostom and Theo-
doret. Both in the Eastern and Western chm-ches
it became the practice to appl}' the word in a re-
stricted meaning to the sacrament of the Lord's Sup-
per. In many modern Protestant churches, it has
come to denote the common prayer, and among
Romanists the mass.
Mr. Riddle, in his ' Manual of Christian Anti-
quities,' divides the Liturgies whicli have been used
in dilferent clinruhcs into four families or classes.
(1.) The great Oriental Liturgy, which seems to have
prevailed in all churches, from the Eujihrates to the
Hellespont, and thence to the southern extremity of
Greece. (2.) The Alexandrian or ancient Liturgy of
Egypt, Abyssinia, and the country extending along
the Mediterranean Sea to the West. (3.) The Ro-
man, wliich prevailed throughout tlie whole of Italy,
Sicily, and the civil diocese of Africa. (4.) The
Galilean, which was used throughout Gaul and
Spain, and probably in the ex-archatc of Ephesus un-
til the fourth centiuy.
The earliest known Liturgy is the Clementine,
found ill the Aposloliail ConMilatioiis, which are not
supposed to date farther back than the fourth cen-
tury, Epiphanius beingthe first author who mentions
Buch a production by name. There is no evidence
whatever tliat before thai linio a Liturgy, or set form
of prayers, exi.-ted in the Christian church ; but sev-
eral ecclesiastical writers allege, that for three, if not
for four centuries, the Ijord's Supper was adminis-
tered by a traditional forin derived from the apos-
tles, which, howe\er, in conseciuenco of the strict
maintenance of the .ViiCANi Discil'l.lNA (which sec),
was not allowed to be committed to writing lest the
Christian mysieries should be revealed to the Hea-
then. In tills way the fact has been attempted to
be explained, that alibough the Clementine Liturgy
ig the model on which all posterior Liturgies were
framed, it was never UBcd by any church, even afler
the churches came to employ written Liturgies in
public worship. This then, which is believed to be
the most ancient Liturgy, is supposed to be the old
traditional form used in all churches before that fonn
was connnitted to writing in any one church. But
when the several churches began to put their Litur-
gies into writing, they adopted such a step without
being sanctioned by the decree of any general coun-
cil, or without agreeing upon one specific form fur
all churches, as they did upon one common creed in
the first four general councils. Each church, in
fact, composed a Liturgy for itself.
Next in antiquity to the Clementine Liturgy it,
that of St. Basil, which can be traced, with some de-
gree of certainty, to the fourtli century. He is sup-
posed to have been the first who compiled a commu-
nion-office in writing for the use of his own church.
His Liturgy was not only used in Cajsarea, of which
place he was archbishoji, but it was received by sev-
eral other churches, and used by them along with
their own, not constantly, but on some particular
occasions. Tluis, in the Greek church, the Liturgy
of St. Basil is used upon all the Suinbiys of Lent,
except Palm-Sunday, upon the Thursday and Satur-
day of Passion-week, upon Christmas-eve, and the
eve of the Epiphany, and upon St. Basil's-day. The
use of this Liturgy by the patriarchs of Constantino-
ple, and the churches under their care, is to be ex-
plained by the fact, that from a period before the
council of Chalcedon, A. D. 451, the patriarch of
Constantinople became possessed of the jurisdiction
which had anciently belonged to the exarch of Cse-
sarea. " This was the form," says Mr. Kiddle," which
soon prevailed tlu'oughout the whole exarchate of
C;esarea ami the patriarchate of Constantinople,
where it has remained in use ever since. This was
the form which was received by all the patriarcliate
of Antioch, translated into Coptic, revised by the
]iatriarchs of Alexandria, and admitted into their
chiu'ch, used alike by the orthodox and heretics. At
this day, after the lapse of near fifleen hundred years,
the Liturgy of Basil prevails, without any substantial
variety, from the northern shores of Russia to the
extremities of Abyssinia, and from the Adriatic and
Baltic Seas to the farthest coast of Asia. In one
respect this Liturgy must be considered as the most
valuable that we possess. We can trace back the
words and expressions of the greater portion to about
the year 370 or 380. This is not the case with
any other Liturgy. The expressions of all other
Liturgies we cannot certainly trace in general be-
yond the fifth century.'
The Liturgy of Basil, however, as used in the
Greek church, contains some interpolaled passages,
as is admilted on all hands; and when it was intro-
duced into the patriarchate of Alexandria, it seems
to have undergone several alterations, intended, as is
probable, to acconnnodate it to the ancient Alexan-
drian or Egyptian Liturgy, which was attributed to
the Evangelist Mark. The Liturgy which Is in
LITURGIES.
323
daily use in tlie Greek church is that of Clirysos-
toin, in wliicli tlie order following immediately after
the dismissal of catechumens is identical with that of
Basil. Another liturgy bearing the name of the
Apostle James is still used also in the Greek churtli,
but only on the festival of St. James's day. This
Liturgy, which was anciently used in the patriarchate
of Antioch, bears a close resemblance to the Clemen-
tine Liturgy. It is believed to have been the an-
cient Liturgy of the church of Jerusalem, of which
James, the brother of our Lord, was the tirst bishop
or pastor. One passage which occurs in it, and in
no other Liturgy, seems to give strong confirmation
to this supposition. Thus in the beginning of the
prayer for the church universal, it is said, "We
olfer also to thee, 0 Lord, for thy holy places which
thou hast glorified with the Divine presence of thy
Christ, and the appearance of thy most Holy Spirit ;
but chiefly for glorious Sion, the Mother of all
churches."
The great Oriental Liturgy includes the Liturgies
of James, of Basil, and of Cluysostom. But another
Liturgy of great antiquity, and ditlering from the
Oriental only in the order of its parts, was used
throughout the ])atriarchate of Alexandria. Though
attributed to Mark, and bearing his name, it was
probably of no earlier date than the end of the fourth
or the beginning of the fifth century. It was en-
larged by Cyril of Alexandria, and known among the
Monophysites by Ids name, while the orthodox still
continued to use the name of St. Mark. This Li-
turgy was received by the churches of Egypt, Libya,
and Peutapolis, and accordingly, there occurs in the
general intercession these remarkable words, " Raise
the waters of the river to their just height," which
evidently refer to the waters of the Nile. In this
Liturgy, as in the others already noticed, there are
various obvious interpolations.
In the Abyssinian church, a peculiar liturgy in the
old Ethiopic language is used, which resembles con-
siderably the Alexandrian liturgy, but fixes its locality
by mentioning the Abuna or Patriarch by name, and
also the King. There occur in it, besides, the names
of a number of their own saints, and a petition that
the prayers of the angels may be heard in our behalf.
The Nestorians also had a Liturgy of their own, in
which a passage is introduced favouring their pecu-
liar views in regard to tiie person of Christ. Thus
in the eucharistic prayer, these words occur, "He
took the form of a servant, perfect man, of a rea-
sonable, intelligent, and immortal soul, and lumian
flesh subsisting, and joined it to himself, uniting
it with liimself in glory, power, and honour." The
last clause in the mouth of a Nestorian was in-
tended to deny the personal union of the Divine
and human natures in Chri.st. The Monophysite
churches of the East have also an ancient Liturgy,
which has fewer interpolations than any of the
other Liturgies extant ; it has one peculiarity, how-
ever, that after the words of institution in mak-
ing the oblation, the prayer is directed to the Son,
and not to the Father. The Copts have an entire
Liturgv or Communion ofhce, in which every peti-
tion is directed to the Son.
Of the Western Liturgies the Gothic or Gothico
Galilean was used in that part of Gaul which was
anciently called Gallia Narhonensis, including the
provinces of Narbomie, Languedoc, Provence, and
Savov. The Galilean Liturgy was used in the other
provinces of Gaul until the time of Charlemagne,
wdien it was exchanged for the Roman by a decree
of that prince. Mr. Palmer, the author of the
'Origines Liturgica;,' thinks that this ancient liturgy
originated with the church of Lyons, which was in-
timately connected with the churches of Asia and
Phrygia. Nearly allied to the ancient Gallicaii was
the Mozarabic Liturgy, wliich was used probably
from the fifth century in the Spanish churches. This
Liturgy is attributed by Isidore to the Apostle Peter.
It was abolished in Spain by Gregory VII. about
1080. The ancient Galilean form seems to have
been adopted in the early British church. From the
time of Patrick, A. D. 432, the Irish are thought to
have used the Roman Liturgy, and, about a century
after, the ancient British Liturgy was introduced.
The Roman Liturgy has been generally attributed
to Gregory the Great in the latter part of the sixth
century ; some writers, however, allege that he
merely revised an old liturgy, which was then in
use in the Latin church. The Ambrosian Liturgy
indeed is supposed to have been prepared by Am-
brose, archbishop of Milan, so early as the fourth
century, and when Gregory's Missal was appointed
to be used in all the Western churches, the church
of Milan insisted on maintaining an independent
position, and persisted in using its own liturgy, tak-
ing .shelter under the high authority of St. Ambrose.
Some Romish writers allege their Canon or Liturgy
to be more ancient than the time of Gregory, and
attribute its composition to Pope Gela.iius, who flou-
rished about the end of the fifth centm-y. Others
ascribe it to Musseus, a presbyter of Marseilles, about
the year 458, and others still to Voconius, bishop ot
Castille, in Mauritania, about 4G0. And yet it is
very unlikely that the Church of Rome should have
adojited a Liturgy prepared by a French presbyter,
or an African bishop, while the churches of their
own respective countries refused for centuries to ac-
knowledge it. But if the Missal was not wholly com-
posed by Gregory, at all events he introduced sev-
eral alterations in it ; more especially he added the
Lord's Prayer, which had not been used before in the
Cauon of that church. The probability is, that the
Missal even though it were established as a certainty
to be the sole production of Gregory the Great, has
since that time undergone considerable alterations.
And down to the date of the council of Trent in the
sixteenth century, the Roman Canon was used in
various forms, and accompanied with difl'erent rites
and prayers in dilTerent cluu-chea.
324
LITURGIES (Jewish)— LOCULUS.
The Anglo-Saxon Liturgy, which diftered from
that of the Biilisli Clinrch, whs formed from the
Sacramentary of Gregory, which was brought over
by tlie monk Augustine and his companions at tlie
end of the sixth century. '• As, however," observes
Mr. RidiUe, "each bishop liad the power of making
some im[)rovements in tlie Liturgy of his cluircli, in
process of time ditVorent customs arose, and several
beciime so established aa to receive tlie names of
their respective churches. Thus gradually the
'Uses' or customs of York, Sarum, Hereford, Ban-
gor, Lincoln, Aberdeen, &c., came to be distinguish-
ed from each other." The Koman Liturgy continued
to be u.sed with occasional modifications in England
until the Reformation ; in France, Italy, and Ger-
many, from the days of Charlemagne until the pre-
sent time; and in Sjiain from Gregory VII. until
now.
LITURGIES (Jewish). The modern Jews
Iiave three Liturgies, the Gorman, the Portuguese,
and the Italian, but all in Hebrew. The liturgical
service used in the synagogue worship is said to be of
great antiquity. The most solemn and indispensable
part of it consists of the Shemoneh Esrak or the
Eighteen Prayers. The Kirktth Shema, or reading
of the Sliema, is also regarded as an important part
of Divine service. It must be repeated twice a-day,
and is generally attempted to bo recited by a Jew as
a confession of faith in his last moments. Those
present with the dying man will repeat the first
verse, and •' Jehovah is God," till he expires, that
he may be said to die in the faith.
LITURGY (English). See Com.\ion PR.iVEu
(Book of).
LITURGY (Liverpool), a Liturgy wliich was
published at Liverpool in 1G5'2. It was the compo-
sition of some Presbyterians wlio thought proper to
lay aside extemporaneous prayer for a set form.
Mr. Orton styles it scarcely a Christian Liturgy, and
says that the name of Christ is hardly mentioned in
the Collect, and the Spirit quite banished from it.
LIVER, a word which occurs in Exod. xxix. 13,
in the directions there given for the sacrifice at the
consecration of the Jewish priests. Calniet supposes
that the ancients were in the habit of eating the liver
covered with or wrapped in tlio caul, and he thinks
it probable that in otioring sacrifice, the liver was in
tlie same maimer enfolded in the caul before it was
laid upon the altar. Professor Bush translates the
expression, instead of " the caul above the liver," as
it is in our version, "the lobe over or bv the liver,"
meaning thereby the larger lobe of the liver includ-
ing the gall-bl.iddcr. Ill Ezek. xxi. 21, among sev-
eral modes of divination practised by the king of
Babylon, it is said, " he looked in the liver." This
was the portion of the intestines of a sacrificial vic-
tim which diviners chicHy inspected. (See Caput
ExTOitUM.) Divination by the liver was termed
Ilepnio mpia, and so important did the augurs ac-
count this part of the victim, that their attention
was directed to it in the first instance, and if it ap-
peared very unhealthy, no observations were made
on the other parts, as it was judged unnecessary, the
omen being accounted decidedly unfavourable.
If the liver exhibited its natural healthy colour and
condition, or if it was double, or there were two livers,
and if the lobes inclined inwards, the signs were highly
favourable, and success in any proposed object was
deemed to be insured ; but nothing but dangers and
misfortunes were foreboded when there was too much
dryness, or a band between the parts, or if it was
without a lobe, and still more when the liver itself
was wanting, which is said to have sometimes hap-
pened. The omens were likewise considered full of
evil when the liver had any blisters or ulcers ; if it
was hard, thin, or discoloured ; had any humour upon
it ; or if, in boiling, it became soft, or was displaced.
The signs which appeared on the concave part of the
liver concerned the family of the person ofi'ering the
sacrifice ; but those on the gibbous side alleoted his
enemies; if either of these parts were shrivelled,
corrupted, or in any way unsound, the omen was
unfortunate, but the reverse when it appeared sound
and large. jEschylus makes Prometheus boast of
having taught man the division of the entrails, if
smooth and of a clear colour, to be agreeable to the
gods ; also the various forms of the gall and the liver.
Among the Greeks and Romans it was considered
an unfortunate omen if the liver was injured by a
cut in killing the victim.
LIVIN(i, a term often used in England to de
note a Benkfice (which see).
L0AN60 (Religion of.) See Fetish-Wor-
ship.
LOCALES, a name anciently given to ecclesias-
tics, who were ordained to a ministerial charge in
some fixed place. Thus in the council of Valentia
in Spain, a decree was passed that every priest be-
fore ordination should give a promise that he would
be localis. Ordination at large, indeed, was not re-
garded as valid, but null and void.
LOCHEIA, a surname of Artemis, as being the
guardian of women in childbirth.
LOCI COMMUNES (Lat. common places), a
body of divinity published by Mel.ancthon in 1,')21,
being the first Protestant System of Theology which
appeared in Germany. It was held in such high
repute in the sixteenth century, and even long after,
that it was regarded as a model of doctrine for profes-
sors and students, as well as for all who desired a
cle.ar .systematic view of Divine trulh. This cele-
brated work passed through sixt)' editions in the life-
time of the authoi", and was the means of greatly
advancing the cause of the Reformation.
LOCULUS, a name given to a coffin among the
ancient Romans, which was frequently made of
stone. Sometimes it was formed of stone from As-
sos in Troas, which consumed the whole body, with
the exception of the teeth, in forty days. Hence it
was willed Sarcopltagua or flesh-consumer, a name
LOEMIUS— LOKI.
325
which came to be appUed to a coffin of any kind, or
even a tornb.
LOEMIUS, a surname of Apollo, as delivering
from a phigue. Under tliis name he was worshipped
at Lindas in Rhodes.
LOGOS (Gr. Word), a term applied by the Evan-
gelist John to the second Person of the Blessed
Trinity. The intention of the sacred writer in
usinL;- such an epithet in speaking of Christ was pro-
bably twofold ; first, to denote His essential presence
in the Father, in as full a sense as the attribute of
wisdom is essential to Him ; secondly, to denote His
mediatorship as the Interpreter or Word between God
and His creatures. It has been a lavourite conjecture
with many writers, that the idea of the Logos was
borrowed by Jolm from tlie Platonic philosophy, or
that it %vas the result of a combination of the Alex-
atidrian-Jewish theology with the Christian doctrine.
This supposition, however, is at utter variance with
the fact, that the notion of the Lofjos commended
itself not only to those Christian teachers in the
early church who were in favour of Platonism, but
also to tliose who were disposed to look with suspi-
cion upon every doctrine derived from that quarter.
It was admitted by church-fathers of all views, and
even of the most opposite tendencies. Nay, even
some heretics received it only to pervert it for the
purpose of doing away with the notion of the Son's
personality. Such was the error of Panlus of Samo-
sata and Marcellus ; who from the fleeting and
momentary character of a word spoken, inferred that
tlie Divine Word was but the temporary manifesta-
tion of God's gh)ry, in the man Christ Jesus. And
it was to counteract this tendency that the Fathers
speak of Him as the permanent, real, and living
Word.
At a very early period, the doctrine of the Lo-
gos gave rise to much controversy. Thus the
Monarchians eitlier refused to receive the doctrine,
or those who did consent to admit it, understood by
the Logos simply a divine energy, the divine wisdom
or reason which illuminates the souls of the pious.
In opposing this heretical view, both the Western
and the Eastern churclies looked upon the Logos
from a different stand-point. In the latter, the doc-
trine of the subordination of the Persons in the Blessed
Trinit)' was established in coimeetion with the hy-
postatical view of the Logos. The efforts of the
former, on the other hand, were directed to the es-
tablishment of the unity of tlie Divine essence in
connection with the distinction of the hypostases.
Origen, in accordance with his strong tendency to
allegorical explanations of Scri]iture, alleged both the
designations of the Logos, and the name Logos itself,
to be symbolical. He strove to banish all notions of
time from the notion of the generation of the Logos.
It was in his view an eternal now, and the genera-
tion a timeless eternal act. Origen, in all probability,
was indebted for these notions to his education in the
Platonic school. To maintain the principle of subor-
dination, he affirmed, that we are not to conceive ot a
natural necessity in the case of the generation of the
Son of God ; but as in the case of the creation, we
must conceive of an act flowing from the Divine will.
And further, in opposition to the Monarchians, he
held the personal independence of the Logos ; while
they considered the name of God the Father to be a
designation of the primal divine essence, and all be-
sides this to be something derived. Sabellius, how-
ever, taught that the Father, Logos, and Holy Ghost
are designations of three different phases, under
wliicli the one divine essence reveals itself. The
Logos is Hrst hypostatized in Christ, but only for a
time. The divine power of the Logos appropriated
to itself a human body, and by this appropriation
begat the Person of Christ, and after having accom-
plished the great object of his manifestation, the
Logos will return back again into oneness with the
Father, and thus God will be all in all.
In the Western church, again, Tertullian looked up-
on the Logos from a totally different point of view, and
maintained the doctrine of one divine essence, shared
in a certain gradation by three persons most inti-
mately connected. "The Son, so far as it concerns
the divine essence," says NeaTider, " is not nLimeri-
cally distinct from the Father ; the same essence of
God being also in the Son ; but he differs in degree,
being a smaller portion of the common mass of the
divine essence. Thus the prevailing view in the
Western church came to be this : one divine essence
in the Father and the Son ; but, at the same time, a
subordination in the relation of the Son to the Fa-
ther. Here were conflicting elements. The process
of development must decide which of the two should
gain the preponderance. This, then, constituted the
difierence between the two churches : — that while,
in the Eastern church, the prominence given to tlie
distinctions in the Triad did not leave room for the
consciousness of the unity ; in the Western church,
on tlie other hand, the unity of essence, once decid-
edly expressed, caused the subordination element to
retire more into the back-ground."
LOGOTHETES, an officer in the Greek Church,
wdio is intendant of the Patriarch's household, and
another who is a kind of inspector-general of the
churcli.
LOKI, tlie evil principle of the ancient Scandina-
vians, whom they regarded al.-^o as a deity. The Edda
calls him "the calumniator of the gods, the grand
contriver of deceit and fraud, the reproach of gods
and men. He is beautiful in his figure, but his mind
is evil, and his incHiiations inconstant. Nobody ren-
ders him divine honours. He surpasses all mortals
in the arts of perfidy and craft." He has had many
children, besides three monsters who owe their birth
to him, the wolf Fenrir, the Midgard serpent, and
Hela or Death. The Edda contains an account of
the exploits of Loki, his stratagems against the gods,
their resentment, and the vengeance which they
sought to hiflict upon him, seizing and shutting him
326
LOLLARDS.
up in a cavern formed of tlirce keen-edged stones,
wlieiT lie niges witli sucli violence, lliat he causes all
tlie eailliquakes that hapjicn. There, we are told,
lie will reiiiaiii till the end of tlio a^es, when he shall
be slain bv Ilciindall, the door-keeper of tlie gods.
LOI.LAKDS, the name given to various Chris-
tian fellowships, which arose at first around Ant-
werp in the Netherlands, about the commencement
of the fourteenth century. The object of these fel-
lowships was the revival of serious practical piety,
and at their ori;,'in, as we learn from Gieseler, they
associated together for the purpose of waiting upon
patients dangerously sick, and burying the dead.
Thev were held in high estimation, and increased
rapidly in numbers. Gregory XL, in 1.377, issued
a bull for their protection, acknowledging tliat there
were among them such as lived bumljly and hon-
estlv, in pureness of faith, decent raiment, poverty
and chastity, and devoutly frequented the places of
worship. Boniface IX., in a bull dated 1394, de-
clares concerning them, in terms of high commenda-
tion, that "they receive into their domiciles the
poor and wretched, and to the utmost of their [lower
practise other works of charity, inasmuch iis when
required, they visit and wait upon the sick, minister
to their wants, and also attend to the burial of the
dead." Acting thus in a spirit of true beneficence
and charity, the LoUnrds, like the Beghards and Bc-
f/uluf.i, diffused a healthful influence all around them.
Gradually, however, they seem to have degenerated,
and in course of time they ai'c said to have laid them-
selves open to the charges of an aversion to all use-
ful industry, along with a propensity to mendicancy
and idleness, an intemperate spirit of opposition to
the church, and a sceptical and more or less pan-
theistical mysticism. From the cells in which they
lived, the Lollards were sometimes called CellitI'.s
(which see). So strongly did they commend them-
selves to public notice by their deeds of charity that
Charles, duke of Burgundy, in 1472, obtained a bull
from I*oi)e Sixtus IV. by wliicli they were ranked
among the religious orders delivered from the juris-
diction of their bishops; privileges which were ex-
tended still fartlier by Julius II. in 1506.
lj(M.iLAlil-)S, a term of reproach applied to the
followers of Wyclill'e in the foin-teonth century.
This eminent forerunner of the Reformation in Kng-
land was born in 1324, at a small village near Rich-
mond, in the county of York. He was educated at
the university of Oxford, where he distinguished
Iiimself by bis talents, and the zeal and diligence
with which he prosecuted his studies, both in pliilo
Bophy and theology. In the foniier department he
subseipienlly signalised himself as an ardent defender
of the Realists in 0|)po8itioii to the Nominalists, who
had revived since the time of William (Jccam. His
mind was chielly directed to religious matters, more
especially in connection with the existing corrup-
lioiis. He had studied the proplu'cies of Joachim,
wliicli was at that time a favourite work with those
who longed after the regeneration of the church.
With a mind naturally earnest and practical, lie aj/-
jilied himself to the subject, and gave to the world
his views in a treatise, " On the last times of the
Church," the first work in which he appeared before
the public. In the commencement of bis career as
a Reformer, Wycliffe found a symjjathizing friend in
Islep, archbi.shop of Canterbury, who showed him
much favour, and promoted him to an honourable
office in connection with the university of Oxford.
His kind patron, however, soon after died, and a man of
a very different stamp having succeeded him, "Wyc-
lifl'e was displaced, and the monks wlio had been ex-
pelled from the college were restored. Thinking
himself wronged, Wyclilfe appealed to the Roman
chancery, but in the meantime the course of events
called forth his reforming tendencies into such pro-
minence, that he was not likely to receive any coun-
tenance from the Roman see. The English parlia-
ment, in 13G5, resolved to resist the claim of Pope
Urban V. who attempted the revival of an annual
payment of 1,000 marks as a tribute or feudal ac-
knowledgment, that the realm of England was held
at the pleasure of the I'ope. His claim was founded
upon the surrender of the crown by King John to
Pope Innocent III. The payment had been discon-
tinued for thirty-three years, and now that Urban
again urged the claim, a keen controversy arose.
The mendicant friars, and particularly the Francis-
cans, who had long distinguished themselves as va-
liant defenders of Rome, called upon King Edward
to pay the tribute, alleging that if he failed to accede
to the Pope's demands, the sovereignty of England
was forfeited.
In these circumstances WyclifTe boldly met the ihal-
lenge of the friars, and published a treatise, in which
he not only asserted the right of the king supported by
his parliament to repudiate the Pope's ilaim for quit
rent or tribute, but maintained also that the clergy,
neither as individuals nor as a general body, were
exempted from civil jurisdiction. In conducting his
argument in this remarkable production, one great
]n'ineiple lav at the foundation of the whole, that the
.""acred Scriptures formed the ultimate standard of
all law. The ability and stern independence with
which be had defended the rights of the crown against
the aggressions of Rome made Wycliflc an object of
warm admiration among his countrymen, and Ed-
ward III., in recognition ofthe valuable service wlilch
he had rendered to the nation, apjiointed him one of
the royal chajdains. In 1372 he was made Doctor of
Theology, and his influence was rapidly increasing.
Many a withering exposure of the corruptions of the
church now issued from his pen. The mendicant
monks in particular called forth from him the most
bitter invectives. Nor were his writings iieglcc^tcd in'
his countrymen. They were eagerly perused by mul-
tiludcs.and men of all ranks bailed him as the daunt less
and unflinching enemy of those flagrant ecclesiastical
abuses which "'".re fast undermining the influence of
LOLLARDS.
327
tlie priestliooH, and were likely soon, if not reformed,
to render religion itself an object of mockery and
contemiit. For some time tlie government of Eng-
land had attempted by negotiation to obtain from
the Pope a redress of some of the most promi-
nent ecclesiastical grievances. All efibrts of this
kind, however, were nfterly ineffectual, and it was
at length resolved, in 1374, to send an eniba.ssy com-
posed of seven persons to Pope Gregory XL to con-
fer with him on this subject. Wycliti'e was one of
the seven commissioners nonjijiafed by the crown for
this purpose. The conference took place at Bruges,
and lasted two whole years without attaining to any
great extent the object for which it had been held. It
bad a powerful inllnence, however, upon the thought-
ful mind of Wyclirt'e, and did much to prepare him
for the responsible position which he was destined
in the providence of God to occupy as the morning
star of the Reformation. His eyes were now opened
to the true character of the papacy, and from this
time he spoke and wrote against its worldly spirit,
and its injurious effects both upon individuals and
communities. Its corruption he chiefly traced to its
cupidity.
After his return to England Wycliffe was present-
ed to the rectory of Lutterworth in the county of
Leicester, officiating also as teacher of theology at
Oxford. As a pastor he laboured indefatigably,
seeking by ardent and prayerful study of the Bible
to instruct the people in divine things. The Ro-
mish priesthood had long been accustomed to give
the sermon a subordinate place in public worship,
but Wycliffe restored it to its due importance as a
means of supplying the religious wants of the peo-
[ile. With him originated the idea of travelling
preachers, men who went about barefoot in long
robes of a russet colour, preaching salvation through
the cross of Christ. These men styled themselves
" poor priests," and were subsequently called Lol-
lards, a name similar to that of the Beghards
(which see). These men associated themselves to-
gether for the piu'pose, says WyclilTe, " of following
to the utmost the example of Christ and his apos-
tles; of labouring where there was the most need as
long as they still retained the vigour of youth, with-
out condenniing other priests who faithfully did their
duty."
By these exertions for the diffusion of the Gospel
among all classes of the people, WyclilTe attracted
some friends, but many enemies. A numerous
body, especially of the begging monks, as he him-
self intimates, sought his death. No means were
left untried to check the spread of his opinions and
to destroy his rapidly advancing popularity and in-
fluence. In 1376 they extracted from his lectures,
writings, and sern ons, nineteen propositions which,
as being in their .'iew heretical, they forwarded to
Rome for papal condemnation. These had refer-
ence chiefly to the unlimited power of the Pope;
the secular possessions of the church ; the rights of
laymen over priests ; the power of the keys, and
the conditional validity of excommunication. In
consequence of the representations thus made to him,
Gregory XL, in 1377, issued three bulls again.st
Wycliffe, which he sent to England by a nuncio, one
of them being addressed to King Edward III. The
propositions forwarded to his Holine^s by the priests
were condemned with various qualitications. The
Pope called the special attention of the king to the
doctrines promulgated by the Reformer, as being
not only opposed to the Catholic faith, but subver-
sive of good order in the country. He complained
that such opinions should have been allowed to gain
ground among the people, and conmianded that
Wycliffe should be forthwith thrown into chains and
imprisoned ; that he should be examined as to his
doctrines, and the answers reported to Rome, after
which directions for his further treatment should
be waited for from that court. The papal bulls,
however, met with no favour in Englami, except
from the bishops.
The death of Edward III. and the succession of his
son, Richard II., tended to strengthen the cause which
Wycliffe had so ably espoused. The ]iarliament was
now decidedly in favour of a determined resistance
to the pecuniary demands of the Pope. Two noble-
men of great power and influence in the country,
John Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, and the marshal
Henry Percy, had ranged themselves on the side of
the Reformer, and came openly forward as his
avowed patrons and supporters. He had a numerous
band of adherents also among the people, and these
were every day on the increase. In such circum-
stances it was found to be impossible to execute the
papal bulls literally ; but the archbishop of Canter-
bury and the bishop of London summoned Wycliffe
to appear before them at a court which they set up
at Larnbeth. The Reformer attended, accomjianied
by his two noble patrons, and the court was obliged
to be satisfied with the explanations which he gave
of the nineteen propositions.
One of the greatest services which Wycliffe con-
ferred upon the cause of true religion in England,
was tlie publication of his translation of the Bible
in 13S0. Being ignorant of both the Hebrew and
Greek languages, his translation was founded upon
the Vidgate, but even under this disadvantage, the
prejiaration of a vernacular version of the Sacred
Writings was at the time an inestimable blessing to
the people, enabling them to read in their own lan-
guage the words of eternal life. The priests were
indignant that the laity should thus have it in their
power to draw their religious opinions directly from
the Bible, and with the utmost virulence they as-
sailed the reputation of the undaunted Reformer.
But the opposition of the clergy only roused him to
go forward in exposing the errors both in doctruie
and practice which had crept into the church. In
1381, he appeared as the opponent of transuhstanlia-
tion, contending against every mode of a bodily pre-
328
LOLLARDS.
Bonce of Christ, and niaintaiiiiiig that the breail and
wine are nothing more than symbols of Christ's body
and blood, with the additional explanation that in
tlie case of believers they were active symbols, plac-
ing those who partook of them witli real, living faith,
in the position of an actual union with Christ. The
theses which the Reformer published on this point,
were couched in these terms, " The right faith
of a Christian is this, that this commendable sacra-
ment is bread and body of Christ, as Chri.^t is true
God and true man ; and this faith is founded on
Christ's own words in the Gospels." The sympathy,
however, which he had met with in attacking other
abuses and errors failed to attend liirn in this con-
test. Tlie chancellor of the University of Oxford
summoned twelve doctors to consider the point, and
with tlieir concurrence he published a solemn Judg-
ment declaring the theses put forth by Wyclilfe on
the docti-ine of transubstantiation to be heretical ;
and the preaching of these views was forbidden on
penalty of imprisonment and excommunication.
Undeterred by the opposition which assailed him
and his doctrines, Wyclifl'e went forward steadily in
the accomplishment of his great mission as a church
reformer. Every day he became more violent in
attacking the mendicants, declaring that their whole
mode of life was at variance with the life of Christ,
and that instead of giving themselves up to idle-
ness and inaction, they ought rather to employ
themselves in preaching the gosjiel of Christ wher-
ever duty called tliern. This interference with the
vows of the friars gave great oft'ence to the Duke of
Lancaster, who had been one of the Reformer's early
patrons and friends ; but neither the favour nor the
frowns of the great could persuade this earnest-
minded champion of the truth to deviate by one
hair's breadth from the path of rectitude. A council
was convened by the Archbishop of Canterbury to
examine into the heresy of Wycliffe ; but its pro-
ceedings were interrupted by the occurrence of an
earthquake, which gained for it the name of the
earthquake-council. By this council a number of
Wyclilfe's propositions were condemned either as
heretical or erroneous; and through the iiiHuerice of
the archbiiihop, King Richard was induced to issue a
conunand to put all persons under an arrest who
taught Wycliriite doctrines.
The spread of the reformed opinions taught by
Wycliffe received considerable impulse from a papal
schism which took jdace about this time, two rival
popes being busily engaged contending for the mas-
tery. Rome and .\vignon were issuing their lierco
fuhninations against each other. The question, who
was the true I'ope, was agitating the whole of Chris-
tendom, and in a paper on the schism, Wycliffe says,
" Trust we already in the help of Christ, for he hath
begun already to help u.s graciously, in that he hath
clove the head of antichrist ; and made the two parts
fight one against the other."
The death of the great forerunner of the Refor-
mation was now at hand. While hearing mass on
the day of the Holy Innocents in 1384, in his own
church at Lutterworth, he was suddenly seized with
an attack of apoplexy, which rendered him speech-
less, and after lingering a short time he was cut olV,
and his useful life brought to a sudden close. Con-
sidering the age in which he lived, this eminent man
had remarkably clear views of Divine truth on some
points, mingled no doubt with not a few errors. The
great Protestant principle, of Christ the only author
of salvation, in opposition to the worship of saints,
occupied a prominent place in liis theological .system.
But at the same time he admits, that those saints
ought to be worshipped who are known to be such
from the Word of God. He believed that in the
early church two orders of the clergy were sufficient,
priests and deacons; in the time of Paul, bishop and
presbyter were the same. Scripture in his view was
the rule of reformation, and every doctrine and pre-
cept ought to be rejected which does not rest on
that foundation. He held that conversion is solely
the work of God in the heart of a sinner; that
Christ is the all in all of Christianity ; that faith is
the gift of God, and the one essential principle of
spiritual life is communion with Christ. In the es-
timation of this faithful servant of the Lord Jesus,
the sublimest calling on earth is that of preaching
the word of God. The true church he maintained to
be Christ's believing people, and iheir exalted Re-
deemer the best, the only true Pope, but the earthly
Pope is a sinfid man, who might even be condemned
on the great day. With far-seeing sagacity he pre-
dicted that a monk would yet arise from whom should
proceed the regeneration of the church.
The death of Wycliffe showed the immortal power
of his principles. His followers, if not strong in
numbers, were earnest and energetic in their efibrts,
and having set themselves to the work, they met
with such amazing success, that to use the words of
D'Aubigne, " England was almost won over to the
Reformer's doctrines." In 1395, a petition was pre-
sented to Pariiament praying the House to "aboli.-h
celibacj', transub.stantiation, prayers for the dead,
offerings to images, auricular confession, the arts
unnecessary to life, the practice of blessing oil, salt,
wax, incense, stones, mitres, and pilgrims' stall's."
" All these," the petitioners declared, ■' pertained to
necromancy aiul not to theology." The cleigy were
alarmed by this bold step on the part of the Wick-
liffites or Lollards, and urged upon the king to inter-
pose. Richard took up the matter with great prompt-
ness, forbade pariiament to entertain the petition,
and having sununoued into the royal presence the
most distinguished of its supporters, he threatened
them with death if they continued to defend the
reformed doctrines. At this critical moment, how-
ever, when the hand of the king was lifted up to
smite the followers of WycliHe, a sudden rebellion
arose which hurled him from his throne, and con-
signed him to a prison where he ended his days.
LONGINUS'S (St.) DAY— LOIID'S DAY.
329
Ridiard was succeeded on the tliroiie by his cou-
sin, the son of tlie I'ainous Duke of Lancaster, who
liad been the friend and patron of Wycliffe. The
Lollards, tlierefore, naturally expected to find in
the new king a warm supporter of their principles.
In this, however, they were bitterly disappointed.
To gratify the priests, a royal edict was issued, or-
dering every incorrigible heretic to be burnt alive,
and accordingly, a pious priest, named William Saw-
tree, was committed to tlie flames at Smitlifield in
March 140L Kncouraged by the royal countenance,
the clergy drew up the well-known Constitutions of
Arundel, which forbade the reading of the Bible, and
asserted the Pope to be " tiot of pure man, but of
true (xod, here (m earth." Persecution now raged in
England, and a jirison in the areliiepiscopal palace
at Lambeth, which received the name of tlie Lol-
lards' tower, was crowded with the followers of
WyclifTe, who were doomed to imprisonment for al-
leged heresy ; and Lord Cobham, who had caused
Wyclitfe's writings to be copied and widely circu-
lated, having been formally condenmed to death, was
burnt at the stake in December 1417. The prisons
of London were now Hlled with Lollards, and multi-
tudes who escaped tlie vengeance of the persecuting
clergy were compelled to hold their religions meet-
ings in secret, and to bear with silent unrepining sub-
mission the obloquy and oiitempf to which they
were exposed. From this time until the Reforma-
tion their sufl'erings were severe. Their principles,
liowever, had taken derp root in England, and during
the fifteenth century the Papal influence gradually
decreased, preparing the way for the Reformation,
which in the succeeding century established the
Protestant faith as the settled religion of the country.
LOLLARDS OV KYLE, an opprobrious name
applied to the supporters of l{et"ormed principles in
the western districts of Scotland during the lifie.enth
.and sixteenth centuries. Robert Pilacater, the first
archbishop of Glasgow, prevailed on James IV. to
summon before the great council, about thirty per-
sons, male and female, belonging to the districts of
Kyle, Carrick and Cunningham, who were accused of
holding doctrines opposed to the Catholic faith.
This memorable trial took place in 1494. They
were charged with condemning the worship of the
Virgin Mary, the worship of saints, relics, images,
and the mass. The king himself presided at the
trial, and the result was, that the Lollards were dis-
missed with an admonition to beware of new doc-
trines, and to adhere steadfastly to the faith of the
chin'ch.
LOMBARDTSTS. See Sententiarii.
LONG FRIDAY. See Goon Fkiday.
LONGINUS'S (St.) DAY, a festival of the Rom-
ish churcli observed at Rome on the 15th of March.
According to the legend, Longinus was an emanci-
pated slave, a soldier in the Roman army, and almost
blind. He is said to have been the soldier who
pierced the side of our Saviour with his spear as lie
II.
hung upon the cross ; and while the blood flov.'ed
from the wound, some of it fell upon his eyes and
immediately he recovered liis sight. This miracle is
alleged to have led to his conversion to Christianity ;
when forsaking his military profession, and being
instructed by the apostles, he lived a monastic life
in Csesarea of Cappadocia, and was the means,
both by his conversion and example, of converting
many to the Christian faith. He is alleged to have
been a faithful, devoted, and consistent believer, and
to have closed his career by sufl'ering martyrdom in
the cause of liis Divine Master.
LORD, a title very frequently applied in the
Sacred Scripture to the Supreme Being. Two He-
brew words are thus translated in the Old Testa-
ment. Adoiiai. the Lord, is exclusively applied to
God. The Hebrew word Jehurah is also very often
translated in our version by the English word I^ord,
in conformity with the ordinary custom of the Jews
in reference to the inefi'ablc name, which they never
pronounce. When the term Lord in our Bibles
answers to the Hebrew word Jehoxah, it is always
printed in small capitals for the sake of distinction.
See Adox.m, Jehovah.
LORD'S DAY, a name given to the first d.ay of
the week, wdiich has been obser\ed among Chris-
tians by Divine authority as a day set apart for reli-
gious services, more especially in commemoration of
the resurrection of Christ from the dead. At a very
early period in the history of the Cliristian church,
this day was appropriated to public worship instead
of the Jewish Sabbath. The first intimation of the
change occurs in Acts xx. 7, wdiere we find the
church assembled on the first day of the week ; and in
Rev. i. 10, this sacred festival is expressly termed
" the Lord's Day." The early Christian writeis make
frequent mention of this as a day of meeting among
Christians. Thus we are informed by Justin Mar-
tyr, that " on Sunday all the Christians living either
in the city or country met together" for reading the
Scriptures, prayer, and the breaking of bread. That
they considered it as possessing a holy character, is
plain from the circumstance that they uniformly
spoke of it as the Lord's Day, and regarded it as a
weekly festival on which fasting and every appear-
aiice of sorrow was to be laid aside as inconsistent
with the character and design of the day. It was
wholly dedicated to the exercises of religious worship,
which are termed accordingly, by TertuUian, '■ the
solemnities of the Lord's Day." And not only was
public worship performed on this day, but it was kept
lioly throughout, and the thoughts and feelings of be-
lievers were required to be in accordance with its
sacredness. Thus Clement of Alexandria says, " A
true Christian, according to the commands of the
gospel, observes the Lord's Day by casting out all
bad thoughts, and cherishing all goodness, honouring
the resurrection of the Lord which took place on
that day." "This day," says Eusebius, "Christians
throughout the world celebrate in strict obedience to
2p
330
LORD'S DAT.
tlie 8piritiia1 law. Like tlie Jew.s, they offer tlie
inoniin;; and evoiiiiig f.ncrifice with incen.'ie of
sweeter oilour. Tlie day," lie adds, "was niiiver-
BiiUy observed a.'* strictly as tlie Jewish Sabbath,
whilst all fcastinj, driiiikcniiess, and recreation was
rebuked as a ]irofanation of the sacred day." Igna-
tius says, tliat all who loved the Lord kept the
Lord's day as the queen of days — a reviving, life-
giving day, the best of all our days. Sucli epithets
abound in the ancient homilies of the fathers.
The mode in which the early Christians spent the
Lord's Dav is tlins described by Dr. Jamieson in Iiis
' >rainiers and Trials of the Primitive Christians :
" Viewing the Lord's Day as a spiritual festivity, a
season on which tlieir souls were speci.ally to magni-
fy the Lord, and their spirits to rejcpice in God their
Saviour, they introduced the services of the day witli
p.salmodv, wliieh was followed by select portions of
the Prophets, the Gospels, and the Epistles ; the in-
tervals between which were occupied by the faith-
ful in private devotions. Tlie plan of service, in
short, resembled what was followed in that of tlie
vigils, though there were some important differences,
which we slull now describe. The inen prayed with
tlieir heads bare, and the women were veiled, as be-
came the modesty of their sex, both standing — a pos-
ture deemed the most decent, and suited to their
exalted notions of the weekly solemnity, — with their
eyes lifted up to heaven, and their liauds extended in
the form of a cross, the better to keep them in remem-
brance of Him, whose death had opened up the way
of access to tlie divine presence. The roailing of the
sacred volume constituted an important and indispen-
sable part of tlie oliservance ; and the more effectually
to impress it on the memories of the audience, tlie
lessons were always short, and of frequent recur-
rence. Besides the Scriptures, they were aoous-
toiiied to read aloud several other books for the edi-
fication and interest of the people — such as treatises
on the illustration of Christian morals, by some pas-
tor of eminent reputation and piety, or letters from
foreign churches, containing an account of the state
and progress of the Gospel. This part of the ser-
vice,— most necessary and valualjle at a time when
a large projiortion of every congregation were iinac-
qiiainted with letters, was performed at first by the
presiding minister, but was afterwards devolved on
an officer appointed for that object, who, when pro-
ceeding to tlic discharge of his duty, if it related to
any part of the history of Jesus, exclaimed aloud to
the people, ' Stand up — the Gospels are going to be
read;' and then always eommenced with, 'Thus
saitli the Lord.' They assumed this attitude, not
only from a conviction that it was the most respect-
ful posture in which to listen to the counsels of the
King of kings, but with a view to keep alive the at-
tention of the people — an object which, in some
churches, was sought to be gained by the minister
Htopping in the middle of a Scriptural quotation, and
leaving the people to finish it aloud. The discour-
ses, founded for the most part on the last portion of
Scripture that was read, were short, plain, and ex-
tem|)orary exhortations, — designed ehielly to stir up
the minds of the brethren by way of remembrance,
and always prefaced by the salutation, 'Peace be
unto you.' As they were very short — sometimes
not extending to more than eight or ten minutes'
duration, — several of them were delivered at a diet,
and the preacher was usually the pastor of the place,
though he sometimes, at his discretion, invited a
stranger, or one of his brethren, known to possess
the talent of public speaking, to address the assem-
bly. The close of the sermon by himself, which was
always the last of the series, was the signal for the
public prayers to commence. Previous to this so-
lemn part of the service, however, a crier commanded
infidels of any description that might be present to
withdraw, and the doors being closed and guarded,
the pastor proceeded to pronounce a prayer, the bur-
den of which was made to bear a special reference to
the circumstances of the various classes who, in the
primitive church, were not admitted to a full parti-
cipation in the privileges of the faithful. First of
all, he prayed, in name of the whole company of be-
lievers, for the catechnmens — young persons, or re-
cent converts from heathenism, who were passing
through a preparatory course of instruction in the
doctrines and duties ol Christianity, — that their un-
derstandings might be enlightened — their hearts re-
ceive tlie truth in the love of it — and that they might
be led to cuhivate those holy habits of heart and
life, by which they might adorn the doctrine of
God their Saviour. Next, be prayed for the peni-
tents, who were undergoing the discipline of the
church, that they might receive deej) and permanejit
impressions of the exceeding sinfulness of sin, — that
tliey might be tilled with godly sorrow, and might
have grace, during the appointed term of their pro-
bation, to bring forth fruits meet for repentance. In
like manner, he made appropriate supplications for
other descriptions of persons, each of whom left the
church when the class to ^111011 he belonged liad
been commended to the God of all grace ; and then
the brethren, reduced by those suecessivi; departures
to an approved company of tlie faithful, proceeded to
the holy service of communion."
From the time that Christianity became the es-
tablished religion of the Roman Empire, laws were
frequently passed by the state in reference to the
careful observance of the Lord's Day. " No sooner
was Constant ine come over to the church," says
Cave, " but his principal care was about the Lord's
day ; he commanded it to be solemnly observed, and
that by all persons whatsoever. And for those in
his army who yet remained in their paganism and
infidelity, he commanded them upon Lord's days to
go out into the fields, and there pour out their souls
in hearty prayer to God. He moreover ordained, that
there should be no courts of judicature open upon this
day ; no suits or trials in law ; but, at the same tune,
LORD'S PRAYEK.
331
any works of mi'i-cy, such as em!inci[)atiiig slaves,
were declared lawCid. That tlieie should be no suits
nor demanding debts upon tliis day, was confirmed
by several laws of succeeding emperors. Tlieodosius
the Great, (a. d. 386,) by a second law ratitied one
which he had passed long before, wherein he ex-
pressly prohibited all public shows upon the Lord's
day, that the worship of God might not be con-
founded with those profane soleuinities. This law
the younger Tlieodosius some few years alter con-
firmed and enlarged; enacting, that on the Lord's
day (and some other festivals then mentioned) not
only Christians, but even Jews and heathens, should
be restrained from the pleasure of all sights and
spectacles, and the theatres be shut up in every
place. And whenever it might so happen that the
birthday or inauguration of the emperor fell upon
that day, he commanded that then the imperial
solemnity should be put olV and deferred till another
day. Subsequently these matters were arranged by
councils."
Thi;se churches which in early times were com-
posed chiefly of Jewish converts, while they ob-
served the first day of the week, as the Lord's Day,
retained also their own Sabbath on the seventh day.
It was the practice of Chri.=tians not only to exclude
fasting from the observances of the Lord's Day, but
also to maintain the standing position in piayer. To
fast in token of sorrow on this day of joy, and to
kneel while commemorating the day on which our
Lord arose, was accounted a breach of Christian pro-
priety, which uniformly called forth the disapproba-
tion of the church and the anathemas of her coun-
cils. See SABfiATH (Jewish).
LORD'S PRAYER, the prayer which Jesns
Christ taught his disciples as recorded in Mat. vi.
9 — 13, Luke xi. 2 — 4. We have no evidence from
the writings of the Apostles that this prayer was
used as a form in public worship in their times;
neither does any reference to it in this view occur in
the earhest Christian writers innnediately succeed-
ing the age of the Apostles. When we pass, how-
ever, from the Apostolic Fathers to the writers of
the second and third centuries, we find the public
use of the Lord's Prayer in the church full)- estab-
lished by the tesliuronies of Tertullian, Cyprian, and
Origen, who devoted each an entire treatise to the
exposition of this prayer. TeriuUian, in express
terms, declares it to have been prescribed by Christ
as a form for all ages of the church, and he alleges
that it contains the substance of all prayer, and is
an epitome of the whole gospel. Cyprian follows in
nearly the same strain, acknowledging Tertullian as
his guide and instructor; and describing the Lord's
Prayer, he calls it "our public and common pi'ayer."
Origen also afiirms this to have been a prescribed
form, containing all that the true Christian ever has
occasion to pray for. Numberless authorities to the
same effect might be adduced from writers of the
fourth and fifth centuries. By Chrysostom, it is
styled "the prayer of the faithful," its use being
restricted to the faithful in full communion with
the church, and denied to catechumens, on the
ground that believers oidy were able in the true
spirit of adoption to say, " Our Father, which art in
heaven." The full mystical meaning of this jn-ayer
was not exiilaiued to any until after their baptism,
each of its petitions being considered as having ref-
erence to the Christian mysteries or esoteric doc-
trines of the church, which, according to the Arcani
DisciPLiNA (which see), were carefully concealed
from the catechumens.
'Tlio doxology at the conclusion of the Lord's
Prayer, which is now found in the Gospel of St.
Mattiiew, is generally supposed by critics not to have
formed part of the original text of the Evangelist,
not being found in the earliest and best MSS. of
that Gospel, according to the testimony of Mill,
Wetstein, Bongel, and Griesbach. It is found hi the
Apotolicnl Constitution-?, and may probably have
been thence transferred to the text of the Gospel.
The ancient liturgies of the Greek Church contain
a doxology to the Lord's Prayer, recognizing the
doctrine of the Trinity as implied in the prayer,
" Thine is the kingdom, power, and glory. Father,
Son, and Holy Sjjirit, both now and for ever, world
without end." This doxology has been ascribed to
Basil and to Chrysostom.
In the Apostolical Constitutions, believers are
enjoined to repeat the Lord's Prayer three tin-.es
overv day ; a practice which was afterwards estab
lished by the laws of the church. Newly baptized
persons were also required to repeat this prayer
along with the Creed, immediately on coming out of
the water. In the case of infant baptism, the spon-
sors at first repeated the Lord's Prayer and Creed
on behalf of the child ; but afterwards this was dis-
pensed with, and the officiating minister alone re-
peated the formularies. The first writer who men-
tions the Lord's Prayer as having been used in the
dispensation of the Lord's Supper is Cyril of Jerusa-
lem. Augustine also alludes to this practice. The
Onlo Ronianun prefixes a preface to the Lord's
Prayer, the date of wdiich is uncertain. It contains
a brief exposition of the prayer. All the Roman
breviaries enjoin that Divine service should com-
mence with the repetition of the Lord's Prayer; but
this custom can be traced no farther back than the
thirteenth century, when it is said to have been in-
troduced by the Cistercian monks. The practice of
using the Lord's Prayer before commencing sermon
in public worship receives no countenance from the
writings of the ancient Christian Fathers, In ref-
erence to the use of this prayer as a form, Augus-
tine says, "We are free to ask the same things that
are desired in the Lord's Prayer, sometimes in one
manner of expression, and sometimes in anotlier."
And Tertullian, speaking expressly of prayer, and of
the Lord's Prayer particularly, says, "Thei'e are
many things to be asked according to the various
332
LORD'S SUPPER.
circmiistaiices of incii ; " and again lie says, " We
I pray without a monitor (or set (brni) because we
pray I'roni the heiirt."
The obvious design of our blessed Lord in pre-
senting his followers with this short, beautiful, and
conijireliensive model of prayer, was to teach them
to pray in the Spirit. There is no express reference
in it to the work and the nnnie of Christ. Thisomis
sion, however, is easily accounted for. Jesus was now
exhibiting for the tirst time, clearly and without a
figure, the true nature and design of the kingdom of
Giid. ]Jut the facts in tlie providence of God on
which the kingdom rested, the events in the lii-story
of the Redeemer which were yet to happen, and
which were to be evolved by the free a ;eiicy of man,
He refrains from explaining. Tlie great doctrines,
however, as to the work of Clu-ist, and the efficacy
of His atonement, are contained in this prayer by
implication, though not directly. The one grand
idea to which the whole praj'er tends is, the ardent
longing of the believer for the coming of the king-
dom of God. This thought runs through the whole
prayer, from its preface to its conclusion, just as the
unfolding of the nature of tlie kingdom runs through
the whole of the sublime sermon on the momit.
The Lord's Prayer then, viesved in this aspect, may
be divided into two parts, the one referring to the
relation of God to man, and the other of man to
Gud. Tlie one portion of the prayer breathes a wish
that God Himself would establish H'is kingdom in
the heart.s of men, and the other breathes a wish that
all the obstacles to the establishment of this king-
dom in the hearts of men, may be removed; while
the conclusion expresses a firm hope and belief
founded on the nature of God, that llie prayer will
be heard and answered.
LORD'S .SUPPER, a solemn Christian ordinance
instituted by our blessed Lord on the night of his
betrayal, and designed to commemorate his Media-
torial sufferings and death. An account of its first
institiuion is thus given by the Evangelist Matthew,
'■And as they were eating, Jesus took bread, and
b!es.sed it, and brake it, and gave it to the disciples,
anil .-^aid, Take, eat ; this is my body. And he took
the ciiji, and gave thanks, and gave it to ihein, say-
ing, Drink ye all of it ; for this is my blood of the
new testament, which is shed for many for the re-
mission of sins. But 1 say unto you, I will not drink
henceforth of this fruit of the vine, until that day
■when 1 drink it new with you in my Eather's king-
dom." Jesus had just celebrated his last Passover
on earth, his concluding act of observance of the
Jewish ceremonial law. The type had served its
purpo.se, and now gave way to the antitype. Ac-
cordingly, the Pas.sover having been in past ages a
standing representation of that death which he was
about 10 endure, Jesus proceeded to institute a cor-
responding ordinance, that of the ].,ord's Supper, to
be a standing memorial in all future ages of the .same
solemn event. Having feasted on the typical Pass-
over, Jesus took the remains of the Paschal bread,
and of the Paschal wine, and consecrated them anew
as the elements of that great feast which his people
were henceforth to observe in commemoration of
himself as their Passover sacrificed for them.
No name is given to this Christian least by the
Evangelists who record its institution, but it is
styled by the Apostle Paul in 1 Cor. xi. 20, "the
Lord's Supper," as having been ajipointed by Christ
on the night in which he was betrayed by Judas
into the hands of the Jewish chief priests and elders.
The name by which this .sacrament has been desig-
nated in all ages of the church, and among all its
various sections, is the Communion (which see).
It has also been termed the Eucharist, as being a
svmbolical expression of thanksgiving for redeeming
mercy.
The strict connection between the Lord's Supper
and the Jewish Passover was so strongly recognized
by the early converts from Judaism to Christianity,
that, as Epiphaniiis has shown, they continued for
many years to observe both festivals, and even in
the Christian church generally, the Lord's Supper
was celebrated with peculiar solemnity at the fe.-ti-
val of Easter, which corresponded lo the Passover.
That the two ordinances, however, were in reality
separate and distinct from each other, is plain from
the fact, that the Apostle Paid, in 1 Cor. xi., makes
no mention of the Passover, while he minutely de-
scribes the nature and institution of the Lord's Sup-
per, speaking of it as a customary rite in these
words, •' As often as ye eat this bread, and drink
this cup, ye do show the Lord's death till he come."
The question has been raised, Whether Christ
himself partook of this holy ordinance at its tirst in-
stitution. No light is thrown upon this point either
by the narrative in the Gospels, or by that in First
Corinthians. Considerable diversity of opinion, ac-
cordingly, has existed on the subject even from
early times. Chrysostom and Augustine maintain
the affirmative, but it appears very unlikely that
Jesus, though he partook of the typical feast of the
Jewish passover, would partake of a feast which was
not designed for Him but for His people. He
speaks of the bread as " broken for you," meaning
for his disciples, and in regard to the wine, he says,
'•Drink ye all of it." Both the sacramental ele-
ments and the sacramental actions have throughout
a reference to the Supper as a feast, not /or him, but
ivpnn him, a feast of which He was the object to he
partaken of, and in no sense a partaker.
Another inquiry has been started, as to which
theologians have been in all ages divided in opinion,
namely. Whether Judas the traitor partook of the
Lord's Supper. The Aposioliwd Constitutions af
firm that he was not present on the solemn occasion.
The ad\ocates of this opinion rely chicfiy on John
xiii. 30, "He then having received the sop went im-.
mediately out : and it was night." Those who hold
the contrary opinion appeal to Luke xxii. II, "And
LORD'S SUPPER.
333
ye shall say unto the goodman of tlie lioii.se, The
Master .saitli unto thee, Where is the guestclianiber,
where I shall eat the passover with my disciples?"
and also to the saying of our Lord when he delivered
the cup into the hands of his disciples, " Drink ye
all of it," implying, as is supposed, that the twelve
disciples all partook of the sacr.iinental elements.
The prevailing sentiment of the church in all ages
lias been that Judas was both present at the sacra-
mental feast, and partook of the elements along with
the other discijiles.
It is somewhat .strange that, in consulting the
writings of the Apostolical Fathers, no mention
is found of the Lord's Supper by Barnabas, Poly-
carp, or Clement of Rome, but only in the writ-
ing.s of Ignatius is there any reference to the
subject, and even supposing the passages to lie
genuine, which has been doubted, the allusions are
slight and very general. Most of the early apolo-
gists for Christianity also are silent as to this ordi-
nance. Justin M.irtyr, however, has given two
descriptions 'of the ordinance in nearly the .same
words, " On Sunday," he says, " we all assemble in
one place, both those who live in the city and they
who dwell in the country, and the writings of apos-
tles and prophets are read so long as the time per-
mits. When the reader stops, the president of the
as.sembly makes an address, in which he recapitu-
lates the glorious things that have been read, and
exhorts the people to follow them. Then we all
stand up together and pray. After prayer, bread,
wine, and water, are brought in. The president of
the meeting again prays according to his ability, and
gives thanks, to which the people respond. Amen.
After this, the bread, wine, and water, are distributed
to those present, and the deacons carry portions to
such as are necessarily detained from the meeting.
Those who are able and willing contribute what they
please in money, which is given to the president of
the meeting, and is appropriated to the support of
widows and orphans, the sick, the poor, and whom-
soever is necessitous." In the dialogue with Try-
pho the Jew, which is usually ascribed to Justin,
we find such expressions as these, "the ofTering of
the bread of thanksgiving, and of the cup of th.anks-
giving," " the eucharistic meal of bread and wine,"
but no accoinit is given of the mode in which the
ordinance was celebrated. Irensus, in his contro-
versial writings, contends that the encharist should
be regarded as a sacrifice, in opposition to the Gnos-
tics, who alleged that all sacrifices had ceased. He
takes care, however, to distinguish it from the Jew-
ish sacrifices, alleging it to be of a higher and nobler
character than these mere typical ordinances. Cle-
ment of Alexandria, Origen, TertuUian, and Cyprian,
all make frequent references to the Lord's Supper as
a standing ordinance in the church. The Apostolical
Coiistitution.i, however, which is the oldest liturgical
document extant, and forms the foundation of all the
hturgies both of the Eastern and Western churches.
affords the most important infonnation in reffi'ence to
the Lord's Supper, as observed in the early Clu'istian
church. We are indebted to Dr. Jamieson for the
following admirable view of the whole service among
the primitive Chri-stians: "The peculiar service of
the faithful was commordy introduced by a private
and silent jirayer, which was followed by a general
supplication for the chin-ch and the whole family of
mankind, and then each of the brethren came for-
ward to contribute a free-will ofi'ering, according to
his ability, to the treasury of the church, the wealthy
always being carefid to bring part of theirs in arti-
cles of bread and wine. Out of this collection both
the sacramental elements were furnished; tlie one
consisting, from the first, of the common bread that
was in use in the coimtry, and the other of wine
diluted with water, according to the universal prac-
tice of the ancients. Preliminary to the distribution
of these, two ceremonies were always observed with
the greatest punctuality. — the one emblematical of
the purity that became the ordinance, the other of
the love that shoidd reign among all the disciples of
Christ. The deacons brought a basin of water, in
which the presiding ministers washed their hands in
presence, and on behalf, of the whole congregation — •
a practice founded on the words of the Psalmist, —
' I will wash my hands in innocence, and so I will
compass thine altar;' and then, on a given signal, the
assembled brethren, in token of their mutual amity
and good will, proceeded to give each other a holy kiss,
ministers saluted ministers, the men their fellow-men,
and the women the female disciples that stood beside
them. At this stage of the service another prayer of
a general nature was ol5'ered, at the conclusion of
which the mini.ater, addressing the people. said, 'Peace
be unto you,' to which they responded in one voice,
' and with thy spirit.' Pausing a little, he said, ' Lift
up your hearts to God,' to which they replied,
' We lift them up unto God;' and then, after an-
other brief interval of silence, he proceeded, ' Let us
give thanks to God,' to wdiich they returned the
ready answer, ' It is meet and just so to do.' These
preliminary exhortations being completed, the min-
ister offered up what was called the gnat thanksgiv-
ing for all blessings, both temporal and spiritual,
especially for the unspeakable love of God as mani-
fested in the death, resurrection, and ascension of
Christ, and for that holy ordinance in which, in gra-
cious adaptation to the nature of man, he is evi-
dently set forth a.s crucified and .slain ; concluding
with an earnest desire that intending communicants
might participate in all the benefits it was designed
to impart, to which all the people said aloud, ' Amen.'
As the communicants were about to advance to the
place appropriated for communion, — for up to that
time it was unoccupied, — the minister exclaimed,
' Holy things to holy persons' — a form of expression
equivalent to a practical prohibition of all who were
111 holy; and the inviijition to comnumicaiits was
given by the singing of some appropriate Psalms,
334
LORD'S SUPPER.
suclias the passage in tlie 34th, 'O taste and see
tlKit God is good;' and the 133d, begimiiiig ' Be-
liold! how good and how plcas.iiit it is fov brethren
to dwell together in unity!' Tlie elements having
been consecrated by ,i jirayer, wliich consisted eliioHy
of the words of the institution, the minister took np
the bread, and breaking it, in memorial of Christ's
body being broken, distributed to his assisting bretli-
ren beside him, and in like manner the cup, both of
whi'jh were carried round by tlie deacons to the com-
municants in order; and while they presented them
in this simple form, ' the body of Christ,' ' tlie blood
of Christ,' each connnunicant, on receiving them, de-
voutlvsaid, ' Amen.' The manner in wliich they re-
ceived the element was, by taking it in the right band,
and placing the left iinderueath to prevent any of it
from falling. The act of communion being finished, a
thanksgiving hymn was sung, and an appropriate
prayer oft'ered, after which the brethren again gave
each otiier the salutation of a holy kiss, and having
received the blessing of their pastor, were exhorted
to ' Go in peace.'"
The Lord's Sujiper was originally instituted in the
evening, or at night, and in the apostolic age it
seems to have been sometimes observed during the
night, and at other times during the day. Justin Mar-
tyr makes no mention of the precise time of its cele-
bration. TertuUian speaks of Easter Eve as a spe-
cial period for the administration of this ordinance.
This practice continued throughout the fourth and
fifth centuries, and even as far onward as to the
ninth ceiiturv. In the eleventh and twelfth cen-
turies it was transferred to the evening, and then to
the afternoon of the day before Easter, and after-
wards to the morning of the same day. The cele-
bration of the conimunioii on Christmas eve conti-
nued to a late period. To this ancient custom of
observing this ordinance by night is probably to be
traced the modern practice of burning lighted tapers
on such occasions. As early as the fifth century
nine o'clock in the morning became the canonical
hour, and it was arranged that the Lord's Supper
should be celebrated on Sundays and high festivals
at this hour, and at twelve o'clock on other occa-
sions. In the primitive church it was an univer-
sal custom to administer this ordinance on Thursday
on Easter week, that being the day of its original
institution ; and .some even contended that the ordi-
nance ought to be restricted to an annual celebration
of this day, though the prevailing sentiment of the
cluirch was in favourof frecpient cominunion. Weekly
and even daily comnuinion apiiears to have been
practised to a considerable extent in the early church.
Tiie first day of the week, indeed, often received the
name of ilirji pnnlt, the day of bread, with evident
allusion to the observance of the sacrament on that
dav. That daily communion was practised by the
apostles has been sometimes inferred from Acts ii.
42, 40, " And they continued stedfaslly in the apos-
tles' doctrine and fellowship, and in breaking of
bread, and in prayers. And they, continuing daily
with one accord in the temple, and breaking bread
from house to house, did eat their meat with glad-
ness and singleness of heart."
The l^ord's Supper was instituted at first in the
upper room of a private house, and from a passage
of the Acts of the A|)0stles just quoted, it would
ajipear that the communion was celebrated by the
early followers of Christ in the houses of believers.
But from 1 Cor. xi. 20, it is plain that the Corin-
thians must have bad a separate place devoted to the
observance of this rite, and to the exercises of pub-
lic worship. In times of persecution, the early
Chi-istians observed the Lord's Supper wherever it
could be done with safety, in secret places, in the
cemeteries, in dens and caves of the earth. But
whenever practicable, they celebrated this solemn
ordinance in the buildings appropriated to public
worship, and the consecration of the elements in jiri-
vate bouses was expressly forbidden by the council
of Laodicea.
Nothing is said in the New Testament as to the
person by whom the Lord's Supper is to be admin-
istered. Our Lord himself was the first who dis-
pensed the ordinance, and it is probable that the
same office was afterwards discharged by the apos-
tles. We learn from the writers of the second and
third centuries, that it was the special office of the
bishop or president of the assembly to administer
the eucharist. According to Justin Martyr's ac
count of the rite already quoted, the president of the
brethren pronounced the form of prayer and praise
over the elements, and the deacons distributed them
among the comnuiuicants who were present, and
conveyed tliem to those who were absent. Ignatius
informs us that the ordinance could not be adminis-
tered in the absence of the bishop. In the Aposto-
lical Constitutions the dispensation of the eucharist
is ascribed at one time to the chief priest, at another
to the bishop. He is directed to stand before the
altar with the presbyters and deacons, and to per-
form the office of consecration. For a long period
it was forbidden to a presbyter to consecrate the
elements if the bishop was present, that duty 1 e-
longing to the bishop alone. But in the middle
ages the bishops seldom officiated at the table of the
Lord. The general rule in the primitive church was,
that the bishop consecrated the element.s, assisted by
the presbyter, that the presbyter distributed tl e
bread, and the deacon presented the cup. In the
absence of the bishop the duty of consecration de-
volved upon the presbyter, and in such a case both
the bread and the cup were distributed by the dea-
cons. Sometimes the deacons took upon themselves
the office of consec "ating the elements, but this prac-
tice was forbidden by repeated ecclesiastical coun-
cils.
During the celebration of the Lord's Sujiper li-
the early Christian church, none but believers i
full communion with the church were allowed to be
LORD'S SUPPER.
335
present ; and all who were present partook of tlie
ordinance. Tlie con.^ecrated elements were also sent
by the liands of the deacons to sncli of the brethren
as from sickness or imprisonment were iiiiable to
attend. The custom at length arose which, for a
long period, prevailed in the ancient clinrch, of ad-
ministering the sacrament to infants. (See Co^[-
MUNlox, Inf.\nt.) Nay, even the ordinance was
frequently administered to the sick when in the de-
lirium of fever, and to penitents when on tlieir death-
beds. Some were accnstonied also to carry home a
portion of the consecrated bread, and to lay it np
for future use in a chest approi)riated for'the pur-
pose, and when they had no opiiortmiity of attend-
ing the morning service, they partook of a portion of
the bread, and if a Christian stranger came to share
in their hospitality, one of the first acts of kindness
was to produce a portion of the sacramental bread,
and break it between them, thereby hallowing iheir
social intercourse, by joining together in a soletnn
ordinance, which they held in the most profound re-
verence, and the observance of wliich they regarded
as neces.sary to their happiness both here and here-
after.
In the ancient Christian churcli, ."is we have seen,
all the faithful were communicatits, and the rule of
St. Ambrose was regarded as admitting of no excep-
tion : " All Christians ought on every Lord's Day
to partake of the Lord's Supper." It was not
until the sixth century that the distinction came to
be recognized between communicants and non-com-
municants. Prom this it afterwards became cus-
tomary to keep consecrated bread, called EuLOGiA
(which see), for the purpose of offering it to such
persons as chose to partake of it, instead of uniting
in regular communion with the church. These per-
sons were called Half-way commumcanU. After
the general introduction of infant-baptism, the eu-
charist continued to be administered to all who had
been baptized, whether infants or adults. The Afri-
can chiu'ch were accustomed to administer the ordi-
nance to the dead, and even to bury with them some
portion of the consecrated elements. Communicants
in the early church wore a peculiar dress when par-
taking of the sacrament, probably white raiment ;
and tlie women wore white veils, called dominicalia.
All the faith l"id were required to bring certain obla-
tions or presents of bread and wine. The bread was
wrapped in a white linen cloth, and the wine was
contained in a vessel called amn or amula. These
offerings were brought to the altar after the deacon
had .said, " Let us pray," and while the assembly
were engaged in singing a hymn suited to the occa-
sion. This custom was abolished in the twelfth cen-
tury.
On the authority of Augustine we learn that dur-
ing the celebration of the Lord's Su|iper, the com-
municants stood with their faces towards the east.
The clergy first received the elements, then the men,
and last of all the women. The communicants ad-
vanced to the table two at a time. They took the
bread and the cup in their bands, and repeated after
the minister the sacramental formular}-, concluding
with a loud Amen. The men received the elements
with uncovered hands previously washed ; the wo-
men made use of the dominical. From the ninth
centmy the bread began to be put into the mouths
of the communicants by the officiating minister, to
prevent them from carrying it home. The practice
of kneeling during the consecration, and distribution
of the elements, was first introduced in the twell'th
and thirteenth centuries, and did not become general
till a period considerably later.
In regard to the nature of the bread which ought
to be used in the Lord's Supper, a keen controversy
was long carried on between the Greek and Latin
churches, the former contending for the use of lea-
vened, and the latter of unleavened bread. From
the seventh century the Chiu'ch of Rome began to
use unleavened bread, a practice which was discon-
tinued by Protestants at the IJefonnation, with the
exception of the Lutheraiis. The eucharistic bread
of the Romanists is styled the Host (wliich see).
The wine which our Lord used in the Su|iper was,
of course, the common wine of Palestine, but the an-
cient churches universally mixed water with the
sacramental wine. The Armeiiiiins used wine alone,
and the Aquarians water alone, but botli were re-
garded as heretics. The proportioii of water mixed
with the wine varied at different times, being some-
times one-fourth, at other times one-third. The
Western church mixed cold water only ; the Greek
church did the same at fir.st, but afterwards added
warm water just before the distribution. In the
third or fourth century it became customary in the
Eastern church to hold up the consecrated elements
before the people, in order to excite their veneration
for the sacred mysteries of the sacrament. In the
middle ages the host of the Latin church came to be
w()rshi]iped in consequence of the dogma of tran-
Eubstantiation being believed. This dogma was in-
troduced into Gaul in the twelfth century, and into
Germany in the thirteenth.
Both elements were universally administered to
both clergy and laity until about the twelfth centiirv,
when in the Western church the cup began to be
gradually withdrawn from the laity. (See ClIALlCE.)
The Greeks retain substantially the ancient custom,
and Protestants universally give the sacrament to
both clergy and laity in both kinds. A certain
form of words was used from early times in deliver-
ing the elements to the people, to which the people
answered. Amen. The words spoken by tlie ofti-
cialing minister were simply, " Tlie body of Christ,"
and " The blood of Christ," to each of which expres-
sions the people subjoined. Amen. The author of
the Ajjostolical Conslitiitions speaks of the form in
this manner : " Let the bishop give the oblation,
saying, ' The body of Christ,' and let the receiver
answer, Amen. Let the deacon hold the cup, and
336
LORETTO (Holy House at).
wlieii lie gives i(, say. ' Tlie blood ol" Cliri.'t, the cup
of life.' and let him tlmt drinks it, s;iy Amen." In
the time of Gregory the Great, wo find the form
somewhat enlarged, tliiis, '-The body of our Lord
Jesus Christ pre.servo tliy .soul ;" and before the time
of Alciiin and Charlemagne it was augmented into
this form, "The body of our Ixird Jesus Christ pre-
serve thy soul unto everlasting life."
In the primitive Christian cliurch, the Lord's Sup-
per was retained in the simplicity of its original in-
stitution, and the ordinance was regarded as a me-
morial of the sufferings and death of Clu-ist, and a
means of strengthening the faith and increasing llie
love of his followers. In course of time highly figura-
tive language begai\ to be used, which implied, if
understood literally, the bodily presence of Christ.
During the Eutycluau controversy, the notion was
broached by some, that there was a union between
Christ and the elements similar to that between the
divine and human nature in the person of Christ.
It was not, however, until the ninth century that the
doctrine was promulgated of a real ch.Tuge of the
substance of the elements in the Lord's Supper.
(See TRAN.?iinsTANTi.\TlON'.) This, of course, na-
turally led to the worship of Christ in the sacrament.
(See Host, Adoration of the), and the kindred
dogma, that the Eucharist is a true and proper sacri-
fice for the sins of the living and the dead, or the
souls in purgatory. (See Mass.) At the Reforma-
tion, in the sixteenth century, these dogmas of Rome
were renounced by the Protestant party ; but Lu-
ther, still cleaving to the literal interpretation of our
Saviour's words, "This is my body," introduced the
doctrine of Consurstan'tiation (which see), sig-
nifying that although the elements remain unchanged,
the real bodv and blood of Christ are received by the
communicants along with the symbols. Zwingb, how-
ever, disapproving alike of the Romish doctrine of
Tratisiihitantiatioii ^ndthp. Lutheran doctrine of Con-
mb.itantialicm. maintained that the bread and wine were
no more than a representation of the body and blood
of Christ, and that there was nothing in the ordi-
nance but a memorial of Christ. The Helvetic Re-
former, however, in thus explaining the matter, has
perhaps scarcely described the true nature of the
Lord's Supper as it is understood by most Protestant
churches. The elements are, doubtless, recognized
as syndmls or signs, but to the true believer they
are something more, for they are seals of the cove-
nant of grace, ratifying and confirming all its bless-
ings a-s given over by Christ to his people, and re-
ceived on their part by the exercise of a living faith.
LORD'S TABLE. See Communion Ta«i,k.
LORETTO (Hoi.Y Hnusi; at), a house at Lo-
retto, a small town in the States of the Church in
Italy, which is held in great veneration by Roman-
ists, as being the place where the Virgin Mary was
born, and also the infant .lesus. The story of this
wonderful house is implicitly believed by many Ro-
manists. The outlines are briefly these: Helena,
the mother of Constantine the Great, found it at
Nazareth about three centuries after the incarnation.
It was carried by angels through the air in May 12;t 1 ,
and laid down by them on a little eminence in Dalma-
tia, where it attr.icted great attention, and performed
miracles of healing. Doubts having arisen as to its
character, the blessed Virgin, surrounded by angelic
spirits, appeared to a priest, named Alexander, when
on a sickbed, and informed him that in that house she
was born, lived, received the message of Gabriel,
and conceived the Son of God. She further told
the priest, that the apostles had converted this house
into a church; that Peter had consecrated it.s altar;
that because insulted in Nazareth by infidels, and
neglected by Christians, it was carried over by angels
to Dalniatia ; and that as a miraculous proof of all
this, his liealth should be immediately restored. On
awakening, Alexander found himself restored to
health. The Dalmatians, however, were not long
permitted to enjoy the gift of the house. On the
night of the 10th December 1294:, some shepherds,
who were watching their flocks, beheld a house sur-
rounded by unconnnon splendour flying across the
Adriatic, which separates Dalmatia from Italv. Tlie
holy house rested in a district called Laiu'etum, and
hence the n.ame, " The House of Loretto," which it
retains to this day. Soon it became very famous as
a place of pilgrimage, to which thousands resorted
for devotion and miraculous cures. The number of
pilgrims, however, greatly diminished in conseipience
of the bands of robbers which infested the neighbour-
hood ; and the honse again moved to a small liill near
the road where the faithful might have access to it
without being exposed to robbers. This new miracle
greatly increased the reverence in which the house
was held. The hill on which it now stood was the
joint property of two brothers, who quarrelled about
the rent they were to receive. Accordingly this
miraculous house was once more transferred, and
pl.aced in its present site, a very short distance be-
yond the property of the unworthy brothers. And
there the house remains till the present day.
The House of Loretto is thus described by one
who visited the spot : " This holy house, tliat can
thus fly or walk at pleasure, is about thirty-two feet
long, thirteen feet wide, and eighteen feet high, with
a chimney and sm.all belfry. The walls are of stone.
There is in it a small altar, the one dedicated by
Peter; and on it is an antique wooden cross. On
the right of the altar is an image of the Virgin Mary,
with the infant on her arm, with the hair of each
divided after the manner of the people of Nazareth.
This image is surrounded with golden lamps, by
whose constant glare and dazzle it is somewhat con
cealed. The \'irgin and Son are most gorgeously
decorated, and are brilliant with precious stones.
This holy image was carried to France in 1736, but
it was brought back with pious pomp ; and welcomed
by the discharge of caimon .and the ringing of bells,
it was borne to the holy house on a rich frame, car-
LOTS (Casting of)— LOTUS-WORSHIP.
337
ried by eiglit bishops, on the otli day of January,
1803.
"And the miracles wrought by this holy house
are numerous and wonderful. It is hung round by
' the votive offerings in gold, silver, wax, and other
materials,' presented by those on whom miracles
were performed. Pietro Barbo was there miracu-
lously healed, and was infunned by the Virgin tliat
he would be elected Pope ! He was so elected, and
assumed the name of Paul II. He issued a bull,
dated November 1, 14(54, in which he speaks of ' the
great wonders and infinite miracles'' wrought by
means of the Holy Virgin in this house. Tliis house
has been the pet of many a Pope, who have ex-
pended treasures upon it ! And there it stands at
the present Iiour, ' the most celebrated sanctuary in
Italy ' — hung round by votive offerings of great value,
visited by pilgrims from all parts of the world, and
with a regular establishment of priests, sustained at
an enormous annual expense, mainly collected from
the beggar pilsrims. There also is the 'holy por-
ringer,' in which [lap was made for the infant Sa-
viour, and wliich imparts wonderful sanctity to every
thing that is put into it !" The Litany to the " Lady
of Loretto" may be found in the "Garden of the
Soul," and in most other Romish prayer-books.
LOTS (Casting of), a mode of determining an
uncertain event by an appeal to the providence of
God, which is made by casting or throwing some-
thing. Among tlie ancient Hebrews, the lot was
resorted to frequently in disputes about property.
It was in this manner that the land of Canaan was
divided by Joshua, and frequent allusions occur
throughout the Old Testament to this mode of set-
tling disputed matters. Thus in Prov. xvi. 33, it is
said, " The lot is cast into the lap ; but the whole
disposing thereof is of the Lord;" and in xviii. 18,
" The lot causeth contentions to cease, and parteth
between tlie mighty." From these passages it is not
improbable, that the lot was employed in courts of
justice in the days of Solomon. In criminal cases,
as in Josh. vii. 14 — 18, we tind the sacred lot called
Urim and Thumraim, resorted to in order to discover
the guilty party. In many matters of gi-eat public
interest, as in the election of Saul to the kingdom,
appeal was often made to the lot. It is also referred
.0 in Esther iii. 7, " In the first month, that is, the
month Nisan, in the twelfth year of king Ahasuerus,
they cast Pur, that is, the lot, before Hanian from
day to day, and from month to month, to the twelfth
month, that is, the month Adar;" and Bishop Pa-
trick remarks on the passage, '• It was customary in
the East, by casting lots into an urn, to inquire what
days would be fortunate, and what not, to undertake
any business in. According to this superstitious
practice, Haman endeavoured to find out what time
in the year was most favourable to the Jews, and
what most unlucky. First he inquired what month
was most fortunate, and found the month Adar,
whicli was the last month in the year, answerable to
our February. There was no festival during this
month, nor was it sanctified by any peculiar rites.
Then he inquired the day, and found the thirteenth
day was not auspicious to tliem. (v. 13.) Some
think for every day he drew a lot ; but found none
to his mind until he came to the last month of all,
and to the middle of it. Now this whole business
was governed by Providence, by which these lots
were directed, and not by the Persian gods, to fall
in the last month of tlie year; whereby almost a
whole year intervened between the design and hs
execution, and gave time for Mordecai to acquaint
Esther with it, and for her to intercede with the
king for the reversing or suspending his decree, and
disappointing the conspiracy."
Not only in Old, but also in New Testanient
times, the practice of appealing to the lot is men-
tioned. Thus in the election of an apostle to fill the
place of Judas, it is said, Acts i. 26, " And they
gave forth their lots; and the lot fell upon Mat-
thias ; and he was numbered with the eleven apos-
tles." Even at this day, as travellers inform us, the
casting of lots is practised in the East in doubtful
matters which it may be difficult otherwise to decide.
Among the Moravians, also, in questions of impor-
tance recourse is had to the lot. This, however, i.s
never resorted to but after mature deliberation and
fervent. prayer ; nor is anything submitted to its de-
cision which does not, after being thoroughly weigh-
ed, appear to the assembly eligible in itself.
LOTS (Divination by). See Divination.
LOTS (Feast of). See Purim.
LOTUS- WORSHIP. This flower, the Nyviphaa
Lotus of Linnaeus, and the Sacred Lily of the Egyp-
tians, is an object of veneration in various heathen
countries. The gods are frequently represented
silting on the flower of a lotus. Sir J. G. Wilkin-
son informs us, that Elioon, the Egyptian god of
da)', is thus represented on the monuments. '■ He
is then," says he, "supposed to signify the sun in the
winter solstice, or the rising sun ; and the crook and
flagellum, the emblems of Osiris, which he some-
times carries, may be intended to indicate the influ-
ence he is about to exercise ujion mankind. The
vase from which the plant grows is a lake of water,
and the usual initial of the word ma or moo, water.
'They do indeed,' says Plutarch, 'characterize the
rising sun as though it sprang every day afresh out
of the lotus plant; but this implies, that to moisture
we owe the first kindling of this luminary.' " With
respect to the lotus plant on which the deity is re-
presented seated. Sir John Gardner Wilkinson,
remarks, that " it is always the Nyjnphcea Lotus, and
in no instance the Nelumho. And though this last
is mentioned by several ancient authors among the
plants of Egypt, it is never introduced into the
sculptures as a sacred emblem, :ior indeed as a pro-
duction of the country ; a fact which goes far to dis-
prove one of the supposed analogies of the Egyptian
and Indian objects of veneration. With regard to
338
LOVK-FEASTS— LOXO.
tlie commdii lotus, so frequently represeiileii .is a
favourite flower in the li.itids of tlie E^'vpliaiis, (;'.s
tlie rose or ollier.s inii;ht be iii tlie liaiids of any
modern peopled tliere is no evidence of iis having
been sacred, much less an object of worsliij)."
Among the Hindus the lotns has been generally
recognized as the symbol of Bmlima, the creator of
the world, who, poised upon a lotus leaf, floated upon
the waters, and all that he was able to discern with
liis eight eyes, for he had four heads, was water and
darkness. The lotus, accordingly, cimtinues to be
revered in the temples of the Hindus, as well as
among the Budhists of Thibet and Nepaiil ; and a
Nepaules3 bowed reverently before this plant as he
noticed it in entering the study of Sir William Jones.
The lotns is the emblem of the generative power of
nature, and hence it is found accompanying the
images of all the Hindu gods, who personify the idea
of creation or generation. Tlie symbol of the lotns
has been carried by Budhism from India into China,
and even into .Japan, where the god Canon (which
see) is represented sitting upon a lotus.
LOVE (F.vMii.Y of). See F.vmilists.
LOVE-FEASTS. These feasts, as they were
practised among the primitive Christians, have been
fully described in the article Agap.e (which see).
Imitations of the custom are found in a few modem
churches. Thus the Moravians have from time to
time meetings of the Brethren, at which refresh-
ments are handed round, while addresses are delivered
upon religious subjects, varied with singing hymns,
and reading the Scriptures. Love-feasts are held
among the We.sleyan Methodists <|uarterly, to which
persons are admitted by ticket or a note from the
8U]ierintendent. The meeting begins with singing
and praver, afterwards small pieces of bread or plain
cake with water are distributed, and all present eat
and drink together in token of brotherly love. After
a few addresses, a collection is made for the poor,
and the meeting is closed with prayer.
LOW CHITIICIIMEN, a nam'e often given to
the Evangelical i)arty in the Cliurch of England,
who are generally understood to hold and to teach
the pure doctrines of the Protestant Reformation.
They di.savow all .sympathy with the Tractarian or
Romanizing party. (See Anglo-Catiioucs.) A
party existed in the reign of Queen Anne, bearing
the name of Low Churchmen. They were imder-
Rtood, however, to be latitiidinarian in their senti-
ments, and their doctrinal teaching had a tendency
towards Socinianism. But the Low Churchmen of
the present day have received their name in conse-
quence of the low views which they are believed to
entertain on the subject of the authority of the
church, and the apostolical dignity of the clergv.
Their theological views are generally considered to
be more strictly Calvinisiie than either the High or
the Broad Church parly. 'l"he Low ChmchnuMi are
at present a minority in the Church of England, but
occupy a high place in public cstijiiation. Their zeal
and activity in the support of missions both at home
and abroad, are shown in the warm support which
they lend to the Cliurch Missionary and Pastoral
Aid Societies, as well as to religious and benevolent
institutions generally. "The Evangelical party in
the Church of England," says Mr. Marsden, " claims
to represent, both in Church polity and doctrinal
theology, the principles of the Reformation, as the
Reformation was understood and practised, down to
nearly the close of the reign of James L Amongst
them are to be foimd some who hold the Divine right
of episcopacy and the necessity of an apostolical
succession ; but these are the exceptions. In general
they maintain, rather, that episcopacy is a wise and
ancient form of government than that it is essential
to the constitution of a church They do not hesi-
tate to recognize Presbyterian Churches, nor do they
deny the claims of orthodox dissenters. Orders may be
valid, though irregular, and churches may be defec-
tive in many points and yet possess all that is essen-
tial to constitute a church. The unify of a churcli
consists in the spiritual dependence and vital union
which each member of it possesses with Christ, the
church's head. In doctrine, the Low Church parly
place justilicalion by faith only, in the foreground;
they preach the total tall of man in Adam, and the
necessity of the new birth ; and they diU'er from High
Churchmen in asserting that this new birth, or re-
generation, does not of necessity take place in bap-
ti.sm, and they deny that it is inseparable from it
Of both the sacraments, indeed, they hold that they
do not necessarily convey grace; but only to those
who partake of them aright. In their ministrations
the doctrines of redemption are made prominent.
They have occasionally been charged with neglect-
ing to inculcate the ordinary duties of life; but An-
tinomianism, which would be the result of such
neglect, seldom makes its appearance in their flocks.
The p.arty is often termed Cahinistic; but the word
is not very .accurately employed. M.iny are Evan-
gelical Armini.ans, and not a few, who are content
to accept the name of Calvinists, hold, in fact, the
disputed points nearly as Arminius held them. It
is singular, perhaps, that amongst the evangelical
clergy the writings of Calvin should be little read,
and, indeed, scarcely known. A society was formed
within the last few years for the publication of Cal-
vin's works; it met with little encouiiigement, and
entailed, we have nnderstood, a heavy loss on its
projectors. About the same time the Parker Society
was instituted, for rejndjlishing the divines of the
English Reformation, ami met with complete suc-
cess."
LOW SUNDAY, the octave of the first Sunday
afler Easter-day, as being a festival, though of a
lower degree. It is called in ibe Roman church the
JJoiiilni'ca in A this.
LOXIAS, a surntime i>( Apollo as the intei'iireter
of ZciiK.
l.,OXO, a surname of the Grecian goddess Arietiiis.
LUA— LUCRINA.
339
LOYOLA (Ignatius). See Jicsuits.
LUA, one of the ancient Italian goddesses, to
whom tlie arms of a conquered enemy were dedicated
and bui-nt as a sacrilice in lief hononr.
• LUCAR, Cyiul, (Confession of), a remarkable
Confession of Faith drami np by Cyril Liicar, pa-
triarch of Constantinople, and published at Geneva
in 1630, in the Latin language. It is divided into
separate articles, with Scripture proofs appended to
each. Lucar had tirndy resisted the project of unit-
ing tlie Greek with the Latin church, and his de-
sign in publishing the Confession appears to have
been to bring about, if pojsible, a union of the Greek
with the Kefuimed cluu-ch. It agrees in almost
every point with the doctrine and discipline of Cal-
vin, and shows evidoitly, on the part of the author,
a strong desire to bring about a reformation of the
Greek church. The Greeks to this day strenuously
deny tlie authenticity of Lucar's Confession, but
there is a mass of positive testimony in its favour,
which places it beyond a doubt. A second edition
was published by the author, with some additions
and improvements, during the year 163.3. Various
editions appeared also after his death, particularly in
Holland, where it attracted much notice.
LUCERLA., a surname of Juno, as the giver ot
light, the name being derived from Lat. lux. light.
LUCERIIIS, a surname o( Jupiter among the an-
cient Romans.
LUCICRXARIUM (from Lat. lucerna, a lan-.p),
a name given to the evening service, in the early
Christiati Church, becau.se it comruonly began when
darkness came on, and it was necessary to light up
the apartment.
LUCIA'S (St.) DAY, a festival observed by the
Church of Rome on the 13lh of December.
LUCIANISTS, the followers of Luciau, a presby-
ter of Antioch, in the beginning of the fourth cen-
tury, who held opinions in I'egard to the Person of
Christ akin to those which were afterwards main-
tained by the Semi-Arians. The school which he
founded at Antioch became famous, and among.st his
scholars were se\'eral of the heads of the Arian party,
particularly Eusebius of Nicomedia, Maris, andTheog-
nis. It is doubtful whether Lucian himself held
Arian opinions, but historically speaking. Dr. New-
man thinks that he may almost be considered as the
author of Arianism. Epiphanius says, that he con-
sidered the Word in the Person of Christ as the sub-
stitute for a human soul ; and although he sufl'ered
martyrdom at the bauds of heathen persecutors, A. D.
311, there is too much reason for believing, that his
theological views were far from being orthodo.t, as
there is clear evidence that he was under eiccomnui-
nication during three successive patriarchs. It is
pleasing, however, to know that ten or fifteen years
before his martyrdom he was reconciled to the
church, and in all probability at that time he would
renounce the heretical sentiments he may liave pre-
viously entertained. Chrysostom's panegyric on tlie
festival of his martyrdom is still extant, and botlj
RufBnus and Jerome speak of him in terms of liigh
etdogiiim. But whatever may have been the charac-
ter of the man, it i.s an undoubted fact, tliat the
Semi-Arians adopted his creed, which is e.\tant.
During the interval which elapsed between the Ni-
ceue council in 325 and the death of Constantius in
361, Antioch was the metropolis of the heretical, as
Alexandria was of the orthodox parly. From An-
tioch originated the attack upon the church after the
decision of the council of Nice. In Antioch the
heresy first showed itself in the shape of Semi-
Arianism when Lucian's creed was produced. There,
too, in this and subsequent councils, negotiations
on Arianism were conducted with the Western
church. At Antioch lastly, and at Tyre, a suti'ra-
gan see, the sentenceof condemnation was pronounced
upon Athanasius. The Luciimists, therefore, may
well be considered as having exercised an influence
which long siu'vived the death of their leader.
LIICIFERIANS, the followers of the famous
Lucifer, bishop of Cagliari in Sardinia, in the fourth
century. The first appearance which this keen and,
indeed, somewhat intemperate opponent of the Ari-
ans makes in ecclesiastical history, is as legate along
with Eusebius of Vercelli, from Pope Liberius to
the great council of Milan, which was lield in 355.
The Emperor Constantius presided, and so ofl'cnsive
to the Ariau emperor was the violence of Lucifer,
that he was first cast into prison, and then driven
from place to place as an exile. The many hard-
ships and cruelties, however, to which he was ex-
posed, had little or no effect in subduing his fiery and
irascible temper, which at length alienated from him
both the eastern and western clergy,and even Ath.ana-
sius himself, whose cause he had so warudy espoused.
His followers, who received the name o( Liicifen'ans,
were few in number, but they regarded themselves
as constituting the only pure clnirch on earth. A
rooted aversion to Ariunism was the one prevailing
sontinient which bound them together as a body.
They held that no Arian bishop, and no bishop who
had in any measure yielded to the Arians, even al-
though he repented and confessed his errors, coidd
enter the bosom of the church without foi felling his
ecclesiastical raidi, and that all bishops and others
who admitted the claims of such persons to a full
restoration of their privileges, ought to be regarded
as outcasts from the Christian counnunion.
LUCINA, the goddess among the ancient Ro-
mans who presided over childbearing, and in this
character, also, a surname of J'uwo and Z)/fm«. On
the occasion of the birth of a son iu famihes of rank,
it was not unusual to have a Lectislenuum, in lion-
our of Juno lyucina.
IjUCRIXA, a sm'name of Vcmis derived from the
Lucrine lake, near which stood a temple to her hon-
our.
LUDI APOLLINAUES. See Apollinakes
Luui.
340
LUDI FUNEBRES— LUSTRATIOX.
LUDI FUXEBUES (Lat. funeral games), cele-
brated at the funeral i)vre of distingiiislied persons
amoni; the ancient Greeks and Konians. They were
[irivate entertaiinnents given by survivors in honour
of their decoascil friends, and were sometimes coii-
firnied for two or three days. See Funeral Ritks.
MTDI LIBEK.VLES.' See Dioxysia.
IA;I>I MAGXI. See Circen-sian Gamrs.
LUni MAUTIALES (Lat. martial games), ce-
lebrated everv year among the ancient Romans, in
the circus, on the 1st of August, in honour o{ Mars,
the god of war.
LUKE'S CSt.), day, a Romish festival held on
the 18th of October in honour of Luke the Evange-
list. It is observed in the Greek church on the same
day.
LUNA, the moon, worshipped both among the
ancient Greeks and Romans. The latter are said to
have received this mode of worship from the Sa-
bines, in the time of Romulus. Servius Tullius
built a temple in honour of this goddess on the Aven-
tine hill, whicli was followed afterwards by another
on the Capitoline, and a third on the Palatine hill.
See Moon-Worship.
LUPERCA. a goddess among the anc'ent Ita-
lians, wlio was said to have nur>ed Romulus and Re-
mus in the form of a slie-wolf She was the wife
of Liipertiis, and has sometimes been identified witli
Af'CA Larentia (which see).
LUPERCALIA, one of tlie most ancient festivuls
celebrated by the Romans on the 15th of February
every year in honour of Lupercns, the god of ferti-
lity, or as various writers, both Greek and Rom.an,
allege, in honour of Pan. Plutarch calls it the feast
of wolves, and declares it to have been of a lustr.al
or ceremonially purifying character. He adds that
it was the generally received opinion, that the Ar-
cadians, at the period of their immigr.atioii into Italy
nnder the conduct of Evander. introduced it aniMng
the natives. But in whatever way it may have lirst
come among the Romans, it was in some wav or
otlier connected with the well-known legend tli;it
Romulus and Remus, the first founders of Rome,
were suckled by a she-wolf, and, accordingly, the
rites of the Luperccilia were observed in the Luper-
cal, which was sup[iosed to have been the place
where this strange nursing was carried on. On the
appointed day of the festival, the Lui'KRCl (which
see), assembled and offered sacrifices of goats and
young dogs. The ceremony which followed was of
a peculiar kind, and difficult of expliination. Two
youths of high rank were led forward to the Tjuperci,
who, having dipped a sword in the blood of one of
the victims whicli had been sacrificed, touched their
foreheads with it ; .after which some of the other
priests advanced forward and wiped oft' the blood
with a piece of woollen rag which had been di|iped
in milk. The youths now burst into a fit of laugh
(cr. and forthwith the genera! merriment which char-
ttcteriztd this festival began. The priests having;
feasted themselves, and indulged freely in wine,
covered tlieir bodies over with the skins of the goats
which they had sacrificed. Thus fant,astically dress-
ed they ran up and down the streets brandishing
thongs of goat -skin leather, with which they struck <
all they met, particularly women, who hailed the
infliction of the sacred lash as a species of ceremo-
nial lustration. This festival was long observed in
commemoration of the founding of Rome, but hav-
ing been neglected in the time of Julius Caesar, it
was revived by Augustus, and continued to be cele-
brated luitil the reign of the Emperor Anastasius.
LUPERCI, the most ancient order of priests
among the Romans. They were sacred to Pan. the
god of the country, and particularly of shepherds,
whose flocks he guarded. Plutarch deri\'es the
name from bipa, a she-wolf, and traces the origin of
their institution to the fabulous she-wolf which suck-
led Romulus and Remus. Tliey formed originiillv a
college, consisting of two classes, the Fithii or Fa-
hiani, and the Qui'nctilu or Quwctllkmi. In regard to
their precise number originally, we ha^e no certain
information. It is most probable that their office
was not for life, but oidy for a certain time. They
were held in great lionour among the people. Julius
Ciesar instituted a third class of Luperci nnder the
name of Jiilii or Jvliani. endowing them with cer-
tain revenues, of which, however, they were after-
wards deprived. At first the Lupeni were taken
from the liigher classes of society, but in course of
time the whole order fell into disrepute.
LUPERCUS, an ancient Italian god, worshipped
by shepherds, under the idea that he protected their
flocks from wolves, and also rendered the sheep
more fruitful. He has not imfrequently been iden-
tified with the god Pan. In honour of Lnpercuf,
the ancient festival Lupercalia (which see), was
annually celebrated.
LUSTR.\TI0\, purification from ceremonial de-
filement. This was efl'ected from very early times
by Abldtion (which see) in water. Among the
ancient Greeks and Romans, sacrifices were generally
accompanied by lustrations, which were peri'ormod
by sprinkling water by means of a branch of laurel
or oli\e, or by means of the a.<<pp.r(iiUum, as it was
called among the Roman.s, or clierin'p.t among the
Greeks. Individuals, cities, and even states under-
went solemn lustration when defiled by crime, or, as
was often done, with a view to call down the blessing
of the gods. Fields were lustrated at the Ambar-
vai.ia (which see), and sheep at the Palilia
(which see). The armies of the Romans were lus-
trated before taking the field, and their fleets before
setting sail. On all these occasions sacrifices were
offered, ai>d the victims cut into pieces were carried
three times round the object to be lustrated ; prayers
being all the while ofi'ered to the gods. When-
ever Rome itself, or any other city in the eni]n"re,
was visited with any calannty, the ninform practice
was forthwith to subject it to lustration. The whole
IVaitltr.
LUTEI—LUTHER (Martin).
341
Koman people, iiiileed, mulerweiit lustration every
live years, when sacriiices called Suuvetauit'lm vvei'e
oti'erefl, consisting of a pig, a sheep, and an ox. The
people assembled on the occasion in the Campus
Martius, and sacriiices having been oli'ered, the vic-
tims were canned ihrice round the multitude. Tliis
ceremony was called a lustrum, and being a qiiin-
qugnnial rite, the word was often used to denote the
space of five years.
LUTEI (Lat. earthy), a term of reproach apphed
by tlie Orirjemsts to the orthodox in the ancient
Christian church.
LUTHER (M.\rtin). This illustrious Reformer
was born at P^islebeii in Saxony, on the 10th Novem-
ber 1483, and on the following day he was baptized
by the name of Martin, in honour of the saint on
whose festival he was born. His parents were at
that time in humble circumstances, but of industrious
habit.s, and correct moral character. Martin was sent
to scliool at a very early age. His father was
a man of warm unaffected piety, and might often be
heard praying beside the bed.side of liis son, that the
Lord would make him partaker of liis gi'ace, and (it
him for uset'idness in propagating the pure doctrine of
Christ. To his dying lioiu- Lutlier spoke with the
gi"eatest respect of his parents, but at the same time
he was wont frequently to say that they had acled
towards him with too much severity in his child-
hood. "My parents," he confe.sses, "treated me
with so much strictness, that I became perfectly
spirit-broken, ran away to a monastery, and became
a monk ; their intentions were good, but they knew
not how to apportion the punishment to the ofi'ence."
He remained under his father's roof till he had at-
tained Ids fourteenth year, when he was sent to
Magdeburg to prosecute his studies. Here he re-
mained only a year when he removed to Eisenach,
where his mother's relatives resided. In this place he
became connected with a choral school, at which the
.sons of indigent pei'sons were received and instructed
gratis, while in return they were expected to sing
during Divine worship in the churches, and also from
house to house when they solicited contributions,
and thus aided the funds of the institution. Such a
mode of earning his bread was sufficiently humiliat-
ing to young Luther, and it gave him no small relief,
therefore, wlien a pious woman of the name of Cotfa
took hira into her house, where he was enabled to
apply to his studies witliout being distracted by
anxief)' about his worldly support. In his eighteenth
year, in 1501, Marlin Luther went to study at the
University of Erfurt, where his father, whose cir-
cumstances liad before this time undergone consider-
able improvement, supported him, though with great
personal exertion and sacritice. Having studied
philosophy with diligence and success, he began to
turn his attention to the subject of jurisprudence.
While thus engaged in the acquisition of usefid
knowledge, he met with a Latin LJible in the libr.ary
at Erfurt, which on careful examination lie foimd to
be a treasure of divine knowledge. His attention
was particularly attracted by the history of Hannah
and her son Samuel, which he read with peculiar
delight. This peiliaps tended to give him a relish
for the Word of God, and an earnest desire to be
more fully acquainted with its precious contents.
Luther now devoted himself to the study of scho-
lastic divinity, in which every educated man of that
time was expected to be versed. Nor was this to
him an unprofitable acquisition, preparing him as it
did for fighting all the more successfully the battles
of the Reformation. His health, however, was not
a little hijured by the assiduity with which lie pro-
secuted liis researches into the doctrines of the
schoolmen. In consequence of excessive mental
exertion, a deep shade of melancholy settled upon
his spirits, and rendered his youthful days unliappy.
Struggling against this painful depression, he perse-
vered in his studies, and obtained from the univer-
sity the degree, first of Bachelor, and then of Doc-
tor of Philosophy. He now began to give public
lectures on vaiious subjects, particularly on the
physics and morals of Ari.stotle. While thus im-
mersed in secular pursuits, a singular and awful
event occurred which suddenly gave a new direction
to his whole future life. This was the sudden death
of his intimate friend Alexius, who, while standing
by his side, was killed in a nioment by a flash of
lightning. An event of this kind produced a power-
ful efi'ect ujion the susceptible mind of Luther. He
resolved to assume the monastic profession, and ac-
cordingly, he was enrolled in a monastery of Augus-
tine friars. The motives by which he was actuated
in taking this apparently precipitate step, he thus
explained sixteen years later: — "I was never in
heart a monk, nor was it to mortify the lust of
fleshly appetites, but tormented with horror and the
fear of death. I took a forced and constrained vow."
The order wdiich Luther joined was marked for its
discipline and regularity. His ardent wish in he-
coming a monk was to obtain peace with God by
religious exercises, but in this he was disapjiointed,
and he sought in vain amid profound darkness to
obtain the light of life. His formal entry into the
convent took place in 1506. He continued a few
years in the monastery, where all his lime which
was not spent in exercises of devotion or ]ienaiice
was employed in ardent study. At this period Lu-
ther perused with diligence the writings of Augiis-
tin. The strictness and abstemiousness of his mo-
nastic life nndermined his naturally strong constitu-
tion. Fits of depression frequently came over him.
Once on an occasion of this kind, he locked himself
into his cell for several days, refusing to admit any
one; and at last his door being broken open, he was
found in a state of insensibility, from wdiich he was
recovered by means of music, of which he was pas-
sionately fond, and which was his sole recreation.
In 1508, ]>uther was invited to occupy a chair of
philosophy at Wittenberg; butallliough he accepted
342
LUTHER (Martin).
tliis office, lie still retained his monastic coiinectioii,
anil accordingly, he took up his resilience in a house
of the same order in Wittenberg. His lectures both
on physics and moral philosophy were much admired
and well .attended. In a short time, however, alter
he had taken np his residence at the university, he
was called by the senate to till the office ot' preacher,
which, though he shrunk from it at iirst on account
of its heavy responsibility, he was at length pre-
.ailed njion to accept. AVith great diffidence he fir.st
made trial of his powers in the monastery, then in
the private chapel of the castle, and publicly in the
parish church. His pulpit addresses, which were
characterized by much miction, and very frequent
ajjpeals to the Word of God, were received with un-
usual approbation. Not long after this he was in-
vested with the honourable title of Bachelor of
Theology, and at the .same time he acquired the
right to give theological lectures. Tliis was the
position best suited to his inclinations and peculiar
gifts. He now felt himself in his proper sphere, and
therefore, he devoted his whole energies to the high
duties of his sacred calling. He gave lectures on
the Old and New Testaments, which displayed so
minute an acquaintance with the Word of God, as
well as with the writings of the Fathers, that he
speedily earned for himself a high reputation as a
theological lecturer.
The estimation in whicli Luther was held among
the Augustinian monks led Stanpitz, the vicai'-general
of the order in Germany, to select liim as a suitable
person to undertake a mission to Rome. The ob-
ject of this mission, according to some writer.*, was
the settlement of disputes which had arisen in his
order; according to others, to obtain permission for
invalid brethren to eat meat in cases of great bodily
weakness. Whatever may have been his errand, he
set out for Rome in 1010. His feelings on coming
in sight of the great city he tlius describes : " When
I tirst beheld Rome, I fell prostrate to the earth,
and raising my hands, exclaimed, God save thee
Rome, thou scat of the Holy One; yea, thrice holy
from the blood of the sainted martyrs, which has
been shed within thy walls." The veneration, how-
ever, with which he first looked upon tlie city,
speedily gave jilace to very different feelings. The
frivolity and corruption of the lower grades of the
clergy, and the infamous lives of the superior orders,
awakened in his mind the utmost indignation, and
even contempt. Yet in spite of all these enormities,
he still considered Rome a place of extraordinary
sanctity, and he returned home to Germany a firm
belii^ver in the Holy Father. As an acknowledg
ment of Luther's merit as a lecturer, as will as on
account of the skilful execution of his Koinaii mis-
sion, the title of Doctor of Divinity was conferred
on him at the instigation of Stanpitz. In Witten-
berg, his ]iopularily and inlluence daily increased.
Such was the conlidence reposed in him, that he was
intrusted with the superintendence and visitation of
about forty mon.asteries, which were subject to the
jurisdiction of the vicar-general. This office atiorded
him ample opportunity of becoming acquainted with
the vices and defects of a monastic life, and thus
tended to prepare and qualify him for afterwards
undertaking the responsible duties of a Reformer.
The diii'ereiit offices, both secular and .spiritual,
svhicli he was now called upon to discharge, formed
also an admirable training for his futiu-e s| here of
action. Meanwhile, he was a most devoted son of
the Romish church, and firm believer in the infalli-
bility of the Pope.
Till the year 1517, Luther had continued quietly
to prosecute his work as a preacher of the gospel,
and a lecturer on Theology, to the edification of
nianv, who eagerly longed for a clear and intimate
acquaintance with Divine truth. An event, how-
ever, occurred at this time, which opened up for him
an entirely new career. The Papal treasury had
become well nigh exhausted, and the sale of indul-
gences was resorted to with the view of opening new
resources. John Telzel, a Dominican friar, was
selected as an active agent in carrying on this lucra-
tive trade. Travelling through Germany, this un-
scrupulous monk had reached Jliterbock, in the
neighbourhood of Wittenberg, when Luther, dis-
gusted at the shameless traffic in indulgences,
preached against them as tending openly to encour-
a<.;e immorality, and he even published a sermon on
the subject. He had now entered the field against
the abuses of the Church of Rome, and on the Slst
of October 1517, he took a still bolder step by affix-
ing to the church of the castle of Wittenberg, ninety-
five Theses or sentences on the sale of indulgences,
challenging any man to a public disputation on the
I)oiut. "Tliis,"savs Pfizer, " was the first electric
flash from the torch that was kindled at the martyred
Huss's funeral pile, and, reaching the remotest
corner of the laud, gave the signal of mighty future
events." " In less than fourteen days," writes a con-
temporary, " these Theses were read through every
part of Germany; and ere four weeks had elapsed,
they had overspread the whole of Christendom, as if
the angi-ls of heaven li.id been the messengers to
exhibit them to universal gaze." The wonderful
effect produced by the publication of Luther's Theses
moved Tefzel to attempt a reply. He issued accord- |
ingly, at Frankfort on the Oder, a series of one hun-
dred" and six ])ropositions, designed to establish the .
authority of the Pope, as well as of all the clergy
deputed" by him, to forgive sins. In this production
of fhe Doniiiiican monk, the Propositions of Luther
were one and all condemned as an accursed heresy.
In the beginning of the year 1518, a meeting of
Augustine monks took place at Heidelberg, at which
Luther, according to invitation, attended. Hero, be
fore a largo assembly, he disputed again.st five doctors
of divinity upon twenty-eight theological and twelve
philosophical Propositions, and the argiimeulative
power, as well as scriptural research, which be
LUTHER (Martin).
343
bi'ought to bear upon tlie traditionary dogniab of tlie
cluu-ch, showed him to be a polemic of no common
order. On liis return to Wittenberg, lie wrote, in
answer to Tetzel's Counter-Propositions, bis Reso-
lutions or explanations of his Theses, a treatise in
which he brought prominently forward the trutli that
no man could bejustitied but by faith; and defend-
ing himself with great ability against the charge of
heresy, he declared his intention of keeping to the
Holy Scriptures, tlie resolutions of Councils and tlie
Papal decrees. This publication he sent to the
Pope, Leo X., accompanied by a very humble let-
ter, dated 30th May 1518. The enemies of Luther
now assailed him on every side, but he stood his
ground witli intrepid manfuhiess. At the conclusion
of one of the pamphlets, which he publi.shed at this
time, he breaks forth in these impassioned words :
" Now, farewell, thou blasphemous, corrupt, unholy
Rome! At length the wrath of God is coming over
thee, as thou hast deserved ; because, notwithstand-
ing the many praj-ers that have been so continually
ottered for thee, it has been thy unceasing endeavour
to become more abominable. We would have healed
Babylon, but she is not healed; forsake her, that
she may become the habitation of devils, and the
hold of every foul spirit, and a cage of every unclean
and hateful bird; wild beasts of the desert shall be
there; their houses shall be full of doleful creatures,
and owls shall dwell there, and satyrs shall dance
there, and the cormorant and bittern shall possess it ;
and let the line of confusion be stretched out upon
it, that it may remain full of idolaters, perjurers,
apostates, and murderei-s ! Beloved reader, fai-e thee
well ! forgive that warmtli, with wliich grief and
indignation of heart have tilled my speech."
Tlie keenness with which the controversy was
maintained on both sides, awakened so wide an in-
terest among all classes of the people, that the Em-
peror Maximilian wrote a letter to the Pope claim-
ing his interference, and offering to secure the
thorough execution of his decree whatever it might
be. Leo, however, though seated in the Pontifical
chair, was too indifferent to all that regarded reli-
gion to take any active concern in what he consi-
dered as a mere monkish quarrel. At the instiga-
tion of others, he called upon the Elector of Saxony
to withdraw his protection from Luther, and as a
proof of his obedience to the papal chair, to deliver
the heretical monk to the Cardinal legate Thomas
Cajetan, to whom his Holiness had given the fol-
lowing explicit instructions: — "The Cardinal shall
immediately summon Luther, who is to be regarded
as a confirmed heretic, .ind compel him to ajipear
before him, and in case of need to call in the assist-
ance of the civil power. When in Rome, he shall
be kept in safe custody, till further orders are given
to bring him before the Apostolic chair. But if he
shall humble himself, and give true signs of repent-
ance before the Cardinal, and freely and spontane-
ously beg forgiveness, the Cardinal is empowered to
receive him again into the bosom of the church.
Should he however pi rsist in obstinacy, and tlie le-
gate not succeed in seizing his person, he is com-
manded to declare him, and all who adhere to and
follow liim, heretics, excommunicated, and accursed.
All the members of the empire are commanded,
under pain of anathema and interdict, to lend assist-
ance to the legate, in the execution of his commis-
sion."
Luther was forthwith summoned to Rome to
answer to a charge of heresy, but he refused to obey
the summons, declaring his readiness, however, to
appear and to defend his cause before pious, impar-
tial, and learned judges in Germany. The univer-
sity of Wittenberg, and others friendly to him, inter-
ceded with the Pope, and accordingly the citation to
Rome was changed into a summons to Augsburg,
which Luther declared his iiitenticm to obey. Some
kind friends, concerned fur the sal'ety of his valuable
life, attempted to dissuade him from his purpose, but
regardless of danger, and confiding in the protection
of heaven, he set out for Augsburg, which he reached
unharmed, and took up his lodgings in an Augustine
convent. He had three interviews with the Cardi-
nal Cajetan, the Pope's legate, at each of which he
used all the arguments he could command to induce
Luther to renounce his heresies; but all was una-
vailing. That nothing might be left undone to
effect a settlement of the dispute, Luther addressed
two letters to the Cardinal, oli'ering to remain silent
on the controverted points, provided equal silence
were imposed upon his adver.sanes. But to neither
of his letters did he obtain a reply ; and accordingly,
he quitted Augsburg. The legate complained bit-
terly to the Elector of Luther's sudden departure,
and entreated Frederic either to send Luther to
Rome, or to expel him from his dominions. Find-
ing that the prince, who had so generously thrown
the shield of his protection over him, might now on
his account be brought into collision with the Pope,
he resolved that rather than bring the Elector into
trouble, he woidd leave his territories, and commit
his way unto the Lord. This determination, how-
ever, was changed, and the Elector rejected the Car-
dinal's proposal to expel him from his dondnious.
Notwithstanding the urgent representations of
Cajetan, the Pope took no active steps against Lu-
ther, but contented himself with issuing a general
decree, in which the Papal doctrine respecting indul-
gences was confirmed, .and eveiy tenet to the con-
trary was forbidden imder pain of excommunication.
Leo finding that Cajetan liad failed in accon.plishing
the object of his instructions, dispatched a new agent
in the person of Charles John Jliliitz, Papal Nuncio
and Privy Councillor, with general instructions to
adopt whatever steps he might consider best fitted to
put an end to the dispute. This papal emissary
arrived in Saxon)' towards the close of 1518, bringing
with him the Golden Rose, as a present from the
Pope to the Elector Frederic. Miltitz had the sagif
344
LUTHER (Martin).
city to perceive tliat mutters were in a very diflerent
state ill Gemiany from wliat liad been representeil at
Rome. He soon saw the general popularity of Luther's
CiiHse, and tlie necessity therefore of adopting con-
ciliatory measures. He solicited a meeting with him
therefore at Altenburg. Tlie Elector consented to
this arrangement, and Luther appeared on tlie day
appointed. Tlie nuncio was fa\ourably impressed
with the aspect and address of the Reformer, con-
versed with him with the utmost apparent candour,
and was seemingly affected even to tears. Luther
declared his readiness to listen to the proposals of
the nuncio, and at his suggestion he addressed a let-
ter to Pope Leo, promising to be silent on the sub-
ject of indulgences, if silence were likewise imposed
on his adversaries, and declaring that he would
admonish the people zealously to honour the Roman
church.
Thus the controversy seemed on the point of
being amicably terminated, but an event occurred
almost immediately after, which rendered Luther's
reconciliation with Rome almost hopeless. Dr. Eck,
the author of the Obeli.sken, had challenged Carl-
stadt to a public disputation on the contested points
of tlieology. and in thirteen Theses which he had
written in preparation for the discussion, he attacked
Luther's declaration on indulgences. Luther op-
posed these by thirteen other Theses, in which he
declared that the assumption of the Church of Rome
to be the head of all other churches is contradicted
by the approved histories of eleven hundred years,
by the text of the Holy Scriptures, and by the reso-
lutions of the council of Nice. A public discussion,
accordingly, was held in Leipsic, between Eck on
the one side, and Carlstadt and Luther on the other.
The (irst week the dispute was between Eck and
Carlstadt on the subject of Free- Will ; and on the
second week the discussion was between Eck and
Luther on the primacy of the Pope. Li the third
week, Eck again disputed with Luther on repen-
tance, purgatory, indulgences, and the power of the
priesthood to forgive sins. The last three days were
spent in discussions between Eck and Carlstadt.
The universities of Paris and Erfurt were jirojiosed
and accepted as arbiters in the dispute, but Luther
reserved to himself the power of appeal from the
universities to a council. In the course of the do-
bate, the Reformer made a concession of which he
afterwards repented, acknowledging the Pope as
Lord of the church by human consent. He had
said enough, however, to rouse the anger of his op-
ponents, who lost no time in' laying before the
Elector of Saxony serious complaints respecting
Luther's heresies. This led to a counter declaration
on the part of Luther and Carlstadt ; and besides,
Luther was called to publi.sh a reply to the Francis-
cans, who charged him with having written fifteen
heretical propositions. While thus engaged in sharp
contention, and h.arassed by opposition from many
quarters, the heart of the Keformer was cheered by
learning that his conduct in the Leipsic disputation
was warmly approved, and that his writings had
been very favourably received both in Italy and
France. The Hussites of Bohemia addressed to him
letters of congratulation on the noble stand which he
had made against the corruptions of the cliurch.
Thus encouraged to proceed in the work of Refor-
mation, Luther published several treatises on points
of theology, which attracted great attention, and in-
creased his popularity. Among these may be men-
tioned a Sermon on the Sacrament of the Body and
Blood of our Lord, with a frontispiece representing
the sacramental cup. In this production the Romish
doctrine of the efficacy of the sacraments ex npere
iiperatn was assailed with great ability, and the neces-
sity of faith on the part of the communicant was
clearly proved from Scripture. In regard to the de-
nial of the cup to the laity, Luther maintained that the
Bohemian church was guilty of no heresy in admin-
istering the sacrament in both kinds, and that it was
by all means desirable to celebrate the sacrament
exactlv as Christ had instituted it when on earth.
The publication of this sermon caused a great sensa-
tion, not only in Saxony, but in various other parts
of Germany, and particularly in Bohemia, where it
was the means of adding no fewer than six thousand
persons to the body of the reformed.
Miltitz, the Papal nuncio, was exceedingly anxious
to bring to a satisfactory settlement the dispute be-
tween Luther and the Pope. To eft'ect if possible
this object, he had frequent interviews with the
Reformer, but without success. Towards the end of
August 1520, the Augustines held a general chapter
in Eisleben, at which the nuncio attended, and pre-
vailed upon them to use their influence with Luther
to induce him to make formal submission to the
Pope. A bull of excommunication was daily ex-
pected from Rome, and more especially as Eck, the
violent enemy of Luther, had proceeded thither a
few months before. The enemies of the Reformer
were unwearied in their attempts to injure him, by
propagating calumnies and misrepresentations in re-
gard both to his motives and sentiments. To obvi.ate
the evil influence of these rumours upon the minds
of rulers and men of power, he addressed explanatory
letters to several, and among others to Charles V.,
who had been shortly before chosen Emperor of
Germany.
About this lime, Luther published a Treatise on
Good Works, in which he set forth Faith in contra-
distinction lo Works, as the sole ground of man's
justification before God. This of course struck at the
root of the Romish doctrine on the subject ofjnstili-
cation, and placed Luther in an attitude of complete
antagonism to the creed of the church. He was in
diiccd by Miltitz, however, to take one more step to
bring about a reconcili.-ition, by addressing a letter
to the Pope, along with a short Essay which he had
written on Christian Liberty. His letter to Leo X.
breathed so strong a sjiirit of independence, that the
LUTHER (Martin).
345
only result which was likely to flow fi-om it was,
that matters must ere long come to a crisis. " Al-
though I Iiave been compcllerl," savs tlie bold and
intrepid Reformer, " by some of your unchristian
flatterers, wlio have utterly without provocation as-
sailed me, to appeal to a free and Christian council ;
I have still never suflered my mind to be so far
estranged from yon, as not from my inmost heart to
have wislied the best tilings for you and the Pajial
chair, and made them the subject of my earnest daily
prayer to God. I supplicate you, Holy Father Leo,
to accept my apology, and believe me to be a man,
who would be far from any attempt to be undutiful
towards your person, and be assured that I am rather
filled with tlie warmest sentiments of regard and
veneration. To every man I am prepared to gi\e
way in all things, but the word of God I dare neither
abandon nor deny. Yet it is true I have handled
the Romish court rather roughly, but neither yon,
nor any man on earth, can deny it to be viler and
more abominable than ever was Sodom, Gomorrah,
or Babylon ; and so far as I can perceive, its wicked-
ness is neither to be reformed nor rooted ont, but is
practised so shamefully in the face of day, that the
Romish church, in former times so holy, is now be-
come a den tilled with every crime, a sink of all
iniquity, the metropolis and empire of sin, death, and
everlasting destruction. While you, most Holy
Father Leo, sit like a lamb among wolves, and like
Daniel among the lions, or Ezekiel .among the scor-
pions, what can you, who are but an individual, do
against such a host of nioii>ters? And although you
might chance to have the countenance of three or
four learned and pious Cardinals, what are they
amidst so great a host ? Sooner would you fall by
poison, than succeed in checking so vile a pestilence.
The glory of the Pontili&ate is departed. The wrath
of God is come upon it for ever. Hostile to a gen-
eral council, unwilling to receive correction, or sub-
mit to bo reformed ; still a violent unchristian de-
meanour will not prevent the fulfilment of what has
been declared respecting the mother of harlots tlie
ancient Babylon. ' We would have healed Babvlon,
but she is not heahjd, forsake her." — Jcr. li. There-
fore it has always grieved me. Oh, pious Leo, that
you have become Pope in such a time as this. You
were worthy to have been Pope in better days. The
Romish ch.air is unworthy of you, the Evil Spirit
should rather be chosen to fill it, for he assuredlv
has more influence in Babylon than yon."
Before this letter was written, a bull of excommu-
nication .against Luther, containing a formal condem-
nation of his writings, had been despatched from
Rome by the hands of Eck, and the language of the
letter just cited was not likely to induce its recall.
The Papal bull met with little encouragement in
Germany, and independently of the nature of the
document, great offence was taken that the personal
enemy of Luther was chosen as its bearer. Tlie
Reformer now drew up an appeal from the Pope to
a council; and in a letter to Spalatin, he .says, "I
despise it, and pull it iiT pieces as a wicked, lying,
and infamous bull." The people in some places now
began to burn the writings of Luther, and in return
he caused the papal decretals to be committed to the
flames in the presence of a crowd of doctru-s. masters
of .arts, .and students ; and throwing the bull of ex-
communication into the fire with his own hands, he
exclaimed, " Because thou hast grieved the saints of
the Lord, so ma3'est thou be grieved and condemned
bv the everl.asting fire." After this decisive step by
which he openly threw oft" the Papal yoke, lie pub-
lished a declaration vindicaliug his conduct.
Luther now felt as if entirely set at liberty, the
tie which had so long bound him to Rome being
finally and for ever severed. From this time he as-
sumed the attitude of an open and uncom]iromising
foe of the Pope and all his emiss.aries. Not that he
was insensible of, or indifl'erent to, the danger of his
position, but he was so firmly impressed with the
belief that the truth of God w.as on his side, that he
felt no inclination to shriidc from the respon.sible
work which he had undertaken. He acquired fresh
stimulus hv the issuing of a bull from the Pope.
With indefatigable industry he wrote pamphlet after
p.airiphlet, exposing the errors both in doctrine .and
pr.actice of the Church of Rome. His enemies were
enr.aged, and such was the madness of their resent-
ment, that h.ad not a .special I'rovidence watched
over his valuable life, it would have been s.acrificed
without remorse.
About the middle of the year 1.520, Luther pub-
lished an address to the Christian nobles of Ger
many, containing proposals for a comprehensive
reform of the church, and exhibiting a lively por-
traiture of the abuses which in the course of time
had crept into its constitution .and government.
Whefi Luther wrote this address, lie did not reg.ard
a total breach with the Pope and the church as
necessary, but trusted, or .at least hoped, that a com-
plete reformation of abuses might yet be eflected.
But on the .3d of January 1.521, tlie Papal bull of ex-
communication against him w,as repeated, and the pre-
vious conditional sentence was converted info an un-
conditional decree. The young Emperor of Germany,
Ch<arles V., was to preside at the Diet of Worms,
which was at hand, and he requested the Elector of
S.axony to send Luther thither, projnising to have
him ex.amined by wise and learned men, and to per-
mit no injury to befall him. The Elector, however,
in his anxiety to preserve Luther from danger, de-
clined the Emperor's proposal, but at the same time
requested to have the opinion of Luther on the
point. The reply of the Reformer was firm and de-
cided : " If I am suinmoned." said he, " I will go
even though I must needs be carried there in my
bed, for I cannot doubt that the Emperor's call is
likewise God's call." He received a form.al cit.ation
to appear at the Diet, along with an Imjierial safe
conduct, and accordingly, he travelled to Worms in
2g
MC,
LUTHER (Martin).
the begiiiiiiiv^ of April lo2I. Many were the at-
tcmiits made by his frioiiils to dissuade liim from
prosecuting tliis journey, but remaining proof alike
against the anxiety of Ills friends, and the tin-eats of
his enemies, he replied, "If they were to make a tire
between Wittenher;; and Worms, which would reach
to the heavens. I would still appear in the name of
the Lord, and enter the jaws of Behemoth, and
treading between his great teeth, confess Christ, and
leave him to do all his pleasure;" and when his
anxious friend S|>alatin sent a messenger to urge him
not to come to Worms, he answered, " If there were
as many devils in Worms as there are tiles on tlie
roofs I would slill enter if."
Luther reached Worms on the IRth April 15'2L
JIany of the nobility went to meet him, and as he
entered the city, more than two thousand people
accompanied him to his lodgings. There lie was
visited by many persons of great rank, who admired
his calmness and undaunted courage. The day after
his arrival he was summoned to appear before the
Diet, and having committed himself and his cause to
God in secret prayer, he proceeded to the place of
meeting. As he passed into the hall, many of the
members addressed to him words of comfort and en-
couragement. His writings having been produced,
the question was put to him whether he acknow-
ledged them to be liis, whereupon Luther immedi-
ately replied in the affiiTnative. He was next asked
If he would recant their contents, and in reply to
this question he craved time for reflection, and the
Emperor having granted him adav for consideration,
the assembly broke up. The following day he was
again entreated to recant, but he plainly and tirndy
refused to do so, adding that he could not retract his
opinions unless he were convinced of their falsehood ;
nor could he consent to their being tried by any other
rule than the Word of God. Findini: the Reformer
inexorable, his enemies called upon the Emperor to
violate the safe-conduct, and tluis imitate tlie con-
duct of the council of Constiince in the case of John
Hubs. Charles, however, iinnly refused to act so
treacherous a jjart, and Luther was permitted to
depart in safety. A few days after he left the city,
a severe edict was published in name of the Emperor,
aiul by authority of the Diet, depriving him of all
the privileges wliich rightly belonged to him as a
subject of the empire, forbidding any prince to har-
bour or protect him, and requiring all to concur in
seizing his person as soon as the term specilicd in
his safe-conduct was expired.
This Edict of Worms, rigorous tliongh it w.as, led
to no evil consequences in so far as Luther was con-
cerned. It proved indeed a dead letter. But tlie
sudden disappearance of the Reformer occ.-isioned no
small anxiety to his friends, and triumph to his
enemies. The Elector of Saxony, who h.ad ever
proved Ins warm and steady friend, no sooner heard
that he had left Worms, and was in danger of falling
into tlie liands of his enemies, than he bethought
himself of adopting a prudent precaution to secure
his safety. The plan to which the Elector resorted
is thus described bv Dr. Robertson in bis History
of the Reign of Cliarles V.: '-As Luthei-, on his
return from Worms, was passing near Altenstein in
Thuringia, a number of horsemen in masks rushed
suddenly out of a wood, where the Elector had ap-
pointed them to lie in wait for him, and surrounding
his company, carried him, after dismissing all his
attendants, to Wartburg, a strong castle not far dis-
tant. Thei-e the Elector ordered him to be supplied
with every thing necessary or agreeable, but the
place of liis retreat was carefully concealed, until the
fury of the present storm against him liegan to
abate, upon a change in the political situation of
Europe. In this solitude, where he remained nine
months, and which he frequently called his Patmos,
after the name of that island to wliich the Apostle
John was banished, he exerted his usual vigour and
industry in defence of his doctrines, or in confutation
of his advei-.saries, publishing sevei-al treatises, which
revived the spirit of his followeis, astonished to a
great degree, and disheartened, at the sudden disap-
pearance of their leader."
During his residence in the Wartijurg, Luther was
frequently visited with severe attacks of bodily ill-
ness and mental distress. " Believe ine," he says, in
a letter to a friend, " I am delivered over to a tliou-
sand imps of Satan in this solitude; and it is much
easier to contend with incarnate fiends, that is,
men, than with spiritual wickedness in liigh places."
His distresses, however, were not wholly of a ))er-
sunal nature; be was deeply concerned for the de-
graded state of the church and clergy. " 1 .-^it here
the whole day," he writes to Xlelanetlion, " picturing
to my.M;lf the .state of the church, and repeating from
the eighty-ninth Psalm, ' Wherefore, O Lord, hast
thou made all men in vain?' O Lord God, what a
frightful glass of divine wrath, is the cursed king-
dom of the Roman antichrist, and I curse my hard-
ness of heart, that I am not melted to tears, and my
eyes become fountains of tears, to weep for the de-
struction of my people ; but there is no one who will
arise, and stand in the breach against God, or make
himself as a wall for the house of Israel, in these last
days of divine wrath. Do thou therefore hold out
to the end, as a servant of the Lord, and build up the
walls and towers of Jerusalem, until they attack
thee. Thou knowest thy calling, and thy gifts; I
pray for thee, and for thee alone ; if my prayers,
which indeed I do not doubt, avail aught, do thou
the same for me, and so we will jointly bear the
burden. We alone stood together on the arena, and
they will seek for thee after me."
During his confinement the opinions of J^uther
continued to gain ground in almost every city of
Saxony, but more particularly in Wittenberg, where
his doctrines had taken deep root ; and there accord-
ingly the first step was taken towai-ds an alteration
in the established forms of worship, by abolishing
LUTHER (Martin).
347
the celebration of pi-i\-ate masses, and by doing away
witli the celebration of the comuuinion in only one
kind. Bnt to avail onrselves of the clear and aecn-
rate statements of Dr. Robertson : "AVhatever con-
solation the coin-age and success of his disciples, or
the progress of liis doctrines in Ills own country,
i afforded Luther in his retreat, he there received in-
formation of two events which considerably damped
his joy, as they seemed to lay insuperable obstacles
in the way of propagating his principles in the two
most powerful kingdoms of Europe. One was, a
solemn decree, condemning his opinions, published
by the university of Paris, the most ancient, and, at
that time, the most respectable of the learned socie-
ties in Europe. The other was the answer written
to his book concerning the Babyloni.sh captivity by
Henry VHI. of England. That monarch, having
been educated under the eye of a suspicious father,
who, in order to prevent his attending to bu.siness,
kept him occupied in the study of literature, still
retained a greater love of learning, and stronger
habits of application to it, than are common among
princes of so active a disposition, and such violent
passions. Being ambitions of acquiring glory of
every kind, as well as zealously attached to the
Romish church, and hishly exasperated against Lu-
ther, who had treated Thomas .\quinas, his fa\'Ouritc
author, with great contempt, Henry did not tliink it
enough to exert his royal authority in opposing the
opinions of the Reformer, but resolved likewise to
combat them with scholastic weapons. With this
view he published his treatise on the Seven Sacra-
ments, which, though forgotten at present, as books
of controversy always are, when the occasion that
produced them is past, is not destitute of polemical
ingenuity and acuteness, and was represented by the
tiattery of his courtiers to be a work of such wonder-
ful science and learning, as exalted him no less above
other authors in merit, than he was distinguished
among them by his rank. The Pope, to wliom it
was ju'esented witli the greatest formahty in full con-
sistory, .spoke of it in such terms, as if it had been
dictated by innnediate inspiration ; and, as a te.sti-
mony of the gratitude of the church for his extraor-
dinary zeal, con'erred on him the Ut\e of D('fh>i!ei' (if
the Fiiitli, an appellation which Henry soon forfeited
in the oi)inion of those from whom he derived it,
and which is still retained by his successors, though
the avowed enemies of those opinions, by contend-
ing for whicli he merited that honourable distinction.
Luther, who was not overawed, eitlier by the autho-
rity of the university, or the dignity of the raonarcli,
soon published his animadversions on both, in a
style no less vehement and severe, than he would
have used in confuting his meanest antagoni.st. This
indecent boldness, instead of allocking his contem-
poraries, was considered by them as a new proof of
his undaunted spirit. A controversy managed by
disputants so illustrious, drew universal attention ;
and such was the contagion of the spirit of innova-
tion, diffused through Europe in that age, and so
powerful the evidence which accompanied the doc-
trines of the Reformers on their first publication,
that, in spite both of the civil and ecclesiastical
powers combined against them, they daily gained
converts both in Prance and in England."
The residence of Luther in the solitary castle of
the Wartburg tended more, perhajis, than almost
any other event of his history, to mature his views
as to the nature and extent of the reforms which the
condition of the Romish church required. It was in
this retirement also that he commenced the greatest
and the most useful of all his works — the translation
of the Bible into the German language, hi his Pat-
mos, as he was wont to call it, he actually finished
the New Testament. But though thus usefully em-
ployed, the bold and restless spirit of the Reformer
longed to be at liberty, and to return to active duty.
Tliis wish became all the .stronger when he learned
the unhappy excesses to which the Anabaptists or
new prophets, as they called themselves, were push-
ing his doctrines respecting gospel liberty. In their
extravagant enthusiasm, these men were busily pro-
pagating the notion that Luther's attempt at refor-
mation was neither sufiioiently extensive nor radical.
They rejected infant baptism, and boasted of being
favoured with immediate revelations from heaven.
Under the influence of fanatical zeal, they were ex-
citing tumults, and had succeeded in gaining over to
their side Luther's old friend and colleague Carl-
stadt.
The excesses and disorders introduced by the
Anabaptists were far from being favourable to the
progress of the Reformed cause, and Luther's fears
were strongly aroused lest, on tlie contrary, the work
which he had so much at heart niiglit be thereby
seriously imperilled. Unable, therefore, any longer
to endure the sohtariness of his retreat, he left Wart-
burg on the 3d of March 1.522, resolved to take his
place once more in the arena of active warfare. The
return of the intrepid CTcrman monk excited the
greatest rejoicings in Wittenberg, and produced an
immediate restoration of tranquillity. He addressed
a letter to the Elector, explaining the reasons of liis
return, and without delay set himself to an exposure
of the Zwickau prophets, and the extravagancies of
Carlstadt. Nor were his attempts to allay the tu-
nuilts of the public mind wliolly nn.successful ; by
his means peace and order were restored at Witten-
berg.
Leo X., who had long and ably tilled the pap.al
chair, died on the 1st of December 1521, and his
successor Adrian VL, who professed a strong desire
to bring about a reformation of the church, awakened
such bitter feelings of enmity again.st liimself in
Rome, that his death, which occurred In September
1523, has been attributed to poison. The pontifical
chair was next occupied by Clement V^H., who was
devoted to the French party, and to some extent
favourable to the Reformation. Li tlie meantime.
mn
LUTHER (Martin).
Ltitlicr and his fi'llow-l;iljiiiiieis, esiu'cially Mel:uic-
tlioii, were scitterinj; tlie seed of the new doctrine in
all directions, and in a short time reformed principles
pervaded the wliole Klectorate of Saxony. A new
Elector snceeeded lo the government in 1525, and
luider his authority, Lntlier was permitted to intro-
duce the new and sim|ile mode of wnr-ship in tlie
chapel of the castle at Wittenberg. The Reforma-
tion now be^an to exercise its due practical intln-
ence. The cloisters in various places were abandoned
by the monks and nuns. In 1523, Luther mentions,
in a letter to Spalatin, the escape of nine nuns from
their convents, among whom he mentions the name
of Catharine von Bora, who afterwards becjime his
wife.
The estates of Germany assembled in Diet at Nu-
remberg in 1524, and declared tlieir desire to com-
ply with the edict of Worms, as far as possible, at
the same time urging the necessity for a general
council. Towards the einl of the following year, a
new Diet was held at Augsburg, and afterwards re-
moved to Spires. The object of this Diet was declar-
ed by the emperor to be the extirpation of the Lu-
theran heresy, and the execution of the edict of
Worms. Such was the opposition, however, otl'ered
by the evangelical princes, that the Nuremberg de-
cree alone was retiewed in .\ngsburg, and the estates
were recommended to take steps for ha\ing the Word
of God, according to the true meaning and doctrine
of the Uruversal Church, taught throughout their
lands without iimovation or tumult.
Ill the Diet at Spires, which was a prolongation of
that at Angshm'g, the rel'orm party so far prevailed,
that the emperor's demand for the enforcement of
the edict of Worms was rejected ; and the resolu-
tion was adopted to send an embassy to the emperor,
requesting liim to come to Gerir.auy and call a coun-
cil, and that, in the meantime, each government
was to conduct the affairs of religion as they could
answer to God and the emperor. In 1529, a Diet
was held at Spires, when it was decided by a ma-
jority th.at he should once more be requested to sum-
mon within a year either a general council or a na-
tional synod, and himself to preside. Those states
of the empire, which had hitherto obeyed the edict
of Worms, were enjoined to persevere in the obser-
vation of it, and the other states were prohibited
from attempting any further innovations in religion,
particularly from abolishing the m.ass before the
meeting of a gener.al council. The favourers of the
new doctrine entered a solemn protest against this
decree, as unjust and impious. From this circum-
stance they received the name of PrnteMants. " Not
satisfied with this declaration of their dissent," says
Robertson, '• from the decree of the Diet, the Pro-
testants sent ambassadors into Italy, to lay their
grievances before the emperor, from whom they met
with the most di.scoiiragiiig reception. Charles was
at that time In close union wiili tlie I'opc, and soli-
ctOMR toatt.'ich liiin inviolably to his interest. Dur-
ing their long residence at Bologna, they held many
consultations concerning the most eli'ectual means of
extirpating the heresies which had sprung up in Ger-
many. Clement, whose cautious and timid mind the
pi-oposal of a general council tilled with horror, e\eii
beyond what Popes, the constant enemies of such
assemblies, usually feel, einjiloyed every argument
to dissuade the emperor from coiisenliiig to that
measure. He represented general councils as fac-
tious, ungovernable, presumptuous, formidable to
civil authority, and too slow in their operations to
remedy disorders which required an immediate cure.
Experience, he said, had now taught both the em-
peror and himself, that forbearance and lenity, in-
stead of soothing the sjiirit of innovation, had ren-
dered it more enterprising and presumptuous ; it
■was necessary, therefore, to have recourse to the
rigorous methods which such a desperate case re-
quired ; Leo's sentence of excommunication, toge-
ther with the decree of the Diet at Worms, was to
be carried into execution, and it was incumbent on
the emperor to employ his whole power, hi order to
overawe those on whom the reverence due either to
ecclesiastical or civil authority had no longer any
influence. Charles, whose views were very differ-
ent from the Pope's, and who became daily more
.sensible how obstinate and deep-rooted the evil was,
thought of reconciling the Protestants by means less
violent, and considered the convocation of a council
as no improper expedient for that purpose ; but pro-
mised, if gentler arts failed of success, that then he
would exert himself with rigour lo reduce to the obe-
dience of the Holy .See those stubborn enemies of
the Catholic faith."
The emperor caused himself to tie crowned by
the Pope in 1520, and summoned a Diet to be held
the following year at Augsburg. The Reformation
had already obtained many snjiportcrs, and various
petty princes of the German slates had declared
themselves its decidi'd partizans. It luid found its
way also into Denmark and Sweden. In Switzer-
land (see Hklvictic Rf.formicd Cuuncrii':?), under
the guidance of Zwingli, it li.ad, before this time,
made very extensive progress. The Swi.ss and Ger-
man Reformers, liowe\er, ditiered widely from each
other on the subject of the presence of Christ in the
Lord's Supper. Several attempts were made, but in
vain, by private individn.als, to reconcile the two
parlies, but the landgrave, Philip of licsse, inliuenced
by political motives, proposed a religious conference
to be held at Marburg between Luther and Zwingli.
The discussion, accordingly, took place, and while
both parties, as is usual in such cases, claimed the
victory, articles were drawn up and published, in
which the Swiss conformed generally to the Lutheran
views, excepthig on the subject of the sacrament.
The man who, more than any other, had inliuenced
the mind of Zwingli, was Eiasinns, who had done
enough in the cause of the Reformation to irritate
and ollcnd the partisans of Rome, but was too timid
-
LUTHER (Martin).
349
to appreciate the warm and impassioiieii zeal of Lu-
tlier. These two men, each disthiguislied in liis own
sjjhere, were, nevertheless, widely different from each
other. D'Auhign^ justly says, " Erasmus and Lu-
ther are tlie representatives of two great ideas rela-
tive to a Reformation, — of two great parties in their
age and in all ages. The one class are men of a
timid prudence; the other those of active courage
and resolution. These two great bodies of men ex-
isted at this period, and they were personitied in
tliese two illustrious heads. The former tliouglit that
the cultivation of theological science would lead gra-
dually and without violence to the Reformation of
the Chtu-ch. The more active class thought that
the spread of more correct ideas among tlie learned
would not put an end to the gross superstitions of
the people, and that to reform such or such an abuse
was of little importance, so long as the life of the
Church was not thoroughly renovated." The same
eloquent writer well depicts the character of Eras-
mus : '• Erasmus was deficient in courage. But
courage is as necessary to eflect a reformation as to
capture a city. There was much timidity in his
cliaracter. From his youth he trembled at the men-
tion of death. He took the most extraordinary care
of his health. He would avoid, at any sacritice, a
place where contagion prevailed. His relish for tlie
comforts of life siu'passed even his vanity, and this
was his reason for declinini,' more than one brilliant
offer. Thus it was that he did not pretend to the part
of a Reformer. ' If the corrupted morals of the court
of Rome ref|uire a great and speedy remedv,' said
he, ' it is not for me, or such as me, to eli'ect it.' He
had none of that strength of faith whicli animated
Luther. Whilst the latter was ever ready to lay
down his life for the truth, Erasmus, with great in-
genuousness, could say, ' Let others affect martyrdom ;
for m_v part, I think myself unworthy of that hon-
our. I fear, if a tumult arose, I should be like Peter
in his fall.'
" Erasmus, by his writings and his discourses, had,
more than any other person, hastened the Refonna-
tion ; and yet he trembled when he saw the tempest
he had raised approaching. He would have given
every thing to restore the former calm, even with
its heavy vapours. But it was too late, — tlie dam
was broken down. If was no longer possible to stay
the violence of the torrent tliat was at once to cleanse
and fertilise the world. Erasmus was piowerful, so
long as he was an instrument in God's hands. When
he ceased to be that, he was nothing." No wonder
that Luther wrote concerning liim : '■ I fear he fol-
lows Christ with a divided heart, and is ignorant of
the grace of God. Carnal feelings are stronger in
him than spiritual influences. Thougli reluctant to
judge him, I still feel it my duty to warn you, not to
read and receive all without due discrimination. For
these are dangerous times ; and I clearly see that a
man is not necessarily a good Christian, because he
is a good Greek or Hebrew scholar. But I anxiously
keep this opinion secret, lest I shoidd encourage his
enemies. The Lord may, peradventure, reveal him-
self to him in his own time." Erasmus continued
to halt between two opinions, to the great annoy-
ance of Luther, and at length showed himself the
enemy of the Reformation, although at an earlier
period of his life he had powerfully contributed to
its triumph.
Luther liad quitted the monastery, and laid aside
the monk's cowl towards the end of the year 1524,
and in June of the following year, he married Ca-
therine de Bora, one of the nuns, to whom we have
already referred, as having with his assistance escaped
from tlie convent of Nimptschen. As a husband
and a father Luther was most exemplary, and in his
domestic relations he was blessed with much liappi-
ness.
The far-famed Diet of Augsburg was held in 1530,
and although it was not deemed safe or expedient
that the Reformer should be present in person, his
protector, the elector of Saxony, having been spe-
cially urged by the emperor to attend, proceeded
thither with a numerous retinue. The emperor en-
tered the city on the evening of the 15fh June, be-
ing the day [ireeeding the festivjd of Corpus Clirisii
The Protestants received an imperial command to
join the religious procession on the following day,
but they firmly rel'used to conqily. The Diet was
opened on the 20th with the saying of mass, in
which the evangelical princes would take no share.
At the commencement of the business, four electors
and forty princes were present. The Romish partv
declined making any declaration of their faith, and
avowed their intention to abide by the edict of
Worms. The Protestants were ordered by the em-
peror to produce the articles of their creed against a
certain day. These had been drawn up by Melanc-
thon, and submitted to the examiuaticm of Luther,
who had declared his unqualified approbation of
them as a faithful exhibition of Protestant doctrine.
On the appointed day this Confession of Faith was
read, and produced a very favourable impression, and
after some discussion, it was agreed to submit the
Confession, in the first instance, to the examination
of the Romish divines, and to await their answer.
In tlie course of a few days they handed in a refuta-
tion of the Protestant Confession, but it was couched
in language so bitter and reproachful, that the em-
peror refused to accept it, and ordered it to be drawn
up anew. The second document penned by the
Romish divines was produced and read in le.ss than
a month after the rejection of tlie first ; and the em-
peror expressed himself so pleased with this revised
refutation, that he insisted that the elector and his
adherents should immediately and unceremoniously
adopt and abide by it. This request, liowever,
though accompanied with threats, had no efi'ect in
subduing the firmness of the Protestant party. Me-
lancthon immediately commenced a detailed refuta-
tion of the Reply which had been made to the Pro-
350
LUTHER (Martin).
teetaiit Confession, and tliis able Apology for the
AUGSBUKG CoXFi:ssiON (wliicli seo), is inserted
among tlic svnibolieal books of tlie Lutlieraii Cluircli.
Various attcnipls were made by the emperor to
bring about an adjustment of the ditVereiices bottteen
the two parties, but these attenii)ts were wholly un-
successful, and the Protestants demanded a general
council. The Diet had sat for six months, and the
emperor was impatient to bring its proceedings to a
close. He inveighed against, and even threatened
the elector of Saxony, but tlie good man was inflexi-
ble, and left Augsburg indignant at the conduct of
his imperial majesty. The Diet still continued its
sittings, after several of the Protestant members had
left, and at length, ou the 19tli of November, published
a resolution, which in plain terms condemned the
doctrines and regulations of the Protestants ; com-
manded whatever had been altered to be restored to
its former state ; and further determined that the
emperor and the estates should risk their lives and
influence in protection of tlie ancient constitution of
the church, and summon the refractoiy before the
supreme court of judicature. At the same time a
promise was given that a council should be sum-
moned within six months. Throughout the impor-
tant proceedings of the Diet of Augsburg, Luther
was residing at Cobourg, watcliing the course of
events, and carrying on an active correspondence
with the elector of Saxony, Melancthon, and others,
who were present at the Diet as guardians uf tlie
Protestant interest. In his letters to Melancthon,
he evinces the warmest regard for the man, but de-
clares his decided disapproval of the attempts at
compromise with the Romanists, perceiving, as he
did. that the opposition both in principle and spirit
between the two parties was too great toex|ioct any-
thing like a solid reconciliation. We learn from
Ptizer th.at " Luther had drawn np during the Diet,
a regular statement respecting the disiiuted points ;
marking out how far concession could, or ought to
be carried : declaring first, that if the opposite party
persisted, as hitherto, in refusing all compliance,
there was no possibility of treating with them at all ;
but, as the emperor had desired to know in how far
the Protestants could concede, he would go through
the individual points : — First, as regarded their doc-
trine, which their opponents had in no ways been
able to invalidate, they couhl yield nothing; but
were ready to alVord exphanation of individual ex-
pressions respecting faith as the sole ground of jus-
tification, and respecting satisfaction, and merit. In
the Article respecting abuses, the sentiment that the
withliolding the cup from the laity might be regarded
as indilTerent, could not be agreed to ; neither could
they at all consent, that marriage should be prnlii-
bited to any order of society : and eipially inadmis-
sible was the re-establishment of iirivate masses,
and the canon law. With regard to the monaste-
ries, it might be conceded, that the present inmates
should coiitiuiie to enjoy the benelit they alibrd,
but without adhering to the celebration of the mass,
or other rules of their order ; and alluding to the
jurisdiction of the bishops, he declared thus: 'As-
suredly, if they will sutler our doctrine, and cease to
persecute it, we will in no %vays interfere with their
jurisdiction or dignity, or what you may please to
term it ; for we, a.ssuredly, do not desire to be either
bishops or cardinals, but only good Cluistiuns, who
are, and should be poor.'"
Though absent from the Augsburg Diet, Luther,
by his letters to the chief members, was the con-
trolling spirit of the Protestant party in that ce-
lebrated assembly. With the half measures of
Melancthon he was much dissatisfied, and only
on one point did he agree with his concessions —
the continuation of the papal power as a human
establishment. On this point alone did the stern
German Reformer appear ready to enter into a com-
promise. In all other matters tlie beneficial in-
fluence of his masculine mind was seen in the deter-
mined perseverance which the elector and the other
Protestants manifested pending the negotiation, as
well as in afterwards opposing the demands and
threats of the emperor.
A political arrangement wiis about this time entered
into by Charles V. which it was feared would prove
seriously detrimental to the interests of Protestant-
ism. This was the nomination of his brother Ferdi-
nand to be chosen as his successor; and that prince,
who had been previously invested with tlie govern-
ment of the German hereditary states and ducliv of
Wirtemberg, being well known to be decidedly hos-
tile to the new opinions, his proposed exaltation to
the imperial throne was viewed by the Protestant
princes and people with the utmost anxiety and
alarm. Steps were immediately taken to effect a
closer union among themselves, and for this purpose
a treaty of defensive .alliance was entered into at
Smalcald on the 29th March 1531, the provisions of
the treaty lia\'ing been drawn up by Luther. (See
Articles of Smalcald.) When the treaty was
subscribed by the Protestants, Mehancthon still
maintained his former sentiments, which were now
renounced by Luther, as to the lawfulness of a Pope,
provided he rested his claims solely on expediency
and the consent of the church. An article embody-
ing the opinions of Melancthon ou this point was
appended to the Articles.
The league of Sm.alcald, though at first limited to
Protestant electors, princes, and states, was al'ter-
wivrds extended so as to include those who, what-
ever might be their religious sentin,ents, were op-
posed to the Emperor, and protested against the
election of Ferdinand. In this view it was joined
by the dukes of Bavaria, and also by the kings of
Friince and England. I5y this accession to their
political strength, the Protestants were enabled to
occupy a high vantage ground in their negotiations
with the Emperor for peace. These negotiations led
at length to the treaty of Nuremberg, which was
LUTHER (Martin).
351
finally ratified at the Diet of Ratisboii in 1532. The
conditions were, that none should conniience hostili-
ties on account of their belief, or any otiier cause ;
but in case of violence being ofl'ered, they should
render mutual assistance, and all should conduct
themselves witli true Christian love till the next
council should meet. A difiiculty, however, aro.se
as to the interpretation of the conditions, wliether
thev applied to all who should hereafter subscribe
the Augsburg Confession, or must lie limited to such
as now professed its tenets. The Protestant depu-
ties at first insi.sted on the extended interpretation ;
but the Elector, persuaded by Luther, insisted on
the limited view of the treaty, while, contrary to the
advice of Luther, he persevered in his opposition to
the election of Ferdinand.
None of the deputies at first approved of the con-
ditions of peace, and more especially the Landgi'ave
of Hesse insisted on those being included who might
subsequently express a wish to join their league.
He wrote a letter to the Elector censuring him in
strong language for separating from the rest of tlie
Protestant partv. In tlie meantime the good Elec-
tor died, and bis successor John Frederic, surnamed
the Generous, replied to the letter of the Landgrave
with considerable rudeness, and proposed to settle
their disputes by arbitration. The arbiters advised
a mutual reconciliation, and as all the oilier Protes-
tants were of the same opinion, the T.,andgrave had
no other alternative but to accept the terms of peace.
Pope Clement VH. died in 1534, but his succes-
sor Paul III. continued tlie negotiations about the
long-expected council. With this view he dispatched
his own ambassador, Paul Vergerius, to liold an in-
terview with Luther. The interview took place, and
a council was proposed to be held under the autho-
rity of the Pope at Mantua. The Elector, however,
and the Smakald confederates refused to assent to
the proposed council, and resolved to raise a formi-
dable army. But the Pope snumioned the council
to meet at Mantua m May 1537 ; and one object of
its being assembled was stated to be, the entire root-
ing up of the poisonous and pestilential Lutlieran
heresy. After such a declaration, the Protestants
could expect no justice in such a council, and they,
therefore, refu.sed to countenance or attend it. Dur-
ing this time, Luther drew up the .\rticles of Snial-
cald, which were afterwards received among the
symbolical writings of the Lutherans. Tlie Protes-
tant confederacy was eveiy day receiving fresh
accessions to its members, and the Romanists in
1538 formed a defensive league, called the holy
league for the preservation of the holy religion.
This movement on the part of their opponents led
the Protestants to renew the league of Smalcald till
the year 1547.
The policy of the Emperor in regard to the Pro-
testants seemed to have now assumed a peaceful
tendency, and with the view of bringing about, if
possible, a common understanding on religious mat-
ters, he proposed a conference to be held at Spires in
June 1540. It took place however at Hagenau, Spires
being at that time visited with the plague ; but
neither the chiefs of the Protestant confederacy, noi
the master spirits of tlie Reformation were present,
Melancthon being ill, and Luther having no inclina-
tion to enter into negotiations of peace with Rome.
The meeting was fruitless, and the discu.ssion was
adjourned for some months. It was renewed in
January 1541, but after a controversy for four days
on Original Sin, an order arrived from tlie Emperor
to terminate the proceedings, and defer any further
steps til! the Diet of Ratisbon, which was near at
hand. At this Diet rapid approaches were made
towards a settlement, and in thirteen days four Arti-
cles had been agreed upon, but at this stage the con-
ference was abandoned.
A deputation, with the knowledge and concurrence
of the Emperor, now waited upon Luther, and urged
upon him the necessity of his being satisfied with
tlie adoption of the doctrine of justification by faith
on the part of the Diet of Ratisbon, at the same time
assm'ing him of their earnest hope that the other
abuses would of themselves disappear when this
fundamental article was once established. To this
representation, Luther replied, that while he was
gratified to learn that the four articles had been
finally settled, he firmly believed that unless the
Emperor could bring their ojiponents to a serious and
honest arrangement on all the other points inclu 'ed
in the Augsburg Confession, tlie whole attempt at a
reconciliation between the Protestants and Roman-
ists would be in vain. This determination to adhere
strictly to the Confession, was declared by the
Elector of Saxony to the other princes of the Diet,
and he declined at the same time to .sanction the
Four Articles. Thus the whole fruit of the negotia-
tions was destroyed.
At the next Diet at Spires in 1542, the Pro-
testants took a more decided position. The Elec-
tor of Saxony charged his ambassador to enter
into no negotiations for a settlement in religion, and
to consent to no council summoned by the Pope, nor
show him any mark of honour. Trent was proposed
as the place of meeting, and meanwhile peace was
guaranteed for five years. The Romish party ac-
cepted the proposal of the Pope to hold a council at
Trent, but the Protestants handed in a written pro-
test against it. The Emperor held a new Diet at
Ratisbon in regard to the afVairs of the church, but
after an angry discussion it was broken ofi' without
any result. The council met at Trent in 1545, with-
out the slightest countenance from the Protestants,
and drew up a lengthened series of canons and de-
crees, which, along with the ei'eed of Pope Pins IV.
founded on them, forms a very imiiortant part of the
symbolical books of the Church of Rome.
The days of the Great Reformer were now near b
close. On the 23d January 1546, he left Witten-
berg for Eisleben, to use his influence in procuring
352
LUTHERAN CHURCHES.
ail ainiciible .irrangemeiit between the dukes of Maus-
feld, who had quarrelled about some property. He
had only been about three weeks in this place, where
he had been born and baptized, wlien, after a very
brief illness, he was sunnnuned to his eternal reward
on the 18ih Eebniary 154G. At tlie special request
of the Elector of Saxony, the body of Luther was
removed to Wittenberg, and buried in the castle
ch.ipel ; and the Elector took under his care the
widow and I'amily.
Thus terminated the useful career of one of the
greatest and noblest heroes this world has ever seen,
one who manfully defended the rights of conscience,
asserted the graiul principles of civil and religious
liberty, contended earnestly for the faith once deli-
vered to the saints, and one of whom it may well be
said, many generations have arisen, and are yet
destined to arise, who shall call liim blessed.
LUTHERAN' CHURCHES. After the death
of Lutlier, a religious war broke out in Germany.
The Emperor Charles V. saw that all bis attempts
to produce a reconciliation of the Protestants and
Romanists were utterly fruitless, and that the asso-
ciates of the Smalcald League persevered in refusing
to acknowledge the council of Trent ; he resolved,
therefore, as a last resource, to have recourse to
arms. In a short time he was so successful that he
issued an imperial edict, which is generally known by
the name of the Aug.sburg Interim, granting ceriain
seeming concessions to the Protestants until a coun-
cil should be called for a settlement of the contro-
versy. This edict led to the preparation of an
Interim, wliich thougli it proved satisfactory to nei-
ther party, was drawn up chielly by Philip Melanc-
thon, who succeeded Luther as the head and leader
of the Lutheran party. It was designed to point
out tlie Adkiphora or things iudiilerent, which might
be admitted to please the Emperor, and at his com-
mand. As soon as this document was promulgated,
Maurice, Elector of Saxon}', appointed a conference
of the divines of Wittenberg and Leipsic in the lat-
ter city, with Melancthon at their head, in order to
ascertain how far in their opinion tlie Interim ought
to bo enforced. After long deliberation, they came
to the conclusion, that in things indilVerent obedience
ought to be rendered to the imperial edict. This
ambiguous conclusion was arrived at chielly through
the influence of Mcl.-iucthon. Hence arose the
Adiapliorisllc coiitrorcrsy, which raged in Germany
for many years ; and which gave rise to other and
perhaps more ini])ortant controversies. Among the
chief of these was a contest, which lasted for some
time, respecting the necessity of good works to sal-
vation. Major, a divine of Wittenberg, adopting
the views of Melancthon, maintained the allirniative,
while Nicholas Amsdorf, defending tlie old Lutheran
theology, maintained the negative. The discussion
was carried on until 1579, when it was terminated
by the publication of the Book of Torgau or Form of
Concord.
Another controversy which arose out of the dif-
ferences in opinion between Melancthon and Luther,
is commonly known by the name of the Syneryislic
controversy, which discusses the question whether or
not man co-operates with God in the work of con-
version. The leading parties in this dispute were
Victorin Strigel on the one side, and Matthias Fla-
cius on the other. The latter, who was appointed
Professor of Tlieology at Jena in 1557, was a stern
and uncompromising defender of the opinions of
Luther, more especially on those pouits in which he
was oppo.--ed to Melancthon and liis t'ollowers, the
Philippists, as they were cjilled. But in the excess
of his zeal, Flacius argued so intemperalely against
Strigel in the Synergistic controversy, that he
broached the strange opinion bordering on Maiii-
cheism, that original sin is of tlie very substance of
a man. This notion was keenly opposed by the
great majority of the divines of the Lutheran church,
while it was espoused and ably defended by a few.
Another class of controversies which agitated the
Lutlieran church, soon after the death of its illus-
trious founder, rose out of the heretical views pro-
pagated by Andrew Osiander. This man held the
singular notion that tlie second Person of the Trinity
was that image of God after which man was fashion-
ed; that the Son of God woidd have become incar-
nate even altliough man had not sinned ; and that
repentance consisted in abhorrence of sui and forsak-
ing it, without faith in tlie gospel. He confounded
jiistilication and sanctilication, alleging the former to
be not a forensic act on tlie part uf God, acquitting
the believer from a charge of sin and liability lo
punishment, but a gracious Divine operation in the
soul, wliich conferred personal holiness. Justifica-
tion in the eye of law, tlirough the imputed righ-
teousness of Christ, he denominated redemption, and
this he supposed always preceded wdiat he called jus-
tification. The mode of justification was in his view
by the indwelling of Christ in the soul, producing
there a moral change. These confused seiitiniciils
held by Osiander were strenuously opposed by Me-
lancthon ami tlie principal divines of the Lutheran
church ; and after his death, which happened in
1552, the controversy came to an cud.
One of the keenest opponents of Osiander was
Francis Stancar, professor of Hebrew at Konigsberg,
who, in arguing against the doctrines held by his
collcagne, fell into equally flagrant errors of an op-
posite kind. He maintained that the divine nature
of Christ took no part in the work of man's redemp-
tion, and that it was his human nature alone which
made the atonement. So violently were the opinions
of Stancar controverted by the Lutheran theologians,
that he deemed it prudent to leave Germany and re-
tire to Poland, where he died in 1574.
It was chiefly during the hfe of Melancthon that
these diiVerent disputes agitated the liUtheran church.
On the di'atli, however, of this timid and somewhat
undecided Reformer, a prospect was opened up of
LUTHERAN CHURCHES.
353
ail end being piit to these unseemly contests. A
conference was held accordingly at Altenburg in
1568, bnt unliappily it was attended witli no good
results. Another mode was now adopted, and with
better success, for healing the divisions of the Lu-
theran church, namely, the preparation of a book in
which all the various controversit'S which hail arisen
since the death of Luther shoidd be fully and satis-
factorily handled. Tliis task was comniitied to
Andreas, a Professor at Tubintjen, who produced in
1579 the Book of Torgau or Form of Concord. (See
Concord, Form of.) Tln-ougli the influence of the
Elector of Saxony, this new Confession was adopted
by tlie churches in all parts of his territories, and
the examiile was followed gradually in otlier districts
of Germany. Several Lutlieran churches, however,
refused to acknowledge this document, and Frederic
n. of Denmark, on receiving a copy of it, flung it
unceremoniously into the fire. Never did a for-
mula, which was designed to heal dissensions, tend
more eftectually to foment them ; and accordingly,
It has never been universally adopted by the Lu-
theran churches, though some regard it as one of the
standards of their faith. This Formida put an end
to all prospect of union between the Lutheran and
Reformed churches, who only differed from each
other at that time on the presence of Christ in the
Lord's Supper, and on the Person of Christ. In re-
gard to the first point, the Lutheran church main-
tained tirmly the opinions of Luther, who rejected
the Romish dogma of Transubstantiation, but lield
the almost equally unintelligible dogma of Consub-
stantiation. The doctrine relating to the Person of
Christ, however, was not viewed in tlie same way by
all the Lutheran divines. Luther never maintained
that the man Christ Jesus was always and every-
where present, but merely that he could be present
whenever the execution of his mediatorial ofiice and
the fuUihnent of his promise required, and of course
at the celebration of the Lord's Supper. In this
view he was followed by the divines of Upper and
Lower Saxony. But the theologians of Swabia and
Alsace maintained the absolute omnipresence of
Christ's human nature ; and this view of the subject
was embodied in the Form of Concord, though not
to the entire exclusion of that held by Luther. Thus
the points of controversy between the Lutlieran and
Reformed churches were increased, and their hostil-
ity to each other was rendered more bitter by the
publication of the very document whicli professed to
promote their union.
The prosperity of the Lutheran church in Ger-
many was not a little afl'ected by the secession, first
of Maurice, landgrave of Hesse, and then, of John
Sigismund, elector of Brandenburg, both of whom
went over to the Reformed communion. The con-
tentions of the two churches excited an earnest de-
sire in the minds of many excellent men on both
sides, to look about for some means of bringing about
a union. The first public attempt to accomplish
this most desirable object was that of James I.,
king of England, who for tliis purpose made use of
Peter du jVIoulin, a distinguished divuie of the
French Reformed Church. The next was the decree
of the synod of Charenton A. D. 1631. In the same
year certain Saxon theologians held a conference at
Leipsic with certain Hessian and Brandenburg di-
vines. The discussion uicluded all the articles of
tlie Augsburg Confession, to which the Reformed
were ready to subscribe, and they even drew up a
formula of union, but such was the feeling of jea-
lousy which arose in the minds of both parties, that
the disputants separated without accomplishing any-
thing. And another conference having tlie same ob-
ject in view, was held at Thorn in 1645, imder the
auspices of Uladislaus IV., king of Poland, which was
likewise unsuccessful, more especially as it sought to
comprehend in the proposed union, not only the
Lutheran and Reformed churches, but the Romish
church also. With more success a conference was
held at Cassel in 1661, but though a friendly spirit
was manifested by the disputants themselves, it
failed to extend itself to the two rival I'rotestant
churches. Various individuals on both sides made
strenuous and persevering eflbrts to bring about a
reconciliation, but in vain. The polemical spirit,
and dogmatic exelusiveness of the seventeenth cen-
tury, defeated all attempts to realize the unity of
evangelical Protestantism. In the eighteenth cen
fury, particidarly the latter part of it, the coiitioversy
between the Lutherans and the Reformed was com-
pletely lost sight of in the flood of indifierenti^m
and infidelity which oven-an the whole Continent of
Europe. The eflbrts which have been made to
wards a union during the first half of the nineteenth
century have been already noticed in the article
GEKM.A.N United Evangelical Ciiuncii.
Lutheranism is the prevailing form of the Pro-
testant faith in Saxony, Prussia, Wirtemberg, Han-
over, and great part of Northern Genuany, as well
as in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. There are
also Lutheran churches in Holland, Russia, Po-
land, Hungary, and the United States of America,
but of all the Protestant universities in Germany
and Switzerland, very few are Lutlieran. The sym-
bolical books of the Lutheran church are the Augs-
burg Confession, with Melancthon's Apology, the
articles of Smalcald and the Larger and Smaller
Catechisms. These standards, however, are regard-
ed as strictly subordinate to the Holy Scriptures,
which are declared by Lulheraiis to be the only rule
of faitli and practice. The only point of importance
in which they difier from the Reformed is the real
presence of Christ in the eucharist.
The constitution of the Lutheran church is sim-
ple, and approaches very nearly to Preshyteriuimm,
there being no hierarchy, and bishops not being re-
cognized, except in Denmark and Sweden, as an or-
der in the church. The archbishop of Upsal, who
Is primate of Sweden, is the only Lutheran arch-
354
LUTHERANS (Old).
bishop. Lutlieraiis acknowledge the head of the
state as tlie .suijreiiie visible niler of the church.
The supreme direction of ecclesiastical all'airs is vest-
ed ill councils or boards generally appointed by the
sovereign, and termed consistories, consisting of both
' clergymen and laymen. The Lutheran established
I churches are usually interwoven with the state, and
entirely dependent on it, and are almost destitute of
discipline, while in some places, as in Sweden, they
altogether exclude dissent. "The congregations,"
says Dr. Schatf, " remained almost as passive as in
the Roman church. Tliey have in Europe not even
the right of electing their pastor. They are exclu-
sively ruled by their minister.s, as these are ruled by
their provincial cojisistories, always presided over by
a layman, the provincial consistories by a central
consistory, or oherklrchenrath, and this again by the
minister of worship and public instruction, who is
the immediate executive organ of the ecclesiastical
supremacy of the crown."
Various liturgies are in use among the Lutheran
churches, each state generally having one of its own.
Festivals or saints' days are seldom much attended
to. The festivals which commemorate the nativity,
death, resurrection, and ascension of our Lord, and
the day of Pentecost, are deemed sacred in the Lu-
theran churches. In regard to rites and ceremo-
nies, the Lutherans, in opposition to the Reformed,
hold the lawfulness, if not the usefulness, of images
in churches, tlie distinguishing vestments of the
clergy, the private confession of sins, the use of
wafers in the administration of the Lord's Supper,
the form of exorcism in the celebration of baptism,
and other ceremonies of the same kind. They have
removed, however, the sacrifice of the mass, and the
idolatrous invocation of saints, while they have po-
pularized the services of public worship, by cele-
brating them in the vernacular language, and giving
to the sermon a central and conspicuous place.
The modern Lutherans have widely departed in
theological doctrine from their great founder ; aiui in-
stead of insisting, as he did, on justification by faith
alone, as the grand article of a standing or a falling
church, they have degenerated, in too many cases, in-
to a cold .\nniiiianism. It was not long, indeed, after
the death of Luther, before his simple theology gave
place to a system of obscure metaphysical theories.
Among these may be mentioned the doctrines of the
SvNCKKTisTs or Cai>i.\tins (which see). In oppo-
sition to these mystical philosophical divines arose
the school of the Pietists, headed by Spener, which,
amid much extravagance it may be, were, neverthe-
less, instrumental in reviving vital religion in Ger-
many towards the end of the seventeenth and lie-
pinning of the eighteenth centuries. The Lutherans
have since that time had to struggle with inlidelity,
ration;ilism, and utter indifference to all religion.
The present state of practical piety among the Ger-
man Lutherans is thus noticed by Dr. Scliaff : '• ]jU-
theran piety has its peculiar charm, the chariii of
Mary, who ' sat at Jesus' feet and heard his word.' If
it is deKcient in outward activity and practical zeal,
and may leam much in this respect from the Re-
formed communion, it makes up for it by a rich in-
ward life. It excels in honesty, kindness, afi'ection,
cheerfulness, and that Gemiithliclikeit, for which other
nations liave not even a name. The Lutheran
church meditated over the deepest mysteries of divine
grace, and brought to light many treasures of know-
ledge from the mines of revelation. She can point
to an unbroken succession of learned divines, who
devoted their whole life to the investigation of sav-
ing truth. She numbers her mystics who bathed in
the ocean of infinite love. She lias sung the most
fervent hymns to the Saviour, and holds sweet, child-
like intercourse with the heavenly Father."
Lutheranism prevails in great strength in Sweden
and Denmark. In the latter country almost the
whole population, amounting to 2,000,000, with the
exception of less than 20,000 Dissenters, is Luther-
an. The people of Sweden, numbering more than
3,000,000, are, with a few exceptions, also Lutheran.
In France there are about 250 Lutheran congrega-
tions. In the Protestant states of Germany, Luther-
anism prevails, though, through the exertions of the
liresent king of Prussia, a union has been effected
between the Lutheran and Reformed churches, un-
der the name of the United Evangelical Cliurch.
LUTHERANS (Old), a sect of Dissenters from
the Evangelical Church of Prussia, which took its
rise in opposition to the union of the Lutheran and
Reformed churches in 1817. They adhere to all
the tenets of the Lutheran symbolical books with
the most scrupulous tenacity, and they look upon
the Reformed churches as essentially heretical and
rationalistic, while they have a still more intense
hatred at the United Evangelical Church. The
members of this sect are found in greatest numbers
in Silesia, Saxony, and Poinerania. They were at
first fined, imprisoned, and persecuted in various
ways under Frederick William 111. Several of their
leading ministers emigrated with their people to the
United States. All persecution against these sece-
(lers ceased on the accession of the ijresent king of
Prussia; and by a decree of 2.3d July 1845. they
were formally recognized as a dissenting sect, with
full liberty of worship. Their number amounts to
from 20,000 to 30,000 souls. Their largest congre-
gations are in Breslau and in Berlin. The Old IjU-
therans in America, like those in Germany, hold
s.rictly by the whole Lutheran symbolical books
but more especially the Form of Concord, to which
they attach peculiar value. They are divided into
two iiarties, the synod of Missouri and the synod of
Ruiialo, which are bitterly opjiosed to each other in
their views of the clerical office ; the one holding the
common Protestant view, which makes the clerical
office only the organ of the general priesthood; tiie
other holding the Riimanising doctrine of a separate
clerical office, resting on ordination, and specifically
LY^US— MACCABEES (Feast of).
355
diiVerent from the general priestliood of the bap-
tized. The Pennsylvania synod of the Old Liitlier-
ans stands by the Augsburg Confessioii, and the
smaller Catecliism of Luther. Within tlie territory
of the Pennsylvania synod there are an East Penn-
.sylvania and a West Pennsylvania synod divided on
the subject of new measures. The Old Lutherans in
America have a liturgical altar-service, even witli
crucifixes and candles burning in the daytime. In
all such matters they cleave to historical tradi-
tion.
IA'yEUS, a surname of Baa-hii.'s, the god of wine.
This was also a surname of Zcuji.
IjYCEA, a festival among the Arcadians, cele-
lirated in honour of Zeiijs Lycmtn. It is said to ha\e
been instituted by Lycaon, the son of Pelasgus, who
sacrificed a child on the occasion, and sprinkled the
altar with its blood. It is not unlikely that human
sacrifices were oti'ered by the Arcadians to Zeus Ly-
cfBus down to a late period. Plularcli says, that the
Lvcaja were celebrated in somewhat the same man-
ner as the Roman Lupercalia.
LYCEGENES, a surname of Apollo, probably
from his being born in Lycia.
LYCEIA, a surname of Artemis.
LYCEIUS, a surname of Apollo, supposed to be
derived from Gr. lukos, a wolf, because his motlier
Latona came to Delos in the form of a she-wolf, and
was conducted by wolves to the river Xanthus.
LYCOATIS, a surname of Artemis, on accoimt of
her having been worsliipped at Lycoa in Arcadia.
LYCOREUS, a surname of Apollo, because he
was worshipped at Lycoreia, on Mount Parnassus.
LY6IUS, a surname of Dioiiysiix, under which he
was worshipped at Corinth, and also at Sicyon.
LYSIZON.-V, a surname under which the people
of Athens worshipped Artemis and Eikithyia.
LYTERIUS, a surname of Fan, under wliich he
was worshipped at Troezene, because he had re-
vealed the best mode of ciu-ing the plague.
M
M.\. a name applied to Rhm by the Lydians, who
sacriiiced bidls to her as the fruitful motlier of all.
MACARL\NS, the followers of two contempo-
rary monks of the fourth century, who exercised a
great influence on the monastic life of the period,
and were held in high veneration. The one was
called Macarius the Egyptian, and the other Maca-
rius of Alexandria. Botli dwelt in the Libyan de-
sert, and were remarkable for the extent of their as-
ceticism, in which, of course, they regarded Christian
perfection as consisting. The Egyptian, who is some-
times termed tlie Great or the Elder Macarius, lived to
a very advanced age, aiul he has been canonized both
by tlie Greek and Latin churches, the former hold-
ing his festival on tlie 19th, the latter on the 15th
January. The Alexandrian Macarius is .said to have
surpassed the other in austere practices. The Ma-
carians were remarkable for the rigidity and strict-
ness of their monastic habits.
JL\C.\RI.4NS, the followers of Macarius, who
was patriarch of Antioch in the seventh century, and
who held the opinions of tlie Moxothklites (which
see). He attended tlie sixth general council held at
Constantinople x. D. 680, where he boldly avowed
his peculiar opinions, asserting that Christ's will was
that of a God-man ; and persevering in the mainten-
ance of this heretical sentiment, he was deposed and
banislied. He published an Ecthesis, or Confession
nf Faith, adherence to which was maintained by his
followers as a test of orthodoxy.
MACCABEES. See As.monean.s.
MACCABEES (Feast of), a festival celebrated
annually in the ancient Christian church, in honour
of the seven Maccabees, who signalized themsehes
by their opposition to the tyrant Antiochus Epipha-
nes, and who died in defence of the Jewisli Law.
This feast is mentioned particularly in the fourth
century. Chrysostom has three homilies prepared
for the occasion, in which he speaks of the festival
of the Maccabees benig celebrated at Antioch.
Augustin says that the Christians had a church in
that city called by the name of the Maccabees, and
he himself has two sermons upon their festival, in
which he shows they were regarded as Christian
martyrs. Tliis feast appears to have been observed
in the African churches, for Augustin begins his
first homily with these words: "This day is made a
festival to us by the glory of the Maccabees."
Gregory Nazianzen has a sermon upon tlie same oc-
casion ; and others are found in the writings of dif-
ferent authors, from which it appears evident that
the festival in question was celebrated throughout
the whole church. Tlie reason of its observance is
given by Gregory Nazianzen, who alleges that the
Maccabees were really admiiable in their actions;
yea, more admirable in one respect than the martyrs
that came after Christ. " For," says he, " if they
sufi'ered martyrdom so bravely before Christ's com-
ing, what would they not have done had they lived
after him, and had the death of Christ for their ex-
366
MACEDONIANS— MADAGASCAR (Rki.ioion of).
ample." It is not certain on wlmt day the festival was
held, but tlie Ronuiii iiiaityiology places it on the
1st of August.
MAClCnONIANS. a hoiptical sect wliich arose in
the fourth ccntiu-y, (Icriviui;- its origin from Macedo-
iiius, partriarch of Ciiiistaiitiiu)ple. During the
Arian controversy, a vacancy in tlie patriarchate of
Coustaiitiiiople usually gave rise to bitter contention
between the Orthodox and the Ariau iiartie.s. It
was amid the tmnult of a disputed election that the
Ariaiis chose Macedoiiius to the office of patriarcli of
Constantinople, A. D. 342. He retained quiet pos-
session of this see till a. d. 348, when Coustans pre-
vailed upon Constantius to deprive him of his eccle-
siastical dignity. In the course of two years, how-
ever, he was restored to his office, and commenced a
vigorous persecution of his opponents, banishing or
torturing them, sometimes even to death. Accord-
ingly, when the orthodox obtained the ascendency,
these individuals wlio had been [lersecuted by the
Arians were looked upon as martyrs, and their me-
mory is still reverenced both by the Greek and Latin
churches
tlie Greeks on the 30th of March, and
by the Latins on the 25th of October. The harsh-
ness and severity with which Macedonius treated
the opposite party, brought him into no slight odium
with men of both parties, and this feeling of hostility
which his cruel conduct had awakened, was much
increased by an event which occurred about the
same time. He had removed the body of Constan-
tine the Great from the Church of the Apostles in
which it had been buried, and such was the supersti-
tion of the people, that a serious tumult arose, in
which many persons were killed. Constantius was
deeply oftended witli the conduct of Macedonius in
this matter. At the council of Beleueia A. D. 359, a
split took [ilace between the Acacian or pure Arian,
and the semi-Arian parties, and it was fully expected
that some accu.sations would have been publicly
lodged against Macedonius. No steps, however,
were taken against him on that occasion, but in the
course of the following year a council was licid at
Constantinople, he was deposed by the Acacians,
and froin tli;U time he uiiifed himself with the Senii-
Ariaiis.
The term Macedonians was at first used to denote
the Semi-Arians, who held that the Son was liomni-
ownOK, or of like substance with the Father. Their
opinions on this mysterious subject gradually under-
went a change, and at length many of the [larty ap-
proached nearer to the Nicene creed, in regard to the
nature and dignity of the Son, until, in A. D. 3G7,
several of their bishops drew up a confession in
which they admitted that the Son was Iwmoomios,
of the same substance with the Father. The opin-
ions, however, of the Macedonians on the Holy
Spirit were decidedly heteiodox. Tliey denied the
divinity of the Holy Spirit, on account of which they
received from the Greeks the title of Piii'iinialoiiiacln,
Contenders against the Holy Spirit. Tliis heresy
was formally condemned by the second general oi
first Constantinopolltan council, which met A. D. 381.
The heresy of the Macedonians assumed a variety of
difi'erent shades. Some affirmed that the Holy Spi-
rit was not a per.son in the Godhead, tliat he was not
what the Father and the Son are, and therefore no
divine honours were due to him. Some lield the
Holy Spirit to be a creature, and therefore did not
deny his ]iersoiuUity. Others denied his personality,
and regarded him as a mere attribute of God. In
condemning the Macedonian heresy, tlie council of
Constantinople found it necessary to make an addi-
tion to the article in the Nicene Creed, ndiich says,
"I believe in the Holy Ghost," expanding it thus,
" I believe in the Holy Ghost, the Lord, the Author
of life, who proceeds from the Father." The Nicene
Creed thus modified, which is commonly known by
the name of the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed,
was received by the Catholic churcli ; and the coun-
cil of Ephesus afterwards decreed tliat no addition
should be made to it.
Tlie members of the Macedonian sect were gener-
ally upright and honourable in their lives, and, by
the favour which they showed for the monastic life,
they acquired a higli distinction for piety. After
their separation from the Arians, they attempted to
ellect a union with the orthodox party, but this being
foiuid impracticable, they spread themsehcs through-
out various parts, especially in Thrace, along the
Hellespont, and in Phrygia. None of them were
found in the western provinces. At Constantinople
they had their own churclies and bishops. But
when their opinions were formally condemned by the
church, they were visited also with civil penalties.
In the statutes of the elder Thoodosius they are
mentioned by name, and in those of the younger
Theodosius their worship is only tolerated in the
]>rincipal cities. The persecution to whicli they
were thus exposed soon succeeded in exterminating
the sect.
MACHAZOR (Heb. a cycle), a collection of
prayers used among the Jews in their great solemni-
ties. The prayers are in verse, and very concise.
There are many cojiies of this Book printed in Italy,
Germany, and Poland.
MACMILLANITES. See Reformed PuESFiY-
TKRIAN Cin;KCH.
MACTATIO (Lat. macto, to kill), the act of kill-
ing the victim in Roman sacrifices. This in nio.st
cases was done not by the priests, but by an oflicer
called ^x)7)a, who struck the animiil with a hamnua-
before the knife was used. See S.\('1!1FICE.
MADAGASCAR i^Rhlkuon of). I\ladagasear,
one of the largest islands of the world, is situated in
the Indian Ocean, on the eastern coast of Africa,
froin which it is separated by the Mozambicpie
Channel. Comparatively little was known inilil
within the last twenty yi'ars about this island. 'J'lie
Malagasy, as the native inhabitants are called, si'cm
to consist of diii'erent tiibes under independent
MADAGASCAR (Religion op).
an-
chieftains; but both in language and in general man-
ners tliere is an obvious resemblance among those
tribes, wliich indicates that they are to a certain
extent related to one another. Circumcision, for
example, is universally prevalent in the island,
though the ceremonies attending it vary considerably
in dilferent localities. Divination is practised too
among all the tribes though under ditlerent forms.
The religion of this singular people consists in a
great nieastn-e of the use of charms or orbj, as they
call tliem, by wliicli they believe that the will of
some superior power is ascertahied. It is thus that
the art of the diviner is exercised on all occasions.
To begin with their treatment of children, on this
subject Mr. Ellis, in his ' History of Madagascar,'
relates the following curious facts, chiefly in regard
to the welcome of the little stranger : " After the
birth of an infant, the relatives and friends of tlie
mother visit her, and ort'er their congratulations.
The infant also receives salutations, in form resem-
bling the following: 'Saluted be the oUspring given
of God! — may the cliild live long! — may the cliild
be favoured so as to possess wealth!' Presents are
also made to the attendants in the household, and
sometimes a bullock is killed on the occasion, and
distributed among the members of the family. Pres-
ents ot poultry, fuel, money, &c., are at times also
sent by friends to the mother. A piece of meat is
usually cut into thin slices, and suspended at some
distance from the tloor, by a cord attached to the
ceiling or roof of the house. This is called tlie
Kitoza, and is intended for the mother. A tire is
kept in the room, day and night, frequently for a
week after the birtli of tlie child. At the expiration
of tliat period, the infant, arrayed in the best cloth-
ing that can be obtained, is carried out of the house
by some person whose parents are both still living,
and tlien taken back to the mother. In being car-
ried out and in, the child must bo twice carefully
lifted over the tire, which is placed near tlie door.
Should the infant be a boy, the axe, large knife, and
spear, generally used in the family, must be taken
out at the same time, with any implements of build-
ing that may be in the house : silver chains, of na-
tive manufacture, are also given as presents, or used
in these ceremonies, for which no particular reason
is assigned. The implements are perhaps used chietly
as emblems of the occupations in which it is expected
the infant will engage when it arrives at matiirer
years; and the whole may be regarded as expressing
the hopes cheri-shed of his activity, we.alth, and en-
joyments."
One of the first acts of the father, or a near rela-
tion, is to report the birth of the child to the native
astrologers, who pretend, by peculiar ceremonies, to
ascertain its destiny ; and should that be declared to
be favourable, the child is reared with the utmost
care and attention. When the child has readied its
second or third month, on a lucky day, a ceremony
takes place, whicli ^Mr. Ellis thus describes under the
name of ' Scrambling : ' " 'i'he friends and relatives of
the child assemble ; a portion of the fat taken from
the hump on the back of an ox is minced in a rice-
pan, cooked, and mixed up with a quantity of rice,
milk, honey, and a sort of grass called voampamoa;
a lock of the infant's liair is also cast into the above
mdlange; and the whole being thoroughly well mix-
ed in a rice-pan, which is held by tiie youngest frni:ile
of the family, a general ru.sli is made towards the
p.an, and a scramble for its contents takes phice,
especially by the women, as it is siqiposed that those
who are fortimate enough to obtain a portion may
confidently cherish the hope of becoming mothers.
Bananas, lemons, and sugar-cane are also scrambled
for, under the belief that a similar result may be an-
ticipated. The ceremony of scrambling, however,
only takes place with a ftrst-boni child. The head
of the mother is decorated, during the ceremonial,
with silver chains, while the father carries the hifant,
if a boy, and some ripe bananas, on his back. The
rice-pan used on the occasion becomes, in their esti-
mation, sacred by the service, and must not be taken
out of the house during three subsequent days,
otherwise the virtue of those observances is supposed
to be lost."
Should the destiny of the child be declared by
the slkidij, or astrologer, to be evil, the poor heliilcss
babe is doomed to destruction. The practice of in-
fanticide has been long prevalent in Madagascar;
and ahhough during the reign of Radania it was
abolished, since the death of that king the inliuni:m
custom has again revived.
The Malagasy believe in God, without however
attaching any definite, intelligible meaning to the
word. The terms by which they designate the Su-
preme Being are AiidHa~mmiilra and Zmwlianj, the
former being generally regarded as the male god,
and the latter the female. Whatever is gTcat, wdiat-
ever is new, useful, and extraordinary, is called
god. Silk is regarded as god in the highest de-
gree. Rice, money, thunder and lightning, their an-
cestors both when alive .and dead, all are dignilicd
with this exalted title. Some believe in a number
of spirits, each of whom is intrusted with the care
of a single individual, or an entire cl.ass of men.
Eqii.ally vague and indistinct are their views of the
soul of man and its future destiny. "They have no
knowledge," says Mr. Ellis, "of the doctrine of the
soul as a separate, immaterial, immortal principle in
man, nor has their language any word to express
such an idea. They speak of the saina, but mean
by this the intellectual powers. They speak also of
the fanahy, the nearest term found to express spirit ;
but it seems, in their use of it. to imply principally
the moral qualities or dispositions. In almost the
same breath, a Malagasy will express his belief
that wlien he dies he ceases altogether to exist,
dying like the brute, and being conscious no more,
and yet confess the fact, that he is in the habit
of praying to his ancestors ! If a.sked, were his
,•{58
MADAGASCAR (Rkugion of).
ancestors not human bein;is like himself, and did
they not cease alfo,:;ether to exist when they died —
how then can it be consistent to pray to them when
they liave no longer any being? he will answer, True,
bnt there is their matoatoa, their ghost; and this is
supposed to be hovering about the tomb when the
body is interred. And there is also the ambiroa, or
app.'irition, supposed to announce death, to visit a
person when about dying, and to intimate to him,
and sometimes to others, his approaching dissolu-
tion, an idea bv no means peculiar to Madagascar, as
it corresponds with the popular superstition of most
European countries, that the fimeral, or apparition
of a person still living, is permitted to be seen as a
supernatural intimation of his approaching death."
The religion of Madag.ascar, in its heathen condi-
tion, has always been essentially idolatrous. In the
nei'-ihbourhood of Tanaiiarivo, there are twelve or
fifteen idols which are held in great veneration by
the people. Four of these are looked upon as pub-
lic and national objects of worship ; the others be-
long to particular clans or tribes. .Mr. Ellis gives
the following account of one of the most noted idols
worshipped in the island, and renounced on the intro-
duction of Christianity : " .\mongst the idols thus
renounced, was one which had belonged to several
clans or families who resided about six miles from
the capital ; it was considered as the more imine-
diate property of the head-man, or chief of the dis-
trict, in whose family it had been kept for m.any
generations ; but most of the people in the neigh-
bourliood were its votaries and united in provid-
ing the bullocks and sheep that were .sacrificed to
it, or the money given to its keepers. '• The idol
is a most umneaning object, consisting of a num-
ber of small pieces of wood, ornaments of ivory,
of silver, and brass, and beads, fastened together
with silver wire, and decorated with a number of
silver rings. The central piece of wood is cir-
cular, about seven inches high, and three quarters
of an inch hi diameter. This central piece is sur-
rounded by six short pieces of wood, and six hol-
low silver ornaments, called crocodile's teeth, from
their reseinblance to the teeth of that animal. Three
pieces of wood are placed on one side of the central
piece of wood, and three on the side opposite, the
intervening space being tilled up by the three silver
and brazen ornaments. These ornaments .are hol-
low, and those of brass were occasionally anointed
with what was regarded as sacred oil, or other im~
guents, which were much used in the consecration of
charms and other emblems of native superstition.
The silver ornaments were det.ached from the idol,
filled with small pieces of consecr.atcd wood, .and
worn upon the persons of the keepers when going to
war, or passing through a fever district, as a means
of preservation. Besides the pieces of wood in the
crocodile's tooth, small pieces of a dark, close-grained
wood cut nearly square, or oblong, and about half
an inch long, were strung like heads on a cord, and
attached to the idol, or worn on the person of those
who carried the silver ornaments. The chief of tlu'
district, who had the custody of the idol, had two
sons, officers in the army. To one of these, with
another individual, he delegated the authority to sell
these small pieces of consecrated wood, which were
supposed to be pervaded with the power of the idol,
and to preserve its possessors from peril or death, in
seasons of war, or regions of pestilence. This was
a source of great emolument, for such was the re-
puted virtue or potency of the chann, that a couple
of bullocks, the same number of sheep, of goats,
fowls, and dollars, besides articles of smaller valne,
were frequently given for one or two of tlie small
pieces of wood attached to the idol."
Every household has its charm or fetish, corres-
ponding with the Temph'm of the Old Testament,
or the Lnris and Penates of the ancient heathens.
Every individual, indeed, has his ix/y or charm, and
sometimes one individual has many, and wears them
about his person. Crocodile's teeth are frequently
worn as charms. A few villages scattered up and
down throughout the island are esteemed by the
people Masimi, or sacred, because there an idol is
kept in some ordinary house, without any priesthood
or worshippers. The man in whose lioiise the idol
is kept issues its pretended orders, and answers all
questions which are put to it. It is acknowledged
as a principle among the Malagasy that the idols are
under the sovereign's special support. To the
sovereign the keepers apply for new velvet in which
to fold the idol, for bullocks to sacrifice to it, and
for whatever is required for it. Snakes or serpents,
which .aboimd in the island, are supposed to be the
special agents of the idols, and are, therefore, viewed
with superstitious fear by the people. The sick
apply to the idols for a cure, the healthy for charms
and the knowledge of future e ents. To sanctify
the idol, in order to prepare it for the prayers of the
worshippers, its keeper secretly takes it from the
case in which it is kept, and pours castor oil upon
it. The public idols are usually small images wrap-
I)ed in a red cloth, but most of the household gods
are literally blocks, without any pretensions to a
human shape. Instead of the people going to the
idol to worship it, the idol is brought to the people.
The idols ixre also carried about publ'-cly at occa-
sional, not fixed periods, in order to drive awa)' dis-
eases, to ]n-otect the people against storms and light-
nings, and to give virtue to springs and fountaiiiS.
They are also carried to the wars in order to inspire
the soldiers with courage.
There are many occasions on which the idols are
publicly eshibited, and on some of these the cere-
mony of sprinkling the people is followed, either to
iivert calamity, or to obtain some pid)lic blessing.
" On one of these occasions," Mr. Ellis informs us,
" the assembly consisted of at least six thousand
people. They were ordered to squat on the ground
in such a way .as to admit those bearing the idol to
MADHAVIS— MADHWACHARIS.
359
pass to and fro throHglioiit tlie assembly, and all
were especially commanded to sit witli tlieir shoul-
ders uncovered. The idol was then carried through
the multitude in dirt'erent directions, followed by a
man bearing a horn of honey and water. As they
proceeded, the man sprinkled the people on each
side of him bv shaking his wisp of straw towards
them, after it had been dipped in tlie liquor. A
blessing was at the same time pronounced by the
bearer of the idol, in words, which, given by a na-
tive wi-iter, may be thus translated : — ' Cheer up and
fear not, for it is I who am the defence of your lives,
and I will not let disease approach. Cheer up,
therefore, on account of your children and wives,
your property, and your own persons, for ye jws-
sess me.' "
The utmost importance in all the afl'airs of life is
attached l)y the Malagasy to the sikidy, or divina-
tion by means of beans, rice, straw, sand, or any
other object that can be easily counted or divided.
It is a process as regidar as a game of chess, and is
supposed to have been communicated snpeniatnrally
to their ancestors. The object for which the sikidy
is worked, is to ascertain what must be done in cases
of real or imaginary, present or apprehended evils.
The occult science of casting nativities prevails
among the Malagasy. Trial by ordeal is also exten-
sively in use, and is practised in varion.s ways, such
as passing a red-hot iron over the tongue, or plung-
ing the naked arm into a large earthen or iron pot
full of boiling water, and picking out a pebble thrown
in for the special purpose of the trial ; and, in either
case, to sustain no injury is viewed as a demonstra-
tion of innocence. But the practice which has ob-
tained most generally, i.s that of drinking the Tan-
gena, a powerful poison. It is calculated that up-
wards of .S,000 persons annually perish by this bar-
barous practice. Mamomvy or witchcraft is looked
upon as the cause of all crime, from the idea which
universally obtains in Madagascar, that no one could
perpetrate such deeds, unless he were really be-
witched. Ancestor worship is practised also among
the natives.
Missionary operations were commenced in this is-
land by the London Missionary Society in 1818, and,
during the first fifteen years of the mission, the
whole Bible was translated, corrected, and printed in
the native language. About one hundred schools
were established with 4.000 scholars ; and during
that period 10,000 to 15,000 had received the bene-
fit of instruction in these schools. Two printitig-
presses were established, and a Malagasy and Eng-
lish Dictionary was published in two volumes.
Two large congregations were formed at the ca-
pital, and nearly 200 persons applied for admis-
sion to the chm-eh. Christianity had evidently taken
root in the island, and a most bpnelicial change
was gi-adually taking place in the habits and cus-
toms of the people. The government, however,
looked UDon the labours of the missionaries with
jealousy and suspicion, and the queen, more espe-
cially, was strongly preposse.ssed in favour of the
idolatrous party. In a short time, accordingly, a
bitter persecution was conmienced against the Chris-
tians, and for seventeen years the most ojipressive
policy was pursued. Many hundreds were degraded
aial impoverished ; hundreds nuire doomed to sla-
very; not less than one hinidred have been put to
death, and a large number are still sutiering exile,
bonds, and degradation. Yet, in a most emphaiic
sense, it is true of Madagascar, that the blood of the
martyrs has proved the seed of the church. Not-
withstanding the persecuting measures of the queen
and the government, the numbers of the Christian con-
verts are annually on the increase, and among them
are included some of the most intelligent and respec-
table men in the community. The youn-' prince,
who is heir to the throne, and hi.s wife, are bolh
members of the Christian church, and devoted friends
of the persecuted flock, whom they assist with their
advice and their money on all occasions. The hos-
tility of the queen and her ministers continues una-
bated, but Christianity is secretly making extensive
progress in many parts of the island.
M.^DHAVIS, an order of Hindu mendicants,
founded by Madho, an ascetic. They travel np and
down the country soliciting alms, and playing on
stringed instruments. Their peculiar doctrines are
not known.
MADHWACHARIS, a division of the Vaishna^a
sect of the Hindus. It is altogether unknown in
Gangetic Hindustan ; but in the peninsula it is most
extensively to be found. Its founder was Madhwa-
charya, a Brahman, who was born A. D. 1199, in
Tuluva ; he is believed by his followers to have
been an incarnation of Vdyu or the god of air, who
took upon him the human form by desire of Nd-
7-dyana, and who had been previously incarnate.
He wrote a commentary on the Bhagawat Gi'ta,
and he erected and consecrated a tenqile at Udipi,
where he deposited an image of Kri.xhna. This
place has continued ever since to be the head-
quarters of the sect. After this he established
eight additional temples, in which he placed images
of dilTerent fonns of Vishnu. These e.'<tablishments
still exist, and in accordance with the regidations
laid down by the founder, each of eight Sanydsis in
turn officiates as superior of the chief station at
Udipi for two years or two years and a lialf. The
whole expenses of the establishment devolve on the
superior for the time being, and as the expenses
generally exceed the income, the Sanydsis tra\'el
from place to place levying contributions on their
votaries. The appearance and doctrines of the mem-
bers of the sect are thus described by Professor H.
H. Wilson : "The ascetic professors of Madhwachil-
rya's school, adopt the external ajipearance of Dan-
dis, laying aside the Brahmanical cord, carrying a
stafl' and a water pot. going l)are-headed, and wear-
ing a single wrapper stained of an lu-ange colour with
360
MADOXN'A— MADUWA.
ail ocliry clay : tliey are usually adopted into the
order from their bnyhood. and at'knowlodge no social
atfinities nor interests. The marks common to them,
and the lay votaries of the order, are the impress of
the symbols of Vithnu, upon their shoulders and
breasts, stamped with a hot iron, and the frontal
mark, which consists of two perpendicular lines
made with Gopicfianduna. and joined at tlie root of
the nose like that of the Sri Vaishnavas ; but instead
of a red lino down the centre, the Mddlnedchdrh
make a straight black line, with the charcoal from
incense offered to Naraynna, terminatiug in a round
mark made witli tiimierick.
'•The essential dogma of this sect, like that of tlie
Vahliiuifas in general, is the identification of Vishmi.
with the Supreme Spirit, as the pre-existeut cause of
the universe, from whose substance the world was
made. This primeval VisJinu, they also allirm to be
endowed with real attributes, most excellent, al-
though indefinable and independent. As there is one
independent, however, there is also one dependent,
and this doctrine is the characteristic doguia of the
sect, distinguishing its professors from the followers
of R.^inanuja as well as Sankara, or tho.«e who
maintain the qualified or absolute unity of the deity.
The creed of the Mndhwas, is Dwnita, or duality.
It is not, however, that they discriminate between
the principles of good and evil, or even the differ-
ence between spirit and matler, which is the duality
known to other sects of the Hindus. Their distinc-
tion is of a more subtle chiiracter, and separates the
Jitxitma from the Piiraniotitui, or the principle of
life froui the Supreme Being. Life, they say, is one
and eternal, dependent upim the Supreme, and in-
dissolubly connected with, but not the same with
him. .\u iuiportaut consequence of this doctrine is
the denial of ilfwW,-?, in its more generally received
sense, or that of absorption into the universal spirit,
and loss of independent existence after death."
The diQ'erent modes in which this sect express
devotion to Vidian, are marking the body with his
symbols, especially with a hot iron, giving his names
to children and other objects of interest, and the
practice of virtue, in word, act, and thought. Tiieir
sacred writings consist, besides the works of their
founder, of the four Vedas, the MahSblulrat, the
PanchariJtra, and the genuine or original K:im.av-
uni.
MADONNA (Ital. ^fy Lady), a name given to
representations of the Virgin Marv in Koinan Ca-
tholic coinitries. See Marioi.atuy.
M.ADKASSr.S. colleges in Mohannnedau coun-
tries where priests are trained who are to officiate in
the mosques.
M.\1)U\V.\, the place in which the nana or sa-
cred books of the Hudhists are publicly read. It is
usually a temporary erection, the roof having several
breaks or compartments gradually decreasing in size
as they approach the lop, in the form of a pagoda,
or of a pyramid, composed of successive platforms.
There is one of these erections in the precincts of
nearly all the Wiii.\R.\S (which see). In the cen-
tre of the interior area is an elevated platform for the
convenience of the priests, and the peojile sit around
it upon mats spread on the ground. The platform
is sometimes occupied by several priests at the same
time, one of whom reads a portion of one of the
sacred books in a tone between singing and reading.
" Upon some occasions," as we learn from Mr. Spenee
Hardy, " one priest reads the original Pali, and an-
other interprets what is read in the vernacular Sin-
ghalese ; but this method is not very frequently
adopted. It is the more usual course to read the
Pali alone, so that the people understand not a word
that is said ; and were the advices of even the most
excellent description in themselves, they would be
delivered without profit to the people assembled. A
great proportion of the attendants fall asleep, as they
commonly remain during the whole night ; whilst
others are seen chewing their favourite betle. As
might be supposed, there are evidences of unconcern
in that which ought to be the principal object of the
festival ; but there is none of that rudeness which
would be exhibited in a promiscuous assemblage of
people in some countries that are much higher in the
scale of civilization. Near the reading-hall there
are booths and stalls, in which rice-cakes, fruits, and
other provisions, and occasionally cloth and earthen-
ware, are sold ; and the blind and tlie lame are there,
with their stringed instruments, sitting b}' the way-
side to receive alms ; so that the festival is regarded
as an opportunity for amusement, as well as for ac-
quiring merit, and answers the general purpose of a
wake or fair. Whenever the name of Budha is
repeated by the officiating priest, the people call out
sinuiltaneously, 'sidhu!' the noise of which may
be heard at a great distance ; and the efl'ect is no
doubt pleasing to those who have not been taught
that it is in vain for the unlearned to say Amen,
when they know not the meaning of that which is
spoken. The readings are most numerously attended
upon the night of the full moon, when a light is thrown
upon the landscape in Ceylon that seems to silver
all things visible, from the tiny leaflet to the tower-
ing mountain, and a stillness sleeps in the air that
seems too deep to be earthly ; .and were the voices of
the multitude that now come forth at intervals ot' e:-
than from atheist lips, the spirit might drink in a
rich profusion of the thoughts that come so plea-
santly, we can scarcely tell whether the waking
dream be a reality, or a vision of some brigliter land."
The Maduwn is used for other purjioses bosidi^s
reading the sacred books. In it tliere is a laliyrinlh
made of withs ornamcnied with the cocoa-nut leaf ;
and the people auuisc themselves by finding their
way through its intricate mazes. In some instance-*
lines are drawn upon the ground in an open space,
and these lines are regarded as the limits of the re-
gions assigned to particular demons, the last being
appropriated to Budha. A few dancers are now in-
is.i'>;v ^iK; !
Mumf Mmmk M Siidiiliiml,
3E IN THE .BACI
-■Vrmllarto-o & C Loiidciii& Edintur^Ji.
M.EM ACTERl A- MAGIC.
3G1
troiluced, one of wliom advancing tuwardd the first
limit, calls out, in a defiant tone, the name of the
demon to whom the rejjion belongs, and, using the
most insulting language, threatens to cross the limit,
and invade the demon's territory. He then passes
the limit with the utmost boldness, and goes through
the same process witli the other demons, until he
approaches the limit of Budha's region ; but the
moment he attempts to cross this limit he falls down
as if dead, it being supposed iliat he is suli'ering the
punishment of his intrusion on the realms of Rudlia,
and the spectators apiilaud his boldness.
M.EMACTERIA, a festival celebrated at Athens
in honour of Zeus, as the god of storms.
M^MACTES, a surname of Zeus, as being the
stormy god from whom originate all the convulsions
of nature.
M.EXADES. See Bacch.e.
MAGDALENS, an order of nuns in tlie Romish
churcli, dedicated to St. Mary Magdalene. They
consist chierty of penitent courtezans. The Reli-
gious of St. Magdalene in Rome were established by
Pope Leo X., and a revenue was settled on them by
Clement VIII., who ordered that the effects of all
prostitutes who died intestate should fall to this
order, and that the testaments of all others should be
invalid unless a fifth part of their effects were be-
queathed to them.
M.\GDEBUKG CENTURIES. See Centu-
itiES (Magdeburg).
MAGI, the ancient priests of the Persians and
Medians. The word is rendered in Mat. ii. 1, " wise
men." The country from whicli these wise men or
Magi came is not precisely pointed out by the Evan-
gelist, but only described in general tenns as east-
ward of Palestine, and in all probability was either
Persia or Mesopotamia.
MAGI.A.NS, a sect of ancient philosophers which
arose in the East at a very early period, devoting
much of their attention to the study of the heavenly
bodies. They were the learned men of their time,
and we find Daniel the prophet promoted to be head
of this sect in Chaldea, and chief governor over all
the wise men of Babylon. The Magians were in
complete antagonism to the Tsahians, who worship-
ped the heavenly hosts; aiui they seem to have wor-
shipped the Deity under the emblem of fire. In all
their temples, as well as in their private liouses,
they had fire continually burning upon their altars.
They held in the greatest abhorrence the worship of
images, which prevailed among other nations, and
they held fire in the highest veneration as being the
pure.st symbol of the Divhie Being. The great mass
of the Persian worshipiiers, liowever, adored the
altar-fires themselves without rising to the Great
Being whom they symbolized. The Magian sect
was in danger of passing into utter extinction in the
reign of Darius Hystaspes, had it not been revived
and reformed by Zoroaster in the sixth century, the
ab^tract principles of whose system have been al-
ii
readv noticed in the article Ani'.ST.'V. In spite ol
the violent opposition of the Tsabkms, Zoroaster
succeeded in bringing over Darius to a firm belief in
bis reformed system, and from that time Magianism
became the national religion of the country, until it
was supplanted by that of Mohammed. Renmanls
of this sect are stdl found in Persia under the name
of Guehrei, and in India under that of Parsecs.
MAGIC, a science supposed to depend on the in-
fluence of evil sjjirits, or the spirits of the dead.
Balaam seems to have been a pretender to skill in
this art ; and in Jer. xxxix. 3, we read of the ruh
mail or chief of the magicians. In early times all
who engaged in the study of natural phenomena were
accounted magicians, the term being thus used in a
good sense, nearly equivalent to the word philoso-
phers. Magic has been divided into natural, which
consists in the application of natural causes to pro-
duce wonderful phenomena; phiJiekny, which assigns
either to the planets or to spirits residing in them
an influence over the ati'airs of men ; and diaboUcnl,
which invokes the aid of demons to accomplish
sujiernatural effects. All practices of this kind were
t'orbidden by the Law of Moses as being connected
with idolatry; yet in every period individuals were
found among the Israelites who were strongly ad-
dicted to magical arts. Magicians are frequently
mentioned in the Old Testament in connection with
Egypt. Thus it is i^aid in Exod. vii. 11, "Then
Pharaoh also called the wise men and the sorcerers :
now the magicians of Egypt, they also did in like
manner with their enchantments." " Now we find
in Egyptian antiquity," says Ileng.^tenberg, "an or-
der of persons, to whom tliis is entirely appropriate,
which is here ascribed to the magicians. The priests
had a double otfice, the practical worship of the
gods, and the pursuit of that which in Egypt was
accounted as wisdom. The first belonged to the so-
called prophets, the second to the holy scribes.
These last were the learned men of the nation ; as
in the Pentateuch, they are called wise men, so the
clas.-ical writers named them sages. These men
were applied to for exiilanation and aid in all things
which lay beyond the circle of common knowledge
and action. Thus, in severe cases of sickness for
example, along with the ])bysician a holy scribe was
called, who, from a book, and astrological signs, de-
tennined whether recovery was possible. The in-
terjjretation of dreams, and also divination, belonged
to the order of the holy scribes. In times of pesti-
lence, they applied themselves to magic arts to avert
the disease. A passage in Lucian furnishes a pecu-
liarly interesting pjarallel to the accounts of the Penta-
teuch concerning the practice of magic arts: 'There
was with us in the vessel, a man of Memphis, one of
the holy scribes, wonderful in wisdom and skilled in
all sorts of Egyptian knowledge. It was said of
him, that he had lived twenty-three years in subter-
ranean sanctiuiries, and that he had been there in-
structed in magic by Isis.' "
2h
362
MAGISTER DISCIPLINiE— MAHABHARATA.
Both ill Egypt and in Babylon tlie office of magi-
cian belonged to tbe priestly caste. In the later
))eiiods of Jewish history, many pretended to skill
in the occult science of magic, using inamtations of
various kinds, and professing even to evoke the
spirits of the dead, with the view of drawing forth
from them secrets otherwise unattainable. Sorcerers
anil magicians are mentioned by .Toscpluis as
aboimding in his time, and exercising gi-cat influence
over the peo]ile. The Jews called magicians, Mas-
ters of the Name, the Shemhamphorash, or inefi'able
name of God, tliat is, Jehovah, by the true pronun-
ciation of which wonders could be accomplislied.
They allege that this was the secret by whicli cuu-
Saviour performed his miracles while on earth. In
the Sepker Tuldath Jeshu a strange story is related
of the manner in which Jesus became possessed of
the iuefl'able name. It mentions that the name
was found by David, engraven on a stone, when
digging the foundations of the temple, and that he
deposited it in the sanctuary ; and lest curious young
men sliould learn this name, and bring devastation
upon the world by the miracles it wodd enable them
to perform, tlie wise men of the time made, by
magical arts, two brazen lions, wln'ch tliey stationed
before the entrance of tlie Holy of Holies, on each
side ; so that, if any one entered the sacred place,
and learned the inefi'able Name, the lions roared at
him so fiercely when he came forth, that, ui his
fright, he entirely forgot it. But they say that our
Lord, by magical arts and incantations, entered the
sanctuary undiscovered by the priests, saw tlie sacred
Name, copied it on parchment, which, having made
an incision in his body, he slipped under his skin.
The roaring of the lions when he came out caused
iiim to forget the name, but the parchment muler his
skin enabled him to recover it. and thenceforward to
refresh his memory when needt'iil ; and by the power
of this name it was that all his miracles were per-
formed.
Josephus also represents the Jews as effecting
wonderful cures liy invoking the name of Solomon.
In the Talmud a curious legend is related concern-
ing a signet-ring, by which he ruled the spirits, and
which came down from heaven to him in a cloud,
having the name Jehovah engraved upon it. By the
magic influence of this signet-ring, he summoned
both good and enl spirits to aid him in building the
temple. Various dilferent modes of incantation are
mentioned by Josephus as having been used by So-
lomon. The magical art is well known to have been
extensively practised by the ancient heathens ; and
I'yihagoras, as well as other Greek philosophers,
made it a subject of study. Ephesus was particularly
famed for the number and the skill of its magicians,
Biid wheti the ajiostle had preached in that city the
pure doctrines of the gospel of Christ, the effect is
thus stated Acts xix. 19, "Many of them also whicli
used curious arts brought tlieir books together, and
biu'ued them before all men ; and ihev counted the
price of them, and found it fifty thousand pieces of
silver." So celebrated was Ephesus for the magic art,
that certain amulets with strange chaivicters insc ibed
on them, which were worn about the person, received
the name of Ephesian letters. On the same princi-
ple were formed the magical letters called Anri.^CA-
D.4P.UA (whicli see), which were invented by the Ba-
silklians. It is stated by Augustine, as having been
generally believed by the heatlien, that our blessed
Lord was the author of several books on magic,
which he wrote for the use of his disciples. Celsus
and others pretend that our Saviour studied magic
in Egypt, and Suetoidus calls the Christians the men
of the magical superstition.
The practice of magical arts was viewed by the ear-
ly Christians as sinful, and no sooner did any one,
who had acijuired a knowledge of these mysteries,
embrace Christianity, than without hesitation he
burned the books on rnagie, which happened to be in
his possession. By the Theodosian Code, all magi-
cians are branded as vialefici, or evil doers, and if de-
tected they are apiioiuted to be put to death. The
laws of the church were very severe against all who
were guilty of indulging in magical practices. The
comicil of Laodicea condemns them to be cast out of
the church. The council of Ancyra prescribes five
year.s' penance for any one that receives a magician
into his house. Teitullian goes the length of say-
ing, that there never was a magician or enchanter
allowed to escape nn]nniislied in the church.
MAGISTER DICIPLIN^ (Lat. Master of Dis-
cipline), an officer in the church of Spain in the end of
the fifth centuiy. At that time it was customary
for parents to dedicate their children, while yet very
yoinig.to the service of the chnrch ; in which case they
were taken into the bishop's family, and educated
under him by a presbyter .selected for the purpose,
called Magistcr DiscipVunr, because his chief business
was to watch over their moral conduct, and to in-
struct them in the rules and discipline of the church.
MAGL.\NTE, a god worshipped in the Philip-
pine I.-I.^ulls as tlie deitv who hurls the thunder.
MAGXA MATER." See \lm:.\.
MAGNIFICAT, the hymn of the Virgin :\Iary
" My soul doth maguit'y the Lord, my spirit doth
rejoice in God my Saviom'," &c. It is first men-
tiimed in the sixtli century as having been publicly
used in the French churches. In the rubric of the
Church of England, it is appointed to be said or sung
in English after the first lesson at evening prayer,
unless the ninetieth Psalm, called Cuntatv Dniuiiio,
" Sing ye to the Lord," is used.
MAGUSIANS, a sect of the ancient Zoroastrians,
which considered absolute Dualism (which see\ as
the starting ]ioint of the system, or the original
mode in which Deitv manifested himself.
MAHABIIAR.V'rA, the second great Sanskrit
epic of the Hindus. It celebrates the wars of the
two rival fannlies known as the Pandiis and ihi
Kurus, a tale of the Lunar dynasties of kings.
MAHA BRAHMA— MAJORES (Dii).
3c:i
MAHA BRAHMA, the rules of a siiperioi- celes-
tial wni-lfl, accorriing to tlie systeiri of Budhisin.
MAHADKVA, one of the names of Shiva, a
intMiiber cif the Hindu Trinmrtii.
MAHAN-ATMA. tlie Great Soul, a name applieil
to Brahm (wliicli see).
MAHANT, the siqierlor of a Hindu monastery or
Mat'/i, of wliicli lie has the entire control. He is
usuidly elected from the senior and more proficient
of the ascetics. In some instances where the MiJiant
lias a family, the office descends in tlie line of his
posterity, but where an election is to be made, it is
conducted with grfe'it solemnity. Professor H. Wil-
son gives an account of the mode of election :
"The Maf/is of various districts look up to some
one of their own order as cliief, and they all refer to
that connected with tlieir founder, as the common
head : under the presidence, therefore, of the Ma-
liant of tliat establishment, wherever practicable, and
in his absence, of some other of acknowledged pre-
eminence, the MahanU of the dLH'erent Mat'h-< as-
semble, ujion the decease of one of tlieir brethren, to
elect a successor. For this purpose they regularly
examine tlie Chekis, or disciples of tlie deoeaseil, the
ablest of whom is raised to the vacant situation :
should none of them be qualified, they choose a Ma-
lunit from the pupils of some other teacher, but tliis
is rarely necessary, and unless necessaiy, is never
liad recourse to. The new Ulalmnt is then regularly
installed, and is formally invested with tlie cap, the
rosary, the frontal mark, or Tika, or any other
monastic insignia, by the president of the assembly.
Under the native government, whetlier Mohamme-
dan or Hindu — -the election of the superior of one of
these establishitients was considered as a matter of
sufficient moment, to demand tlie attention of the
governor of tlie province, who, accordingly, in per-
son, or by his deputy, presided at the election ; at
present, no interference is exercised by the ruling
authorities, and rarely by any lay character, although
occasionally a Raja or a Zcmiiuiar, to whose liberal-
ity the Mafh is indebted, or in whose lands it is
situated, assumes the right of assisting and presid-
ing at the election. The Mahaiits of the sect, in
which the election takes place, are generally assisted
by those of the sects connected with them : each is
attended by a train of di,<ciples, and individuals of
various mendicant tribes repair to the meeting; so
that an assemblage of many hundreds, and some-
times of thousands, occurs: as far as the resources
of the M(it7i. where they are assembled, extend, they
ai'e maintained at its expense; when those fail, they
must shift for themselves; the election is usually a
business of ten or twelve days, and during the period
of its continuance, various points of polity or doc-
trine are discussed in the assembly."
MAHASOOR. the chief of the Amwa:) or /?»/,•-
rjirisas, malignant spirits among the Hindus.
MAHA YUG, an atje of the gods in Hindu
chronology, iucluding 12,000 years of the gods, each
of which comprehends 3G0 solar years. Thus the
entire duration of a maJia-ijiig is equal to 4,320,(X)0
years of mortals.
MAHDI (Arab, the director or guide), a title
given to the h^l Ini.im of the race of Ali. See
iM.iMs (Twelve).
MAHESA, one of the names of the Hindu god
Shiva (which see).
MAHOMET. See Mohammed.
M.AHOMETANS. See Mohammi^dans.
MAHUZZIM, the god of forces, as the word is
translated in Dan. xi. 38, " But in his estate shall he
honour the God of forces : and a god whom his fa-
thers knew not shall he honour with gold, and sil-
ver, and with precious stones, and pleasant things."
Commentators have been much perplexed to explain
who this deity is. The Greek text of Theodotion's
version, and also the Vulgate, gi\e the word Mahuz-
ziin without interpreting it. Some understand it as
referruig to the Antichrist, and others to Antiochus,
the great enemy of the Jews. Nicholas de Lyra,
Bellamiine. and some others, regard it as the name
of the idol and demon which they think is to be
served by Anticlirist. Theodoret believes it to be
the name which Antichrist will assimie. Grotius
supposes it to be the Baalsamin of the Phcenicians,
and that Antiochus Epiphanes ordered this idol to
be worshipped. Some understand the word Mahuz-
ziin to be mediating spirits between God and man.
Jurieu thinks that it denotes the Roman eagles, or
Roman Empire, to which Antiochus would do hom-
age, the Rom.an eagles being a kind of deities, before
which the soldiers bowed down.
MAIA, an ancient Roman goddess often associated
with Vulcan, and sometimes spoken of as his spouse.
A sacrifice was oft'ered to her on the first of May,
which has been supposed to have derived its name
from this divinity. She has been identified also with
the Bona Dea (which see).
MAJOLI, St., (Regular Clerks of). See
Clerks (Regular) of St. Majoli.
MAJORES, a title by which the Jewish ministers
are frequently designated in tlie Tlieodosian Code.
The same title is also applied by Augustin to the
ministers of the CtEHCOL/E (which see), a sect which
is supposed to have been composed of apostates from
the Jewish religion.
MAJORES (Dll), the twelve superior gods of the
ancient Romans, who were believed to have a princi-
pal share in the government of the world. They
were styled the Dii Sehxti, the select gods, of whom
twelve were admitted into the councils of Jupiter,
and hence denominated Consentes (which see).
These twelve deities, who presided over the twelve
months of the year and the twelve signs of the zo-
diac, were Jupiter, Juno, Vesta, Minerva, Ceres,
Diana, Mars, Mercury, Neptune. Apollo, and Vulcan.
To these twelve, who were consentes, must be added
Janus, Saturn, Genius, Sol, Pluto, Bacchus, Terra,
and Luna, and thus we find that the Dii Mcjorea
364
MAKOS— MALAKANES.
amount to twenty, wlio are nsiuiUy classiliei] from
tlieir place of residence, as Celeslial, Terrestrial, Ma-
rine, and Infernal fjoch.
MAICOS, a god of the ancient Sclavonians, ulio
was represented partly as a man, partly as a fisli.
At a later period, lie presided over rain, and was
invoked when the fields were in want of water.
>[ALACHBEL, a god of the ancient Syrians, the
kin'.; c.f the earth.
M.\L.VKAXES, one of the most remarkable sects
of dissenters from the Russo-Gnek Church, who are
tluis named in derision from the Russian word ma-
lako, milk, because they use milk as an article of
food on fast-days. The name whicli tliey themselves
adopt is Istiniieeye Christiane, true Cliristiaiis. No-
thiri;X is known as to their origin; but the following
circumstances brought them into notice abont the
middle of the last century. A non-commissioned
Prussian officer, who happened to be a prisoner of
war iii Russia, settled in a village of the government
of Kharkow. Being a man of great piety, and ani-
mated by an earnest desire to do good among tlie
peasantry, he went from house to house reading and
expounding the Word of God, and continued to fol-
low this practice till his deatli. No further particu-
lars have been ascertained in regard to tlie history . f
this excellent and devoted man ; and the only thing
which is known is, that he resided in a village in-
hal/ited by the Mnlakajies. A connnunlty holding
similar principles was discovered about the same tune
in the government of Tambof. This sect is not nu-
merous. About 3,000 of its members, however, are
settled in the govenmient of the Crimea, where they
were visited in 1843 by Baron Haxthausen, who
gives the following descriptiim of their creed : " They
acknowledge the Bil)le as the Word of God, ami tlie
unity of God in three persons. This triune God,
uncreated, self-existent, the cau.-e of all things, is an
eternal, immutalile, and invisible Spirit. God dwells
in a pure world ; He sees all. He knows all. He
governs all ; all is filled with Him. He has created
all tilings. In the beginning, all that was created by
God was good and perfect. Adam's soul, but not
his body, wjis created after the image of God. This
created immortal soul of Adam was endowed with
heavenly reason and purity, and a clear knowledge of
God. Evil was unknown to Adam, who po.sscssed
a holy freedom, tending towards God the Creator.
They admit the dogma of the fall of Adam, the birth,
death, and resurrection of Christ, in the same man-
ner as other Christians, and expound the ten com-
mandments in the following manner : — ' The tir-t and
second forbid idolatry ; therefore no images arc to
be wnrshipped. The third shows that it is sinfid
to take an oath. The fourth is to be observed by
spondingSund.-iys and other festivals in jn-aver, sing-
ing pral.^es to God, and reading the Bible. The
fifth, by ordering In honour parents, enjoins to be
obedient to every authority. The sixth prohibits
two kinds of murder, — lirst, the bodily, by a weapon,
poison, &c., which is a sin, except in case of war,
when it is not sinful to kill in defence of the Czar and
the country; and, second, the spiritual murder,
which is committed by seducing otiiers from the
truth with deceitful words, or enticing them by bad
example into sin, which leads them to everlasting
perdition. They also consider it murder %vhen one
injures, persecutes, or hates his neighbour; accord-
ing to the words of St. John, " He who hates his
brother is a murderer." With regard to the seventh
commandment, tliey consider as a spiritual adultery
even a too great fondness of this world and its tran-
sient pleasures ; and, therefore, not only unchastity,
but also drunkenness, gluttony, and bad company,
should be avoided. By the eighth they consider
every violence and deceit as theft. By the ninth
commandment, every insult, mockery, flattery, and
lie, is considered as false witness. By the tenth,
they understand the miutification of all lusts and
passions.' They conclude their confession of faith
by the following words : — ' We believe tliat whoever
will fulfil the whole of the ten commandments of
God will be saved. But we also belie\e th.at since
the fall of Adam no man is capable of fulfilling these
ten commandments by his own strength. We be-
lieve that man, in order to become able to perform
good works, and to keep the commandnients of God,
must believe in Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son
of God. This true faith, necessary for our salvation,
we cannot find any where else but in the Word of
God alone. We believe that the AVord of God
creates in ns that faith which makes us capable of
receiving the grace of God.' With regard to the
sacrament of baptism, they say, — ' Although we
know that Christ was baptized b)- John in the river
Jordan, and that tlie apostles have baptized others,
namely, as Philip did with the eunuch, — yet we un-
derstand by baptism, not the earthly water, which
only cleanses the body but not the soul, but the
spiritual living water, which is faith in the triune
God, without contradiction, and in submisslim to his
holy Word ; because the Saviour says, "Whosoeier
believeth in me, from his body streams of living wa-
ter will fliiw;" and John the Baptist says, "A man
can take nothing which is not given him from hea-
ven;" and Paul says, " Christ has not sent me to
baptize, but to preach." We therefiire understand
by the sacrament of b.apfism, the spiritual cleansing
of our soul from sin through faith, and the death of
the old man with his works in us, in order to be
newly clad by a pure and holy life. Although, after
the birth of a child, we cleanse with real water the
impurities of his body, we do not consider it as bap-
tism. With regard to the Lord's Supper, it was a
commemoration of Cll^i^t ; but the words of the gos-
pel are the spiritual bread of lite. Man lives not by
bread alone, but by every word of God. The Spirit
gives life; flesh Is of no use. The receiving of tlie
earthly bre.ad and wine is thererorc unnece.s.suy.'"
Tills peculiar sect, which resembles somewhat in
MALEATES— MAMMILLARIANS.
365
principle the Sociuty of Friends, is composed chiefly
of Russian peasants, most of them quite illiterate,
but characterized by remarkably devout, pious dis|io-
sitioiis and character. Their favourite author is the
(xerman Mystic, Jung Stilling, whose writings have
been translated into the Russian language. The
Makikanes, who dwell with great delight on the
prospect of the Millennium, were roused to a state
of great excitement in 1833, by an attempt, on the
part of one of their ministers, to convince them that
the Millennium was near at hand. Count Krasiuski
thus relates the details of this singular movement :
" Terentius Belioreft' began to preach repentance,
announcing that the millennium .should begin in
thirty months, and ordered that all business, and
all kinds of work, except the most indispensable,
shotdd be abandoned ; but that people should spend
their whole time in prayer and singing. He declared
himself to be the prophet Elias, sent to announce
the coming of the Lord, whilst his companion Enoch
was sent with the same mission to the west. He
announced the day when lie was to ascend to heaven,
in the presence of all. Several thousands of Mala-
kanes assembled from different parts of Russia. On
the appointed day, he appeared on a carl, ordered
the assembled crowd to pray on their knees, and
then, spreading his arms, he jumped from the cart,
and fell on the ground. The disappointed Mala-
kanes delivered the poor enthusiast to the local police
as an impostiu-. He was imprisoned, but having for
some time remained in contineinent, he spoke no
more of his being the prophet Elias, but continued
to preach the millennium in prison, and after his
release, till his death. He left a considerable num-
ber of followers, who often assemble to spend days
and nights in continual praver and singing. They
introduced the community of goods, and emigrated,
with the permission of the government, to Gecn'gia,
where they settled in sight of Mount Ararat, waiting
for the millennium, and where a colony of Lutherans
from Wurtemberg had settled before, for the same
purpose." The strange vagaries of tin's fanatic,
liowever, ought not to be charged upon the Mala-
kanes, whose spiritual principles and regard for the
truths of the Bible entitle them to the respect of all
good men. The principal seat of this sect is the
Crimea, though they are found scattered through
difVerent parts of Russia. They resemble the Du-
CHOBOKTZI (which see) in maintaining the spiritual-
ity of God's worship and ordinances, but they differ
from them in admitting the atoninu' work of Christ,
holding the lawtuhiess of a stated ministrv, and ob
serving the Christian Sabbath as a day set apart for
the worship of God. The better to prepare for the
sacred duties of the Lord's Day, they hold meetings
for praver on the Satmday evening's.
MALEATES, a surname of ^^oWo. derived from
Malea. a Ciipe in Laconia. Under this name he was
worshipped at Sparta.
MALEC, the principal angel who, according to
the Mohammedans, presides over hell, lu the Ko-
ran, it is said, " And they," meaning the mibelievers,
" shall cry aloud, saying, 0 Malec, intercede for us,
that the Lord would end us by annihilation. And
he shall answer. Verily, ye shall remain here for
ever. 'We brotight you the truth heretofore, and ye
abhorred the truth." Some Mohannnedan doctors
allege that the answer of Malec shall not be given
till at'ter a thou^and years have expired.
JLALEKITES, the third of the orthodox Moham-
medan sects ill importance, but the second in the
order of time. It was originated by Malec-ebn-Ans,
a native of Medina, in the days of Haiiiii-al-Rischid.
The doctrines of this sect, which prevail chiefly in
Barbary and some other parts of Africa, proceed on
the literal acceptation of the prohibitory precepts.
MALTA (KNiCiHTS of). See Knighthood
(EcCLEStASTICAL ORDERS OF).
MALUK DASIS, a subdivision of the Eama-
nandi Vaishnavas of Hindustan, and a sect of com-
paratively micertain origin and limited importance.
The founder of the sect is supposed to have lived in
the reign of Akbar the Great in the sixteenth cen-
tury. The modiflcatious which Maluk Das intro-
duced into the Vaislmava doctrines were trifling,
amounting to little more than the adoption of his
name by the sect, and a shorter streak of red upon
the forehead, while their teachers are of the secular
order. Vishnu, in his character as Rama, is the ob-
ject of their practical adoration, and their principles
partake of the spirit of quietism which pervades the
sects of the Ramanandi school. Their chief autho-
rity is the Bhaijavat Gita. The adherents of the
sect are said to be numerous, especially among the
servile and trading classes, to the latter of which
Maluk Das belonged. The princijial estabiishinent
of this Vauhnava sect is at Kara Manikpnr, the
birth-place of the founder, and still occupied by liis
descendants; and besides this establishment they
have six other Mat'hs at Allahabad, Benares, Bin-
draban, Ayudhya, Lucknow, and Jaguiinath, which
last is of great repute as rendered sacred by the
death of Maluk Das.
MALUMIGISTS, a sect of Mohammedans, accord-
ing to Ricault, who teach that God may be known
perfectly in this world by tlie knowledge which men
have of themselves.
MAMACOCHA, a deity worshipped by the an-
cient Peruvians.
M.\MAKUR.S, a kind of bracelets worn by the
natives of the Molucc;is or Spice Islands, jiarticularly
Arnbo} iia, and which the women regard as preser-
vatives against all enchantments.
MAMERS, the Oscan name of the ancient hea-
then god Mars. By '\^arro, however, if is regarded
as the Sabine name of the same deity. Maincrs
again was a rural deity among the Romans. Among
tlie Greeks also Mamertus was sometimes used as a,
surname of Ares.
MAMMILLARIANS, a sect of A.nac.vptists
l366
MAXA— MANLE.
(wliicli see), which arose at Ihuirlein in Holland in
the sixteenth century.
MANA. an ancient Italian divinity, supposed to
be identical with Mania (which see).
MANABOSIIO, a deity worshipped by the Cliip-
pewa Indians of North America. Various strange
legend;viT tales are related concerning this god. It
is said that his mother having been killed by herowni
husband, Manabusho, to avenge his mother's death,
made war upon his father, and so assailed him with
black stones, that he was glad to sue for peace,
and in order to ajijiease tlie anger of liis son, he pro-
nnsed him a place in heaven, on condition, however,
that he would destroy the monsters or giants called
Wiiidii:/os, who devoured men. His first battle was
with the king of the fishes, whom he slew. His next
engagement was with the serpents and their queen,
who made him pay dear for his victory by letting
forth the waters of th:- deluge upon Iiim. He found
refuge on a tree, commanded the waters to subside,
and created tlie world anew, assisted by certain ani-
mals, who at his order pliuiged into the billows
until a beaver or a musk-rat recovered a small por-
tion of the earth. In this legend Manahosho is the
same as the Likiokme of the HechuaniLS, and the
whole story may be considered as an obscure tradi-
tion of the deluge.
MANAGAKM, a formidable giant mentioned in
the Scandinavian Prose Edda, as destuied to be filled
with the life-blood of men who draw near their end,
and will swallow up the moon, and stain the heaven
and the earth with blood. Then shall the sun grow
dim, and the winds howl tumultuously.
MAXAH, the tutelary god of the Hodhail and
other tribes of ancient Arabia, occupying the coun-
try between Mecca and Medina. The idol was a
large stone, the worship of which consisted of the
slaughter of camels and other animals. Though the
idol was destroyed by order of Mohammed, the rite
is continued as a part of Islam, at Manah, on the way
to Mecca.
MANDK/E, a name often ap|ilied to monasteries
in the East, whence originated the term Arc/iimon-
di-ite, used to denote the abbot or superior of a
Greek convent.
MANIJYAS, a vestment worn by a Greek iirchi-
immrlrite, wliich somewhat resembles the cope of the
Uomanists, but is fastened in front, and has bells at
the lower edge hke the garment of the Jewi.sh high-
jiriest.
MANES, a term used among the ancient Komans,
to denote the souls of the departed. Sacrifices were
offered in honour of the Mimes at certain .seasons,
aiui an annual festival called Eekalia (which see),
dedicated specially to the Miaics, was celebrated on
the 19lli of February.
MAN'GO-CAI'AC, the foimdcr of the ancient
Peruvian Empire, who was after his death worshiii-
ped as a god, altars being reared to hi^ luinoiu'. Both
lie and his wife were regarded as children of the
Sun, who had been sent from heaven to earth that
they might found a kingdom. The Peruvians held
Manfio-Capac in so great veneration, that they paid
a kind of worship to the city of Cuzco, because it
was erected by this great monarch, who had taught
them the worship of the sun, the moon, and other
heavenly bodies.
MAN-HO-PA, the Great Spirit worshipped by
the North American Indians, whom tliey propi-
tiate by presents, and by fasting, and lamentation,
during the space of from three to five days. This
Great Being they acknowledge as the disposer of
all good, their supreme guide and protector. Thej'
believe him to lie possessed, like themselves, of cor-
poreal form, though endowed with a nature infinitely
more excellent than theirs, and which will endure for
ever without change. They have a tradition, that
the great waters divide the residence of the Great
Spirit from the temporary abodes of his red children ;
but a very general behef prevails, that the Great
Spirit resides on the western side of the Rocky
Mountains.
MANI, the name given to the moon among the
ancient Scandinavians. The foUowing account is
found in the Prose Edda of this mythological
being: "There was formerly a man, named Mun-
dilfari, wlio had two children so lovely and grace-
ful, that he called the male, M&m ^moon), and the
female, S(51 (sun), who espoused the niaii named
Glenur. But the gods being incensed at Mundilfari's
presumption took his children and placed them in
the heavens, and let Sol drive the horses that draw
the car of the sun, which the gods had made to give
light to the world out of the sparks that flew from
Muspellheim. These horses are called Arvak and
Alsvid, and under their withers the gods placed two
skins filled with air to cool and refresh them, or, ac-
cording to some ancient traditions, a refrigerant sub-
stance called iivrnhil. Miini was set to guide the
moon in his course, and regulate his increasing and
waning aspect. One day he carried off from the
earth two children, named Bil and Hjuki, as they
were returning from the spring called Byrgir, carry-
ing between them the bucket called Seegr, on the
pcile Simul. VJdlinn was the father of these chil-
dren, who always follow M,<iii (the moon), as we
may easily observe even from the earth."
MANIA, a goddess among the ancient Etruscans,
who belonged to the infernal divinities, and was said
to be the mother of the Manes. AVe leani from
Maerobius that images of Mania were hung up
at the house doors ttJ ward oft' danger. At the fes-
tival of the Compitai.ia (which see), boys are said
to have been sacrificed to this goddess. The bar-
barous practice of oiVering up human sacrifices on
this occasion was at length abolished, and ofteruigs
of garlic and poppy heads substituted in place of
them.
MANlyE, certain ancient divinities, believed to
be the same with the EuJiENlDts (which see).
MANICHEANS.
367
MANICHKANS, a heretical sect which arose
towards the close of the third century, originating in
an attempt on the part of tlie Persian Mani or
Manes, to combine Christianity with tlie Oriental
Pagan religions. The system of doctrines thus
formed was strictly dualistic. It supposed two ori-
ginal and absolutely opposite principles; the one
being God, the source of all good ; the other evil, the
source of all confusion, disorder, and destruction.
The two kingdoms thus at antagonism were at Hrst
wholly separate from one another. In connection
with the Supreine God, and emanating from him,
were certain JEoti-i, who, in strict subordination to
the Great Source of light and goodness, diti'nsed tliese
precious blessings among all other beings. The
powers of darkness are engaged in a struggle among
tliemselves, until approacliing the kingdom of light
they are subdued by intermingling with it, and at
length are rendered utterly powerless. From the
Supreme Being, wlio rules over the kingdom of
light, issues the ^-Eon, mother of light, who generates
the primitive man with a view to oppose to him the
powers of darkness. Tlie primitive man, in conjunc-
tion with the live pure elements of physical nature,
enters into the conflict, but feeling his position to be
critical and dangerous, he asks for, and olitains, the
living spirit by which he is raised once more to the
kingdom of liglit. A process of purilication is now
commenced by the same living sjiirit, which goes on
in the physical as well as in the moral world, both of
them indeed being confounded in the Manicliean
system. "As the religions system of the Persians,"
to use the language of Neander, "assigned an impor-
tant place to the sun and moon, in the conflict in the
physical and spiiitual world between Orninzd and
Ahriman, and in carrying forward the universal pro-
cess of developinent and piu-itication ; so was it also
in the system of Mani. Very nearly the same
that the system of Zoroaster taught concerning
Mithras, as the Genius (Ized) of tlie Sun, Mani
transferred to his Christ, — the pure soul sending
fortli its influence from the sun and from the moon.
Representing the soul as having sprung from the
primitive mtin, he inter|ireted in this sense the bibli-
cal name, 'Son of Man,' and distinguishing between
the pure iind five soul enthroned in the sun, and its
kindred soul ditVu.sed throughout nature, and cor-
rupted by its mixture with matter. So, too, he dis-
tinguished a son of man superior to all contact witli
matter, and incajiable of surtering, from a sou of man
crucified, so to speak, and snft'ering, in matter.
Wherever the scattered seed piislied upward out of
the dark bosom of the earth and unfolded itself in a
plant, in its blossom and its fruit, Mani beheld the
triumphant evolution of the principle of light, gra-
dually working its way onward to freedom from the
bondage of matter ; he belield ho^v the living soul,
which had been imprisoned in the members of the
Prince of Darkness, loosens itself from the conlinc-
meut, rises in freedom, and mingles with its conge-
nial element the jmre air, where the souls completely
purified ascend to those ships of light (the sun and
moon) which are ready to transport them to their
native country. But whatever still bears upon it
various blemishes and stains, is attracted to them
gradually, and in portinns, by the force of heat, and
incoriiorates itself witli all trees, with whatever is
planted and sown."
Man is now created, the image, in this world of
darkness, of the primitive man, and destined to ex-
ercise dominion over nature. In him are seen united
the powers of the kingdom of darkness and of li.ght,
a mirror in wliich are e.thibited the powers of heaven
and of earth. His soul is derived from the kingdom
of light, and his body from the kingdom of dark-
ness. The two maintain a constant struggle with
each other, and to deliver the soul from tlie power
of darkness, giving it a complete victory over the
evil principle, tlie spirit of the sun, which purifies
all nature, must become incarnate, not uniting liim-
self to a material body, with which he could have no
communion, but clothing himself in a shadowy, sen-
sible form, and thus the death of Christ was not a
real, but only a seeming cnicitixion.
The aim of the whole Divine arrangements, accord-
ing to the theory of the Maiiicheans, was to efiect a
total separation of the light from the darkness, and
the reduction of the darkness to utter powerless-
ness. Tliey held that tlie highest, most authorita-
tive, and only infallible system of truth, was that
wliich was taught by the Paraclete or Mani, and by
which all doctrines, wherever found, were to be test-
ed. To these the Holy Scriptures of truth were sub-
ordinated, and they held that it was by the teachings
of Mani, the true was distinguished from tlie false,
in the New Testament. They refused to admit, for
example, that Jesus was born of a woman ; that he
was circumcised as a Jew, that he was meanly bap-
tized, led into the wilderness, and miserably tempt-
ed of the devil. Mani claimed to be a divinely au-
thorized church- reformer. He held that the Ma-
nicliean was the only true Christian church ; and
tliat witliin it there were two distinct orders of
members, — the exoterics, called Atulitors, who were
permitted to read the writings of Mani, and to
hear his doctrines stated in their mythical form,
without, however, receiving any explanation of
their hidden meaning ; and the esoterics, called the
Elect or Perfect, v.'ho were the priestly order of the
church, and formed the connecting link between the
earth and the kingdom of light. The latter class
were forbidden to hold property, and required to lead
a life of contemplation, to abstain from marriage,
from all intoxicating drinks, and even from animal
food. They must not kill, nor even injure an ani-
mal, nor must they pull up an herb, or pluck a fruit
or a flower. The Auditors were ordered to pay
them all due reverence as superior beings, and to
provide them with suitable means of support : they
were to look upon them also as mediators between
308
MANICHEANS.
tliem aiid the kingdom of light. From this body of
the Elect were chosen the presiding officers of the
church, who, like the apostles, were twelve in num-
ber, and inider tlie name of Magistri were the rulers
of the sect. To these twelve was added a thirteenth,
who, representing Maui, presided over the rest. Sub-
ordinate to tliese superior oHicers were sixty-two
bishops, under whom were presbyters, deacons, and
linally travelling preachers. The Lord's Supper was
strictlv limited to the Elect, and it is generally ad-
mitted, that they used wine in the ordinance.
Tlie Sun being the Christ of the Manicheans, they
observed Sunday as a festival in honom- of him ; and
on a particular day in the month of March, they cele-
brated a festival in commemoration of the martyr-
dom of Mani, when a splendidly adorned pulpit, as-
seended by five steps, was erected, and before it all
the Manicheans prostrated themselves. At its first
origin the members of the sect were persecuted bv
the Roman government. Tlie Emperor Dioclesian,
A. D. 296, issued a decree, that the leaders of tlie
Manicheans should be burned at the stake, and their
followers subjected to decapitation, and the confisca-
tion of their property. Notwithstanding this severe
enactment, the sect made ra|iid progress, and in the
fourth century it ensnared many, including even Au-
gustine fur a time. In the year 372, Valentinian
the elder forbade their holding meetings, and laid
their ministers under heavy penalties. In the year
381, Theodosius the Great pronounced them infa-
mous, and deprived them of tlie rights of citizens.
To escape tlie severity of tliese laws, the Manicheans
endeavoured to shelter themselves under a variety of
dilierent names. From the affinity of the doctrines
of Mani to tliose of Zoroaster, in no country did the
Manichean heresy find a firmer footing than in Per-
sia; and in the sixth century it became so powerf"ul
in that country as to seduce the son of Cabadas the
monarch ; and the consequence was, that, by roval
command, many of them were slaughtered. In the
East generally, from the Oriental character of their
sy.stein, the .Maniclioaiis made rapid |)rogress for sev-
eral centuries, tlmugli often subjected to penal enact-
ments of the most oppressive kind. Towards the
ninth century the sect became merged in the Paui-I-
CIANS (which see).
Ecclesiastical historians generally have recognized
the Oriental character of the Manichean system ;
but the work of Dr. Baur, published at Tubingen in
1831, has traced, in the most satisfactory manner, the
close relationship which exists between the doctrines
of Mani and those of Hudha. Neander, pursuing the
same train of thought, has jiointed out some very
striking analogies between the two systems. Thus
he remarks : " It is in the highest degree iirobable,
tliat in the public appearances of Mani two epoclis
are to be distinguislied, — and this view of the matter
is also confirmed by indications in the historical
notices, — the first wlien his aim was simply to re-
concile and blend together Parsism and Cliristianity ;
the second, after he had become acquainted in his
travels with Buddhaism, from wliicli a new light
arose within him, and lie supposed that lie first at-
tained, from this new position, to a better under-
standing of the truth in all the three religions.
Dualism, with him, must now gradually pass over
more completely into pantheistic Monoism. For
we cannot help considering Buddhaism, although the
fact has been denied by many in modern times, as
one phase of the appearance of Pantheism ; since
indeed we must consider as such every doctrine
which does not recognize God as a self-conscious,
free causality of existence, acting with a view to cer-
tain purposes or ends. The Dualism of the Buddlia
system is of altogether another kind from that of the
Parsic. It is not a positive kingdom of evil that
stands opposed to the kingdom of good, and with a
corrupting influence mixes into its creation ; but
by Dualism here nothing else is expressed than
that the Divine Being is under the necessity of
passing out of itself, and over into manit'estation ;
— and the problem tlien is, how to relurn back
from this manifestation into pure being. There
are two factors, the Spirit-God, and nature, or
matter. When the sjiirit passes out from itself into
nature, then springs into existence the phenomenal
world, the world of appearance, of Sansara — the
Maya. The Spirit becomes ever more coagulated in
nature, more completely estranged from itself, even
to entire unconsciousness. In man, it returns back
through various stages of development and purifica-
ti(ui once more to itself; till, wholly released from
the bonds of natural force, after being stripjied of all
limited, individual existence, it becomes conscious of
its oneness with the primal Spirit, from which all
life has flowed, and passes over into the same. This
is becoming Nirwana. The antithesis is obvious —
the Spirit, in its estrangement from itself, tlie world
of manifestation or of appearance (Sansara, Maya) ;
and the pure being of the Spirit (the Nirwana). It
is a characteristic mark of the Buddhaist mode of
contemplation, and an evidence of the Monoism ly-
ing at the root of this Dualism, when we find it de-
scribed as the highest stage of perfection, ihat the San-
.sara and the Nirwana become one for consciousness ;
the Spirit is no longer affected at all by the appear-
ance, can energize freely in connection with it. and
amidst the world of appearance, recognizing this as
appearance and in its necessity, holds fast only tiie
pure being — the entire oneness of the world on this
side, and the world beyond time. Thus Buddha lets
himself down to the world of Sansara for the redemp-
tion of the souls therein conliiied, and both are one
to him."
The Manichean here.sy appears to have been a
combinalion of dilVcirent .systems, but more especially
those of the Clirixtians, the I'arxee-i, and the Jiiid-
kiab, all of which develop themselves more slronnly
in this than in any other .system of doctrines which
ecclesiastical history conlains.
MAN I P A— M AN W ANT AR A .
3fi9
MANIPA, a goddess worsliipjied by the Moii.;ol
Tartars. She is represented by an idol with nine
heads, wliich form a liind of pyramid. Slie is Iil<e-
wise represented imder a human sliape, and thought
to delight in murder.
MANIPLK, a portion of the dress of a Romish
priest in celebr;iting mass, worn upon the left arm.
It was originally a narrow strip of linen .suspemled
from the left arm ; in course of time it was embel-
lished, bordered with a fringe, and decorated with
needle-work. The Greek priests have two mani-
ples, called epimaiiida, one for the right hand, and
another for the left. The patriarch alone is allowed
to wear both. No maniple is worn by the clergy of
the Church of England.
MANITO, a name used among the North Ameri-
can Indians to denote a spirit, hence the Great Spirit
is called in various tribes Kitchi-Manito, and the K\'il
Spirit, MatcM-Manito. AVhen used simply without
any epithet prefixed, the title Mnnifo is restricted to
a minor emanation from the Great Spirit, which the
American Indian conceives to be communicated to
some well-known bird or beast or other objeotifit-
ting it to be his guardian deity, his councillor, pro-
tector, and friend. But while thus reposing with
conlidence on the assistance of liis own Manito, he is
constantly visited with painful apprehensions, lest
his neighbour's Muiiilo may jirove more powerful
than his own, and may, perhaps, assaidt and injure
liiui. The world, they imagine, is governed by
Manitoes, both good and evil, who are ever conflict-
ing together, and thus give rise to the moral confu-
sion and disorder whicli every where prevail. The
constant dread of these powerful spirits haunts the
North American savage of the woods, until, by death
or transmigration, he passes beyond tlieir reacli.
When they go to battle or the chase, the image of
their tulelary spirit is carried with them as an indis-
pensable part of their equipment. When they perform
a solemn sacrilice, they put upon a pole the head of
a m.-m carved in wood, wliicli they place in the mid-
dle of the house. A snuUler image of the .same kind
is carried about with them suspended round their
necks. " Every savaje," .says Chateaubriand, " has
his Manila, as every Negro has his Fetish : it is eitlier
a bird, a ri-sh, a <piadruped, a reptile, a stone, a piece
of wood, a bit of cloth, any coloured object, or a
European or American onuuncnt." One Imiian, as
the Moravian missionaries inform us, has, in a dream,
received the sun as his tutelary spirit ; another the
moon ; a third, the owl ; a fourth, the bnflalo.
.MANNUS, a god worshipped by the ancient Ger-
mans. He was the son of Tuisco.
MANSIOXARII. See Osti.\hii.
MANTEIS (Or. propliets), seers connected with
the ancient oracles of Greece and Rome. They
were believed to foretell future events under the in-
fluence of the gods, particularly of Apollo. This
privile.ge was in some cases supposed to belong to
particular families, who handed it down from father
II.
to son. The manteis made their revelations on any
great emergency, when consulted by others, or when
they themselves considered it to be for the public
advantage, to make known the will of the gods.
These interpreters of the will of heaven were publicly
protected and honoured by the Athenian government,
and their presence was deemed important in all as-
semblies of the people. See Aruspicks, Augurs,
DlVIN'.\TION, Ou.\CLES.
MANTELUM (Monasticum), (Lat. a monk's
mantleV See M.'iNDYAS.
MANTIS (The Praying), an insect said to have
been formerly worshipped by the Hottentots. It
derives the peculiar name it bears from the erect
position and motion it assumes when alarmed. Con-
siderable doubt exists whether this particular form
of idolatry was ever practised among the Hottentot
tribes at any time. All that is known with cer-
tainty is, that the insect in question was regarded by
the more superstitious of the people as a creature of
bad omen, and to kill, or even to injure it, was
looked upon as in the highest degree imlucky, and
sure to be followed by some great misf )rtune.
MANTRA, a secret, the communication of which
forms the chief ceremony of initiation in all Hindu
sects. It generally consists of the name of some
deity, or a short address to him ; it is conveyed by
the teacher to the disciple in a whisper, and when
once known, it is carefully concealed from all the
uninitiated. Professor H. Wilson says, that Hindus
above prejudices in other respects, find it so difficult
to get over that of communicating the Mantra, that
even when they profess to impart it, their sincerity
can scarcely be admitted without a doiibt. — The
word Mantra is also employed generally to denote
a spell or enchantment, and also a hymn or a
prayer.
MANU (CoDK OF), the authoritative Law-15ook
of the Hindu Bralnnans. This production is of later
origin than the Upanishads (which see), but
teaches the same religious doctrine and precejits,
with various im[iortant additions, the whole being
divided into eighteen books. The Code was com-
piled by iManu, the son of Brahma, and other sacred
personages — detailing all manner of duties connected
with the worship of God, and all the possible rela-
tions that can subsist between man and man.
M.\NUS, a legendary race of monarchs in the
system ii{ Hinduism, who lived about 2.000,000,000
of years ago. The first of them came down with his
spouse from one of the higher heavens to rule over
the earth. The entire line of Maiuis anniunted to
fourteen, each of them, with his posterity of sons and
grandsons, is supposed to have been invested with
the sovereignty of the earth during a Manwant.-vu.v
(which see), or a cycle of time.
MANWANTARA, a grand period of time in
Hindu chronology, including seventy-one maha-yu(i<
or divine ages, being the reign of one Mann, with
his posterity of sons and grandsons. The reigns ot
2 I
370
MAPHRIDA-MARCIO>nTES.
the fourteen Maims, wlio reigned in succession, ex-
teiuled to 1.000 mrihn-i/uijn or one Kalpa.
MAl'llKlDA, tlie second divaiitary (jf tlie jACOii-
ITK CiUTitiu (wliicli see) in tlie Kast.
.MAKAHOITTS, insane jiersons in Algiers. ^lo-
rocco, anil otiiei" countries in tlie Nortli of Africa,
who are reputed saints, and exercise great inllueiice
over all cl.-usses of the people. Gifts of every kind
are heaped upon these foolish impostors. A Mara-
b'lUt perforins the duties of a priest, pretends to ward
o;V evil from any one. and to cause niistortiin" to
those with whom he may happen to be oli'ended.
He employs himself in manufacturing amulets and
charms. He has the privilege of being able to ac-
cord sanctuary to any criminal whether innocent or
guilty, and even under the ban of .sovereign displea-
sure, who may have succeeded in crossing the thresh-
old of the Marabout's cliiosk. The grand Marabout
is one of the principal oflicers at the court of the
Dey of Algiers, and presides in matters of reli-
gion.
MAR.\K, the name given in the South Sea Islands
to a heathen lemple. .\11 were uncovered and re-
sembled oratories rather than temples. Tlu'v ,-iie thus
described by Mr. Ellis in his ' Pdlvncsian Uesearches :
"The form of the inti'rior or area of their temples
was frequently that of a scpiare or a parallelogram,
the sides of which extended forty or tifty feet. Two
sides of this space were enclosed by a high stone
wall; the front was protected by a low fence; and
opposite, a solid pyr,amidal structure was raised, in
front of which the images were kejit, and the altars
tixed. These piles were often inimense. That
which formed one side of the square of the large
temple in Atehuru, according to Mr. Wilson, by
whom it was visited when in a state of preservation,
was two hundred and seventy feet long, ninety-four
wide at the base, and fifty feet high, being at the
summit one hundred ,and eighty feet long, and six
wide. A flight of steps led to its siminiit ; the bot-
tom step was six feet high. The outer stones of
the pyramid, composed of coral and basalt, were
laid with great care, and hewn or squared with im-
mense labour, especially the t'lava, or corner stones.
"Within the enclosure, the houses of the priests,
and keepers of the idols, were erected. Uuins of
temples are found in every situation : on the sum-
mit of a hill, as at Maeva, where Tane's temple,
ne.trly one hundred and twenty feet square, enclosed
with high walls, is .still standing, almost entire; on
tlie extremity of a point of land projecting into the
sea; or in the recesses of an extensive and over-
shadowing grove. The trees growing within the
walls, and around the temple, were sacred ; llie.se
were the t.'ill cypress-like casuarina, the liunurm, or
callophyllum, miro, or thespesia, and the tou, or
cordia. These were, excepting the casuarina-trecs,
of large foliage and exuberant growth, their inter-
woven and dark undirageoiis branches frequently
excluding the rays of the sun; and the contrast be-
tween the bright glare of a tropical day, and tlie
sombre gloom in the depths of these groves, was
peculiarly striking. The fantastic contortions in the
trunks and tortuous branches of the aged trees, tlie
plaintive and inoaniug sound of the wind passing
throngb the leaves of the casuarina, often resembling
the wild notes of the Eolian harp — and the dark
walls of the temple, with the grotesque and borrific
appearance of the idoLs — combined to ins|iiie exira-
ordinary emotions of superstitious terror, and to
nurture that deep feeling of dread which character-
ized the worshippers of Tahiti's sanguinary deities."
MARANATHA. See Anatiikm.\.
MAR.VrONIANS. See Mackdoni.\ns.
MARCELLIANS, the followers of Marcelhis,
bishop of .-Vncyra in Galatia, in tlie fourth century.
He had from the beginning keenly opposed the
Arians, and warmly supported the ILmioousia of the
Nicene creed. All subordinaficm of Persons in the
S.acred Trinity he believed to be Ariani-sni, and in
the course of a work in refutation of the So]ihist
Asterius. the founder of the Semi-Arian school, be
fell into .an error approaching to the Sabellian or
Samasotenian heresy, that of maintaining the unity
of the Son with the Father, losing sight of the per-
sonal distinction between tlieni. He was answered
not only by Asterius, but by Eusebius of Ca'sarea,
and Acacius. Eusebius wrote two works against
him, and at an assembly of EunebiunshM at Constan-
tinople A. I). .^3U, Marcelhis was formally deposed from
his bishopric, to make way, as was supposed, for the
Semi-Arian Basil. Notwithstanding the suspicion
of heresy which now attached to him, the orthodox
party defended him for some time, and the council
of Sardica acquitted him, and restored him tu his
see. In course of time his heretical views assumed
a more definite shape, so that his friends were coni-
[lelled to abandon him as a confirmed heretic; and
this view of his character was rendered all the more
certain bv the unsbiiuking boldness with which his
]ui|)il Photinus di'\ eloped the Manellian heresy in
all its extent, but uiidi'r a new name derived tVonc
himself. (See Photinians.i
M.ikRClAXISTS. See Ki'iiiiTES.
M.\RCIONITES, a Gnostic sect which arose in
the second century, deriving its name from Slarcion,
a native of Sinope in Pontus, where his father wan
bishop. From early life he seems to ha\e been
animated by an ardent love of Divine truth, and
a strong reluctance to submit to human tradition.
The tendency in his mind towards an ascetic spirit
was seen in the fact, that in the first ardour ol
Christian love he resolved to renounce every earth-
ly possession, and to give himself up to a course
of rigid abstinence, presenting to the church at
the same time a sum of two hundred sestcrtia.
He grasped the peculiar doctrines of Chrislian-
ity, and more especially the fact of redemption,
with so firm a hold, and took so absorbing a view
of the God of the gospel, that he conceived him
MARCIONITES.
371
to be a Being altogptlier distinct from the God of
nature. From such a train of tliitikiiig, he naturally
passed to the idea that there was a complete con-
trariety between the Old Testament and tlie New.
The God of the one was jealous, severe, and inexor-
able, while the God of tlie other was only mercy and
love. The Messiah of the one had a kingdom, but
wholly of this world; the Christ of the other had a
kingdom also, but essentially spiritual, and not of
this world.
From the character of his mind, Marcion was op-
posed to the allegorical interpretation of the Bible,
which was so pre\alent in the early ages of the
church ; on the contrary, he adhered to the ht-
eral meaning, and entertained an earnest desire to
restore Clnistianitv once more to its simiilc and pri-
mitive form, by rescuing it from the Jewish element
with which it had been contbiuided. Kxcomnnini-
eated from the chmx-li at Sinope. he repaired to
Rome, where he hoped to meet with more sympathy
in consequence of his .strong anti-.hidaizing tenden-
cies. His expectations, however, of countenance
from the Roman church were disappointed, and he
now conceived tlie design of founding an indepen-
dent church. He attached himself, accordingly, to a
teacher from .\ntiocli in Syria, by name Cerdo, who
taught a system of pure Dualism (see Cp;Rr>OM.-VNS),
and to whose instructions he was indebted for a con-
siderable number of his opinions. Though every-
where looked upon as a heretic, he devoted himself
throughout his whole life to the active propagation
of his peculiar views, not communicating them, as
many of the other Gnostic teachers did, to a hmiled
number of followers, but to all Christians with whom
became in contact. It is alleged by Tertnllian, that
Marcion towards the end of liis life repented of the
schism to which he had given rise, and .sought to be
restored to the t'ellowship of the church — a request
which was granted on condition that he should bring
back those whom he had seduced from the church ;
but his premature death prevented the fulfilment of
the condition, and thus he died in a state of excom-
munication.
The doctrines inculcated by Marcion, and held by
)iis fiillowers the MhithhuUx, were fundamentally the
same with the other Gnostic!. Three primary prin-
ciples were laid down as the basis of the entire sys-
tem : 1. The Hyle. or matter existing from all eter-
nitv. 2. God, a Being of infinite jjcrfection, holi-
ness, and love. 3. The Demiurge, the Creator of
the world, the God of the Jews, and of the Old Tes-
tament, who holds a middle place between good and
evil, and is engaged in a constant conflict with mat-
ter, seeking to subject it to his will, but meeting
witli steady resistance. Prom the ever -resisting
matter originated evil, which became concentrated
in Satan, the Evil One. The moral operations of
the Demiurge are thus developed by Neander:
"The Demiurge of Marcion does not work after the
pattern of higher ideas, of which, though uncon-
sciously, or even against his will, he is the organ ;
but he is the absolutely independent, self-subsistent
creator of an imperfect world, answering to his own
limited essence. To this world Marcion reckoned
also the nature of m.in, in which he did not acknow-
ledge, like other Gnostics, the existence of another
element besides. The Demiurge — so he taught —
created man, his highest work, after his own image,
to represent and reveal himself Man's body he
formed of matter, — hence evil desires; to this body
he gave a soul in affinity with himself and derived
from his own essence. He gave him a law, to try
bis obedience, with a view either to reward or to
puni.sh him, according to his desert. But the limited
Demiurge had it not in his power to give man a god-
like princi|)le of life, capable of overcoming evil.
Man yielded to the seductions of sinful lust, and thus
became subject, with his whole race, to the dominion
of matter, and of the evil spirits which sprang out of
it. From the entire race of fallen humanity, the
llemiurge selected only one people, for his special
guidance; to this people, the Jews, he made a spe-
cial revelation of himself, and gave a religious polity,
answering to /«'< mm essence and character, — con-
sisting, on the oiie hand, of a ceremonial confined to
externals; on the other, of an imperative deficient
svstem of morals, without any inner godlike life,
without jjower to sanctil'y the heart, without the spi-
rit of love. Those who faithfully observed this re-
ligious law, he rewarded by conveying them at death
to a state of happiness suited to their limited na-
tures, in the society of their pious forefathers. But
all who suffered themselves to be seduced by the
enticements of the Hijle to disobey the Demiurge,
and all who abandoned themselves to idolatry — a
sv.sfem to be traced to the influence of this llfiJe, he
burled down to ]ierdifion. "
According to the -views of -Marcion, Chvist was
the self-manifestation of ihe Father, and the human
body in which he appeared on earth was not a real
but a seeming body. The Christ of the Now Testa-
ment was wholly disfiiu't from, .ind even in many
respects opposed to, the Messiah of the Old. The
true believer in Christ became a partaker, even in
this world, of a divine ht'e above the power of the
Deniiurrje and tlie HijJe. and under the special guid-
ance of the God of love. Such a man Marcion con-
ceived must be an ascetic, seeking to be delivered
from all contaminating influence of matter; and if
any one was not capable of leading this kind of life,
be ought to be kept in the class of catechumens, but
in his present state could not be adnn'tted to bap-
tism. He is said to have held the doctrine of vica-
rious baptism of the living, for catechumens who had
died.
AVlth the exception of the epistles of Paul, Mar-
cion rejected the whole New Testament, substituting
for the writings of the four Evangeli.sts a pretended
original (lOspel, which he maintained was the record
of the go-spel history used by Paid himself, but
372
MARCOSIANS— MARIOLATRY.
wliicli probably was notliiiig more than tlie Gospel
according to Luke, mutilated to suit Marciou's pecu-
liar views. Tlie great aim of tins famous Gnostic
teacher appears to have been to restore the priuiiiive
church, designed by Christ, aud founded by the
Apostle Paul. Hence in many places he founded
comuumities of his own ; to the members of which
he prescribed numerous fctings and other austeri-
ties, such as .ibstinence from marriage, wine, flesh,
and all that was pleasing to the natural appetite.
The followers of Marcion, however, introduced vari-
ons modifications of his opinions, mingling them np
with the doctrines taught by the other Gnostics.
Hence arose out of the Marcionite heresy other sects,
such as the M.^rcosiaxs (which see), and ,\pf,l-
LE.\NS (which see), which differed widely from the
original sect.
MAUCOSIANS, a sect of Gnostics which sprung
up in the second centiu-y. having been originated by
Marcus, a disciple of Valeutinus. (See Valenti-
NIANS.) Both Iren?eus and Epiphanius treat of
this .sect at great length. Their opinions seem to
have been founded chiefly on the Gnostic doctrine of
^Eqii-s ; and according to Irenajus, the knowledge of
these yEoiis, and of the formation of the universe, was
derived by a revelation tVoni the primal fom' in the
system of yEoits, who appeared to Marcus in the
form of a female. The Marcosians seem to have
acknowledged the canonical Scriptures, and to have
received also many apocryphal books. Neander in-
forms us, that after the Jewish cabalistic method,
Marcus hunted after mysteries in the mnnber and
positions of the letters. He maintained two kinds
of baptism, a p.sychical hapti.sm in the name of Jesus,
the Messiah of the psychical natures, by which be-
lievers obtained jiardou of sin, and the hope of eter-
nal life in the kingdom of the Demiurge ; and
pneumatic baptism, in the name of the Christ from
heaven united with .Jesus, by which the spiritual
nature attained to self-consciousness and to perfec-
tion, entering into fellowship with the Pleroma.
According as the candidate was to be admitted
among the ])i;ychical or the pneumatical Christians,
both the ceremony aud the formula of baptism dif-
fered. The latter, which was the higher baptism,
w.is conducted with great pomp and rejoicing, the
chamber in which the ceremony was performed
being adorned as for a marriage. " One baptismal
formula for the Pneumatics," Neander says, '• ran
thus: 'In the na,me which is hidden from all the
divinities and powers (of the Deminrge), the name of
Initfi, which Jesus of Nazareth has put on in the
light-zones of Christ, the living Christ, through
the Holy Ghost, for the redemption of the angels,
— the name by which all things attain to perfec-
tion.' The candidate then said, ' I am eslahlished
and redeemed, — I am redeemed in my soul from this
world, and fr<im all that comes from it. bv the n.ime
of Jehovah, who has redeemed the soul of Jesus bv
the living Christ.' The whole assendjiy then said,
' Peace (or salvation) to all on whom this name rests.
Next they bestowed on the person baptized the sign
of consecration to the priestly office, by anointing
with oil, customary also in the church; but the oil
in this case was a cosily bal.sani ; for the precious,
far-spreading fragrance was intended to he a symbol
of that transcendant bliss of the Pleroma which had
been .ippointed for the redeemed."
The Marcosians seem to have been the first who
practised the ceremonv of extreme unction. The
dead v/ere anointed with balsam mingled with wafer,
aud a form of prayer was pronounced over them, to
the intent that the souls of the departed might rise
free from Demiurge, and all his powers, to their mo
ther, the Sophia. This sect used also a mystical
table which sj'mbolically represented their system.
JIAEDAITES. See Maronites.
MARGARET'S (St.) DAY, a festival of the
Romish church, celebrated on the 21st of February.
A festival dedicated to another saint of the same
name, who is represented as a virgui .ind martyr, is
celebrated by the Romish church on the 20th of
July.
MARGARITES, a word used by the Greek church
to denote the small jiarticles of bread which adhere
to the chalice or the patin, after consecration, in the
sacrament of the Lord's Supper. They receive the
name of Margariles or I'e.arls from the transparent
appearance which they assume when exposed to the
moisture.
j\[,MlICA, an ancient Roman goddess worshipped
at Mintui'nEe, and to her a grove was consecrated on
the river Liris. She has sometimes been considered
as identical with Al'llROWTl-; (which see). Hesiod
confounds her with Circe. Virgil makes her the
wife of Paunns, and the mother of L.itinus. an an-
cient king of Latium.
MARINE DEITIES, gods worshipped by the an-
cient Greeks and Romans as jiresiding over the si'a.
The principal of these was thePo^r/rfou of the (i reeks,
and Kejitmie of the Romans, and to him must be
added Nereua, Triton, Proteus, the Sireus, Sea-
Ni/mphf:, and Aeliehim.
M.\UI()L.\TRY, the worship of the Virgin Mary.
In the fourth century, in consequence of the jire-
valence of the ascetic spirit, the most extravagant
opinions began to be entertained of the merit of vir-
ginity, and Mary, the mother of our blessed Lord,
was venerated as the ideal of the celibate life. About
this time an ojn'nion arose that there were in the tem-
ple at Jerusalem virgins consecrated to (4od, among
whom Mary grew np in vows of perpetual virginity.
In the end of the fourth century, it became custom
ary to apply to Mary the appellation, " Mulhcr of
God." Until this time, however, there is no trace
of the worship of the Virgin. lint the first ajipear-
ance of Mariolatry was among a small sect ot' wo-
men, who canu> from Thrace and settled in Arabia,
and who, from cakes or wafers which they conscv
crated to Mary, were called Coij.yridians (which
MARIOLATRY.
373
see). Tliese were keenly opposed by tlie Helvi-
DIAN'S or ANTiniCA-AFARiANlTES (whicli see). But
the worshippers of Mary ])revailecl, and in tlie fiftli
century ima^'es of the Virgin were placed in the
churches huliling the infant Jesus in her arms. Once
introduced, this species of worship .spread rapidly,
and .Mary became a conspicuous object of veneration
in the churclies, botli of the East and West. To-
wards the close of the tenth century the custom be-
came prevalent among the Latins, of celebrating
masses, and abstaining from ilesli on Saturdays, in
honour of Mary. About the .same time the daily
office of St. Mary, which the Latins call the lesser
office, was introduced, and it was afterwards con-
firmed by Po|)e Urban IL in the council of Cler-
mont. The Uosary also came into use, consisting of
til'teen repetitions of the Lord's Prayer, and one
hundred salutations of St. Mary; and the Crown of
St. .Mary, as it was called by the Latins, consisted
of six or seven repetitions of the Lord's Prayer, and
sixty or seventy salutations according to the age
ascribed by difl'erent authors to the Holy Virgin.
ALiriolatry now became an established doctrine
and ]n-actice in the church of Konie, and down to
the present day has contiinied to occupy a very con-
spicuous [dace in her ritual ; while with equal in-
tensity Mary receives the worship of the Oriental
church, under the name of Panagla, or all-holy.
Adopting the distinction drawn by Thomas Aquinas,
Romanists allege that they honour the Virgin, not
with Lab-la, or the worship due to God only, but
with a high degree of veneration, which they term
Hi/perdalia, and which occupies an intermediate
place between the Latria due to God. and the Dulia
due to saints and angels. But even with this quali-
ficiition it cannot be denied that in Romish books of
devotion, prayers to the Virgin occujiy a prominent
place. Thus, what )irayer is in more constant use
than the " Ave Maria," or " Hail Mary," which, after
quoting a passage from tlie Salutation of the An^el
Gabriel to the Virgin, adds those words, " Holy
Marv, Mother of God, pray for us sinners now, and
in the hour of our death. Amen?" Again, in another
prayer, the Virgin is thus addressed, " We fly to
thy patronage, 0 Holy Mother of God; despise not
our petitions in our necessities, but deliver us from
all dangers, 0 ever glorious and blessed Virgin."
The " Salve Regina" runs thus, " Hail ! Holy Queen.
mother of mercy, our life, our sweetness, and oin-
hope ! to thee we cry, poor banished Sons of Eve, to
thee we send up our sighs, mourning and weeping in
this valley of tears ; turn, then, most gracious advo-
cate, thv eyes of mercy towards us, and after this
our exile is ended, show unto us the blessed fnut of
thy womb, Jesus, — 0 clement ! 0 pious ! 0 sweet
Virgin Mary." She is called " Mirror of Justice,"
" Seat of Wisdom," " Cause of our Joy," " Tower of
David," "Ark of the Covenant," " Gate of Heaven,"
" Morning Star," " Refuge of Sinners," and many
Other such terras, which plainly shows the very high
place which Mary occupies in the devotions of the
Romish church. The Ronnsh Breviary, also, of
which every priest must read a portion each day in
private under pain of mortal sin, uses the following
strong language as to the Virgin, — " If the winds of
temptation arise, if thou run upon the rocks of tri-
bulation, look to the star, call iqion Mary. If thou art
tossed upon the waves of pride, of ambition, of detrac-
tion, of envy, look to the star, call upon Mary. If
anger or avarice, or the temptations of the tlesh toss
the bark of thy nnnd, look to Mary. If disturbed with
the greatness of thy sins, troubled at the detilement
of thy conscience, affrighted at the horrors of the
judgment, thou begimiest to be swallowed up in the
gulf of sadness, the abyss of despair, think upon Mary
— hi dangers, in difificidties, in doubts, think upon
Mary, invoke Mary." The Council of Trent declares
prayer to the Virgin to be " good and wholesome."
15ut if we woidd know how strong is the hold which
devotion to the Virgin has taken of the true Roman-
ist, let us listen to the following undisguised avowal
of an Italian Jesuit, as made to the Rev. Hobart
Seymour, and recorded in his deeply interesting
work, ' Mornings with the Jesuits.'
"The feeling of devotion to the Virgin," said this
bigoted Romanist, "has a mysterious something in
it, that will ever linger about the heart of the man
who has ever felt it. It is one of those feelings that,
once admitted, can never .afterwards be totally obli-
terated. There it still clings around the heart, and
though there may be coldness to all other religious
impressions, — though there may be infidelity or even
scorn upon all our faith — though there may be the
plunging into the wild vortex of every sin, yet still
there will not unfrequently be foimd even among the
verv worst of our people, a lingering feeling of de-
votion to the blessed Virgin. It is as a little thread
that still keeps hold of the soid, and it will yet draw
him back. All else may be broken ; but this thread,
by wdiich the blessed Virgin holds him, still clings to
his soul. Even in the most wild, wicked, and des-
perate men — even among the bandits in their worst
state, there is always retained this devotion to Mary ;
and when we cannot get at their hearts in any other
way — v.dien everv other argument or truth or prin-
ciple or feeling of religion fails to make any impres-
sion, we frequently find access opened to their hearts,
by this one feeling still lingering about them ; and
tlius we find by experience tliat a devotion to the
blessed Virgin proves often the means by which we
are .able to lay hold of their hearts, and win them
back to our holy religion."
So enthusiastic, accordingly, have been the vo-
taries of the Blessed Virgin, that Buonaventura has
blasphemously applied some of the most sublime,
devotional passages in the Psalms, to the Virgin
Mary, ar,d St. Liguori goes so far as to say, that " all
is subject to Mary, even God himself." In "The
Glories of Mary," by St. Alphonso de Liguori, who
was canonized by the Church of Rome only a few
374
MARIOLATEY.
years ago, we find the vision of St. ISeniard recorded
with approbation, in whleh lie beheld two ladders
extending from earth to heaven. At the top of one
ladder appeared Je.siis Christ. At the top of the
other ladder appeared the Virgin Mary. While (ho.se
who endeavoured to enter into heaven by tlie way
of Cln-i.st'.s ladder, fell constantly back and utterly
failed ; these, on the other hand, wlio tried to enter
by the ladder of Mary, all .succeeded, becau.se she
jiut forth her hands to assist and encourage them.
l!ut it is not necessary to go so far back as Buona-
ventnra, or St. Bernard, or Si. Liguori ; we may re-
fer to Pope G-regorv XVI., who thus speaks in an en-
cyclical letter issued on entering on his office : — " Let
us raise our eyes to the most blessed Virgin Mary,
who alone destroy.s heresies, who is our greatest
hope, yea, the entire ground of our hope." Nay, the
enthusiasm waxing greater as time advances. Dr.
Cidlen, the archbishop of Dublin, in a pastoral issued
a few years ago, breaks forth into the following
str.ains of laudation : —
'• Her body, whicli had been tlie temple of the
Holy Gho.st, and given human flesh to the Redeemer,
exempted from the lot of the other descendants of
Adam, is not condemned to moulder into dust, but
united again with her pure soul, is, by the Divine
power, translated into heaven, and placed at the
right hand of her eternal Son. Here, to use the
words of Scripture, she appears ■ bright as the morn-
ing rising, elect as the sun, beautil'ul as the moon,
teiTible as the array of battle.' — .(Cant. vi. 9.) The
angels and saints of heaven, filled with astonishment
at the splendour of her majesty, cry out, ' Who is
she that Cometh up from the desert flowing with
charms and delights, leaning upon her beloved?' —
(Cant. viii. 5.) With what raptures do all the celes-
tial spirits receive their queen ! With what exulta-
tion do the patriarchs and prophets, and all the
saints, rise up to greet her through whom they re-
ceived their Redeemer, and to whom they were thus
indebted for their glory ! Oh, how on this hap|)y
occasion the earth itself rejoices ! its fruits are no
longer the fruits of malediction. ' The land that was
desolate and impassable shall be glad,' says the
Scripture, 'and the wildenu'ss shall rejoice and shall
flourish like the lily. It shall bud forth and blossom,
and .shall rejoice' with joy and praise.'" — (Isa. xxx.)
Thai the worship of the Virgin is universally prac-
tised by Romanists, travellers in Roman Catholic
countries universally attest. Churches are built to
her honour, while her shrines are crowded with en-
tluisiastic devotees. Her name is the (irst which the
infant is taught to lisp, and to her is cast the last
look of the dying. The soldier lights under her ban-
ner, and the brigand plunders under her protection. In
Italy and Spain robbers wear a picture of Mary hung
round their neck. If overtaken suddenly by death,
they kiss the image and die in peace. S<mta Maria,
Holy Marv, is the Romish devotee's all in .all. One
Hail Mary is worth ten Paternosters, and Mr. Sey-
mour tells us that a Roini.sh priest in Italy declared
to him his firm belief, that God hears our |)rayers
more quickly when they are oil'ered through the
Blessed Virgin than when olVered through any one
else. It has also been maintained by some Ronian-
ists, that the adoration nf the Virgin is in accordance
with the principles of human nature. Thus Mr. Sey-
mour describes an interview on this subject with a Je-
suit priest at Rome : " He stated, tliat there was a great
difference in the bent and habit of mind, between
English Pi-otestants on the one hand, and Italian
Romanists on the other ; thiit Protestants habitually
let their minds dwell on Christ's teaching, on Christ
working miracles, and especially on Christ's sufl'er-
ing, bleeding, dying on the cross, so that in a Pro-
testant mind, the great object was Christ in the ma-
turity of his manhood; but that Romanists habit-
u.ally dwelt on the childhood of Christ ; not on the
great events that were wrought in maturity and man-
hood, but on those interesting scenes which were
connected with his childhood. He then went on to
say that this habit of mind led to the gi-eat difi'er-
ence, that as Proteslants alw.ays dwelt on the suffer-
ing and dying Clu-ist, so Christ in a Protestant mind
was always connected with the cross ; and that as
Romanists constantly meditated rather on the child-
hood of Christ, so Christ in a Romanist's mind was
usually a.ssociated with his mother, the Virgin Mary.
He then continued to say th.at the constant dwelling
of the mind in conteniplalion of the child, naturally
led to more thought, more contemplation, more aiVec-
tion, and Anally, more devotion for the mother ; that
when one thinks of all the little scenes of his child-
hood, dwells on the little incidents of interest between
the child Jesus and the mother JIary, recollects that
she had him enshrined in her womb, that she used
to lead him by the hand, that she had listened to all
his innocent prattle, that she had observed the open-
ing of his mind ; and that during all those days of
his happy childhood she, and she alone of all the
world, knew that that little child whom she bore in
her womb, and inirsed at her breasts, and fondled in
her arms, was her God — that when a man thinks,
and habitually thinks of all this, the natural re-
sult is, that his afTections will be inore drawn out,
and his feelings of devotion more elevated towards
Mary. And he concluded by stating that this habit
of mind was becoming more general, and that it was
to it that he would altribule the great increase, that
late years had witnessed in the devotion to the Vir-
gin Mary."
In accordance, therefore, with the importance at
tached to the worship of the Virgin in the Cliurch of
Rome, we find in its prescribed olTices and ritual
not only prayers ottered to the Almighty in her
name, pleading her merits, through her mediation,
advocacy, and intercession, but prayers offered di-
rectly to herself, beseeching her to employ her in-
tercession with the Eternal Eather and with her Son
in behalf of her petitioners; and proceeding a step
MARK'S (St.) DAY— MARNAS.
375
fnrther, we find prayers to lier for her protection
from all evils, spiritual and bodily ; for her guidance
and aid, and for the intlnences of her grace. In addi-
tion to all this, divine praises are ascribed to her in
l)ions acknowledgment of her attributes of power,
wisdom, goodness, and mercy, and of her exalted
state above all the spirits of lite and glory in hea-
ven ; and for her share in the redemption of the
world, and the henetits conferred by her on the indi-
vidual worshipper.
In Romish countries the whole month of May is
annually devoted to the Virgin, and is called by way
of eminence. " Mary's Month." In Paris, for ex-
ample, a service in her honour is performed with
great ceremony every evening throughout the entire
month. Temporary altars are raised to her sur-
rounded by flowers and evergreens, and profusely
adorned with garlands and drapery, her image usually
standing in a conspicuous place before the altar.
The chief part in these religious festivities is per-
formed by .societies or guilds, which are expressly
instituted chiefly for the celebration of the Virgin's
praises. A collection of hymns is in regular use
bv the fraternities in Paris, many of them being
adilres.sed directly and exclusively to the Virgin.
One of tlie most remarkable works in praise of Mary
is the P.salter of Bonaventnra, a Franciscan monk
of the tliirteenth century. In this work the author
so changes the commencement of each of tlie P.sahns
of David as to iiddress them all to the Virgin Mary ;
interspersing in some of them much of his own com-
position, and then adding the Gloria PutH to each.
Appended to liouaventura's Psalter are various
hymns to the Virgin, being alterations of prayers
addressed to God in Scripture. The Athan.asian
Creed is employed in the same manner to declare
belief in the divinity of Mary, and in course of this
moditication of the creed, the assumption of the Vir-
gin into lieaven is specified as one of the points to
be believed on pain of forfeiting all hopes of salva-
tion.
The works of Bonaventiu'a gave great impulse to
the worship of Mary in the Romish church. Others
followed in the same strain, among whom may be
mentioned Gabriel Biel, a schoolman of great ce e-
brify in the fifteenth century, and Peter Damiani,
whose works were published under the authority of
the Pope in the beginning of the seventeenth century.
At length, to such an extent had the veneration for
tlie Virgin Mary been carried, that able and learned
Roman Catholic writers c;ime forward to moderate
the extravagancies of their brethren, and to moilil'y
and reduce the worsldp of the Virgin within reason-
able bounds. To effect this object, Theophilus Ray-
naud, a Jesuit of Lyons, produced a work entitled
' Diptvcha Mariana,' in which he strongly disap-
proved of some of the sentiments which had been put
forth bv preceding writers on the subject, particu-
larly those which ascribed to Mary attributes ,and
acts whicli properly belong to God the Father, or to
Christ the Son. To such an extent, indeed, had tlte
desire been carried of setting aside Jesus, and substi-
tuting Mary in his room, that in the sixteenth cen-
tury the Christian era was inade, by some Roinisli
writers, to begin, not from the '• birth of Christ," but
from " the Virgin Mother of God."
At the present day the worship of the Virgin Mary
occupies a conspicuous place in the ritual of the Ro-
mish church. The Ave Marin, or Hail JIary, lias,
since the fifteenth century, been the favourite prayer
to the Virgin, and always accompanies the Pater-
noster in the stated devotions of a Romanist. In the
' Litany of the Blessed Virgin' there are more than
forty invocations of the Virgin, designating her by as
many varieties of title. The favourite hymn or
prayer, called Salve Regina, is addressed exclusively
to the Virgin, as is also the hymn Ave Maria Stella,
Hail, Mary, star of the sea. St. AJphonsus Liguori,
who was canonized by Pope Gregory XVI. in 1839,
published a work entitled the ' Glories of Mary,' in
which she is extolled far above mortals, and invested
with attributes and authority of the liighest order.
The Most Holy Father, to whom we have just refer-
red, granted in 1840 an indulgence of 100 years to
every one who should recite a prayer to the Virgin
to this efl'ect, " 0 immaculate queen of heaven and
of angels, I adore you. It is you who have deli-
vered me from hell ; it is you from whom I look for
all mv salvation." Pius IX., in his encyclical let-
ter of date 184G, .«ays, " In order that our most mer-
ciful God may the more readily incline his ear to our
prayers, and may grant that which we implore, let us
ever have recourse to the intercession of the most
holy mother of God, the immaculate Virgin Mary,
our sweetest mother, our mediatrix, our advocate, our
surest hope, and firmest reliance, than whose patron-
age nothing is more potent, nothing more ellectual
with God.'* In the allocution of the same ' Most
Holy Father,' pronounced in the secret consistory at
Gaeta, 18-19, he s.ays, " Let ns have recourse to the
most holy and immaculate Virgin Mary, who, being
the mother of God, and our mother, and the mother
of mercy, finds what she seeks, .and cannot be frus-
trated." In 18.54 his Holiness issued a decree, de-
claring the immaculate conception of the Virgin to
be henceforth an article of faith in the Romi>h
Church, and thus a very important step in advance
has been taken towards investing the mother of Jesus
with tlie honours of divinity. She is henceforth to
be viewed bv every Romanist as taken out of the
category of sinful mortals, and ranged among sinless
beings.
MARK'S (St.) DAY, a festival observed both by
the Romish and the Greek churches on the 'IMx of
April. On this day the Great or Septiform Litany
is read, and a procession takes place. See Litan-
IKS.
M.ARK (St.), Liturgy of. See Liturgies.
MARNAS, a deity anciently worshipped at Gaza,
one of the lordships of the Philistines. This god is
■il6
MAROXITE CHURCH (The).
said to Iiave migrated into Ciete, and become tlie
Cretan .Tiipiter.
MAKONITE CHURCH (Tin:), one of the Ori-
ental cliiirclies, which fraternizes witli Rome. It de-
rivc^■ its name eitlicr from a Syrian moiilv named
Maro, who lived on tlie banks of the Orontes about
A. n. 400, or from one Jlarim or Maro, who was
theii- patriarch of Antioch, and lluiirislied about A. D.
700. The .Maronitcs appear to be tlie descendants
of tliose Syrian Clu-istians wlio, on tlie Mohamme-
dan invasion in the seventh centnry, found an asy-
lum in the mountains of Libauus and Anti-Libanus,
wlience they frequently sallied forth on predatory
incursions to the great annoyance of the Saracens or
Arabs. Great nuuibers of them, so many it is said
as 12,000, were seized and carried off as prisoners
by Justinian HI., the Greek emperor. This proved
an eti'ectual check to their marauding propensities.
During the Crusades the extent of their temtory was
much reduced, and by frequent wars with the Otto-
mans they were diminished in numbers, and at lengtli
put under tribute.
The Marouites at an early period of their liis-
tory .seem to have niainlained the heresy of the
MONOTIIELITES (whicli See), alleging that in the
Person of Clirist there were two natures and one
will. For five centuries the Maronite church held
an independent position, but in the twelfth cen-
tury it was united with the Romish church in the
reign of Baldwin IV., and their patriarch was pre-
sent at the Lateran council lield by Pope Innocent
III. Though nominally subject to Rome, this Ori-
ental church still retains so much of its original in-
dependence, that its patriarch styles himself Peter
the patriarch of Antioch, thus claiming to be the
spiritual descendant and representative of the Apos-
tle Peter in the East. Tlie fact is, that Rome has
had the utmost difficulty in maintaining its authority
over the Maronites, both because of their tendency
to fall into heresies of different kinds, and also be-
cause of their unwillingness to part with their an-
cient independence. To effect their more complete
subjugation to the Papal see, Gregory XIII. founded
a college at Rome for the education and training of
Maronite missionaries, who might be instrumental in
diffusing among their countrymen an ardent attach-
ment to the Romish cluuch. All the scliemes de-
vised, however, to bind the Maronite church to the
Roman pontiff have been hitherto unsuccessful ; tor
some of tliem refuse, at this day, to recognize the
alliance with the Laliu church. To arrange the atliiirs
of the .Maronite church, PopeClemenl XII. summoned
the Great Comu il of Lebanon, which was held on the
30lh of September 1736. It was attended by eigh-
teen bishops, of whom fourteen were Miuonites, two
Syrian, and two Amienian. The abbots of soveial
monasteries were also present, along with a multi-
tude of the priests and chief people of the country.
By the decrees of this council the church of the
Maronites is regulated to tliis day.
The seat of the Maronites is the mountainous dis-
trict of Lebanon, from about Tripoli to Tyre. The
main body of tlie range ciilled Libanus is inhabited
by neai-ly 240,000 Maronites, calculated, however, by
Dr. Wilson, at not more than 150,000. The patri-
arch of the body is elected by the bishops, who
must all be monks, but he receives his robe of in-
vestiture from Rome, in acknowledgment of the sub-
jection of his church to the Papal see. He is held
in the highest veneration by the people among whom
he lives. His income amounts to about £2,0U0 a-
year. His jurisdiction extends over nine metropoli-
tan sees, the occupants of which, chosen by the
people, but consecrated by the patriarch, are called
Metrdns or Metropolitans. The patriarch has two
vicars or assistants, one of them connected with the
temporal, and the other with the spiritual ati'airs of
the church. He has also an agent at Rome, and
three presidents at the principal monasteries or col-
leges. The agent of the patriarch at Rome reported
in 1844, that, exclusive of convents, there were 356
Maronite churches iu Syria, to which were attached
1,205 priests, under the authority of their bishops
and patriarch. The number of priests, however,
was stated by the American missionaries in 1845 at
between 70o'and 1,000.
Dr. Wilson, in his • Lands of the Bible,' quotes
from a communication of Mr. Graham of Damascus,
the following description of tlie Maronite convents:
"In Lebanon the conventual system is in the most
vigorous operation. In most other countries these
institutions have been on the decline since the era
of the Reformation ; but on the goodly mountain,
fanaticism and siqierstition, like the power of its
vegetation, have been increasing and multiplying
with startling luxuriance. . . . Division per\crts
their councils, and fanaticism stains their conduct,
and the heatheni.sh Druze and the superstitious Ma-
ronite are hardly distinguishable from each other in
the moralities and charities of life. In the extensive
district of Kasrawrtn a Protestant would not be al-
lowed to settle; and, if he could be permitted to
]iass through it wiihout insult or injury, he might be
very thankl'ul. This is the result of the Monastic
Institutions, for the peasants are a quiet, tranquil,
and industrious race. The whole mountain is filled
with convents. Their numbers I do not know; but
it must be jirodigious. Some of them, like that of
the Deir el-Kalla. are very rich, possess the choicest
old wines of the country, and the reputation of in-
dulging in the unnatural enormities which brought
destruction on the cities of the plain. Many of the
monks are totally ignorant, and can neither read nor
write. In such circumstances, it may easily be ima-
gined how incompetent their motives, hopes, and
fears must be to control, not the vices of our nature
only, but its very principles also ! Apostolic moral-
ity is not sufficient. They aim at the supposed
angelic excellency of the celibate, and they fall into
pollutions below the level of the brutes."
MARRIAGE.
377
Tlie Mai-onile clergy, tliough connected with
Rome, dissent from her regulations in regard to the
celibacy of the priesthood, most of them being mar-
ried men. On this poait, accordingly, the Pope has
been obliged to make a compromise with them, and
to allow them to retain their wives when they hap-
pen to have married before taking priest's orders.
They are not, however, allowed to marry after hav-
ing entered into the priesthood, or to remarry should
they be deprived of their wives while in the priest-
hood. In Divine service, the Arabic language is
used in reading the Gospels and E|]istles, and the
Syriau in performing their masses and liturgical ser-
vices. The parish priests are elected by the people,
and ordained by the diocesan bishops or the patri-
arch. They ai-e not allowed to follow any secular
profession. It is no part of their duty to preach,
but simply to read the offices. The priests have
parsonage houses, but the prodiice of their glebes is
applied to defray the ordinary expenses of their
churches. Their income ranges from 2,000 to 9,000
piastres. The unmarried priests are not generally
elected to the ministerial charge of parishes, but are
usually connected with convents, either as superiors,
or in subordinate offices. The Maronites consider
preaching to have been one of the peculiar offices of
our Saviour, and a preacher is therefore held in the
highest respect. Before a priest can venture to
undertake the responsible duty of preaching, he must
have a written permission from the patriarch or the
bishop of the diocese. Occasionally permission is
given to laymen to officiate as preachers. The
Romish church, unwilling to lose the hold she has
got over the Maronites, allows them to retain several
customs and observances at variance with her ritual
arrangemrnts. A few of these are thus adverted to
by Dr. Wilson : "They have been allowed to main-
tain most of their own customs and observances,
however nuich at variance svith those which Rome
is usually content to sanction. They are allowed
to preserve their own ecclesiastical language, the
Syriac, while Rome has shown her partiality for
the Latin rite, by bringing it into use wherever
practicable. They dispense the communion in both
kinds, dipping the bread in wine before its dis-
tribution anu)ng the people. Though they now
ob.terve the Roman calendar, as far as the time
of feasts and fasts is concerned, they recognise
local saints which have uo place in its commemora-
tions. They have retained the custom of the mar-
riage of their clergy previous to their ordination.
Though they profess to be zealous partizans of
Kome, it dare not so coimt upon their attachment as
to force upon them all that in ordinary circumstances
it thinks desirable. In order to secure its present
influence over them, it is subjected to an expense of
no small magnitude."
The Maronites are an active industriou.s people,
iind amid their rocky dwellings tliey carry forward
their agricultural labours with such zeal and success,
that ere long the prophecy bids fair to be fulfilled,
" Lebanon shall be turned into a fruitful field."
MARRIAGE. The origin and institution of the
nuptial contract dates from the creation of man, for
no sooner had Adam sprung from the hand of his
Creator, than God was pleased to declare, " It is not
good for man to be alone," and accordingly he cre-
ated Eve, and brought her to the man, who said,
"This is bone of my bone, and desh of my flesh.
Therefore shall a man leave father and mother, and
cleave unto his wife : and they twain shall be one
fle.sh." Among the earliest nations, accordingly, we
find the marriage relation urnformly held in respect.
The Jews, indeed, in Old Testament times, not only
regarded the married state as honourable and right,
inasnuich as it was a fulfilment of the Divine com-
mand, " Be ye fruitful and nuiltiply, and replenish
the earth," but from the expectation of the advent
of the Messiah, which prevailed among them from
the earhest period of their nation's history, there
was felt to be as it were a sacred oljligation resting
U])on all to marry. Hence it was esteemed the duty
of every male who had reached eighteen or twenty
years of age to enter into the marriage union, and it
was esteemed a reproach in any man to lead a life of
celibacy ; nay, even it was viewed as a sin, since he
nught by remaining unmarried frustrate the great
promise of the Redeemer, that the seed of the uo-
nian should bruise the head of the serpent. Hence
among the Jews marriages were usually contracted
at an early age, the ordinary period fixed by the
Rabbins being eighteen in the case of males, and
twelve in the case of females.
Maimonides alleges that marriage was contracted
in the time of the patriarchs with little ceremony,
but it is plain from various passages of the Books of
Moses, that a regular contract was made in the
house of the bride's father, before the elders and
governors of the place, af'ter which she was conveyed
with considerable pomp to the house of her husband.
The Jews allege that af'ter her espousals or betroth-
ment she was allowed to remain for a certain period,
at least ten months, in her parent.s' house, that she might
make suitable preparations for the marriage cere-
mony. The wedding was celebrated with a feast of
seven davs. The bride was adorned on the occasion
with as much care and elegance as her station in lite
permitted, and a nuptial crown was placed upon her
liead. During the marriage-feast, the bridegroom
and his party entertained them.selves in one apart-
ment, while the bride and her companions were
similarly employed in another. "On the last day,"
to quote from Dr. Nevin in his ' Biblical Antiqui-
ties,' " the bride was corulucted to the house of the
bridegroom's father. The procession generally set
oil' in the evening, with much ceremony and pomp.
The bridegroom was richly clothed with a marriage
robe and crown, and the bride was covered with a
veil from head to foot. The companions of each at
tended them with songs and the music of mstur-
378
MARRIAGE.
ments; not in promiscuous assemblage, but each
company by itself; wbile the virgins, aecording to
tlie custom of the times, were all provided with
veils, not indeed so large and thick as that which
hung over the bride, but abundantly sufficient to
conceal their faces from all aroimd. The way, as
tliey went along, was lighted with numerous torches.
In the ineanlime, another company was waiting at
the bridegroom's house, ready, at the first notice of
their approach, to go forth and meet them. These
seem generally to have been young female relations
or friends of the bridegroom's family, called in at
tliis time, by a particular invitation, to grace the
occasion with their presence. Adorned with robes
of gladness and joy, they went forth with lamps or
torches in their hands, and welcomed the (irocession
with the customary salutations. They then joined
themselves to the marriage train, and the whole
company moved forward to the house. There an
entertainment was provided for their reception, and
the remainder of the evening was spent in a joyful
participation of the marriage supper, with such social
merriment as suited the joyous occasion. None
were admitted to this entertaimnent beside the par-
ticular number who were selected to attend the wed-
ding; and as the regular and proper time for their
entrance into the house was when the bridegroom
went in with his bride, the doors were then closed,
and no other guest was expected to come in." Sucli
were the ceremonies which attended the celebration
of a marriage among the ancient Jews. In the tijne
of Ruth no other ceremony seems to have attended
a marriage than the pronouncing of a solemn bless-
ing, by the nearest relations, on the parties, who
agreed in their presence to become liusband aiul
wife. Tlius Boaz merely declared in presence of
the elders assembled at the gate of the city, that he
had resolved to take the daughter of Naomi to be his
wife. "And all the people that were in the gate,
and the elders, said, We are witnesses. The Lord
make the woman that is come into thine Iiouse like
Rachel and like Leah, which two did build the house
of Israel : and do thou worthily in Ephratah, .and be
famous in Betldeheni. So Boaz took Ruth, and she
was his wife: and when he went in unto her, the
Lord gave her conception, and slie bare a son."
The marriage ceremcjiiy of the modern Jews dif-
fers considerably from that of the aiu'ient. It is
thus described by Mr. Allen in his ' Modern Juda-
ism:' '-On the day tixcd for the solemnization of
the nuptials, the bride and bridegroom are conducted
to the ])lace appoinied for the celebration of the
ceremony. The bride is escorted by women, ami
the bridegroom by men. The company is generally
large, including most or all of their friends and
acrpiaiiilances. Ten men, at least, must be present;
or the marriage is null and void. The chief-iabbi
and cliassan of the synagogue form part of the
company.
"A velvet canopy is brought into the room, and
extended on four long poles. The bride and bride-
groom are led to their station under this canopy;
the bridegroom by two men; and the bride by two
women, her face being covered with a veil. These
two men and two women are always the parents of
the bride and bridegroom, if they happen to be liv-
ing : otherwise this office is performed by their near-
est kindred ; a man and bis wite for the bride, and
another man and his wife for the bridegroom ; though
the bridegroom is led by the men, and the bride by
the women. The jiarties are placed opposite to each
other, and then the person who jierforms the cere-
mony, takes a glass of wine in his hand, and .says :
' Bles.sed art thou, 0 Lord our God, King of the
universe! who createst tlie fruit of the vine. Blessed
art thou, O Lord om' God, King of the univer.se!
who hast sanctified us with tliy commandments and
hast forbidden us fornication, and hast restrained us
from the betrothed, but hast permitted us those who
are married to us, by means of the canopy and wed-
lock. Bles.sed art thou, 0 Lord ! who .sanctitiest
Israel.' The bridegroom and bride then drink of tlie
wine ; after which the bridegroom takes the ring,
and puts it on the bride's linger; saying, 'Behold
thou art wedded to me with this ring, according to
the law of Moses and Israel.'
"Then the marriage contract is read, which speci-
fies that the bridegroom A. B. agrees to take the
bride C. D. as his lawful wile, according to the law
of Moses and Israel ; and tliat he will keep, main-
tain, honour, and cherish ber, according to the man-
ner of all the Jews, who honour, keep, maintain,
and cherish their wives ; and that he will keep her
in clotliing decently, according to the custom of the
world. This instrument also specifies what sum he
settles upon her in ca.-e of his dcatli; and he obliges
Ills heirs, executors, and administrators, to pay the
same to her out of the first produce of his efi'ects.
" After the reading of this instrument, the person
performing the ceremony takes another glass of
wine, and repeats seven benedictions. Then the
bridegroom and bride drink the wine; after which
the empty glass is laid on the fioor, and the bride
groom, stamjiing on it, breaks it to ])ieces. This
part of the ceremony is .said to be intended as an
indication of the frailty of lite. Then all the com-
pany shout, GdiicI luck to you. The ceremon)' is
followed by a contribution for the jioor of the land
of Cauium. — The imptial feast is as sumjituous as
the parlies can ali'ord, and continues for seven days."
In the early ecclesiastical writers, no account is
given of the moile in which marriage was solemnized
among the mendiers of the priniiiiv e Christian church.
It was not until the ninth century, indeed, that the
])ropriety or necessity of marriage being celebrated
with religious exercises was recognized by the civil
law, but so early as the second century, such reli-
gious rites were required by the church. The cere-
mony appears to have been conducted with the ut-
most simplicity in these days of ]irinuti\c Christian
MARRIAGE.
379
ity. The purple tillet with wliich tlie Iiairof iimnai'-
ried females was bound, was lirst removed from the
head of the bride, and a veil tlirown over her person.
I The pastor then addressed suitable admonitions to the
parties, at the close of wliich they both partook of the
communion. This solemn service havin:^ been gone
through, they were required to join their right hands,
when the minister pronounced them to be married per-
sons, and prayed for a blessing upon the tmion thus
formed. The parties were now adorned with garlands
of flowers, and walked in procession to their home.
The evening was closed with a marriage feast, at
which the relatives and friends of the bridegroom
and bride were present. The ceremony of crowning
the parties, which was the commencement of the
whole service, has been already described under the
article CriOWN (Nuptial).
The marriage procession which conducted the
bridegroom with great pomp to tlie house of his fu-
ture bride, is universal in tlie Kast, and is alluded to
in the Talmud and in the parable of the Ten Vir-
gins, recorded in Mattli. xxv. 1 — 10. We find a
modern illustration of tlie custom in Messrs. Bonar
and M'Cheyne's Travels in Palestine : " The bride-
groom was on his way to the house of the bride.
According to custom, he walkeil in procession through
several streets of the town, attended by a numerous
body of friends, all in their showy eastern garb. Per-
sons bearing t(jrches went tirst, the torches being
kept in full blaze by a constant supply of ready wood
from a receiver, made of wire, fixed on the end of a
long pole. Two of the torch-bearers stood close to
the bridegroom, so that we had a view of his person.
Some were playing upon an instrument not unlike
our bagpipe, others were beating drums, and from
time to time muskets were fired in honour of the
occasion. There was much mirth expressed by the
crowd, especially when the procession stood still,
which it did every few paces. We thought of the
words of John, 'The friend of tlie bridegroom, which
standeth and lieareth him, rejniceth greatly because
of the bridegroom's voice.' At length tlie company
arrived at the entrance of the street where the bride
resided. Immediately we heard the sound of many
female voices, and observed by the light of the
torches, a company of veiled bridesmaids, waiting on
the balcony to give notice of the coming of the
bridegroom. When they caught a sight of the ap-
proaching procession, they ran back into the house,
making it resound with tlie cry, ' Halil, halil, halil,'
and music both vocal and instrumental commenced
within. Thus the bridegroom entered in ' and the
door was shut.' We were left standing in the street
without, 'in the outer darkness.' In our Lord's
parable, the virgins go forth to meet the bridegroom
witli lamps in their hands, but here they only waited
j for his coming. Still we saw the traces of the very
scene described by our Lord, and a vivid representa-
tion of the way in which Christ shall come and the
I marriage supper of the Lamb begin."
Among the ancient Greeks marriage was looked
upon as an important and even solemn transaction.
On the day before the marriage was celebrated, sacii-
fices or otVerings were made to the deities who presided
over the marriage relation, particularly to Hero, and
Artemis. Both bride and bridegroom cut oft' a por-
tion of their hair, and dedicated it as an oti'ering to
one of the gods. On the wedding-day the parties weie
both of them subjected to careful ablution. Towards
evening the bride was conveyed from her father's
house to that of the bridegroom in a chariot, accom-
panied by the bridegroom and a companion chosen
by him for the occasion, and usually called the ^«M'n-
vj/iiqih. Crowds of attendants inarched in proces-
sion carrying lighted torches, while music, both vocal
and instrumental, saluted the bridal train as it moved
along. The bride was veiled, and both she and the
bridegroom wore chaplets on their heads. As the
parties entered the house of the bridegroom, sweet-
meats were showered plentifully over their heads,
denoting a wish that abundance of good things might
ever attend them. The marriage was not celebrated
with any special rites, either civil or religious; but
when the parties liad reached the house of the bride-
groom, or of his parents, a nuptial feast was held, at
which both women and men were present, seated,
however, at separate tables. At the conclusion of
the feast, and when the parties had retired to their
own apartments the epillialamium or marriage hymn
was sung before the door. On the day following the
marriage, it was customary for the friends to send
presents to the newly married pair.
An ancient Roman marriage dill'ered in various
particulars from a marriage among the ancient
Greeks. The wedding-day was not fixed without
first consulting the auspices. Certain days were
avoided as unlucky, especially the Kalends, Nones,
and Ides of each month. On the occasion of the
marriage, the bride was dressed in a long white robe
willi a purple fringe, or adorned with ribands, and a
girdle was worn round the waist, while a veil of a
bright yellow colour was thrown over tlie head,
and shoes of the same colour were worn upon the
feet. Her hair was divided on this occasion with
the point of a spear. Among the Romans no mar-
riage was celebrated with religious rites except the
CoNI^\KREATIO (which See). In tbe evening of
the marriage the bride was conducted to the house
of her husband, carrying in her hands a distaft'
and a spindle with wool. Three boys accompanied
her dressed in the priEtexta, one bearing a torch
before, while the other two walked by her .side.
The procession was also attended by a large com-
pany of the friends both of the bridegroom and the
bride. On reaching the house of the bridegroom,
the entrance of which was ornamented with flow-
ers, the utmost care was taken that the bride should
not strike her foot ag.ainst the threshold, which
would have been an unlucky omen. To prevent
this she was carried inio the house. Before entering,
1
^ 380
MAIUUAGE.
however, slie wo;ind a portion of wool round the
door-posts, and anointed tliem with lard; al'ier which
Iwr t'utnre hu-b.ind met her with tire and water,
Mfldcli she was recpiired to touch. She then advanced
forward and took her seat upon a sheepskin prepared
for tlie purpose, when tlie keys of the luiuse were
formally presented to her. A marriage feast closed
the whole proceedings. On the day following the
marriage, or at least on an eai'ly day thereafter, sacri-
fices were oHered to the Penates or household gods.
Tlie marriage ceremonies among the ancient Scan-
dinavians were very sim[ile, and chiefly consisted in
feasting. " Tlie bridegroom," says Mr. Mallet, " hav-
ing obtained the maiden's consent, togetlier with
that of lier parents and guardians, appointed the day ;
and having assembled his own relations and friends,
sent some of them to receive iu his name the bride
and her portion from her father. The friends were
answerable for tlie charge that was committed to
them, and if they abused their trust, the lasv amerced
tiiem in a sum treble to what was paid for murder.
The father or guardian of the young woman attend-
ed her also to the husband's house, and there gave
her into his hands. After this the new married pair
sat down to table with their guests, who drank to
their healths along with those of tlie gods and heroes.
The bride's friends then took her up and bore her
on their slioulders, which was a mark of esteem
among the Goths ; her father afterwards led her to
the miptial bed, a great number of liglits being car-
ried before her ; a custom known to the Greeks and
Romans, and still in use in some parts of tlie North.
The marriage being consummated, the husband made
his wife several presents, sucli as a pair of oxen for
the plough, a harnessed Iiorse, a buckler, together
with a lance and a sword. ' This was to signity,'
says Tacitus, ' that she ought not to lead an idle and
luxurious life, but that she was to be a partaker witli
him in his labours, and a companion in dangers,
wliich they were to share together in peace and
war.' He adds that ' the women, on their parts gave
some arms ; this was the sacred band of their union,
these their mystic rites, and these the deities who
presided over their marriage.' The yoked oxen, the
caparisoned horse, and the arms, all served to in-
struct the women how they were to lead their life,
and how perhaps it might be terminated. The arms
were to be carefully jjreserved, and being ennobled
by the use the husband made of them, were to be
Consigned as portions for iheir daughters, and to be
handed down to posterity."
In the Greek cliurcli the marriage ceremony con-
sists of three ii.arts, the betrothal, the coronation,
and the dissolving of the crowns. Hence the cere-
mony is complicated and protracted. In the course
of tlie service many prayers are oll'ered not only for
the married parties, but also for the bridesmaids.
Benedictions of great beauty and solemnity are pro-
nounced upon the newly married couple.
The modes of celebrating marriage among mo-
dern heat lien nations are very different, and some
of them very peculiar and deeply interesting. We
■select a few taken from the accounts of travellers.
Among the Japanese a marriage is conducted after
this maimer : " On the day tixed for the marriage,
an intelligent female servant of the second class is
sent to the house of the bride to attend her, and the
bride's father, having invited all his kinsfolk, enter-
tains them previous to the bride's departure. The
bridal party sets out in norinions or litters, the me-
diator's wife first, then the bride, then the bride's
mother, and, finally, her father. The mediator has
already preceded them to the bridegroom's house.
The bride is dressed in white (white being the colour
for mourning among the Japanese), being considered
as thenceforward dead to her parents.
" If all the ceremonies are to be observed, there
should be stationed, at the right of the entrance to
the house of the bridegroom, an old woman, and on
the left an old man, each with a mortar containing
some rice-cakes. As the bride's norlmon readies
the house, they begin to pound their respective mor-
tars, the man saying, ' A thousand j-ears I' the wo-
man, 'Ten thousand!' — allusions to the reputed
terms of life of the cranj and the tortoise thus in-
voked for the bride. As the norimon passes be-
tween them, the man pours liis cakes into the woman's
mortar, and both pound together. What is thus
pounded is moulded into two cakes, which are put
one upon another and receive a conspicuous place in
the toko of the room where the marriage is to be
celebrated.
" The norimon is met within the passage by the
bridegroom, who stands in his dress of ceremony
ready to receive it. There is also a woman seated
there with a lantern, and several others behind her.
It was by the light of this lantern that formerly
the groom lirst saw his bride, and, if dissatisfied
with her, exercised his right of putting a stop to
the ceremony. The bride, on seeing the bridegroom,
reaches to him, through the front window of her
norimon, her marmori, which is a small square or
oblong bag, containing a small image of metal,
used as an amulet, and he hands it to a female ser-
vant, who takes it into the apartment prepared for
the wedding, and hangs it up. The bride is also
led to her apartment, the woman with the lantern
preceding.
'• The marriage being now about to take place, the
bride is led, by one of her waiting women, into llie
room where it is to be celebrated, and is seated there
with two female attendants on either side. The
bridegroom then leaves his room and conies into this
apartment. No other persons are present except
the mediator and bis wife. The formality of the
marriage consists in drinking saki after a parliciilar
manner. The saki is poured out by two young girls,
one of whom is called the male butterlly, and the
other tlie female buttei-fly, — apjiellations derived
from their susu, orsaki-jugs, each of which is adorned
MAKRIAGK.
381
with a paper butterfly. As these inseets always fly
about ill pairs, it is iiitenrlefl to intimate tliat so the
husband ami wife oiiglit to be continually together.
The male butterfly always pours out the .saki to be
drunk, but, before doing so, turns a little to the left,
when the female butterfly pours from her jug a little
saki into the jug of the otlier, who then proceeds to
pour out for the ceremony. For drinking it, three
bowls are used, placed on a tray or waiter, one within
the other. The bride takes the uppermost, liolds it
in both hands, while some saki is poured into it,
sips a little, three several times, and then hands it
to the groom. He drinks three times in like man-
ner, puts the b'lwl under the third, takes the second,
hands it to be filled, drinks out of it three times, and
passes it to the bride. She drinks three times, puts
the second bowl under the first, takes the third, holds
it to be filled, drinks three times, .-md then hands it
to the groom, who does the same, and afterwards
puts this bowl under the first. This ceremony con-
stitutes the marriage. The briiie's ])areuts, who
meanwhile were in .tnotlier room, being informed that
this ceremony is over, come in, as do the bride-
groom's parents and brothers, and seat themselves in
a certain order. The saki, with other refreshments
inter-spersed, is then served by the two butterflies, to
these relations of the married parties in a prescribed
order, indicated by the mediator ; the two families,
by this ceremony, extending, as it were, to eacli
other the alliance ah-eady contracted between the
bride and bridegroom."
Mr. Ellis gives an interesting account of the mar-
riage ceremony in Madagascar : " Wlien the prelimi-
naries are determined, and the time fixed, viz., a good
or lucky day, according to the sikidy or diviner, the
relatives of the bride and bridegroom meet at the
houses of the parents of tlie respective parties. All
are attired in their best apparel, and decorated with
their gayest ornaments. At the appointed liour, the
relatives or friends of the bridegroom accom;>aiiy him
to the house of the bride. These pay or receive the
dowry, which being settled, he is welcomed by the
bride as her future husband ; they eat together, are
recognized by the senior members of the family as
nusband and wife ; a benediction is pronounced ujion
them, and a prayer olTered to God, that they ni.iy
have a numerous olTspring. abundance of cattle, many
slaves, great wealth, and increase the honour of their
respective families. They then repair to the bou.se
of the parents or friends of the bridegroom, and again
eat together, when similar benedictions are pro-
nounced by the senior members of the family, or the
head man of the ^ illago, who is usually invited to
the ceremony. The nuptial bond is, in some in-
stances, now regarded as complete : general feasting
ensues, after which the parties return to tlieir re-
spective homes, and the newly married couple to the
residence prepared for them. But if, as is generally
the case, the houses in which the parties have met
is below the hill on which their village is built, the
bride is placed on a sort of chair, under a canopy,
and borne on men's .shoulders up the sides iif the
hill to the centre of the village. Occasionally the
bridegroom is carried in the same manner. The re-
latives and friends of the parties follow the proces-
sion, clapping their hands, and singing, as tlie bearers
ascend. On reaching the village, they halt at what
is called the parent-house, or residence of the nflicer
of the government ; a ha.sina, or piece of money, is
given to the attending officer, for the sovereign, the
receiving of which is considered a legal ofl!icial rati-
fication of the engagement, as the marriage cannot
afterwards be auiiulled, except by a legal act of
divorce in the presence of witnesses. No ring, or
other emblem of the married state, is used on such
occasions, or worn afterwards; nor is there any
badge bv which the married may be distinguished
from the unmarried women in Madagascar, when
their liiisb.auds are at home ; but during the absence
of their husbands, especially in the service of gov-
ernment, a necklace, of silver rings, or beads, or
braided hair, is woni, to denote that they are mar-
ried, and that consequently their persons are sacred.
Thus the wives of the officers composing the late
embassy to England were distinguished during the
absence of their husbands."
Turning to the South Sea Islands, we find the
following description given of a marriage in that
quarter of the world by Mr. Williams in his Mission-
ary Researches : " A group of women seated under
the .shade of a noble tree which stood at a short
distance from the house, chaunted, in a pleasing and
lively air, the heroic deeds of the old chieftain and
his ancestors ; and opposite to them, beneath the
spreiiding branches of a bread-fruit tree, sat the
newly purchased bride, a tall and beautiful young
woman, about eighteen years of age. Her dress was
a fine mat, fastened round the waist, reaching nearly
to her ankles ; while a wreath of leaves and flowers,
ingeniously and tastefully enl wined, decorated her
brow. The upper part of her jierson was anointed
with sweet-scented cocoa nut oil, and tinged partially
with a rouge prepared from the turmeric root, and
round her neck were two rows of large blue beads.
Her whole de|;ortment was pleasingly modest.
While listening to the cliaunters, and looking upon
the novel scene before us, our attention was at-
tracted by another company of women, who were
following each other in single file, and cbaunting as
they came the praises of their chief. Sitting down
with the company who had preceded them, they
united in one general chorus, which appeared to be
a recital of the valorous deeds of Malietoa and his
progenitors. This ended, a dance in honour of the
marriage was commenced, which was considered one
of their grandest exhibitions, and held in high esti-
mation by the people. Tlie performers were four
young women, all daughters of chiefs of the highest
rank, who took iheir .-tations at right angles on the
fine mats with which the dancing-house was spread
382
MARROW CONTROVERSY.
for the occasion, and then intercliangorl positions
with slow and j^raopful movements botli of tlieir
hands and feet, while tlie bride recited some of the
mighty doings of lier forefathers. To the motions
of the dancers, and to the recital of tlie bride, three
or four elderly women were beatinc: time upon the
mat with sliort sticks, and occasionally joining in
chorus with the recitative. We saw nothing in the
performance worthy of admiration, except the ab-
sence of everv thin; indelicate — a r.are omission in
heathen amusements. We were informed that most
of the wives of tlie principal chiefs were purchased;
and that if a sufficient price is paid to the relatives,
the young woman seldom refuses to go, though the
purchaser be ever so old. and unlovely."
Hindu maiTiages are conducted with great pomp,
and often at an enormous expense. " It often hap-
]iens that a parent will expend his whole fortune
upon a marriaire entertainment, and pass the rest of
his days in the most pitiable destitution. The nup-
tial ceremonies continue many days. On the third
day the a.strologer consults the zodiac, and iiointing
out to the married party a small star in the constel-
lation of Ursa Major, near the tail, directs them to
offer their devotions to it, dei-laring it to be Arund-
bati, wife of one of the seven rishis, or penitents.
The wedding dinner is invariably furnished with an
immense number of guests, and if the entertainers be
rich, is always extremely magnificent. Upon this
occasion only, the bride sits down to partake with
her husband of the luxuries provided ; indeed, both
eat out of the same plates. This, however, is the
only time in her life th.at the wife is allowed such a
privilege; lieTU'cforward she never sits down to a
meal with her husband. Even at the nuptial feast,
she eats what he leaves, unless she be too much of
an infant to be seu.sible of the honour to which she
has been exalted. U]ion the last days of the festi-
val, the bridegroom offers the sacrifice of the Homan,
the bride throwing ]i,arched, instead of boiled rice
into the tire. This is the only instance in which a
woman takes part in that sacrifice, considered by the
Hindoos the most s<acred of all except that of the
Yajna. These ceremonies being concluded, a pro-
cession is made through the streets of the town or
village. It commonly takes place at night, the
streets being brilli.antly illuminated with imiumer-
able torches, which gleam through the darkness with
a dazzling but unnatural glare. The new-married
pair are ecated in the same ]ialanquin facing each
other. They are magnificently arrayed in brocaded
Btufl's. and adorned with jewels presented to them by
the fathers of each, and if their fathers are unable to
do this, the gems are borrowed for the occasion.
Before the palanquin marches a band of musicians,
who drown every other sound in the braying of
horns, the clamour of drums, pipes, and cymbals.
As the procession moves onward, the friends .and ve-
lafivpR of the bride and bridegroom come out of their
houses to express their congratulations as tliey pass,
offering them various presents, for which, however,
thev expect a more than adequate return."
The marriages of the Chinese are, like those of the
Hindus, celebrated at great expense. The bride,
locked up in a red quilt sedan, borne by four men,
and sometimes followed by an immense train gaily
dressed, with music, banners, and other parapherna-
lia, is carried by night to the house of the bride-
groom. Here the parties pledge each other in a
cup of wine, and together worship the ancestral
tablets, besides sometimes prostrating themselves be-
fore the parents of the bridegroom.
MARROW CONTROVERSY, a dispute which
arose in the Church of Scotland in the beginning of the
eighteenth centiirv, caused by the re-i>ublication of a
book called the • Marrow of Modern Divinity.' The
book here referred to had been originally published
in lfi4(), with the view of explaining and establish-
ing the perfect freeness of the gospel .salvation ; of
leading the siimer to come to the Saviour, all guilty,
polluted, and undone as he is, and to embrace with-
out hesitation the offered mercy. The author of the
' Marrow ' was an Englishman, named Mr. Edward
Fisher, who had been educated in the University of
Oxford. To prevent the first part of the book from
being misunderstood or |ierverted. a second part was
added showing the Christian uses of the Law, and
steering a middle course between the Antinominm
on the one hand, .and the Nmnomiam on the other.
.\ copy of this jiroduction having been accident.ally
carried to Scotland in the knapsack of .an old soldier,
fell into the bands of Mr. Thomas Bo.stou, then
minister of Simprin, who acknowledged himself
ileeplv indebted to it for clear views of Divine truth.
The prevailing tone of theology in Scotland .at that
time was lameut.ably lax, and even senii-Arminian
in its character. \m'u\ the darkness, however,
which covered almost the whole church and country,
there were a few pious and devoted niinisters of
Christ, who sighed and prayed for a revival of the
Lord's work in the land. Among these men of (-iod
was Mr. ,bimes Hog, minister at Carnock, who, anx-
ious to dilVuse a jnu-er theology, issued an edition
of the 'Marrow' in 1717, with a recommendatory
preface. Immediately on its publication in Scotland,
the book was assailed from vaiious quarters .as being
unsound in doctrine, .and Mr. Hog found it necessary
to send forth two dilVerent pamphlets on the subject ,
the one. a 'Vindication of the Doctrine of Orace
from the charge of Liientionsm'ss ;' the other, an
'Explication of the Passages excepted against in the
Marrow;' both of which appeared early in the year
1710.
The Scottish puljiits now resomuled with denun-
ciations of the 'Marrow' and its doctrines. Anmng
others, Principal Iladow of St. Andrews, in a ser-
mon preached before the synod of Fife, and after-
wards pid)lished at their rerpiest, attacked the ' M.ar-
row' as a book fraught with the most odious Antiiio-
mianism. In addition to this sermon, Hadow soon
MARROW CONTROVERSY.
383
after piiblislied a pamplilet, which he styled, 'The
Antinomiaiiism of tlie Marrow detected.' A host of
lioleniical pieces on botli sides of the question now
appeared in rapid succession, and for four years the
Marrow Controversy raged in Scotland with unabated
violence and fury. The numerous misrepresenta-
tions of the doctrines of the 'Marrow' which were
given to the public by its opponents, led to the pub-
lication in the course of a few years of another
edition of tlie book with copious and \ery valuable
explanatory notes from the able pen of Thomas
Boston of Ettrick.
The controversy was not long limitod to tlie gen-
eral public: it soon found its wav into the General
Assembly. That Court in 1719 issued instructions
to its Commission to inquire into the publishing and
spreading of books and pamphlets tending to the
dirtusion of doctrines contrary to the Westminster
Confession of Faith. The Coumiission, accordingly,
at its tirst meeting, proceeded to take action in the
matter by appointing a Committee, inider the im-
posing name of '■ The Committee for Purity of Doc-
trine," and to ripen the ail'air for the Assembly,
several avowed supporters of the Marrow doctrines
were summoned before this Connnittee in April
1720, and subjected to a series of searching ques-
tions in regard to the obnoxious book. An overture
was now prepared with great care and introduced
into the General Assembly in Mav, condemning the
• .\Iarro.v' under tive difl'erent heads : il.) The nature
of faith, under which the charge is that assurance is
made to be of the es.sence of faith. :2.'i Universal
atonement and pardon. (3./ Holiness not necessary
to salvation. |4.1 Fear of punishment and hope of
reward not allowed to be motives of a believer's obe-
dience. (5.) That the believer is not under the Law
as a rule of life. These alleged charges were su])ported
by a number of passages selected from the ' Marrow.'
The subject was discussed at some length by the
Assembly, and the deliverance of the Court was, that
the said passages and quotations are contrary to the
Holy Scriptures, and our Confession of Faith and
Catechisms. " And therefore the General Assem-
bly do hereby prohibit and discharge all the minis-
ters of this church, either by preaching, writing, or
printing, to recommend the said book, or in discourse
to say anything in favour of it." "This decision,"
says Dr. M'Crie, '• which seems to have been hastily
adopted, without any due examination of the book,
under a vague alarm, excited by certain paradoxical
expressions taken apart from their connection and
exhibited in the most odious light, gave great ofTence
in ditferent quarters of the church. A representa-
tion prepared by Ebenezer Erskine, and signed by
twelve ministers, remonstrating again.st the decision
as injurious to various points of evangelical truth,
was presented at next meeting of Assembly. The
' Purity of Doctrine' committee, on the other hand,
' turned the cannon against them,' by preparing
'twelve queries,' which, as if they had taken aim at
each of them separately, they directed against th ■
'twelve Representers.' The controversy thus as
sumed the strange aspect of two parties chargin.;
each other respecti\ely with defection from the
truth, each equally confident of being supported by
Scripture and the .staud;irds of the church. So far
as the orthodoxy of the ' ^Farrow' was concerned, the
Representers were less careful to vindicate the book
than to uphold those precious truths which had been
endangered by its condemnation. The ' Purity of
Doctrine' men seized on certain phrases, which they
insisted should be 'sensed' according to other parts
of the book; while the Representers. condcnming
the sentiment as thus -sensed,' maintained that no
such propositions were to be really found in the
book. But on the doctrines evolved by the queries,
the Representers boldly took their stand ; and in
their answers, which are drawn up with great ability
and precision, they unquestionably succeeded in de-
monstrating that the Assembly had, unwittingly on
the part of many, given their sanction to some very-
grave eri-ors in Christian doctrine."
In 172-2, the General Assembly brought the mat
ter judicially to a conclu.sion, by condenming the
Repre.sentation, and ordering the Representers to be
rebuked and admonished at their bar, which was
done by the Moderator ; whereupon the Represent-
ers tendered a solemn protest, which, though refused
by the Assembly, was afterwards published. In this
document they protested .against the Act 17'20 con-
demning the - .Marrow,' as contrary to the Word of
God, and the standards of the church, and our cove-
nants, and declared that '- it shall be lawful to us to
profess, preach, and liear testimony unto the truths
condemned by the said Acts of Assembly, notwith-
standing of the .-said Acts, or whatsoever shall follow
thereupon." Tliis being a protest against a decision
of the Supreme Court, might have subjected all the
parties signing it to severe ecclesiastical censure, if
not to sunmiary deposition, but such a sentence was
averted by the earnest .solicitations of government,
and -' had not this influence been exerted," says the
elder M'Crie, " there is reason to think that the sen-
tence would have been more severe, and in that case
the Secession would have taken place ten years
earlier than it actually happened." That this un-
happy controversy paved the way for the Secession
of 1733, there cannot be the shadow of a doubt.
The attachment of multitudes of the Christian peo-
ple to the Church of Scotland was seriou.sly shaken,
and the fact was too obvious to be denied that
the evangelical purity of doctrine which charac-
terized her standards, was far from characterizing
the teaching of the great majority of her ministers.
All whose doctrines savoured of the -Marrow' were
looked upon with suspicion, and the Representers
in particular were subjected to annoyance in various
ways by their respective synods and presbyteries.
The Marrow Controver.sy was not long limited tc
Scotland ; in a short time it was transferred to F.ng-
L_
S84
MARS— MAUTINISTS.
land. The views of the Manowinen were embraced
by Mr. Ilervev, particiilarly on the subject of tlie ap-
propriating a.ssiirance of faith, and not only did lie
give expression to his sentiments in his well-known
' Theron and Aspasio,' but he spoke of the ' Marrow'
in terms of the highest oulogiuni. His writings
were as.sailed with great bitterness and severity by
.Mr. Robert Sandeman. who gave rise to the sect
known by the name of S.^ndemanians (which see).
Thus coninienced a controversy which la-ted for a
long time, and extended even to America. The
theology of the Marrow-Men in its characteristic fea-
tures is thus ably delineated by the younger M-Crie :
" Its leading principles may be comprised in two
words— full atonement and free salvation. On these
two iiillars, like tlie .Tachin and Boaz of the ancient
teinjile, was the whole tabric built and upheld. In
their system, the atonement of the Saviour stood
forth in all its plenitude, as a com.plete satisfaction
given by the Surety of sinners in their room, securing
pardon and life for all whom he represented. They
did not consider it necessary to abridge its virtues
and merits, in order to extend them to all itien, or to
furnish ministers with a warrant to offer them to all.
They found their warrant to do so in the offers of
the gospel; nor did they dectn it essential to find
out a warrant for God to justify /(»n in making these
offers. Tliey saw no inconsistency in preaching a
full Christ, as well as a free Christ to mankind at
large, and sinners of all kinds; for they found this
already d(me to their hand by Christ himself and his
apostles. Some members of his synod having de-
nied that there was any gift of Christ as a Saviour to
sinners of mankind, Ebenezer Erokine rose, and
with a tone and manner which made a deep ini])ros-
sion, said, ' Moderator, our Lord Jesus said of him-
self, " My Father giveth yon the true bread from hea-
ven :" this he uttered to a promiscuous multitude, and
let me see the man who dare say he was wrong.'
Much did they deliglit in pointing tlie believer to
the Special love of Clirist in dying for his own; but
equally careful were they to point the sinner to the
death itself, as the proper and only object of saving
faith. To the believer they said, Think on the love
of the Saviour, fixed upon you from all eternity,
shedding his blood for you, drawing you to himself,
and fitting you for the kingdom be hath purchased
for you. To the sinner they said. Look not to the
secret purposes of God, or to the intention of the
priest in ofVering himsell, but look to the sacrifice
ofl'ered, which is suilicient for all. We do not say,
Christ died for thee;' this woidd imply a know-
Jedge of the secret purposes of the .Most High, and
secret tilings belong not to ns ; but we may .say,
'Chri.-t is dead for thee,' that is, he is exhibited as
crucified and slain for thee — for thy bcTiefit, for thee
to look to for salvation, as the serpent was lifted up
for the wounded Israelite to look to fur healing, —
for thee to flee to, as the city of refuge was appointed
fur the inanslayer to flee to for safety."
MARS, a deity held in the highest estimation
among the ancient Romans. He was identified at
an early period as the god of war, with the Greek
AuE.s (which see). He was one of the three tute-
lary divinities of Rome, and had a temple dedicated
to his worship on the Quirinal Hill, whence he re-
ceived the surname of Quirinus. As the deity pre-
siding over war, females were not allowed to engage
in his worship. He is usually represented with a
tierce aspect, clothed in armour, and brandishing a
speai' ifi his right hand. He sits in a chariot, drawn
by two horses. The Romans were wont to boast
that tliey were descended from this warlike deitv ;
Romulus, the foimder of their kingdom, being the
son of Mars by the goddess Rhea. Besides the
temple inside tl\e city dedicated to Mars Quirinus,
they had one outside the city to Mars Gradiviis.
Tliat portion of the city also which was set ap.-irt for
athletic games and martial exercises, was named
from tliis god Campus Martins. Not only, how-
ever, was Mars considered as patronizing war, but
also the peaceful art of agriculture, and in this char-
acter he received the name of Silranus. The wolf
and the horse among animals, and the woodpecker
among birds, were accoimted sacred to Mars.
MARTINA'S (St.) DAY, a festival observed in
the Romish church on the 30th of January.
MARTINISTS, a sect of Russian Dissenters,
wdiich arose in the begimiing of the present century.
It derived its name from the Chevalier St. Martin, a
native of France, who, while intidel philosophy was
exercising almost undi-sputed sway over the public
nund of that country, set himself with his whole
heart and soul to diffuse the doctrines of a pure prac-
tical Christianity, though undoubtedly tinged with a
considerable admixture of mysticism. To spread his
principles the more widely, he nuide use of the ma-
sonic lodges, but met with comparatively little success
in France, except in the lodges of Lyons and Mont-
pellicr. The doctrines of St. Martin were imported
into Russia by Count Grabianka, a Pole, and Ad-
miral Plesheheyeff, a Russian, both of whom were siic-
cessfnl in introducing them into the masonic lodges
in that country, where thej' soon met with very
wide acceptance. The JIartinists at length became
a numerous sect, including in the list of their mem-
bers some natiies of rank and influence. The fa-
voiu'ite autbor.s, whose writings they chiefly con-
sulted, were, besides St. Martin himself, those of
the German I'ietistic .school, such as Arndt and
Spenor. Rut the object of the sect was not so much
to cultivate a speculative as a pr.actical Christ iaiuty,
by seeking to do good to all within the sphere of
their influence, not only performing deeds of charity
to the poor, but promoting, as far as possible, the
progress of education and literature. The principal
seat of the Murtini-ts was the city of Moscow, where
they established a typograjihic society for the en-
couragement of learning; and to accomplish this
important oliject, they purchased all the maun-
MARTINMAS— MARTYRS (WoRsnrp of)
385
scripts, whctlier iu prose or poetry, which were of-
fered to them, publishing, however, only such as
appeared worthy of seeing tlie hght. Their coun-
tenance was chiefly given to those writings wliicli
liad a rehgious or moral tendency. Many of tlie
worlv.s pubhslied by tliis society were translations
from foreign languages, hut some very valuable ori-
ginal works, literary, scientific, and religious, were
issued witli their sanction. They establislied also a
large library, chielly consisting of religious books, to
which all were admitted who were sincerely desirous
of acquiring information. A school was founded at
their expense, and deserving young men were as-
sisted in carrying forward their studies either in the
country or at foreign universities. To the seasona-
ble aid tlius afforded, Karanisiu, the talented Rus-
sian historian, was indebted for his education at
the u'.iiver.sity of Moscow. Jtany of the Martin-
ists, unable to contribute money in order to carry
out the plans of the society, devoted their time and
talents to works of benevolence, and more espe-
cially to the alleviation of human suffering. Some
of this noble class of men sacrificed large fortunes,
and even submitted to great privations, in order to
fulfil the designs of this charitable and useful insti-
tution.
The MarfJimts became in process of time a ini-
merous and liighly respected body of men, and their
influence was dailv diffusing itself more and more
widely amtmg the Russian people. Men of ;U1 ranks,
both in church and state, hastened to join tlie lodges
of this noble band of Free Masons, which bade fair,
had it been permitted to continue its operations, to
be eminently instrumental in promoting the cause of
Christianity and true civilization throughout the
whole Russian Empire. But the rapidly increasing
fame and influence of this noble sect, and more espe-
cially of their typographic society at Moscow, which
was working wonders by means of the press, awaken-
ed suspicions and jealousies in the mind of the Em-
press Cath.arine II. She resolved, therefore, to put
forth her utmost efforts to crush the sect. Novikoff,
one of its leading and most active members, was im-
prisoned in the castle of Schlusselburg; several of
the nobles who belonged to it were banished to their
estates, and several religious books which it had
issued were seized and burnt, as being subversive of
the good order of the country. At the death of
Catharine, the Emperor Paul, who succeeded her on
the throne of Russia, liberated Novikoff, whose tra-
gic story is thus briefly told by Count Krasinski :
" He recovered his liberty, but foimd a desolate
Imme : his wife was dead, and his three yoiuig chil-
dren were a prey to a terrible and incurable disease.
The Emperor Paul, whose mad outbursts of despo-
tism were the result of a mind diseased by a keen
sense of wrongs inflicted upon him by his own mo-
ther, but whose natural character was noble and
chivalmus, demanded of Novikoff, when he was pre-
sented to him on his liberation from the fortress, how
II.
he might compens.ate the injustice that had been done
to him, and the sufferings to which he had been ex-
posed. ' By renderhig liberty to all those who were
imprisoned at the same time when I was,' was Novi-
kotf's answer."
The labours of the Martiirists as a body were com-
pletely checked by the persecution which they had
suffered under Catharine, and they contented them-
selves, diu-ing the reign of Paid, with quietly propa-
gating their opinions in their individual capacity.
Under Alexander I., however, who was somewhat
inclined towards religious mysticism, the Martinists
recovered for a time their influence in Russia, and
Prince Galiizin, one of their number, was intrusted
by the emperor with the ministry of religious affairs
and public education. The imperial councils were
now guided by men of piety and of patriotism.
Bible Societies were openly promoted by the govern-
ment, and religious works pnbli.shed with the sanc-
tion of the emperor. But matters completely changed
on the death of Alex.ander. His brother, Nicholas,
who succeeded him, adopted a ditTerent line of act-
ing. He suppressed Bil)le Societies, discouraged
the progress of liberal and religious tendencies, and
by his whole course of policy he put an effectual
check upon all the oper,ations of the Martinists, and
led to the total disappearance, from the face of Rus-
sian society, of a sect or body of men, of whom any
civilized country might well be ju-oud.
M.\RTINMAS, a festival formeriy observed <'n
the lltli of November, in honour of St. Martin,
Bishop of Tours in France, who died A. n. 400.
MARTYRARII. See Osti.\ru.
MARTYRIA, a naine given in the ancient Chris-
tian church to those churches wln'ch were built over
the graves of martyrs, or built in memory of these
witnesses to the truth.
MARTYRS (Feast of all the). See All
Saints' Day.
MARTYRS (Festivals of the). See An.m-
VEKSARiEs, Birthday.
MARTYRS (Worship of). This kind of wor-
ship did not fully develop itself until the fourth cen-
tury. At an early period these cmifessors of the
truth were held in great respect among Christians,
and special festivals were celebrated on the atmiver-
sary of their martyrd(jm. Each successive genera-
tion, as it removed from the times in which these holy
men lived and suffered, clierished their memory with
ever-increasing regard, and approached their tombs
with almost idolatrous veneration. Animated by
such feelings, men natiu-ally began to show respect
to their bones or mangled remains, as the dust of
heroes who had died for the cause of Christ. These
natural and innocent feelings, liowever, soon passed
into superstitious reverence ; and in cour.se of time
religious homage was paid to the martyrs as men,
who, by their holy character and heroic deeds, had
earned a title to the hom.age and the adoration of the
Christian church. " The more remote," says Giese-
2 K
386
MARUTA (St.) Liturgy of— MASORA.
ler, '• the times of the martyrs, tlie greater the ador-
ation paitl to them. The lieatlien converts, natunilly
enougli, transferred to tlieni tlie honours they hail
been used to jiay tlieir doniii^ods, wliile tlie liorror of
creature-worsliip. which had liitherto operated as a
clieek on the ,i;ro\vin^' superstition, liad been gra-
dually dviii',' away .since the extinction of paganism.
A.S men had long been accustomed to assejnble for
public worship at the graves of the martyrs, the
idea of erecting churches over them would readily
occur. In Egypt the Christians began to em-
balm the bodies of reputed saints, and keep them
ill their houses. The communion with the inart\TS
being thus associated with the presence of their
material remains, these were dug up from the graves
and placed in the churches, especially under the
altars ; and the popular feeling, having now a visi-
ble object to excite it, became more extravagant
and superstitious than ever. The old opinion of the
efficacy of their intercession who had died a martyr's
death, was now united with tlie belief that it was
possible to communicate with them directly — a be-
lief founded parti)- on the popular notion that de-
parted souls always lingered around the bodies they
had once inhabited, and partly on the views enter-
tained of the glorified state of the martyrs, a sort of
omnipresence being ascribed to them. These no-
tions may be traced to Origen, and his followers were
the first wlio ai)ostrophized the martyrs in their ser-
mons, and besought their intercession. But though
the orators were somewhat extra\agant in this re-
spect, they were far outdone by the poets, who soon
took up tliis theme, and could tind no expressions
strong enough to describe tiie power and the glory of
the martyrs. Their relics soon began to work mira-
cles, and to be valuable articles of trade. In proportion
as men felt the need of such intercession, the\' sought
to increase the number of their intercessors. Not
only tho.se who, on account of services rendered the
church, were inscribed in the Diptycha, but the pious
characters from the Old Testament, and the most
distinguished of the monks, were ranked among the
saints. Martyrs before unknown announced them-
selves in visions, others revealed the place of their
burial. From the beginning of the iifth century the
prayers for the .saints were discontinued as unbefit-
ting tlieir glorified state. Ohristians were now but
seldom called upon to address their jirayers to God,
the usual mode being to pray only to some saint for
his intercession. With this worship of the saints
were joined many of tlie customs of the heathen.
Men chose their patron saints, and dedicated churches
to their worship. The heathen, whom the Chris-
tians used to reproacli with worshipping dead men,
found now ample opportunity of retort."
This tendency to excessive veneralion for the
martyrs began to dis|ilay its('lf at an early ]ieriod, for
we tind Tertnllian. when a Montiinisl. contending
against the superstitions practice, and ('ypriim cflii-
dumning it as a heathenish custom.
MARUTA (St.), Litlugy of, one of the twelve
Liturgies contained in the Missal of tlie Maruniteit,
published at Rome in 1592.
MARUTS, ancient Hindu deities mentioned in the
Veihin. They were personiiications of the winds,
and represented as attendants upon Iiidro. Some-
times the " soma wine" and sacrificial food are pre-
sented to Indra alone, but at other times to Indra
and the Mamts conjointly.
MARY (Vir(;in). See Mauioi,.\tky.
MASBOTHEANS, the disciples of Masbotheus,
wdio is said by some of the ancients to have been a
follower of Simon Magus. See Simonians.
MASORA. Immediately after the destruction
of the city and temple of Jerusalem by the Romans,
the Great Council of the Israelitisli Rabbins was
established at Tiberias in Palestine. This celebrated
school of learned Jews undertook the important
task of revising the sacred text, and issuing an ac-
curate edition of it. For this purpose they collected
together all the critical remarks which had been
made by ditierent Rabbins upon tlie Hebrew Bible
at ditierent times, digesting, arranging, and adding to
them with a view to fix the reading and interjireta-
tion of the sacred books. This collection is called
ilfcr.swa, which signifies Tradition, while the Kab-
bins themselves give it the name of Pirke Avotli,
which means Fence or Hedge of the Law. It was
probably executed gradually, and accordingly, though
it was commenced sometime before the Talmud,
it was not finished till a long time after.
The Mn.-iora consists of critical remarks upon tlie
verses, words, letters, and vowel-points of the He-
brew Text; and though the pre|iaratioii of such a
work undoubtedly involved much learned and labo-
rious trifling, it was a contribution of some value to
the cause of sacred literature. The Masorites were
the first who di.stingnished the books and sections of
books into verses ; and to prevent interpolation or
omission on the part of transcribers, they carefully
numliered the verses of each book and section, plac-
ing the exact amount at the end of each in numeral
letters, or in some symbolical word formed out of
them. Not contented with these labours, which did
immense service to the cause of Biblical criticism,
and more especially to the preservation of the in-
tegrity of the Hebrew Text, the compilers of the
Maaora went still further, counting the number of
words and letters in each verse, and marking the
middle verse in each book, noting the verses where
they supposed any omLssion was made, the words
which they believed to be changed, the letters which
they thought superfluous, the cases in which the
same verses were repi'ated, the different readings of
the words which are redundant or detective, the iiuni-
ber of times that the same word is found at the be-
ginning, middle, or end of a verse, the ditVereiit sig-
nifications of the same word, the agreement or con-
junction of one word with another, what letters are
pronounced, what are inverted, and what hang per-
MASS.
387
pendiciilarly, iiiarklnt; the exact number of eacli.
They also reckonfid wiiich is the middle letter of tlie
Pentateuch, wliicli is the middle clause of each book,
and how many times each letter of the alphabet oc-
curs throughout the Hebrew Bible.
The jl/as'ora is written in Chaldee, and is usually
divided into Great and Small. The Great is partly
on the top and bottom of the margins of the text ;
and sometimes in tlie margin underneath the com-
mentaries, while anytliing which had been omitted
was added at the end of the text, and was called the
tinal ^lasora. The Small Masara is written upon
the inner margin, or .sometimes on the outer margin
of the Bible. It is an abridgment of the Great Ma-
sora written in small characters. In some copies of
the Hebrew Bible with the Masoretic notes, the
transcribers have formed the marginal lines of the
Masora into various fanciful devices, as of birds,
beasts, and other objects.
The precise date when the Masora was composed
caimot now be ascertained, but the most generally
received opinion is, that the Masorites lived about
the fourth or fifth century. Bishop Walton attri-
butes the preparation of the work to a succession of
grammarians extending througli .several centuries.
"They lived at ditierent periods," he -says, "from
the time of Ezra to about the year of Christ 1030,
wlien the two famous Rabbins, Ben Aslier and Ben
Naphtali tlourislied ; since whose time little more
has been done than to copy after them, without
making any more corrections or Masoretical criti-
cisms." Aben Ezra supposes the Masorites to have
been the inventors of the Hebrew vowels or accents;
others again trace the invention back as far as the
return of the Jews from the Babylonish captivitj'.
MASS, the service observed in the Romish churcji
in the celebration of the eucharist. Dr. Chaloner,
in tlie ' Catholic Christian Instructed,' says, tliat it
" con.sists in the consecration of the bread and wine
into the body and blood of Christ, and the offering
up of this same body and blood to God, by the min-
istry of the priest, for a perpetual memorial of
Christ's sacrifice upon the cross, and a continuation of
the same until the end of the world." Considerable
difTerence of opinion exists as to the origin and deri-
vation of the word. Some consider it as a corrup-
tion of the Hebrew word mi^sach, which signifies " a
voluntary offering;" others derive it from m/Wo or
misa, alluding to tlie dismission of the catechumens
and congregation generally, before the Lord's Sup-
per was dispensed in the early Christian Church.
The officiating minister, at this part of the service,
jn'onounci'd the words " Ilr, missa est" and imme-
diately the catechumens and others dispersed, the
faithful or members of the church alone remaining.
Hence it is alleged the eucharistic service came to be
denominated Mi.'isa or the Ma-is.
To understand what is meant liy the Romish doc-
trine of the sacrifice of the Mass, it must be borne
in niuid, that the canons of the Council of Trent ex-
plicitly declare, " If any one shall .say, that a true
and proper sacrifice is not offered to God in the
mass ; or that what is to be offered is nothing else
than giving Christ to us to eat ; let him be accursed.
If any one shalLsay that the mass is only a service
of praise and thanksgiving, or a bare commemoration
of the sacrifice made on the cross, and not a propi-
tiatory offering ; or that it only benefits liim who
receives it, and ought not to be ofiered for the living
and the dead, for sins, punishments, satisfactions, and
other necessities ; let him be accur.sed." The Cate-
chi.sm of the Council of Trent, published by com-
mand of Pojie Pius v., is equally explicit on the
same subject : " We confess that the sacrifice of the
ma.ss is one and the same sacrifice with that upon
the cross : the victim is one and the same, Christ
Jesus, who offered himself, once only, a bloody sacri-
fice on the altar of the cross. The bloody and un-
bloody victim is still one and the same, ami the obla-
tion of the cross is daily renewed in the eucharistic
sacrifice, in obedience to the command of our Lord,
' This do for a commemoration of me.' The priest
is also the same Christ our Lord : the ministers who
offer this sacrifice consecrate the holy mysteries not
in their own but in the person of Christ. This the
words of consecration declare : the priest does not
say, 'This is the body of Christ,' but, 'This is my
body ; ' and thus invested with the character of Chri-st,
he changes the substance of the bread and wine, into
the substance of his real body and blood. That the
holy sacrifice of the mass, therefore, is not only a
sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving, or a commemor-
ation of the sacrifice of the cross, but also a sacrifice
of propitiation, by which God is appeased and ren-
dered propitious, the pastor will teach as a dogma
defined by the unerring authority of a General Coun-
cil of the Church. As often as the commemoration
of this victim is celebrated, so often is the work of
our salvation promoted, and the plenteous fruits of
that bloody victim How in upon us abundantly througli
this unbloody .sacrifice."
The celebration of the mass in the Romish church is
an intricate and compliciited ceremonial. On this pe-
culiarly solemn occasion the officiating priest is cloth-
ed with certain vestments which are designed to be
emblematical of the difi'erent circimistances connected
with the closing scene of our bles.sed Lord's life upon
the earth. The altar, too, is so fitted upas to repre-
sent the cross on which our Saviour hung ; and on the
altar stands the chalice or cup which is to contain
the wine mingled with a little water, and covering
the cup is the patten or plate intended to hold the
cake or wafer; while there are also seen upon the
altar, wax tapers, an incense pan, a vessel for holy
water, a crucifix and a bell. At the commencement
of the service, the priest first appears standing at the
foot of the altar. Making the sign of the cross he
bows to the altar, and then again at the foot of it :
rising, he ascends and kisses it ; moves to the middle
of the altar ; where he repeats, " Have mercy on us,"
38R
MASS.
addressed to each of tlie Persons of tlie Triiiily ; tliree
limes iu succession a liyiiiii follows, and then a bene-
diction i« pronounced upon the people. " Bowing
down before the middle of tlie altar, Jie connnencea the
reading of the Gospel, wlien both priest and people
make the sign of the cross on the forehead, moutli,
and breast, to signify tlieir confession of Christ cru-
ci:ied, and their allegiaiice to him. After certain
recitations, the priest olfers up the bread and the
wine. With the wine tliere i.s mingled water, in
emblem of the water and blood that issued from
Jesns" .side on the cross. In this act he prays that
the offering may be accepted as a .■sacrifice for the
sins of all the faithful, living and dead. The ele-
ments are then blessed with the sign of the cro.ss.
Thereafter the priest washes the tips of his fingers,
ill token of the purity with whicli the eucharist
should be celebrated. Again, bowing at the middle
of the altar, he craves the divine acceptance of the
oblation, and the intercession of the saints. After re-
newed prayers and other ceremonies, the priest again
spreads his hands over the bread and wine, prays God
to accept the oblation for eternal life, blesses them,
signs the cross, again prays that the oblation may be
accepted. Next comes the awful act of consecration.
The priest pronoimcing the words hoc e4 corpiix
meitm, " This is my body," the bread is converted
into the body of Christ ; in like manner, by a separ-
ate act, the wine is changed into his blood. The
bell rings thrice ; the bread, under the name of the
liost or sacrifice, is lifted up in view of the congrega-
tion ; and the people, kneeling, adore. Thrice again
the bell tinkles as the host is set down. Repetitions
follow of prayers for the salvation of the living ,ind
the dead, through the sacrifice now presented. The
host is broken, in imitation of Christ's breaking the
bread, and a particle of it is mixed with the wine, to
denote the reuniting of Christ's body, blood, and
soul, at his resurrection. Three times the priest
strikes his breast in token of repentance ; then fol-
low three pravers ; and thrice again the priest, kneel-
ing, strikes his breast ; he then, with prayers be-
tween, partakes of the bread in the form of a wafer,
and next of the cup. After this the people receive
the communion of the bread ; and the ceremony closes
with the i)riest pouring a little wine into the cup,
and a little on his fingers over the cup, as a means
to prevent any particle of the consecrated wafer from
being lost m profaned."
The wafer of the Itoniisli church, used in the mass,
is composed of uideavened bread. It is made tliin
and circular, and liears upon it either the figure of
Chri.st or the initials 1. 11. S., which mean Jexu Hoini-
rmm Salviilin%Je>inii the Savioiu' of men, or as some ex-
jilaiii it, the three lirst letters of the name of Jesus in
Greek. The mass is termed by Romanists an un-
bloody sacrifice, in opposition to the bloody sacrifice
of the cross ; and thoy allege, that while Christ's sacri-
fice upon the cro.ss was suliicient to obtain pardon for
the sins of the whole world, the sacrifice is to be re-
peated in order that the benefits of the first .sacrifice
might be applied. The .sacrifice of the mass is ground-
ed on the dogma of transubstantiation and the real
presence, and is believed to possess a propitiatory
merit both for the living and the dead, which v\as ihe
doctrine laid down in plain terms by the Tridentine
fatliers. Some of the more moderate Romish writers,
as, for example, Father Bossuet, attempt to modify
and explain the propitiatory character of the sacri-
fice of the mass, by reiiresenting it as commeinora-
tive and intercessory. But it must appear obvious
to every thoughtful mind, that a sacrifice ciinnot be
at once propitiat<iry and commemorative, the two
qualities being necessarily inconsistent, and even con-
tradictory. In the Ordinary of the Mass the follow-
ing account occurs of the mode in which the wafer is
given to the communicant : " The prie.'-t, in giving
file consecrated wafer to the communicant, .says,
' Behold the Lamb of God ! Behold llim who taketh
awav the sin of the world!' Then he and the com-
municant repeat thrice, ' Lord, I ain not worthy thou
shouldest enter my roof; speak, therefore, but the
word, and my soul shall be healed,' the communicant
striking his breast in token of his unworthiness.
Then, says the Directory, having the towel raised
above your breast, your eyes modestly closed, your
head likewise raised up, and your mouth convenient-
ly open, receive the holy sacrament on yom- tongue,
resting on your under liji ; then close your mouth,
and say in your heart. ' Amen, I believe it to be the
bodv of Christ, and 1 pray it may preserve my soul
to eternal life.' "
Numerous, in the estimation of the Roinani.st, are
the advantages to be derived from the sacrifice of
the mass, not only to the living, but to flie dead. It
is bv the saying of masses that souls are delivered
from purgatory. Jlr. Seymour, in his ' Pilgrimage
to Rome,' informs us, " that in Italy the parish
churches are much neglected, and in inditferent state
of repair, and the parochial clergy, whose duty is the
cure of souls, are too often found in poverty and
destitution, while the establishments of the conven-
tual and cathedral clergy, whose main duty is to say
masses for the delivery of souls from purgatory, are
cxceedingl)' wealthy, being enriched by large dona-
tions and bequests." Of late years, what are called
Purgaforian Societies have been esfabli.shediiiLundon,
Duli'.in, and other places, whose niembcrs regularly
contribute sums of money to defr.iy the expenses of
" procuring masses to bo olTercd u|i for the repose of
Ihe souls of deceased parents, relations, and frieiuls,
of all the subscribers to tlie institution in particidar,
and the faithful departed in general." It is not un-
usual to find in the Roman Catholic Directories such
notices as these: — Monthly m;usses will be .said for
such benefactors as will aid in paying ofi' the debt on
such and such chapels and schools ; and nia.sses will
be .said every quarter for those who are interred in
such and such a burial-groimd. " It is taught and
believed in Italy," says Mr. Seymour, " that a number
MASSALIANS— MATERIALISTS.
389
of ' daily masses,' of ' liigli masses,' of ' remembrance
masses,' of ' voluntary offerings,' can release snffering
souls, or diminisli the intensity of their sufferings in
the frightful abode of purgatory, and thus tend to
translate them to a state of rest in the regions of the
blessed. The monks and friars of the inferior and
mendicant orders avail themselves of this belief, and
profess a readiness to offer, in the church of tlie con-
vent, the requisite number of masses, provided a
commensurate donation or gi-atuity be given to the
convent, for tlie maintenance of the poor brethren.
I luive myself witnessed the bargain and arrangement
feu- this, and have seen the masses purchased, the
money paid and received, at tlie moderate charge
of about 2s., to secure tlie release of a soul." Higli
mass is so called as being accompanied by all the
ceremonies which custom and authority have annex-
ed to the celebration of mass.
MASSALIANS, a name sometimes given to the
Hesych.\sts (which see).
MASSILIANS. See Semi-Pel.\gians.
MATAHITI (M.\o.i R.aa), the ripening or com-
pleting of the year, a festival regidarly observed in
Iluahine in Polynesia. " In general," says Mr. El-
li.s, " the men only engaged in pagan festivals ; but
men, women, and children, attended at this : the
females, however, were not allowed to enter the sa-
cred enclosure. A sumptuous banquet was held an-
nually at the time of its observance, which was
regulated by the blossoming of reeds. Tlieir rites
and worship were in many respects singular, but in
none more so than in the ripening of tlie year, which
was regarded as a kind of annual acknowledgment
to the gods. When the prayers were tinished at the
niarae, and the banquet ended, a usage prevailed
much resembling the popish custom of mass for souls
in purgatory. Each individual returned to his
home, or to his family marae, there to offer special
prayers for the spirits of departed relatives, that they
might be Uberated from the }w, or state of night, and
ascend to rohutwwiinoa, the moinit Meru of Polyne-
sia, or return to this world, by entering into the
body of one of its inhabitants. They did not sup-
pose, according to the generally received doctrine of
transmigration, that the spirits who entered the body
of some dweller upon earth, would permanently re-
main there, but only come and inspire the person to
declare future events, or execute any other commis-
sion from the sujiematural beings on whom they
imagined they were constantly dependent."
MATATINI, the god of tishing-net makers among
the natives of the Soutli Sea Islands, particularly
the Tahitians.
MATERIALISTS, a name usually apjilied to
those speculative tliinkers who attempt to explain
the whole theory of the universe, and even the phe-
nomena of life and thought, by the laws of matter
and motion. The Materialist denies the separate
existence of matter and of mind, and thus obviates
the necessity of propounding any question as to
their mutual actinn and influence upon each other,
and yet the hypothesis of the Materialists is itself
an intrusion upon a province from whicli man is ex-
cluded. We know nothing of mind or of matter but
by their properties ; the essential natiu'e of either it
is impossible in our present state we can ever dis-
cover. On a prima facie view of tlie subject, the
presumption seems to be against the Materialist.
What two things are apparently more comiiletely
di.stinct in their nature than thought and matter?
All that we know of matter is, that it is inert, sense-
less, aud lifeless, but that any modification of matter
should give rise to thought, .seems inconsistent with
all that we can learn of its modifications as far as
they are ever effected by hiniian power. " It was
never supposed," to use the language of Dr. Samuel
Jolmson, " that cogitation is inherent in matter, or
that every particle is a thiid-ciiig being. Yet if any
part of matter be devoid of thought, what part can
we suppose to think? Matter can differ from matter
only in form, density, bulk, motion, and direction of
motion ; to which of these, however varied or com-
bined, can consciousness be annexed ? To be round
or square, to be solid or fluid, to be great or little, to
be moved slowly or swiftly, one way or another, are
modes of material existence, all equally alien from
the nature of cogitation. If matter be once without
thought, it can only be made to think by some new
modification, but all the modifications which it can
admit are equally imconnected with cogitative
powers." If this then be the proper conclusion to
which our knowdedge of matter neces.sarily leads us,
there is the strongest presumption against the opin-
ion of the Materialists. But then it may be alleged,
the mere existence of a violent presumption against
the theory is no reason why it should be rejected.
Were the theory supported by actual facts, wliich
went far to ■establish it.s truth, no mere presumption
could be of any force. But the subject is not such
as to admit of being established by facts, any more
than it admits of being opposed by facts. Whether
the mind be material or immaterial is a question
■which no collection of facts can ever either prove or
disprove ; and in this state of the case the force of
the theory is sufficiently obviated by opposing to it
a powerful analogical argument, which, though it
does not show that the theory is false, shows at all
events tliat it is extremely improbable. All the
nuidifications of matter which the chemist or tlie
mechanical philosopher have ever discovered have
been devoid of cogitative power, and is it not in the
highest degree uidikely that the modification of mat-
ter, which constitutes the body of man, should be
the single solitary exception in tlie whole univer>e
of matter and its infinite modifications?
Lord Bacon seems to have entertained very high
notions of the extent of the human faculties, when
he declared his opinion that in process of time man
would discover the essences of material objects. The
fact is, that though, since the days of Bacon, physical
390
MATERIALISTS.
pliilosopliy ill all its departments has made astonisli-
iiii; pn);;re<s, tlie essence of no one substance in na
tui-e lias boon bitlierlo discovered. And without
any inordinate depreciation of our intellectual consti-
tution, we may pronounce the discovery beyond the
reach of man. The luiniaii understanding is limited,
and to solve the (pieslion as to the materiality or
immateriality of the thinkins principle, transcends
these limits. " We have the ideas of matter and
thinkins;," Locke wisely retnarks, " but possibly shall
never be able to know whether any mere material
being thinks or no." " By the mind of a man," says
Dr. Keid, " we understand that in him which thinks,
remembers, rea.sons, wills ; the essence both of body
and mind is unknown to us." And Mr. Stewart,
speaking of the "occasional causes" of Malebranche
and Leibnitz, observes, '• The chief objection to the
doctrine of occasional causes is, tliat it presumes to
decide upon a question of which human reason is
altogether incompetent to judge — our ignorance of
the mode in which matter acts upon mind, or mind
upon matter, — furnishing not the shadow of a jiroof
that the one may not act directly .and immediately
on the other, in some way incomprehensible by our
faculties."
On reflection it must appear nnreasonable in t e
extreme to deny the existence of mind, and yet re-
tain our belief in the existence of matter. Both
rest on evidence eipially powerful and undeniable.
On this point Lord Brougham justly remarks : " The
evidence for the existence of mind is to the full as
complete as that upon which we believe in the ex-
istence of matter. Indeed it is more certain and
more irrefragable. The consciousness of existence,
the perpetual sense that we are thinking, and that
we are performing the operation quite independently
of all material objects, proves to us the existence of
a being dirt'erent from our bodies, with a degree of
evidence higlier than any we can have for the exist-
ence of those bodies themselves, or of any other
part of the material world. It is certain — proved,
indeed, to demonstration — that many of the percep-
tions of matter which we derive through the senses
are deceitful, and seem to indicate that which has no
reality at all. Some inferences which we draw re-
specting it are confounded with direct .sensation or
perception, for example, the idea of motion ; other
ideas, as those of hardness and solidity, are e<pially
the result of reasoning, and often mi.slead. Thus we
never doubt, on the testimony (if om- senses, that the
parts of iniilter touch — that dilVerent bodies come in
contact with one another, and with our organs of
sense ; and yet nothing is more certain than that
there still is some small distance between the bodies
which we think we perccuve to touch. Indeed it is
barely possible that all the seu'^ations and percep-
tions which we have of the m.aterial world may be
only ideas in our own minds : it is barely possible,
therefore, that matter should have no existence.
But that mind — that the sentient principle — that the
thing or the being which we call ' /' and -we' and
which thinks, feels, re.asons — should, have no exist-
ence, is a contradiction in terms. Of the two ex-
istences, then, that of mind as independent of matter
is more certain than that of m.atter apart from mind."
Among the ancient Greek philosophers, the lead-
ing Materialists were Democritus and Epicurus,
both of whom admitted nothing in mind but sensa-
tions, and notliing in nature but bodies, and alleged
the primary component principles of all things to be
indivisible, eternal, and indestructible atoms. But
while these two schools of ancient Materialists agreed
together as to the materia prima or original mat-
ter of the universe, they differed as to the mode
in which the atoms operated, so as mechanically to
construct the universe. Democritus .alleged, that
atoms were put in motion in a right line in the in-
linite void. Epicurus, however, dis.satistied with this
explanation, endowed the particles with a second
motion in an oblique line, by which, being carried in
every direction, they would come by their successive
contacts and separations to produce the dili'erent
phenomena which present themselves in the uni-
verse. In the system of Democritus mind is simply
an aggregate of images coineyed from external ob-
jects, and coming into contact with the inner organi-
zation of man. Epicurus, pushing still farther his
materialistic views, regarded the mind as comj)Osed
of a more refined matter than the body, but so united
to it that the dissolution of the one involves the dis-
solution of the other. The school of Epicurus con-
tinued for ages to propagate its materialist opinions,
without, however, giving rise to a single individual
who could be said to emulate the faine of its founder.
With the single exception, indeed, of the brilliant
poem of Lucretius, " De Nfitiii-a Renim,'" on the
nature of things, this meclianical system of philoso-
phy has left no tr.ace of its existence among the spe-
culative theories of .antiquity.
It has been strangely alleged by some writers that
the Christian Fathers of the first centuries held
materialist views. To understand, however, what
were their true sentiments on this subject, we must
bear in mind the circnmstiinces in which they wrote.
The early Christian Church had to contend with va-
rious systems of doctrine which sought to mingle
themselves up with the Christian scheme. Hence
aro.se the Neo-Platonism of the Alexandrian school,
and the variety of liriostic sects, some of them per-
vaded by dudaism, and others by tlie Oriental sys-
tems of philiisophv. These various corruptions of
Christianity, instead of claiming the slightest affinity
with materialism, partook largely of the characters
of the (ipposiie svstem of s|)iritualism. It is not to
be wondered at, therel'ore, tliat in combating the high
Spiritualist views of the Alexandrian and (inostic
.scliools, a few of the early Christian writers should
have exiiressed themselves in such a way as to lay
themselves open to the imimtation of materialism.
But the tendency of their writings, as a whole, is far
MATH.
391
from favoiirin!,' any views wliieli altaclied liiL;h im-
portance to matter, so as to exclude mind or spirit.
On tlie contrary, they viewed matter as an inert and
passive substance at the lowe.st stage of existence ;
and St. AugiLstine even goes so far as to call it an
ahnost non-existence, and he says that if there were
a word which at once sigiiilied something which is,
and something whicli is not, he would give that name
to matter.
In the Middle Ages materialist opinions were ex-
tensively dirt'nsed by the secret societies which arose
in Syria and Egypt ; one of the initiatory maxims
inculcated upon tlieir members being, that there was
no other God than material nature. But the first
development of materialism, as a philoso|)hical sys-
tem in modern times, is due to Spinoza, who taught
that thought, like extension, could be only a pro-
jierty of a material substance, and that intelligence
and will are sin\ply moditlcations of the human or-
ganism. Materialism, however, in its grossest and
most repulsive form, was set forth by the author of
the ' Systeme de la Nature" — a work which obtained
a wide circulation, not only on tlie Continent of
Em-ope, but in Great Britain, and also in America,
undermining the religious principles of multitudes,
and difiusing among all classes of society a bold, un-
blushing infidelity. " The universe," says this leader
in the ranks of modern Materialists, " that vast as-
semblage of all that exists, exhibits nowhere any-
thing else than matter and motion." The same doc-
trine has been more recently revived by M. Comte,
in what is termed the Positive Philosophy, which
explains all natural phenomena whatever, whether
material, mental, or moral, as merely the necessary
results of the laws of extension or of motion. The
operations of mind or spirit are thus resolved into
the laws of matter, and the necessity is obviated of
having recourse to a Great First Cause, personal,
spiritual, all-creating, and all- controlling. This form
of materialism, accordingly, in its very nature and
residts, terminates in Atlieism. Yet Dr. Priest'ey,
though holding substantially tlie .same opinions with
D'llolbach and Comte, avows in his writings his
firm belief in a personal God, a resurrection from
the dead, and a future state of final retribution.
The same inconsistency marks the theories of not a
few of the Positivists and other Materialists of our
own day. Some of the recent Spiritualists in America,
to uphold tlieir views of clairvoyance and magnetic
influence, put forth a modified form of materialism,
alleging the soul to be composed not of gross matter,
but of a subtle, ethereal, impalpable substance like
light, heat, or electricity. The same theory was
broached by Hartley, followed up by Abraham
Tucker, the ingenious author of the ' I^ight of Na-
ture pursued,' and more fully devehjped by Dr. Ma-
son Good in his ' Life of Lucretius,' prefixed to his
En lish poetical translation of the celebrated poem of
that ancient writer, who was himself an avowed and
tjross Materialist. " Tliis," as Dr. James Buchanan
well remarks, " is a new and very singular phase of
materialism. It is widely dili'erent from the doctrine
which was taught by the infiilel writers of the last
century. Tliey had recourse to the theory of mate-
rialism chiefly with tlie view of excluding a world of
spirits, and of undermining the doctrine of a future
state : here it is apjilied to prove the constant de-
velopment and indestructible existence of nuiids
generated from matter, but destined to survive the
dissolution of the body ; nay, every jiarticle of mat-
ter in the universe is supposed to be advancing, in
one magnificent progression, towards the spiritual
state. The danger now is, not that religion may be
undermined by materialism, but that it may be sup-
planted by a fond and foolish superstition, in which
the facts of mesmerism and the fictions of clairvoy-
ance are blended into one ghostly system, fitted to
exert a powerful but pernicious infiuence on over-
credulous minds." Though there may be some foun-
dation for the apprehension here expressed by Dr.
Buchanan, yet the tendency which has so strongly
appeared of late years in England among too many
cultivators of science to favour such works as those
of Oken and Comte, and the ' Vestiges of Creation,'
renders it not improbable, that for some time to
come, writers on Christian apologetics will find it
necessary to contend earnestly against a rapidly
increasing school of materialist philosophers. See
Atheists, N.4tukaijsts.
M.-VT'H, the residence of a monastic community
among the Hindus. It consists of a number of build-
ings, including a set of huts or chambers tor the
Mdhant or superior, and his resident Chclas or disci-
ples ; a temple sacred to the deity whom they wor-
ship, or the Sanidflh, or .-brine of the founder of tlie
sect, or some eminent teacher ; and one or more
.sheds or buildings for the accommodation of the men-
dicants or travellers who are constantly visiting the
Mafh, both ingress and egress being free to all.
The number of permanent ]iupils in a Math, varies
from three or four to thirty or fi>rty ; besides whom
there is also a considerable number of out-door mem-
bers. The resident Chelas are usually the elders of
the body, with a few of the younger as their atten-
dants and scholars. The superior is usually elected
from the senior or more proficient of the pupils.
The manner in which the Hindu convents are sup-
ported is thus pointed out by Professor H. II. Wil-
son : " Most of the Maths have some endowments
of land, but with the exception of a few established
in large cities, and especially at Benares, the indivi
dual amount of these endowments is, in general, of
little value. There are few Miiths in any district
that possess five hundred bigalis of land, or about one
hundred and seventy acres, and the most usual quan-
tiiy is about thirty or forty bigalis only : this is
sometimes let out for a lixed rent ; at other times, it
is cultisated by the il/u<7( on its ov/n account ; the
highest rental met with, in any of the returns [iro-
cured, is six hundred and thirty rupees per annum.
3P2
MATHEMA— MATSURI.
Altliough, however, tlie individual portions are trif-
ling, the jrreat imniber of these petty establishnienrs
renders the aggregate ainoinit considerable, and as
the endowed lands have been granted Mufi, or free
of land tax, they form, altogether, a serious deduc-
tion from the revenue of e.aeh district.
" Besides the lands they may hold, the Mat'hs
have other sources of support : the attachment of
lay votaries frequently contributes very liberally to
their wants : the community is also sometimes con-
cerned, though, in general, covertly, in traffic, and
besides those means of supply, the individual mem-
bers of most of them sally forth daily, to collect
alms from tlie vicinity, the aggreg'ite of wliich. gen-
erally in the shape of rice or other grains, furnishes
forth the common table : it only remains to observe,
that the tenants of these MaChs, particularly the
Vftishnavm, are most commonly of a quiet inotlen-
sivs character, and the Mahanis especially are men
of talents and respectability, although they possess,
occasionally, a little of that self-importance, which
the conceit of superior sanctity is apt to inspire :
there are, it is true, exceptions to this innocuous
character, and robberies and murders have been
traced to these religions establishments."
MATHEMA (Gr. a L&sson). a name usually given
in the ancient Oreek writers to the Creed, probably
because the catechumens were obliged to learn it.
MATIIEMATICI, a term applied to aUrohijers
both in the .Justinian and Theodosian codes.
MATHURIXI, a name given to the Brethren
OF THE Hor.Y Trinity (which see), because their
church in Paris lias St. Mathurinus for its tutelar
saint.
MATINS, the ancient name used in the Christian
churcli to denote early morning prayers, which
usually began about day-break. The office of ma-
tins or morning prayer, according to the Cluireh of
England, is an abridgment of her ancient services,
for matins, lauds, and jirime.
M.VTK.'VGYinVK, an appellation given to the
Agyut^, (which see), or priests of Cyhelc. because
they gathered oblations for the Great Mother.
MA1'KALI,\, an annual festival celebrated at
Rome on the 11th of .luno. in honour of the godde.ss
Mntitta. Roman matrons alone took pivrt in the
ceremonies, oti'cring cakes baked in pots of earth-
enware. A female slave was next introduced into
tlic temple, who received a blow on the cheek from
one of the matrons, and was driven with scorn from
the sacred buililing. It was customary for the ma-
trons at this festival to carry the children of their
sisters instead of their own into the temple, and to
oiler up prayers to the goddess in their behalf, whose
statue was then crowned with a garland by one of
the matrons whose husband was still alive.
MATRES .SACRORUM (Eat. numbers of the
sacred things), priestesses of Mithrnn. the Persian
god of the Sun, after his worship h.'id been intro-
duced into the Roman Empire.
MATRICUEA. a tei-m used by the coimcil of
Agde, to denote the Canon (which see) or catalogue
of the clergv in the ancient Christian church.
MATRICULARII, subordinate ecclesiastical offi-
cers among the ancient Christians. They were in-
trusted with the care of the church, in which they
were accustomed to sleep. They had also a specific
office to perform in public proce.ssions.
MATRIMOXY. See Marriage.
MATROXALIA. an ancient Roman festival cele-
brated annually <m the Kalends of March, in hunour
of Mars. If was kept bv the matrons alone ; hence
the name. It was instituted either on account of the
peace which was concluded between the Romans and
Sabines hv the mediation of -women ; or because
the founder of Rome was the son of Ilia and Mars.
M.\TSURI, a public spectacle exhibited at Naga-
saki in Japan, on the birthday of the god Suv-a. the
patron of the city. It con.si>ts of processions, plays,
dances, and other amusements, which are celebrated
at the expense of the inhabitants of ten or eleven
streets uniting each year for that purpose. Proces-
sions pass through the principal streets, and specta-
cles .are exhibited in a temporary building of bamboo,
with a thatched roof, open towards the square on
which it is erected. The festival is thus described
by Kiimpfer, who himself witnessed it : " Everything
being readv, the Sinto clergy of the city appear in
a body, with a splendid retinue, bringing over in
procession the Mil.-osi of their great Siiwa, as, also,
to keep him company, that of Symins. Mnrn-^uhi
is left at home, as there is no instance in the his-
tory of his life and actions from which it could be
iiiferred that he delighted in walking and travelling.
" The Sinto clergv. upon tliis occasion, style them-
selves Oolnnti — that is, the high great retame — their
pompous title, notwithstanding the alms-chest is one
of the principal things they carry in the procession,
and. indeed, to very good purpose, for there is such a
midtitude of things thrown among them by the
crowds of superstitious spectators, as if they had a
mind out of mere charity to stone them.
" When they come to the place of exhibitiun, the
ecclesiastics seat themselves, according to their
(piality, which appears in good measure by their
dress, upon three benches, built for them liefore the
front of the temple. The two superiors take the
uppermost bench, clad in black, with a particular
head ornament, and a .«hort staff, as a badge of their
authority. Four others, next in rank, sit upon the
second bench, dressed in white ecclesiastical gowns,
with a black lackered cap, sometliing ditVerent from
that worn by their suiieriors. The main body takes
possession of the third and lowennost bench, sitting
promiscuously, and all clad in white gowns, with a
l)lack lackered cap, somewhat hke those of the Je-
suits. The servants and porters appointed to carry
the holy utensils of the temple, and other people
who have anything to do at this .solcnmity. stand
next to the ecclesiastics, bareheaded.
MATIHEWS (St.) DAY— MAUT.
393
"On the otliei' siilo of tlie square, opposite to the
ecclesiastics, sit tlie deputies of tlie governors, under
a tent, upon a line mat, somewliat raised from the
ground. For niagriilicence sake, and out of respect
for tliis holy act, tliey have twenty pikes of state
planted hefore them in the ground.
"The public spectacles on these occasions area
sort of plays, acted by eiglit, twelve, or more per-
sons. The subject is taken out of the history of
their gods and heroes. Their remarkable adven-
tures, heroic actions, and sometimes their love in-
trigues, put in verse, are sung by dancing actors,
whilst others play upon nuisical instruments. If the
subject be thought too grave and moving, there is
now .and then a comic actor jumps out unawares upon
the stage, to divert the audience witli his gestures
and merry discourse in prose. Some of their other
plays are composed only of hidletsor d.ances. like the
performance of the mimic actors on the Roman stage.
For the dancers do not speak, but endeavour to ex-
press the contents of the storj' they are about to
represent, as naturally as possible, both by their
di'ess and by their gestures and .actions, regulated
according to the sound of musical iustriunents. The
chief subjects of the play, such as foimtains, bridges,
gates, houses, gardens, trees, mountains, animals, and
the like, are also represented, some as big as the life,
and all in general ccmtrived so as to be removed at
pleasure, like the scenes of our European plays."
M.\TTF,R (Etkrnity op). See Eternity of
Tilt: Woiit.D.
MATTHEWS (St.) D.AY, a festiv.al of the Kom-
ish church, ke|)t on the 2 1st of September, in honour
of the Evangelist Matthew. This I'estival is observed
in the dreek church on the 16tli of November.
MATTHEW'S (St.1 LITUIWJY, one of the
twelve Liturgies of the Maronites contained in their
Missal.
M.\.TTHIAS-S (St.) DAY, a festival observed by
the Rimiish church, on the ■24th of February, in
honour of Mattliias, who was elected to the apostle-
ship in room of Judas.
M.A.TUTA, a suniame of Juno, under which the
festival M.iTR.\Ll.4 (which see) was observed in her
honour.
MATUTIX.\, the new morning service of the
ancient Galilean church, so called in contradistinc-
tion to the old morning service which was always
early before day ; whereas this was after the day was
begun. When this was admitted among the canoni-
cal hours to make up the number of seven times a-
day, the Psahns ap|iointed for the service were the
iifty-iir.st, the sixty-third, and ninetieth.
MAUI, a legendary hero of the Polynesian my-
thology. There is not a single group of islands in the
whole range of Oceanica, where Maui was not held
in constant veneration under one or other of his nu-
merous appell.ations. but the more special seat of his
worship was New Zealand, which was supposed to
hiive emerged from the ocean at his command : and
II.
in the Tonga islands he is said to have fished up
these islands out of the sea with a hook and line.
" The stories tell," .says Mr. Ilardwick in his ' Clu'ist
and other Masters,' " that Maui was the last-born
child of Tara-huuga or Taranga, being descended
also, after many generations, from Tu-mata-uenga,
one of the unnatural sons of Heaven and Earth.
Though finally admitted to the number of the gods,
and though at times confounded even with the
highest members of the ancient jiantheon, he is not
unfrequently declared to be of |uirely human origin.
His youthful pr.auks, betokening .always an exu-
berance of life and vigour, and occasionally inter-
mingled with proceedings of more than dubious
morality, remind us of the early feats ascribed to
the heroic Krishna; while his struggles with a huge
sea-monster (Tunurua) furnisli some additional points
of contact or comparison with the Hercules alike of
India and of Greece. On this account it was that
he acquired a lasting liold on the afiections of the
ancient Maori, and was scrupulously invoked by
them as their own tutelary genius on many grand
occasions, and especially when they were setting out
upon some fishing expedition.
•' Very many of the strange adventures which are
told of Maui indicate his vast superiority over his
five elder brothers in strength, in cunning, in good
fortune. To astonish or to overreach them he
would voluntarily assume the form and other quali-
ties of a bird; and once, in this disguise, a]ipeais to
have succeeded in gaining admittance to the subter-
ranean world, in wliicli his parents were detained.
Ere long, however, it was found that the myste-
rious visitor was a man, or ratlier was 'a god,' and
when Ills niotlier finally beheld in him her own
Maui 1/ -Maui possessed of the topknot, or power, of
Taranga'l, her delight at the discovery was rapturous
and unbounded. • This,' she exclaimed, ' is hideed
my child. By the winds and storms and wave-up-
lifting gales he was fasliioned and became a human
being. AVelcome, O my cliild, welconu^ : by thee
sliall hereafter be climbed the threshold of tlie house
of thy great ancestor. Hine-nui-te-po (the goddess of
the wodd invisible), and death itself shall thence-
forth have no power over man.' With the express
intention of acliieving the fulfillment of this hopeful
prophecy, the hero of New Zealand entered on the
last and greatest of his labours. He had noticed
how the sun and moon, which he was instigated to
extinguish, were immortalised, because it w.as their
wont to bathe in some living fountain: ' he deter-
mined, therefore, to do the same, and to enter the
womb of Hine-nui te-po, that is Hades, where the
living water — the life-giving stream — was situated.
Hine-nui-tepo draws all into her womb, but per-
mits none to return. Maui determined to try, trust-
ing to his great powers ; but before he made the
attempt, he strictly cliarged the birds, his frienils,
not to laugh. He then allowed Great Jlotlier Night
to draw him into her womb. His head and shoul-
2l
394
MAUI FATA— MAUR (St.), Congregation of.
ders had already piitered, wlien that forgetful bird,
the Piwaka-waka, bcijaii to laugh. Night closed
her portals: Maui was cut in two, and died. Tl\us
death came into the world, [or rather, in accordance
with a second and more congruous ver.sion, kejit it.s
hold upon the world]. Had not the Piwaka-waka
laughed, Maui would have drunk of the living stream,
and man would never [more] have died. Such was
the end of Maui ! '"
MAUI FAT.V. altar- raising, a religions ceremony
in Polynesia. No human being was slain on this
occivsion, but numbers of pigs, with abundance of
plantains, were jilaced upon the altars, whicli were
newlv orname.iited with branches of the sacred miro,
and yellow leaves of the cocoa-nut tree. These
rites extended to every mirae in the island, and were
designed to secure rain and fertility, for the country
gained bv conquest or recovered from invasion.
M.\ULAVI. the name usually given to a Mo-
hammedan priest in India.
MAUNDY THURSDAY, the Thursday before
Easter ; supposed by some to allude to tlie mmuJa-
tum or commandment which Christ gave to his dis-
ciples on that day, to love one another as lie had
loved them ; while by others it is supposed to be
derived from mandatum or command, that being the
iir.st word of the anthem smig on that day, " A
new commandment 1 give unto you." Otliers again
allege that the name arose from the maiiinls or bas-
kets of gift.-:, which it was an ancient custom for
Christians to present to one another at this time, in
token of the mutual alTectioii which our blessed
Lord urged upon his people. On Mamuli/ T/iiir^din/.
in ancient times, in some of the Latin ehurclies, the
communion was administered in the evening after
supper, in imitation of the first eonmiunion. Au-
gustine takes notice of the same custom, and also
observes that the communion in some places was
administered twice on this day; in the morning for
the .sake of such as could not keep a day of fast, and
in the evening f(n- those that fasteil till evening,
when they ended their fast and received the com-
munion after supper. On this day the competentcs or
candidates for bajitism pid)licly rehearsed the Creed
before the bishops or jiresbyters in the chnrcli. It
was customary also for servants to receive the com-
nmnir)n on this great and holv fifth d.iy of the Pas-
sion Week. After the ancient love-feasts were dis-
continued, this day was observed as a feast of love.
On .Maundy Tliursday the Romish church cele-
brates the burial or emombment of our blessed Lord.
It may appear strange that Good Friday being consi-
dered the .antiiversary of (jur Saviour's death, the pre-
ceding day should be chosen to represent his funeral ;
but the reason assigned by Romanists for this set'in-
ing iiiconsisteney is, tliat the chiireh has pref(M'red to
represent it by anticipation on Thursday, rather than
on the following d.-iy in which the church is in |)rofound
mourning on account of his death. On this occiision,
we learn, on the testimony of an eye-witness, that
two hosts are consecrated, one of which is consumed
as usual by the nlhciating cardinal, and the other is
carefully placed in a clialice, and covered with a
paten and napkin. This is called the chalice of the
Sepulchre, and is very handsome, being of rock crys-
tal, set in silver gilt, and adorned by tigures of the
twelve apostles. " The procession," it is added,
" set out in the usual manner, tlie Pope being last of
all, and on this occasion walkimj bareheaded, lia\ing
the canopy borne over him by eight bishops, and
carrving in liis hand the chalice, contaiidngthe host.
The procession passed through the vestibide to the
Pauline Chapel, which was illuminated by live hun-
dred and sixty-seven wax lights — producing a blaze
of light almost intolerable to the eye. The aliar
was prepared as a sort of sepulchre, and there the
Pope deposited the host, in a small wooden box as
in the tondj, and the sepidclire was locked by the
sacri.^tan, and the key delivered to the cardinal peni-
tentiary, who was to perform the service of next
day."
Another ceremony observed at Home on Uoly
Thursday is the washing of the feet of thirteen
pilgrims by the Pope, in imitation of the act of
liumility and condescension which our Lord per-
formed in washing the feet of His disciples. An-
other singular ceremony which belongs to this day
is the washing of the high altar with wine ; a cere-
mony which, as well as that of uncovering the altar,
has alreadv been described under the article Al.TAK.
The Pojie also ])rononnces a solemn .anathema on
Maundv Thursday against all heretics and enemies
of the church 'see .\NATHi-:.M.Ji), being the Bull in
aena Dotnini On tliis day alone of all the festival
days in the year, the ceremony is pertorined of
blessing the catechiimenal and chrismal oils, and the
oil of the sick.
M.\UR (>St.). Coxgrk.gation of, one of the
reformed congregations of Benedictine monks, which
originated in the seventeenth century. It was form-
ed under the authority of Gregory XV. in IG'Jl,
and endowed with various privileges and rights by
Urban VIII. in 1<!27. The object of tliis Congrega-
tion, which is widely extended throughout France, is
to revive the spirit of St. Benedict in the oboervance
of his rule, and with this view much attention is paid
to the training of yomig religious. To etVect this the
more completely, there are houses for novices, from
which tho.se who are to be admitted to profession
are removed to other cloisters, wdiere they are trained
for two years to .acts and exercises of worship.
Then they study human learning and theology
for live years, after which they spend one year in
special preparation for their sacred duties. The
lienedietines are accustomed lo speak in very high
terms of the eminent services which the Congrega-
tion of St. Maur have done to the cause of literature,
most of their time ami attention having been directed
to the pursuit of learning. This devotion to the
study of sacred and secular knowledge was strongly
MAURI— MAYA.
396
objected to In- sume wtio atimiied tlie ancient mo-
nastic discipline. Hence <i controvei'sy arose in
France on tlie question, " How far is it suitable for a
nionlc to cultivate literature?" But the monks of
St. Mam' refused to yield to the prejudices of some
of the French bishops, and to the petty jealousies of
the Jesuits; they have continued, accordingly, to
issue from the press works of great interest and im-
portance. Their celebrated editions of the Fathers,
extending to ten Greek and twelve Latin Fathers;
their ' (lallia CIn-istiana,' in thirteen volumes folio,
not yet completed ; their ' Hi.stoire Litteraire de la
France,' which has been carried on fi'om 1733 down
to the present dav ; and an admirable compendious
work, also continued down to the present time, under
tlie title, 'L'.\rt de verifier les Dates des Faits His-
toriques,' have all of them proveii valualile acces-
sions to literature both sacred and profane. Such
names as Mabillon and Moiitfaucon, both of wliom
belonged to the Congregation of St. Maur, are suffi-
cient to show tliat among the monks of this order
have been enrolled some men of distinguislieil ta-
lents and profound learning, men who by their la-
borious researches have thrown a Hood of light upon
the history and antiquities of the Christian church.
M.\URI, an inferior order of supernatural beings,
according to the belief of the South Sea Lslanders.
They were considered the most malignant of beings,
exceedingly irritable and implacable. They were
not confined to the skulls of departed warriors, or
the images made for them, but were c)ccasionally
supposed to resort to the shells from the sea-shore,
especially a beautiful kind of murex. called the
niuri'X ramoi-en. These shells were kept by the sor-
cerers, and the jieculiar singing noise perceived on
applying the valve to the ear, was imagined to pro-
ceed I'rom the demon it contained.
M.\U110 UllA, the red sash, a very sacred relic
held in the highest estimation bv the natives of
Tahiti in the South Sea Isl.ands. It is thus de-
scribed by the late lainented missi(jiiary. .John Wil-
liams: "This was a piece of network, about seven
inches wide and six feet long, niion which the red
feathers of the paroquet were neatly fastened. It
was used at the inauguration of their greatest kings,
just as the crown is with us, and the most honour-
able appellation which a chief could receive was,
Arii maro lira, ' King of the Red Sash.' A new
piece, about eighteen inches in length, was attached
at the inauguration of every sovereign ; to accom-
plish which several human victims were required.
The first was for the mnu raa titi, or the stretching
it upon pegs in order to attach to it the new piece.
Another was nece.s.sary for the/«te ma, or attaching
the new portion; and a third for the pin. rna, or
twitching the sacred relic off the pegs. This not
only inve.sted the sash itself with a high measure of
solemn importance, but also reiulered the chiefs who
wore it most noble in public estimation."
MAUSOLEU.M, a name originally ap[ilied to the
magnilicent sepulchre erected by Artemisia to the
memory of Mausolus, king of Caria ; but now used
to denote generally any splendid tomb. See Ceme-
TEUiES, Tombs.
MAYORS. See Mars.
MAY.4, a term used in Hinduism to denote tlic
personification of Brahm's fruitless longing for some
being other than his own. In the Vaidie period
Maya meant no more than the desire of evolution.
In its full development, however, the word always
implies illusion, and hence all forms assumed by
matter are held to be not only triinsient, but illusive
and essentially non-existent. Dr. Duff' explains
Miiya as the actuating principle or efficient cause of
illusion ; — the illusory energy. " It is Maya,"' says
this able and learned missionary, " that delusively
exhibits all the diversified appearances which com-
po.se what is ordinarily called the visible external
imiverse. These have no exterior material basis
or substantive form, neither have they any interior
spiritual basis or substratum, either in the Universal
Sold, or in the hunjan soul before which they are
displayed. In both these respects, they differ essen-
tially from the subtile types or models of all things
which Plato supposed to exist in the divine mind
from all eternity, — and to which he gave the n.ame
of ' ideas, or intelligible forms,' because apprehended
solely by the intellect. These Platonic ideas are
not mere conceptions. They are real immutable be-
ings, suKsisting in the divine mind as their proprr
seat. They are miehangeable patterns or exemplars,
which, by the power of (iod, issue forth Irom the
fountain of his own essence, — and, becoming united
with matter previously without any f(]rm, they im-
press their own form upon if, and so render visible
and perceptible the whole range of individual sensi-
lile objects presented to us in the external mnver.^e.
These Ibrms, thus impressed on contingent matter,
are exact copifs of those that are invarialde. But
sensible things are perpetually cliangiug. Their
forms, consequently, cannot be the proper objects of
contemplation and science to the enlightened and
purified iutcdieet. Hence, says Plato, they are the
ideas, or intelligible forms, eternally and innnntably
subsisting in the divine mind, which alone can be
the real objects contemplated by the expanded rea-
son of man.
" Unlike, too, the ' ideas' of Malebr.anche ; which,
though contained only in the one great Omnipresent
Mind, and perceived by other spirits therein, bad yet
corresponding external objects ; — unlike the ' sensi-
ble species,' or ]iliantasms, or shadowy films of Aris-
totle, which, though transformed by the active and
p.assive intellect into intelligible species fit to be the
objects of the understanding, were yet oidy resem-
blances or pictures of outward substances ; — unlike
the ' ideas' of Berkeley, which, though representing
no material forms, were not mere states of (lie indi-
vidual mind, but separate spiritual eruities, wholly
independent of it, and inq)erisliable, — capable of
396
MAYITRI— MKAT-OFFKRING.
existing in finite minds, but reposing cliiefly on the
bosom of the infinite ; — nnlil<e any, or all of these,
the ' ideas' or images of tlie Hindu tlieology Hoat in
utter vacancy, — cliallenging no separate or indepen-
dent existence. Thov are mere ilhisive appearances
presented by .Maya, — liaving no ' siiecies' in tlie liu-
man intelleot ; no ' snbstanti.il exemplars' in an exter-
nal world ; no 'intelligent forms" in the divine mind
for their antitypes. Neither do they depend, in any
degree, for their origin on any power or factdty of
the sonl itself. They spnng from no anterior act of
the soul — no more than the shadow in water is pro-
duced by an active power resident in the water. If
von could suppose the water percipient, it would
perceive the shadow in its own bosom, though wholly
passive in the manifestation thereof; so, of the ]ier
cipient soul. It does not originate any of the illu-
sive appearances that Hit before it. It is only the
passive recipient as well as percipient of them. In
your ignorance, you conclude that an image or sha-
dow necessarily presupposes some counterpart sub-
stantial form. But know that it is the prerogative
of Maya, the divine energy, to produce images and
shadows without any corresponding reality, — to pro-
duce and exhibit, for cxamiile, the image of a sun, or
the shadow of a tree, in the bosom of a limjiid
.stream, though there be no luminary in tlie firma-
ment, im tree on the verdant bank. And thus it is
that .Maya does produce images and forms, and ex-
hibits them to the soul as before a mirror, though
there be no counterpart realities. It is from the
habit generated In' ignorance that you talk of sen.sa-
tions ami perceptions in the soul, as if these neces-
sarily implied the existence of external objects as
their exciting causes.
" It is true, say the Hindu theologians, that so long
a.s the power of Maya is exerted, the soid is deceived
into the belief of its own distinct individuality, as
well as of the real existence of material jihenomena.
In otlicr words, the soul — in consequence of the two-
fold operation of Maya, first, in subjecling it to ig-
norance of its real nature and origin, and secondly,
in exposing it to illusive scnsatinns and perceptions
— cannot liel]) being impressed with a conviction of
its own separate identity, and the independent exist-
ence of external forms. Ami so long as this double
belief, the compound result of ignorance and delu-
sion, continues, — so long must the soul act, ' not
according to its essential proper nature, but accord-
ing to the imavoidable influences of the igimr.ance
and illusive ajipcarances to which it lialb been ex-
posed,'— or, in the words of the Shastra, ' so lotig
must it be liable to virtue and vice, to anger and
hate, and other passions and sensations, — to birth
and death, and all the v.aried changes and miseries
of this mort.al state.'"
MAYITUI, a future I'>udha, who is destined to
appear at the end of live thousand years from the
death of Gotania Bculha. and will cmitinue for ages
to be the teacher of the hinnan race.
MEAT-OFFERING, a part of the appointed of-
ferings of the ancient Hebrews. There were five
kinds of meat-olTerings, all of which are minutelv
described in Lev. ii. They were (1.) of fine flour
unbaked. (2.) Of flour baked in a pan. (3.) Baked
in a frying- jian. (4.) B.iked in an oven. (5.) Of
barley -n)eal without any oil or frankincense. The in-
gredients in general consisted of flour, barlev-mcal. or
gi'een ears of corn, oil, frankincense, and .salt. The
most ancient meat-ofierings were those which were
coni]iosed of fine flour unbaked. The oflering of
Cain is supposed to have been of this description.
It was prepared in this way. A quantity of oil hav-
ing been put into a vessel, sonu' flom- was mixed with
it. and an additional quantity of oil was jionred ovei
it. The iTiixture was then put into the holy vessel,
in which it was to be can-ied to the altar, ami oil
was poured upon it again, and a quantity of frank-
incense. The offering thus prepared was carried to
the altar, wliere it was waved and salted, and ]iart of
it laid upon the fire. The rest was eaten by the
priests. When the Hebrews had entered Canaan,
where this meat-ofl'ering was appointed to accom-
pany all the vnluntaiy bunit-ott'crings of beasts, as
well as the daily morning and e\ening sacrifice, a
certain quantity of wine was substituted instead (jf
frankincense. All the priests who attended on this
cccasiun, received an equal share of the nieal-ofVer-
ing ; but the baked meat-offerings belonged to the
priest alone who ministered at the altar. The un-
baked meat- offering was called an offering made bv
fire, allhough by some writers it has been su]ip(jsed
to have been an expi,atory sacrifice, because what re-
mained was to be eaten by the priests.
The second species of meat-offering, which we have
characterized as baked in a flat pan. consisted of fine
flour unleavened, kneaded with oil. thus fonning a
cake which was divided, part of it being ofiered to
G(.d, .and part given to the priests. In the case of
the third species, which was baked in a frying-pan,
the oil was not kneaded with the flour, but simplv
mixed with it, thus forming a moist ciike, a part
of whi<-h was separated from the rest bv the priest,
who burned it u]ion the altar bi^fnre the other part
was eaten. The fourth sjiecies, which was bidicd in
an oven, consisted of two kinds, being either thick
unleavened cakes, or thin like wafers. In thick
cakes the flour ami the oil were kiu'aded ; but if tliev
were thin, the oil was spread upon them in the form
of the Greek knjipn. before they were baked, or, as
some suppose, after they came out of the oxen.
No meat-ofl'ering laid upon the altar was allowed
by the law of Moses to be leavened ; nor was honey
to be mingled with it, but simply a small portion of
salt, that it might be seasoned. The meat-ofl'crings
were generally combined with other sacrifices, such
as burnl-ofTerings or peace-olVerings, but neier with
sin-olfei'ings. The fifth species of meat-offering,
which was presented alone, was either used in a case
of extreme poverty, when the offerer was unable to
MECCA— MECCA (Pilgiu.mage to).
3!)7
procure any otlier victim, or in tlie case of a wife
suspected of unfaitlifuliiess to lier marriage vows,
'('his, whicli was a Inimbler kind of meat-otVering,
consisted of the tentli part of an epliali of barley-
meal, without any oil or frankincense. It was sub-
stituted in the case of the poor for a sin-otTering.
Meat-ofi'eriiigs were either public or private. The
public meat-offerings were three in number: (1.)
The twelve loaves oi sheie-hread, whicli were set be-
fore the Lord every Sabbath, and when removed
were eaten by tlie priests. (2.) The two wave-
loaves offered at Pentecost. (3.) The tirst-fruits of
the harvest. (See IIauvest, Festival of.) Tlie
moat-offerings for private persons included the daily
meat-offering of the high-priest ; tlie meat-offering
of initiation, which every priest was appointed to
bring when he entered upon his office ; the poor
man's meat-offering, which was accepted in.stead of
a sin-offering ; and the nieat-otiering of the suspected
wife.
MEATS (DiFFERENX'E of). See Anlmals (Clean
AND Unclean).
MECCA, the chief city of Arabia, and from time
immemorial the sacred city of the Arabs. It has
been alleged to have been built in the time of the
patriarchs shortly after Hagar and her son had been
dismissed from the house of Abraham. The Ama-
lekites are said to have founded tlie city, and to liave
taken Ishmael and his mother under their protec-
tion. In a short time the Amalekites were expelled
by the proper inliabitants of the place, and Ishmael,
having married the daughter of the ruling prince,
gave origin to the ancestors of tlie Arabs. Mecca
is specially remarkable as containing the Beitullah
(which see), or celebrated temple in which .stands the
Kaaba (which see). The city is also particularly
famous as having been the birth place oi' Mohammed,
the founder of the faith of Islam. Among the an-
cient Arabians it was the resort of pilgrims from all
])arts of the peninsula, and such was the importance
attached to this rite of pilgrimage, that four months
in every year were dedicated to the observance.
Business was suspended, wars ceased, and multitudes,
clad in the garb of pilgrims, repaired to the sacred
city, went round the Kaaba seven times, in imita-
tion of the angelic host, touched and kissed the
sacred stone, drank and made ablutions at the well
of Zemzem, in memory of Ishmael, and having per-
foi'med these hallowed ceremonies, the pilgrims re-
turned home to resume their wonted occupations.
Mohammed, accustomed from his childhood to re-
vere the pilgrimag ', and to attach a special sacred-
ness to any one who had performed it, adopted the
ceremony as a part of his own system, specially com-
manding his followers to regard Mecca as holy
ground, and to observe the pilgrimage as a sacred
duty, if in their power to perfoi-m it. The city is
thus described by Burckliardt : " Mecca is in a nar-
row, sandy vallev, within hills of moderate elevation,
barren, and wholly destitute of trees. Still it is
more cheerful than most eastern cities, because the
streets have purposely been made wide for the pas-
sage of the pilgrims, but the only open space is the
sacred enclosure. It is strange that a city that ex-
ists only for pilgrims has no caravanserais to accom-
modate them. The far-famed Kaaba, so called as
being nearly a cube, towers above all the low, flat-
roofed dwellings, though no more than forty feet
high. Prom time immemorial a place of pilgrimage,
its erection is traced up to Adam. The Deluge of
course washed it away, and it is said to have been
rebuilt by Abraham. Still the actual edilice has not
the prestige of antiquity, for it has been renewed
eight times, and as far as coidd be with the old ma-
terials, a reddish sandstone. Its unique appearance
bears out the tradition that it has been scrupulously
restored after the original design. The last was
nearly washed away by a torrent which inimdated
the town, and the present was erected as late as
1624, by Amurath IV. ; and indeed whatever dig-
nity it derives from the enclosing arcade it owes to
the piety of the Turkish Sultans. It was rebuilt
while Mohammed was a private individual, and it is
curious that he should have been the person chosen
to lift the black stone into its place."
MECCA (Pilguimage to), a sacred ordinance of
the Mohammedan religion, required to be observed
a' least once in a man's life, but only provided he has
sufficient means to defray the expenses of the jour-
ney. It is expressly commanded in the Koran, and
such was the importance which the Arabian prophet
attached to the performance of this duty, that he
declared a believer neglecting this pilgrimage, if it
was in Ids power to undertake it, might as well die a
Jew or a Christian. From all parts of the East,
accordingly, thousands of Muhauimedan devotees,
having made all due preparation on the month
Diilkaada, set out on their journey to l\Iecca. When
within a few stages of the sacred city, they assume
the Ihram or sacred dress, consisting of one piece of
cloth wrapped round the loins, and another thrown
over the shoulders. Some are clothed in this fashion
from the very commencement of their journey, but
it is not imperatively required until the pilgrim ap-
proaches the city. He commences the ceremony
with bathing and shaving the head. He then makes
a prayer of two inclinations, asks a blessing on his
undertaking, and ends with the Lehik, or a declara-
tion of readiness to obey, which ought to be conti-
nually in his mouth during the performance of the
pilgrimage. He must kill no animals, not oven the
smallest insect, otherwise he must expiate his sin
by the sacritice of a sheep. The head must be un-
covered, unless in the case of old age or sickness. The
pilgrims are of both sexes, the only ground of ex-
emption from the Hadj being inability to undertake
the journey, and it is declared by Moslem casuists,
that even where a believer is incapable he must per-
form the duty by deputy, and pay all his expenses.
To have accomplished tlie pilgrimage, and thus earned
308
MKDIATOU.
tlie title of Iliiilji. is accoiiiiteii one of tlie highest
hoiiom-s ;i ni.iii uaii attain in this woilil. For nearly
a quarter of a century the pilgrimage was rendered
im|iossible by the outrageous conduct of a heretical
Mohammedan sect, called the Cakmathians (which
see), who attacked llie c;iravans, plundered the holy
city, and carried ofl' the black stone. It was again
interrupted at a more recent period by the Wahuhies,
who desirayed the tomb of the propliet, and commit-
ted other acts of violence. Mohannued Ali, how-
ever, the energetic paclia of Egypt, reduced this re-
bellious tribe to subjection, and restored the pilgrim-
age, which had for a time been discontinued.
The numbers of pilgrims who annually resort to
the sacred city has buen variously estimated, some
rating them at 30,000, and others as high as 100,000.
Burckliardt calculated their amount wlien he was
present at 70.000, and Lieuteiuuit Burton at 00,000,
the latter adding, that, in the following year, the
number was reduced one half. The first act of the
pilgrim when he finds himself within the gates of
Mecca, is to visit the mosque, where lie commences
liis sacred exercises. On entering, he prays with
four rakaals to salute the mosque, and in gratitude
for having reached the holy city. lie then goes for-
ward and touches, and if the crowd permits his com-
ing near ein)ugh, he kisses the black stone. He
then commences the circuit, which is repeated seven
times, tlie first three r<nuids at a quick, and tlie
other four at ii more moderate pace, repeating all the
while certain prayer.^, and at each circuit kissing
botli stones. Having completed the appointed cir-
cuits, lie stands with outstretched arms and prays for
the pardon of his sins ; he then perfonns two ralaat.^
at Abraham's station, and drinks of the well of Zent-
zein. " He is now conducted," borrowing the ac-
count of Burckliardt the traveller, '• to a small ascent,
called the hill of Safa, to take tlie sai, that is, a walk
along a level street, six hundred paces long, to Me-
rona, a stone platform. He has to walk quick, and
for a short space to run, and during the course,
which is also repeated seven times, he must pray
aloud. He may now shave his head; but as the
course is fatiguing, that ceremony is generally post-
poned. The course is in imitation of Hagar's rim-
ning backward .'ind forward. It is iiidispen.sable to
visit, on the ninth ilay. Mount Araliit, or knowledge,
so called because Adam and Eve are said to have
met here, after their long separation, on their expul-
sion from I'aradise. It is meritorious to perform
this expedition of six hour., (.ii foot ; some were en-
gaged in reciting the Koran or pr.-iyers, while the
worldly and impenitent quarrelled with their camel
drivers. The hill was entirely covered, for in addi-
tion to the pilgrims, the inhabitants of Mecca and of
Jidda consider it their duty to attend. At three in
the afternoon the Kadhi took his stand, and read a
sermon till sunset, at intervals stretching forth his
hands to invoke the divine blessing on the immense
multitude, who rent the air with shouting in return
the LebiL; ' Here we are at thy disposal, O God !
Some were crying and beating their breasts, and
confessing themselves to be grievous sinners, iu the
style of an .-Vmerican camp-meeting, while others
mocked them, or smoked with oriental gravitv, and
some to intoxication with forbidden hemp. The
Kadhi's shutting his book was the signal for a gen-
eral rush down the hill, as it is thought meritorious
in pilgrims to quicken their pace. The tents had
been previously packed up, aiul the caravan was
ready to return. According to a tradition, there are
000,000 beings present, angels making up the defi-
ciency of human attendaiMs. The night was passed
at ail intermediate station, Mazdalifa, in prayer and
reciting the Koran, and here a shorter sermon was
read, between the dawn and sunrise. The multitude
then returned to the valley of Mina, where each
pilgrim throws, in three place.?, seven small pebbles,
in imitation of Abraham, whom God is said to ha\e
instructed thus to drive away the devil, who endea-
voured to interrupt his prayer, and to tempt him to
disobey the command to sacrifice his son. This
ceremony over, they slay their victims, and least on
them with their friends, giving what remains to the
poor, but using no sacrificial rites, only saying, 'In
tlie name of the merciful God!' and 'God is
great !' " Burckliardt calculated that the pilgrims, on
the occasion to which he refers, must have sacrificed
8,000 slieep and goals.
After spending two days more on the sacred spot,
on each of which they repeat the throwing of the
pebbles, they now prepare for closing tlie pilgrim-
age by shaving their heads, cutting their nails, and
burying the li.-iir and parings, af"ier which they make
a circuit of the Kaabii for the last time, and perfor.n
once more the hurried walk from the hill of Safa.
The devotional spirit wliicli the pilgrims display is
often deeply touching, and amid.-t the thousands who
are assembled every year in Mecca, there are num-
bers who have come in the full expectation of being
cured of their diseases, and not a few who, feeling
their end a|iproacliing, wish to die within sight of
the Beltulhih, or house of God, or to breathe out
their last sigh on holy ground.
MKCICA (TuiMPLii OF). See Beitui.i.ah.
MEDl.VTOK, one who interposes between two
parlies who are at variance, with the view of effecting
a reconciliation. In Sacred Scripture it is ajiplied
to the Lord Jesus Christ, who came in as a davsman
or Mediator between sinful man and his oll'ended
Creator. Thus in 1 Tim. ii. 5, we are assured that
" there is one God, and one mediator between God
and men, the man Christ Jesus." No truth is more
strikingly developed in all the various forms of Pagan-
ism, both ancient and modern, than this, that there
is a settled conviction in the mind of man of the
necessity of a Divine Mediator. In all ages, and in
all nations, such an impression has invariably pre-
vailed. The scriptural principle, that without shed-
ding of blood there is no remission of sins, is a re-
MEDAL (Miraculous)— MEDINA.
399 I
co'.'iiizeri principle of tlie religion of nature, as well
as of revelation. The early prevalence of sacrifice,
not only among the Hebrews, but among the Canaaii-
ites. and otiier heathen nations, showed in the plain-
est and the most convincing manner, that the uni-
versal belief of man has ever been, that it is only by
the surrender of life that man can be again restored
to the favour and friendship and fellowship of liis
God. " Whence then," says Mr. Faber, •' could
originate this universal practice of devoting the fir.st-
born either of man or beast, and of ofi'ering it up as
a bimit-ortering ? Whence but from a deei> and an-
cient consciousness of moral depravation? Whence
but from some perverted tradition rc-^pecting the
true Sacrifice, to be once ofiered for the .sins of all
mankind ? In the oblation of the first-born originally
instituted by God himself, and faithfully adhered to
both by Jew and Gentile, we behold the death of
Him who was tlie first-born of his virgin-mother, ac-
curately, though obscurely exhibited. And in the
constant use of fire, the invariable scriptural emblem
of wrath and jealonsv, we view the indignation of
that God who is a consuming fire, averted from our
guilty race, and poured upon the immaculate head of
om- great Intercessor and Mediator."
We rind the idea of a Mediator pervading the
most ancient forms of heathenism. Thus in the an-
cient religion of Persia, if Ornmzd and Ahriman are
es.sentially at variance and struggling for the mas-
terj-, Mithras acts as Slediator between the two, de-
fending man against Ahrimmi and his devs, who are
ever seeking to injure and even destroy Iiim. In the
early religion of Iinlia, we find in the Rig-Ved.i, the
myth of Acini, the mediator of the Aryans of the
Indus. " He is the iirnnortal among mortals, their
companion, their cherished friend, tlieir near kins-
man, who seats himself beside their fires, and upon
whom they found their hopes as upon a fire." Here
then is a mediator God, who becomes man for the
good of liumanitv, the friend of mankind, their king,
their prophet, their life, their sacrificer. tlieir inter-
cessor. There was no period, indeed, in the history
of the Indo-Aryan people, when altars were not
reared and sacrifices ofiered. In the Brahmanic
period, the notion of an external Mediator, who
should manifest himself in human form, is conveyed
in the arnUirs or incarnations of Vishnu. The saint
of the Chinese, who forms the principal subject of
one of the books of Confucius, involves the same
idea, being a man who, by his humility, his charity,
his moral perfection, has become a God. He was a
Divine man, the mediator between heaven and earth,
who ofiered himself in sacrifice to conquer evil and
take away sin from tlie world. Numberless in-
stances might be adduced from the religions both of
ancient and of modern limes, wliich clearly point to
the notion of a Mediator, as deeply embedded in the
human mind.
MEDAL (Miraculous), a medal which is exten-
sively circulated among lionianists, both in Europe
and America, as acconiplishing wonderful cures
The origin of this ined:d is tliiis described by the
Abbd Le Guidon, in a work devoted to the subject,
which was published at Rome in 1835 : " Toward
the end of the year 1830, a well-born young female,
a noviciate in one of those conservatories which are
dedicated in Paris to the use of the poor and the
sick, whilst in the midst of her fervour during her
prayers, saw a picture representing the most Holy
Virgin (as she is nsnally represented under the title
of the Immaculate Conception), standing with open
and extended arms : there issued from her hands rays
of light like bundles, of a brightness which dazzled
her: and amidst those bundles, or clusters of rays,
she distinguished that some of the most remarkable
fell upon a point of the globe which was under her
eye. In an instant she heard a voice, which said,
' These rays are symbolical of the graces which Mary
obtains for men, and this point of the globe on which
they fall most copiously is France.' Around this
picture she read the following invocation, written in
letters of gold: — 'O Mary, conceived without sin,
]iray for us who have recourse to you.' Some mo-
ments after, this painting turned round, and on the
reverse she (the Estatica) distinguished the letter M,
surmounted by a little cross, and below it the most
sacred hearts of Mary and Jesus. After the young
girl liad well considered the whole, the voice said,
'A medal must be struck, and the jiersons who wear
it, and who shall .s.ay with devotion tlie inscribed
short prayer, shall enjoy the very special protection
of the Mother of God.' ''
This sujiernatural intimation accordingly was
obeyed, and, under direction of tlie archbishop of
Pari.s, a medal was struck, and a large supply was
ready against the invasion of the cholera. The
Abbe gives a full account of the cures which the
medal had effected, and the wonders it had wrought,
winding up the whole by the statement, '■ Finally,
from all parts we hear the mo.st consoling fact.s.
Priests full of the spirit of the Lord tell us, that
these medals are reviving religious feeling in cities
as well as country places. Vicars-General, who en-
joy a well-merited consideration, as well for their
[iiety, and even distinguished bishops, inform us that
' they have reposed every confidence in these medals,
and they regard them as a means of Providence foi
awakening the faith which has slept so long in this
our age.' "
MEDINA, a town in Arabia, held in considerable
veneration among the disciples of l.sL'ini, as being the
burial-place of Mohammed. It occupies a far infe-
rior place to Mecca in the estimation of the faithful.
There is no obligation upon the pilgrims to visit Me-
dina, and accordingly, few do so except the Turks in
wliose route it lies. The great mosque, which in-
cludes the prophet's tomb, is described as very
splendid, being surrounded by numerous pillars of
marble, jasper, and porphyry, on which letters of
gold are inscribed in many places. The tomb itself
400
MKDITIll.VA— MELCIIISEDEK (The Order of).
is plain, anil 'on each aide ot" it are the tombs of the
two earlv Caliphs, .\bubekr ami Omar. Near tliis
spot also repose the ashes of Mohnnimed'.s beloved
daughter, Fatimali, and of many of his companions
who are revered as saints. A visit to Medina is no
doubt quite voluntary, but such a visit raises the
reputation of a pilicrim.
MEDITKIXA (Lat. medcri, to heal), a goddess
woishippeil by the ancient Romans, as presiding
over the healing art. .\n ainiual festival was cele-
lirated in her honour. See next article.
Mi;i)ITRINALIA, a festival observed by the
ancient Romans, every year on the 11th of October,
when for the first time the new wine was drunk,
wliich was supposed to have a healing power, and
therefore to be connected with the goddess Mi,Di-
TRIN.i (which see}.
MBDUSA, one of the Gorgons (which see).
MK(rAI5YZI, described by Sirabo as eunuch
priests in the temple of ArtemU at Ephesus.
MEGvERA. See Eumenides.
MEGALESIA (Gr. MegaU tJieos, great goddess),
a festival celebrated at Rome in ancient times, in
honour of C'l/bek, the mother of the gods. It was
ob-served annually in the month of April. Tlie
statue of tlui goddess was first introduced at Rome
in li. c. 203, but the festival did not begin to be Iield
until B.C. 191, at the completion and iledieation of
tlie temple in honour of Cybele. The Megalesia,
consisting of games, feasting, and rejoicing, com-
menced on the 4tli of Apiil, and continued for six
days. To such an extent, however, did some Roman
families carry tlieir luxury and extravagance on this
occasion, that it was found to be necessary for the
government to issue a public decree limiting the ex-
penditure to a certain amount. The Megalesian
differed from the Circensian games in being chiefly
theatrical. The third day of the festival, indeed,
was wholly devoted to scenic representations. At
the games, which were presided over by the curule
aediles, slaves were not allowed to be present, and
the niagistrates were dressed in purple robes.
MEGALOCIIEMI, the highest rank of monks,
or the order of the Perfect in tlie Greek church.
MICG.'VRA (Sciiooi. ok), a school of pliilnsophy
in ancient Greece. It was founded about B. c. 400,
by Euclid, who, while he had chielly cultivated the
logic of his master Socrates, had previously studied
with the Eleatics, and imbibed their principal doc-
trines. He is said to have limited trutli to identical
propositions. The Megaric school helil all existence
to be included in the primitive unity, but consider-
ing the subject rather in a moral than in a metaphy-
sical asjiect, they maintained the absolute being to
be the absolute good. But their s|iecuIations, char-
acterized rather by acuteness and subtlety than ac-
curacy of thinking, appear to have produced no per-
ceiitiblc influence on the mind of Greece.
MECJILEOTH, a division of the Hebrew Scrip-
tures adopted by the Jews, and including the Song
of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, aiid
Esther, wliich they term the five rolls or volumes.
There is a Targum on the Megilloth, which, how-
e\er, probably belongs to a late [leriod, not earlier
indeed tliaii the sixth century. See T.4RGUM.
MICGMA, an assembly or council of Init'tms or
Docturs of the Law, among the Mohammedans.
MEHDIVIS, a Mohammedan sect in India, who
take their naine from believing tlieir Walt or saint
to have been the promised Mehdi or M.^liDi (wliich
see). This pretender, who claimed to be descended
from Hossiiii, the son of Ali\ was born at a small
town near Benares, in the year of tlie Hegira 8-tT,
and declared himself at the black stone at Meccji
about A. H. 900, to be the Mcdii/i or twelfth Imriin.
ail exp ctalion of whose appearance jirevails among
the Mohammedans all over the East. After his
death, which took place in Khorasan A. H. 910, his
followers dispersed without however surrendering
their belief in the reappearance of their deceased
leader as the long-expected Mahdi. This sect was
subjected to a severe persecution by Aurungzebe.
Thev are still found in small coinniunitics in various
parts of India, as in Gujerat, the Deccan, and
Siiidli.
MEILICIIIUS, a surname of Zcn.^, as the god
that can be propitiated, under which name altars
were reared to him in various towns of Greece. It
was also a surname of Dionysus, under which he was
worshipped in the island of Naxos. The term was
applied, besides, to several deities, who were wont
to be propitiated by sacrifices oliered at night.
MEIRUX, the term used to denote the oil of
CliRiSM (which see), in the Greek church.
MEL^ENIS, a surname of Aphrodite, under whicli
she was worshipped at Corinth.
MEL.\NjEGIS, a surname of Diomjsus, under
which he was worshipped at Eleutherse and at
Athens.
MELANOTHOXIANS. See Aiii.\piioi;ists.
MELCARTHUS, a god anciently worshipped by
the Tyrians, being, as the word .signilies. Lord of the
cit}'. From Herodotus we Icarn, that his temple was
built at the same time with tlie city, and was en-
riched with so many donations, and was so i'amous.
that he went thither on purpose to see it.
MELrillSEDEK (The Oiujek oe). an order ol
jirieslhood mentioned by the Apostle Paul, in the
Epistle to the Hebrews, as higher as well as more
ancient than the order of tlie Aaronic priesthood
under (he Mosaic economy. Melcliisedek appears
to have been the only individual who held the oflice of
high-priest by Divine appointment before the giviny
of the law. And in the statement of the apostle that
Jesus Christ was ''a priest for ever after the order
of Melcliisedek," may be perceived a beautiful pro-
jiriety, for, unlike the Levitical priesthood, tlie sacred
olhce was combined with regal authority in the case
of Melcliisedek, thus clearly pointing him out as a
striking type of our High Priest, of wlioni il was pio-
MELCIIISEDEKIANS— MELCHITE CHUIiCH.
401
phesied by Zechariali. " He sliall be a priest ii|iou
liis throne;" ami, besides, tlie priesthood of Mel-
chlsedek was mure honourable, being instituted pre-
vious to, and independent of, the Mosaic economy,
and one to wliieli, as we learn tVoni tlie reason-
ing of the apostle in Heb. vii., the Levitical priest-
hood was distinctly subordinate; for separated, as
Melchisedek is declared to have been in point of de-
scent from all around him, he is considered as receiv-
ing tithes from those who, though not yet born, were
represented by their progenitor Abraham. " And,"
says the apostle, " as I may so say, Levi also who re-
ceived tithes, paid titlies in Abraham ;" thus distinct-
ly admitting the superiority of the priesthood of Mel-
chisedek to their own ; and the reasoning in the sub-
sequetit verses dis|)Iays to us still more clearly the
striking propriety of our Lord's connection with this
order in preference to that of Aaron. " For if," lie
argues, " perfection." or, in other words, the perfec-
tion of the whole Divine economy in regard to oin-
world, '-had been by the Levitical priesthood," under
whom they received the law, in which they seemed
to rest as the consummation of tlie whole scheme;
if such had been the ca^e, " what further need was
there that another priest should rise after the order
of Melchisedek and not after the order of Aaron."
If the Divine purposes are fully accompli.--lied in
the law, why change the order of the priesthood,
since such a change, as the apostle remarks, must
bring along with it a " change also of the law." By
this mode of reasoning we are not only taught that
the whole of the Jewish economy has been abrogated
by the gospel, hut we are presented with a most in-
teresting view of the priesthood of Clirist. He was
not called after the order of Aaron, for this simple
reason, that he would have thereby formed a part of
an imperfect and symbolical system, and tiius the
antitype would have been confounded with the
type. And by his connection with the order of Mel-
chisedek, our High Priest was identified with an
economv independent of the temporary institutions
of Moses, and, accordingly, it is said, "He was
made not after the law of a carnal commandment,
but after tlie power of an endless life." And though
the law having accomplished its juirposes was abro-
gated, and, of course, the institution of the priest-
hood destroyed, this man, being independent, not
merely of death, bv which the functions of individual
priests were terminated, but being independent of
the whole order of the Levitical priesthood, notwith-
standing of its dissolution, " this man," it may well
be .said, " because he continueth ever hath an un-
changeable priesthood." And in the very nature of
his consecration was involved the everlasting dura-
bility of his priestly office, for the decree of apjioiiit-
ment by Jehovah was couched in these words :
" Thou art a Priest for ever after the order of Mel-
chisedek;" and being confirmed in tliis everlasting
appointment by the oath of Him with whom there
is no variableness neither shadow of change, we are
brought to the comfortable and delightful conclusion,
that we have an everlasting and unchangeable High
Priest, appointed of Goil as was Aaron, but called
after the order of Melchisedek.
MELCHlSEDEKIANS,asect of Christians which
arose in the second century, deriving their name
trom the fact that they held Melchisedek to be tlie
power of God, and superior to Christ ; and that he
sustained the office of an intercessor for the angels
in heaven as Christ for men on earth. This sect
was afterwards revived in Egypt by the Hieracites
(which see), who maintained still further that Mel-
chisedek was the Hiilv Ghost.
MELCHITE CHURCH, a name ai.plied to the
Greek-Catholic church, or to those Romanists in
Asia who are attached to the rites and ceremonies
of the Greek church. The American missionaries
estimate the total number of the Melchites at be-
tween 30,000 and 40,000 souls, having 12 bishops
and 180 priests. The term Melchites, which is de-
rived from the Syriac woi-d rnehha, a king, was
applied in the .sixth century as a term of reproach
by tlie Jacobites to the orthodox Greeks, implving
that they were king-followers, or that it was impe-
rial influence alone which led them to subscribe
to the canons of the council of Chalcedon, con-
deiniiing the Eutychian heresy. The name thus com-
menced in scorn has been appropriated to those con-
verts to Rome who still observe the ceremonies of
the Greek ritual. This community probably origi-
nated in the labours of the Jesuits at Aleppo, in the
seventeenth century, who perceiving the unwilling-
ness of their converts to conform to tlie Latin church,
with their usual duplicity and cunning, persuaded
the Pope to sanction a compromise, wdiereby the
Melcliile c/nirch should acknowledge the authority of
Rome, but adhere to the liturgical rites and ceremo-
nies of the Eastern church, renouncing, however,
the characfei-istic dogma of the Greeks, that the pro-
cession of the Holy Spirit is from the Father only.
In all other points they conform to the Eastern
church. They keep firmly by the " old style." and
regulate all their feasts and fa.sfs by the Oriental
calendar. In all their churches in Syria they con-
duct Divine service in the Arabic, which is the ver-
nacular tongue. They receive the communion in
both kinds, and use unleavened bread in the Lord's
Supper. Tlieir [jriestsare permitted to marry before
ordination; but their bishops must remain unmar-
ried. No restriction is put upon the laity in the use
of the Sacred Scriiitures. Dr. Wilson, in his ' Lands
of the Bible,' mentions them as "amongst the most
liberal and intelligent native Christians in the East."
The adherents of the Melehite church are chiefly
found at Aleppo and Damascus, particularly at the
latter town, where the patriarch resides. Their ca-
tliedral at Damascus, which is reinarkalily splendid,
is thus described by Mr. Graham in a letter to Di.
Wilson : " The building inside is elegant, and on
festival days, when brilliantly liglited up, the scene
402
MELETE— MELETIA.VS AT ANTIOCH.
is ixraiifl and iin|iosin;r. Tlio floor is beatitifiilly varie-
gated marlile. Tlie roof is ornate and lot'ty, is sup-
ported by a row of stately marble columns on eitlier
liand as you go in, and between these and the ex-
terior walls are the female giiUeries. Seats there
are none, save a few chairs around the walls and en-
circling the altar. Hundreds, I ndglit almost say a
thousand, silver lamps lill the house with insufl'erable
brightness ; while priests, clothed in rich Oriental
costume, are walking in solemn i)rocession, and fill-
ing the house with incense almost insutFerably pleas-
ing, and accomplishing tlie service before the altar
and ill the neighbouring recesses. The people, mean-
time, are not idle. There is no order. They go
and come just as they please. Some are kneeling
and beating their brows before the picture of a fa-
vourite saint ; others are gazing on the Virgin and
her infant, and muttering inarticidate prayers ; some
are squatting on the marble, crossing, and bowing,
and adoring before a hirsute monk of the olden
time : some are standing upward making awkward
genuflections, and at intervals prostrating their fore-
heads on the stone floor; some are talking with one
another; all are intent, each at bis own business
wli.atever it is, and all is done aloud or in a mumb-
lii[g muttering voice. Quiet silent prayer is not
known or practised in the East. The bells are ring-
ing, the priests are reading the service with a loud
voice, and with the rapidity of lightning the censers
are waving to and fro, filling the house with odours ;
the people are kneeling, standing, sitting, muttering
prayers, talking, ])rostrating, weeping, sighing, beat-
ing their breasts, making the common prayer (so
called.) — a scene of sound and confusion without par-
allel, save in the synagogues of Safed and Tiberias."
There are two orders of monks among the Greek
Catholics in Syria, and connected with the monastic
establishments tliere are no fewer than 250 monks
and 90 inms, while the number of regular priests be-
longing to the body, in so far as Syria is concerned,
does not exceed fifty-five. The people are more
generally able to read than the other Christians,
though the Greek Catholics have few schools of
their own. Some years ago a college was founded
for the sect, but the building having been destroy-
ed during the Druze war, it has never been re-
built. Dr. Wilson mentions having found a section
of the Melchite church iji Egypt also; and at Cairo,
lie tells us, he was introduceil to their bishop, who
is said to have under his supcn'intendence about 4,000
souls.
In other parts of the East the Greek Catholics
conform to the Rimiish church more completely than
their brethren in Syria, and in public worship they
use not the Greek, but the Latin riiual. At Con-
stantinople there are 500 families belonging to this
sect, chiefly the renuiins of Italian conquests in the
East, and most of tliein emigrants from foreign coun-
tries. Unwilling to acknowledge the authority of
the Armenian Catholic patriarch, who, by his firnuin,
is head of all the Catholics, they made a|iplication id
the Porte tor permission to choose a bead of their
own. The petition was granted, and thus the Greek
Catholics became an independent sect in Turkey,
and chose a Mussulman as their deputy to conmui-
nicate in their behalf with the Porte. Thus docu-
ments are issued in the name of the commimity,
CJilled Latins ; they follow the Roman rite ; and Ro-
man priests baptize, confess, and bury them, though
they are recognized subjects of the Turkish govern-
ment. They are independent both in civil and ec-
clesiastical afl'airs, being ruled civilly by a Mussul-
man, and ecclesiastically by an Italian bishop and
vicar-apostolic sent from Rome to be their ruler in
spiritual matters under the Pope.
MELETE, the name of one of the Muses (which
see).
MELETIANS AT ANTIOCH. Amid the vio-
lent dissensions caused throughout the East by the
Arian controversy in the fourth century, the Church
of Antioch was subjected fur a long period to the
most agitating trials. About A. D. .830, Eustathius,
bishop of Antioch, had been deposed from his ofTice
by the Euaelnans, a branch of the Anti-Nicene party,
but a majority of the members of the chin-ch still ad-
hered to him. A series of Arian bishops, however,
succeeded the deposed prelate, and the Christian of
Antioch were sjilit into two parties, some sei)arating
themselves meanwhile from the church, and worship-
ping as a distinct community, under the name of
Eu.sTATIIIANS (which see), while others, though
mainly agreeing in sentiment with the seceders, pre-
ferred submitting to the Arian bishops who were
thrust upon them against their will. Athanasius,
when passing through Antioch on bis return from
his second exile, acknowledged the Eustathians as,
in his view, more consistent in their actings than the
Arianizing party. On the translation of Eudoxius,
A. 1). .860, from the bishopric of Antioch to that of
Constantinople, Meletius, then bishop of Scbaste in
Armenia, was chosen as his successor. This man,
who had risen to considerable fame, had been brought
up in the comnumion of the Arians, and as one of
their party, he had been ajipointed to the see of Se-
basle, and now promoted to the see of Antioch,
chielly at the instigation of Acacius. Being natu-
rally of a mild, amiable, and benevolent disposition,
taking no ]iart in ihe angry controversies which were
carried on around him, but calmly and faithfnllv
labouring in bis ministerial work, the Arians and
Arianizers of his day mistook his silent and gentle
denuianour for an acquiescence in their heretical
views. But Meletius was not long in undeceiving
them. The circum.stances in which he unexpectedly
showed his entire sympathy with the orthodox party,
are thus detailed by Dr. Newman in his 'Arians of
the Fourth Century :' "On the new patriarch's arri-
val at Antioch, he was escorted by the court bishops,
and his own clergy and laity, to the cathedral. De-
sirous of solenmising the occasion, the Emperor him-
MELETIANS IN EGYPT.
403
self luid coudi'sceiided to give tlie text, on wliioli tlie
assembled pielates were to comment. It was tlie
celebrated passage from the Proverbs, in wliicli Oii-
geii lias pioiLsly detected, and the Arians perversely
stifled, the great article of cm- faitli ; ' the Lord liatli
created [possessed] Me in the beginning of His wavs,
before His works of old.' George of Laodicea, wlio,
on the departnre of Eiixodiiis, had rejoined the Eii-
.sebians, opened tlie discnssion with a dogmatic ex-
planation of the words. Acacius followed with that
ambiguity of language, which was the characteristic
of his school. At length the patriarch arose, and lo
the surprise of the assembly, with a subdued manner,
and in measm-ed words, avoiding indeed the Nieeiie
Homoousion, but acciu'ately fixing the meaning of
his exiiressions, confessed the true Catholic tenet, so
long exiled from the throne and altars of Antioch. A
scene followed, such as might be expected from the
excitable tem|ier of the Orientals. The congregation
received his discourse with sliouts of joy ; when the
Arian archdeacon of the church running up, [daced
his hand before his mouth to prevent his speaking;
on which Meletius thrust out his hand in sight of
the people, and raising tirst three fingers, and then
one, symbolized the great truth which he was unable
to utter. The consequences of this bold confession
might be expected. Meletius was banished, and a
fresh prelate apijointed, Euzoius, the friend of Arius.
But an important advantage resulted to the orthodox
cause by this occurrence ; the Catholics and heretics
were no longer united in one communion, and the
latter were thrown more into the position of schisma-
tics, who had rejected their own bishop. Such was
the state of things, when the death of Constantius
occasioned the return of Meletius, and the convoca-
tion of the council of Alexandria, in which his case
was considered."
Thus scarcely a niontli had elapsed after his en-
trance on the see of Antioch, when Meletius found
himself deposed and in exile. Eustathius in the
meantime had died, but his party suspecting Mele-
tius of Ariauism, from the character of the persons
who had prociued him his bishopric, remained aloof
from him, and continued as a separate body under
the presbyter Pauliuus, who had officiated for some
time as their [lastor. Lucifer of Caudiari, who was sent
to Antioch to heal the disputes, widened the breach
among the orthodox by ordaining Paiilinus as bishop
of the Eustathians. Thus was laid the foundation of
a schism of the most important kind, the Western
and the Alexandrian churches declaring in favour of
Paiilinus, and tlie Oriental church chiefly in favoin"
of Meletius. It had been the earnest desire of the
Alexandrian council to combine the two sections of
the orthodox party by uniting the Eustathians and
the Meletians, but their wishes and their exertions
were frustrated by the rash conduct of Lucifer, who
afterwards gave rise to another schism, founding a
separate party in the church, called the Lucifekians
(which see), which lasted about fifty years.
The Meletian schism continued for a long pe-
riod. Athanasius and the Egyptian churches fra-
ternized with the Eustathians, and all the luure
as Meletius refused to communicate with Athana-
sius. In this opposition lo the Meletians, the
Egyptian were joined by the Western churches
and those of Cyprus. The Eastern Christians, on
the contrarv, adhered firmly to the Meletian party.
Meletius presided at the second general council at
Constantinople A. n. 381, and from his venerable
age, as well as his consistent opposition for many
years to the Arian heresy, he was selected by the
Emjicror Theodosius to consecrate Gregory of Na-
zianzen bishop of Constantinople. During the sit-
tings of the council, Meletius died, and Chrysostom
deeming this a favourable time for putting an end to
the unseemly schism which had for many years rent
in twain the orthodox party, successfully exerted his
influence with the Egyptian and Western churches
in favour of Flavian, the successor of Meletius, and
tlius terminated the Meletian schism.
MELETIANS IN EGYPT, the name of a party
which existed in the Christian church in Egypt in
the third and fourth centuries, and which was headed
by Meletius, bishop of Lycopolis, in the Thebaid.
The dispute which led to the formation ot this
.schism had regard to the best mode of jjroceeding
ecclesiastically in the case of those Christians who
had fallen away during the Diocletian persecution.
The subject had been already discussed under the
Decian persecution, and Cyprian had laid down the
principle (see Lapsed Chiustian.?), that all who
had in any way departed from the faith should be
excluded from the fellowship of the chin'ch until
peace was completely restored, and if up till that
time they had manifested a spirit of sincere contri
tion, they should then, but not before, be delivered
from church censure. Meletius, who had been
thrown into prison for the cause of Christ, main-
tained among his fellow-prisoners tlie principles
which had been previously taught by Cyprian ; while
Peter, bishop of Alexandria, pleaded for a more
lenient course, particularly towards Christian slave.s,
who had been compelled by their masters to oQ'er
.sacrifice instead of them. This latter prelate had
for some special reasons abandoned his flock for
a time, and Meletius having obtained his freedom
from prison, exercised his authority in Egypt as the
second metropolitan, in the absence of the bishop
Peter, and travelling through the whole diocese of
the Alexandrian patriarch, he ordained and excom-
municated at pleasure. " He did not recognize,"
says Neander, " the official power of those to whose
charge, as Periodeutw, or visitors, the bishop Peter
of Alexandria had committed the destitute commu-
nities. Their dilferent views respecting the proper
mode of treating those who had fallen, or who had
become suspected of denying God in some way or
other, was here, too, probably made a subject of dis-
cussion, or at least used as a pretext; since the
404
MKLIBCKA— MEXAXDRIAXS.
Meieliaiis boiistcri of representing the pure church
of the martyrs. Four Eu'yptian bishops, among tlie
imprisoni'd confessors, declared themselves Ih-mly
against the arbitrary proceedings of Meletius, wlio,
Iiowever, took no notice of this protestation. The
bishop Peter of Alexandria issued a writing to the
Alexandrian church, wherein he bade all avoid fel-
lowship with liim. until tlie niattca- coidd be more
cicely investigated in connection with other bishops ;
and at length lie excluded him — probably after his
own return — from the functions of the episcopal
office, and from the fellowship of his church, as a
disturber of the peace of the comniuniiies. Also,
subscTuently to tlie martyrdom of the bishop Peter,
A. I). 311, and in the lime of the bishop Alexander,
under whuin the Arian controversies broke out, this
schism still continued to exist."
Epiphanius says, that when Meletius was deliver-
ed from prison, he was banished to tlie mines of
Phajnon in Arabia Petra!a; and it would appear that
even while thus labouring as a slave, lie diffused his
principles among his fellow-bondmen. He ordained
bishops, presbyters, and deacons, and kept his fol-
lowers a distinct body under the title of ' the Church
of the Martyrs.' At length the council of Nice,
A. D. 325, found itself necessitated to fake into con-
sideration the best mode of putting an end to the
Jleletian schism. The subject was fully discussed,
and after careful deliberation, the council decided
that Meletius sliould still be permitted to hold the
title of bishop of Lycopolis, without, however, liav-
ing jiower to ordain either in the city or the country.
It was arranged, however, that the clergy who had
been already ordained by Meletius should retain
their offices, but should be regarded as inferior in
rank to those who had received ordination at the
hands of the bishop of Alexandria. Meletius died
soon after the council of Nice, and his followers hav-
ing after their leader's deatli refused to submit to the
decrees of the council, were persecuted by the bl.shop
of Alexandria. John Arcaph was cho.sen to succeed
as leader of the sect, and under him the schism con-
tinued. But it was not very credliable to the Mele-
flans, nor favourable to their reputation for ortho-
doxy, that they co-operated with the Arlans in
opposing Atfianaslus. This schism did not termi-
nate before the lifih century. In the accouni we
have given of the Meletiau schism, we have chielly
followed the statements of Epl|ihanlus, in iireference
to those of .\lhanasius, who was the avowed enemy
botli of Meletius and his party.
MELIIJCEA, a suinamc of Pi:itsi:i'iioM-; (which
see).
MEI.ICERTES. See Pat.^..mon.
MELIXyEA, a surname of Aj'iiuoDlTE (which
see).
MELISSA, a priestess of the Delphian Apollo.
It was also a surname of ArteviU as the goddess of
the moon.
MEL1S>S.£, the nymphs who nursed ihe iiilaiit
Zens. The word came afterwards to bi' apjjlied lo
priestesses in general, and more especially to those
of Deindrr.
MELITEXIAN LEGION. See Legion (Tiiii
Tiiunui:iung).
MELITOXIANS, a heretical Christian sect whicli
arose in the early part of the fifth century, founded
by a person named Melito, of whom all that has been
ascertained is, thiit he taught the strange doctrine
that God is corporeal, having a body like man, and
this he founded on the statement of Sacred Scripture,
that man was originally created in the image of
God. See Anthkoi'o.morpiiitics.
MELLOX.\, a divinity among the ancient Ro-
mans, who was believed to be the protector of
honey.
MELPOMENE, one of the nine Muses (which
see).
MELPOMENUS, a surname of Dionysux at
Athens.
MEMORIA, a name given among the ancient
Christians to a church built over the grave of a mar-
tyr, and intended to be a memorial of him.
MEMRA, a word often used by the Clialdee Para-
plirasts on tlie Hooks of Moses. It denotes literally
the Word, and is substituted instead of the sacred
name of Jehovah, while they attribute to it all the
attributes of the Deity. Some suppose that by the
Meinva they meant the Second Person of the Tri-
nity, more especially as it was Meiura, they tell ns,
who appeared to Abraham at Mainre, to Jacob at
Belhcl, and to Moses on Mount Sinai.
MEN. a god among the ancient Plirygians, wlio
jin-sIded over the months.
MEXvEON, a Service-Book in the Greek church,
wlilcli contains the hymns and particular services for
the saints, and for the festivals as they occur in the
year according to the calendar. It includes also an
account of the life and actions of each .saint added to
his particular office. The whole work consists of
twelve volumes folio, being one volume for each
month.
MENAGYRTjE, a name aj. plied to the AfiVitT^.
(which see), or prle.sts of the goddess Cyhele, because
every mouth (Gr. rtien,) they made their collections
from the peojile.
MEXANDRIANS, the followers in the first cen-
tury of iMenander, ihe disciple and successor, as was
alleged, of Simon Magus. From the testimony of
Irciueus, .Justin iMartyr, and Tertulhan. we learn that
Menaiider claimed to be one of the yEi»is sent from
the upper world, or the Pleroma, to succour the souls
which were enduring here in material bodies, and to
enable them to bear up against the inachinations and
the violence of tliose demons by whom the world is
governed. He promised to his followers tliat if
baptized in his name, they would be incorruptible
and iininorlal, and liave the benefit of an immediate
resurrection. Epiphanius says, that this lieresy was
so absurd that It never prevailed to any great extent
MENDyEANS.
4u.'>
Its founder dieii a.d. SO, mid nothing more was
heard of liis strange doctrines. See Si.moniaxs.
MEND.EANS, or Mkndai Tjahi, disciples of
Jolin the Baptist, sometimes called also Christians
of St. John, but better known in eccle.siastical his-
tory as Hemero-B;tptiiits, or dailv Baptists, from their
frequent washings. In 1780, M. Norberg, a Swede,
read to the Royal Society of Gotlingen a memoir in
reference to this sect, which was supplemented in
the following year by some observations from M.
Walch, tending to prove their identity with the dis-
ciples of John the Baptist. Their language ap-
proaches that of the Tahnndical Jews, being evi-
dently a dialect of the Chaldee or Svriac. There
are found near Biissora, a city between Arabia and
Persia, from 20.000 to ^.'i.OOO families belonging to
this sect. On inquiry M. Xorberg ascertained that
there was a branch of tlie Mend;eans still existing in
Syria at El Merkab. about a day's journey east of
Mount Eibanus. They call themselves Galileans,
and their niunber is said to amount to about 14,000.
iVI. Xorberg received an interesting account of this
peo|)le from G-ermamis Conti, a Maronite of Mount
Lebanon, who was deputy of his patriarcli in Syria.
We quote the words of Conti as taken from his own
mouth by M. Norberg: "These Galileans formerly
dwelt, in sulficient wealth and plenty, in that which
is called the Holy Land ; but about a centurv and a
half ago, they quitted that country to settle in a
tract of Libanus called Mercab. They claim John
the Baptist as their founder, and seem to hold a mid-
dle station between Jews and Christians. The fol-
lowing are their rites. He who presides in sacred
things, wears a vest and tiara both of camel's skin.
They also take lionev and locusts, altei'uately, sacra-
mentally : which are distributed as con.secr.atcd ele-
ments to the worshippers present, and are sent to the
absent, equally, as a religious rite : both these kinds
of food being taken with the greatest reverence.
The day on which this is done is held sacred. It is
proper to abstain from worldlv occupations, whether
of business or of pleasure. A hvf words are allow-
ed, but those pious : and if more, they relate to the
same subject. So also, once a-month, they have an
exhortation in their place of worship ; and to this
they flock with eagerness. The chief topic of this
discourse is the ' Light of the World,' always intro-
duced with sentences like those of the Evangeli.st,
' In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was
with God, and the Word w.as God.' This they apply
to Jnhn, and deny to Jesus, Messiah ; whom they do
not allow to be Son of God, but a prophet, and a fol-
lower ot Jo/iii. Their places of worship are void of
all ornament. They contain neither pictures nor
Stat ues.
" Baptism, the rite of initiation, is performed in
the open air, in a large vessel, a mat ser\ ing as a
screen to the place, at the earliest dawn of day : the
middle part of tlie day is proper to honey and locusts:
and, at the close, at the time of divine worsliip, they
liglit lamps and candles, and solemnly repeat these
words: 'John, whom we here worship as our father,
(inslitufor) we beseech thee to be propitious to us;
to protect us from every hostile power, and to en-
lighten our minds with the light of the true religion,
as thou hast commanded us to light these lumina-
ries.' After discharging this duty, whoever can
proceeds to partake of the sacrament already de-
scribed. Those also who are detained at home do
the .same; although the duty be done in private.
Twice a-week, /. e. on Sunday and Thursday, this is
never omitted. And the priest, whether standing at
the altar, or going up into the puljiit, puts on his
official clothing for the shoulders and the head.
He also holds in his hand a staff; and delivers an
exhortation beginning in the G.-dilean language, but
proceeding in Arabic. Of their ancient language
all, except the |priests, and a few who have learned
it, are extrenudv ignorant. But they can say prayers
by memovv, and can repeat certain passages from
the sacred volume ; during which time the doors are
closed, and proper persons are placed at the entrance.
During the whole time the utmost resjiect and silence
is [ireserved : the head of the devout is inclined d r-
wards. and the hands are folded together.
" Besides this, they also dedicate to John four fes-
tival davs in a-vear. On the first, which is his
birth-day, they dress wheat, they eat grapes, inits,
honey, and locusts, with other things intermingled.
Ami this, in large dishes tilled to the brim, it is cus-
toniarv freelv to offer, or to place before one another.
Nor do they lake any other food than this during
this day. After this, the whole havuig been well
prepared, having been sanctified by piayer, and
having gone round the whole congregation (of which
every person present takes part of this vegetable
fare into his own dish, raising his head and singing)
they all make a liberal doTiaiion to the priest.
"On that dav, when John instituted his Bapti.sm,
they repeat this sacred ordinance. They proceed in
a body to the water, and among them one who bears
a standard ; also, the priest, dressed in his camel's
hair ornaments, holding a ves.sel of water in his hand
ihydrla in manii eM) he sprinkles each person singly
as he conies out of the river, saying, ' I renew your
bapti.sm in the name of our father and saviour John:
who in this manner baptized the Jews in the Jordan,
and saved them ; he shall save you also. Last of all,
he immerges himself in the water, for his own salva-
tion. After this, the whole .assembly resort to the
place of worship, singing liynms. where they partake
of honey .and locusts, administered by the priest.
"And further, on the day on which John was de-
capitated, every one laments at the place of worship
in these nujuruful terms : ' Our nuist excellent leader
was on this day slain by command of Herod, and his
cruelty ! — well he deserves to be consumed iby fire).
O God, hear us !'
" Finally. On that dav when, as it is believed. Jrdin
slew a dragon of wondcrt'ul size, which issued from
i06
MEXDES— MEXDICANT ORDERS.
the Lake of Tiberias, and Hid nnich iniscliief, tliey
(iractise a cerpinoiiy of leading their cattle and sheep
in troops round the place of worship, with great joy.
But the memory of this miracle is celebrated in Ga
lilee bv those wlio have ability and wealth sufficient ;
thev resort to the spot ban-footed; taking their sick
witii them, who hope to recover health by favour of
' their patron: and when .arrived there, they lay them
in the place of worship. This they do in their old
residence, wliich is distant a day's journey from
Mount Tabor."
De la Valla supposes that these Christians may
possiblv be the renniins of the ancient Jews who re-
ceived "the baptism of John the Baptist. They
allege, indeed, that from him they received their
faitii, their religious books, and their customs. But
their religion seems to bear a later d.ite, being evi-
dently a compound of the Jewish, Christian, and
Mohammedan systems, and the Arabi.tn prophet is
actually mentioned by name in some of their books.
Tlie chief of their sacred writings is called Diran,
which, however, contains no history of the sect, but
chiefly moral and spiritual treatises. M. Norberg,
after an investigation of the subject for forty years,
pubhshed live vohnnes ipiarto of their writings, —
181.5—1818.
MEXDKI.SOll N! ANS. f^ee Anti-T.\i..\iudists,
Jews ''Modkhni.
MEXDES, a deity worshi]ippd among the ancient
Egyptians in the town of Meiuh's, which was si-
tuated at the Mendesiau mouth of the Xile. This
god w.as worshipped under the emblem of n goat,
which, according to Jablouski. denotes the genera-
tive power of nature, especially of the sun. There
l.s no doubt, however, that the term Mendes was
used to describe both the hieroglyphical goat and the
holy city of Pan. The worsliip of Me.mlen was
afterwards transferred from Northern to Suutliern
Egypt, and the name of the deity was changed to
Mont.
MENDICANT OliDh'.KS. In the beginning of
the thirteenth century, two men, in dift'crent places
about the .'^anie time, conceived the idea of founding
a new religious society on an entirely novel princi-
ple, which was, tliat all the members should subsist
wholly upon alms. To cst.-tblish this kind of com-
munism, Francis of Assisi org.'oiizeil an institution of
Mendicant friars in Italy under the name of Fi!AN-
ci.sc.w.s (which see) ; and a .short time afterwards
Dominic, a n.ative of Castile in Spain, formed .-ui-
other fraternity of the s.inie kind in the south of
France, which received the name of Dominicans
(which see). Both these comnumities bound them-
fe.Ives to possess no property, either individually or
ill coininon, but to depend for their livelihood en-
tirely upon begging, and never to ac(piire ev en in
this way more than wa< suflieient for the supply of a
single day. The see of Rome, at first, declined to
countenance the movement, but it was so generally
regarded with favour by the people, that in A. D. 120.3,
Innocent III., found himself obliged to .sanction the
society and rule of the Franciscans; and in A.x>.
1216, his successor, Honorius III., confirmed the
order of the Dominicans. These societies rapidly
obtained extensive popularity. The Mendicant
monks found ready access to all classes of society,
even the humblest. They knocked at every door,
entered every cottage, accommodated themselves to
the maimers and even the prejudices of the working
classes. To extend their influence .still more widely
they adopted the plan of admitting the laity to a
connection witli their society under the name of Ter-
tiariea, such persons being bound by no monastic
vow, but simply pledged to promote, as far as possi-
ble, the interests of the m-der to which they had be-
come attached, while they themselves were living in
the world and engaged in their ordinary occupations.
In the middle of the thirteenth century there was
almost no place, certainly no province, in which the
Dominicans and Franciscans had not their Tertiarics,
and thus the Mendicants exceeded in influence .all
other monks.
The high estimation in which the new orders were
held led to the increase of their numbers to such an en-
ormous extent that all Europe sw.armed with begging
monks, and they became a burden, not only tn the
people, but to the church itself. It soon appeared
to be absolutely necessary to cheek the enormous
growth of these inoiiastic establishments. Pope
(rrcgory X., accordingly, in a council whicli he as-
sembled at Lyons in 1272, decreed the supjiiession
of all the religious orders which h;ui sprung nji since
the days of Innocent III., and thus the "extravagant
inultiliide of Mendicants," as Gregory described
them, was reduced within narrow limits, including
only the DonnnkovH, the Froiirixcmis, the Cariwl-
ilfs, and the hermits of St. .\ugustine or Av/ju tinkin
M<»ilcs. And the reason for this jiapal interference
had become .so strong as to force itself upon the at-
tention even of the most careless observer. Tlieir
progress, both in numbers and influence, was not only
r.apid, but for a time wholly unimpeded. Young
men, even of tlie liigher classes of society, eagerly
connected tlii'inselves with one or other of the Men-
dicant orders. They thre.iteued, in fact, to overthrow
the established constitution of the church and the fun-
damental rules of the universities. One seat of learn-
ing, however, that of Paris, at length set itself to resist
the unreasonable encroaclunent> of the Mendicants
Pope Alexander IV. issued .several bulls deciding fn
their tavour against the Parisian university, which,
in its turn, was ably defended by William of St.
Amour, who denounced the monks as precursors of
Antichrist, as mock-saints and hypocrites, having no
other aim than to bring the whole influence of the
church under their control. A controversy now
ensued, tlie cause of the Jleiidicants being supported
by some of their most distinguished men, such as
Bonaventura, Albertus Magnus, and Thomas Aqui-
nas. The monks prevailed, and the work whicli
MENDICANT ORDERS.
407
William of St. Amour wrote ajraiiist tliem was con-
demned by Alexander IV. in 1255, while lie liim-
sell" was banished from France, bnt was afterwards
brought back from exile under Cleinent IV. The
contest on the .subject of the Mendicant friars now
jiassed away, but the university of Paris still main-
tained the J^ame spirit of freedom which had long
characterized its learned men.
.\buses of the most flagrant kind sprung up among
the Mendicants, which attracted the notice even of
their wannest admirers and friends. Thus Bonaven-
tura. when appointed in 1256 general of Iiis order,
]iublished a circular letter addressed to the presiding
officers in the several provinces, calling upon them
to do their utmost to remove the abuses which had
crept in. Amid all the corruptions, however, which
were gradually introduced into the Mendicant orders,
the main idea on which they were founded, th.at of
evangelical poverty, became so predominant in its in-
fluence, that multitudes of people refused to receive
the sacrament at any other hands than those of t' e
.Mendicants. Thus the ordinary priests were complete-
ly superseded, and for three centuries the two chief
orders professing the vow of poverty, the Domini-
cans and Franciscans, exercised absolute control
both in church and state, filled the most distinguished
offices eecle.siastical and civil, taught in the universi-
ties and churclies with undisputeil authority, and
advanced the interests of the Papal government
with the utmost zeal and success.
Notwithstanding the prestige which thus attached
to the Mendicant monks, we And Nicholas 'fCle
niangis, in his book on the Corruptions of the
Church, composed in 1401, representing these nbiv
monks as the genuine successors of the Pliarisees
described in the gospels, who. under a show of holi-
ness, concealed all marmer of wickedness. They
were ravening wolves, he .says, in sheep's clotliing,
who put on, for outside show, severity of life, chas-
tity, humility, holy sinijilicity, but in secret aban-
doned themselves to tlie choice.st pleasures, to a
dainty variety of luxurious enjoyments. Such was
the character of the beggarly friars, who were over-
runnin,' every country of Europe in the thirteenth
century, and found their way even into England,
where they spread with alarming rapidity. Their
progress w;is resisted, though with little success, by
the university of Oxford and the parisli priests, who
saw their rights encroached upon by the spiritual
labours of these monks. In this contest Archbishop
Ricliard of Armagh distinguished himself by h s
freedom of thouglit. One of the first .symptoms of
the reforming spirit which displayed itself in Eng-
land was hostility to the begging-monks. From the
first, Wycliti'e was their avowed enemy, and they, on
the other hand, were the most zealous and the most
influential organs of the Romish hierarchy. They
were, beyond all question, the fiercest enemies of the
intrepid English reformer. In tlie year 1376 they
extracted from his lectures, writings, and sermons
nineteen propositions, which they marked as hereti-
cal, and sent tliem to Rome that the}' niiglit there
be condemned. In the course of the following year,
accordingly, Gregory XI. issued three bulls, declar-
ing the nineteen propositions to be heretical, and
some of them to be not only inconsistent with the
Catholic faith, but subversive of public order. Thus,
at the instigation of the Mendicant friars, the Pope
called upon the king, the bishops, and tlie univer-
sity of Oxford to proceed against WyclifTo, and had
not the duke of Lancaster placed himself at the head
of his protectors the reformer's career would have
been bronglit to an immediate and violent termina-
tion. To the last he loudly protested against the
Mendicant orders. As lie lay on a .sick-bed in 1.379,
tliey dispatclied a deputation to admonish him in
view of death to retract what he had .said against
them. Too weak to rise from his bed, WyclitVe caused
his attendants to raise him up. and collecting his last
energies, he addressed the monks in these words .
" I shall not die, but live, and ever continue to ex-
pose the bad practices of the begging-monks." His
valuable life was prolonged contrary to the expecta-
tions of his friends ; and as time rolled onward he
became more vehement every day in his opposition
to the Mendicants. In a paper put forth in 1.382,
he declared that he could i)oint out fifty heresies and
more in their orders. He charged them with .set-
ting up ordin.ances of men above the comnjandments
of the living God, following a mode of life which
was wholly at variance with the example of Christ,
abridging the liberty wherewith Christ liad maile his
people fi'ee, and disturbing the regular ]iarisli priests
in the exercise of their sacred calling.
Both the LoUanIs in Enirland. and the Hussites in
Bohemia, found the Mendicants to be their bitterest
and most violent opponents. The monks themselves,
however, in turn were viewed with the utmost suspicion
and dislike, not oidy by the bishops and priests, but
even by the pontiil's. This was more particularly
the ease with the Dominicans and Frariciscnns. The
more rigid of the latter order, who were commonly
called FratriceUi, revolted from the Pope and the
Romish church, bringing down u])on themselves the
thunders of the Vatican. About the middle of the
fifteenth century, Nicolaus V. violently persecuted
them, and even committed many of them to the
flame.s. Succeeding pontiti's followed the same course,
but none of them more resolutely than Paul II., who
punished nundiers of the rebellious FnitriceUi with
imprisonment and exile. The two leading sects of
the Mendicants aboimded in every part of Europe,
and by their arrogance and ini|)udence, their sujie.r-
stition and cruelty, they alienated the minds of the
people generally from them. They held the highest
offices ill the church, were ghostly confessors in
the courts of all the kings and princes of Europe,
rilled the principal chairs in the universities and
schools; and yet by their persecution of the learned
aiid the good, for example, Erasmus. Reuchlin, and
408
MEN E— M ENN ONITES.
others, by the promotion of their own interests at
the expense of otliers, by their pride, insolence, and
disgraceful conduct, these very Mendicant Orders,
wliich had once occupied a liicili place in the estima-
tion both of the church and the world, were mainly
instrumental in drivin,^ multitudes to seek deliver-
ance from the tyranny of Itome, and to demand the
reformation of a corrupt and dcfjraded hierarchy.
From the very first institution of their societies,
tlie Mendicant Orders had carried on an unceasing
warfnrc among themselves, and with other monastic
institutions, particularlv the .Jesuits. No sooner had
the Dominicans aTul Franciscans been deprived of
their respective founders by death, than that most un-
scemlv rivalry and contention conmienced between
them for precedence, which continued for centuries.
'riiis protracted warfare had been preceded by a
thirty years' controversy between the Sorbonne and
the .Mendicants, which was only terminated by the
interference of the Pope, ordering the university to
concede all the demands of the monks. The Moli-
ni.<t controversy also between tlie Dominicans and
the .Fosuits, the keen dispute among the Franciscans
about the original rule of St. Francis, and aflcrwards
about the prophecies of .loacliim. and last of all tlie
fierce opposition of the Fratricelli to the power and
authority of the Papal See. all show that Rome has
had no worse enemies than the Mendicant Orders,
which for a time she fondly nursed, until warmed
into life and vigcnir, they have sought the ruin of
their benefactor and friend. 15ut amid all the wrongs
which they have inflicted n\mn the Romish church,
multitudes of tliese lazy mendicant friars are found beg-
ging in every Roman C'atholic country, .and claim-
ing a character for sanctity foimded on their rags and
wretchedness. St. Francis was wont to call the
begging of ahiis "the table of the Lord." At one
time many of the cities of F.nrope were ]iortioned
out into four parts, the first being assigned to tlie
Dominicans, the second to the Franciscans, the third
to the Carmelites, and the fourth to the Augiisti-
nian inoidis. Luther himself, when he belonged to
the last-mentioned order, was obliged to beg alms
daily in the town of Erfurth. Though professing to
adhere to their vow of poverty, the rapacity of the
mendicant monks in many |ilaces excited general dis-
gust. In the famous petition, called ' the Sujiidica-
tiim of Beggars,' jn-esented to Henry VIII., com-
plaining of the encroachments of the mendicant friars,
their revenues are st.ated .at £4.3, ^.T} per annum,
Ijcsides their temporal goods; and the supplicants
add, that " four hundred years past these fri.-irs had
not one peimy of this money." The same grasping
avaricious spirit has characterized the Mendicant
Orders down to the present day. Travellers in
Romish countries generally, but more csi^ecially in
Italy, are eloquent in their denunciations of tliese
indolent, useless monks, who devote themselves to a
life of mean and sordid dependence upon the indus-
trious portion of the community.
MENE, a goddess in ancient Greece, who presided
over the months.
MlCXKLvEIA, a festiv.'d celebrated at 'riierajinse
in Laconia, in honour of Menelaus and Helena, both
of whom were ranked among the gods by the Lace-
demonians.
MEN I, a word which occurs in Is. Ixv. 11," IJut ve
are they that fcir.sake the Lord, that foiget my holy
mountain, that prepare a table for that troop, and
that fiu'uish the drink oll'ering unto that number"
(Meni). It has been regarded by many commentators
as referring to a heathen god. Professor Jahn thinks
it may mean fate or destiny, or perhaps may be Uh.n-
tical with the god M.iNAH (which see), wor.sbipped
by the ancient Arabians. The term however means
"number," as in the handwriting on the wall in ISel-
shazzar's palace, and in this view some Jewish writ-
ers interpret the passage in Isaiali as implyini;, "you
fill your mixed litpiors for Men!" that is, you oiler
many cups of this delicious wine according to your
number of guests.
MFNNOXITES, a sect of Anabai'TISTS (which
see), originated in Holland in the sixteenth ceiUury
by Meimo Simonis. This individual, who beciune
famous in bis day, was born in 1505 at Witmar.'-uin
in Friesland. Having been educated for the church,
he was ordained in his twenty-fourth year as a Rom-
ish priest. On one occasion while performing mass,
be was seized with doubt whether the bread and
wine even after consecration could be the real body
and blood of Christ. At first be tried to dismiss the
thought iis a tcm[italion of the devil, but it dften re-
ciuM'ed with increasing strength. He aii)dicd hinisclf
to the perusal of the New Testament, and in course
of time his views com]iletely changed, and he began
to preacli evangelical doctrines to the great editica-
tion of his hearers. His attention having been di-
rected to the subject of itdimt baptism, he came to
the C'liichision, after much study and earnest praver,
that there is no direct wjirrant for such a jiractlce in
the Word of God. In 153C he resigned his priestly
office, and renounced all connection with the Church
of Rome. Though Menno thus felt himself neces-
sitated to abandon Romanism, he was not prepared
to sym])athize cordially with all tbo,''e who like him-
self had lifted their protest again.st corruption and
error. To his peaceful and conciliatory disposition
it was deeply painful to witness the extravagancies
into which too many of the Anabaptists had run.
The disturbances of Minister particularly distressed
bim. Upon inquiry, however, he learned that mul-
titudes of the Anabaptists themselves, while agree-
ing with their brethren in regard to their views of
the doctrine of Scripture, refused to co-operate with
them in those turbulent and iiisurrection.aiy prac-
tices which had no other cfl'ecl than to bring disgrace
upon the cause they espou.sed. A consider.'ible num-
ber of godly ,and [leaceable persons, accordingly, hold-
ing firmly the religious principles of the Anabaiitisis,
urged earnestly upon Menno to become their teacher.
MENNONITES.
iO'j
At length he consented, and for ni;iny years he con-
tuiued, iimid many dan^'ers and discouragements,
ninch poverty and privation, t'aitlifully to discharge
the duties of this office. Aniniated by fervent zeal
lie hiboured with unwearied activity in Friesland,
rxuelderland, Holland, and Germany, as far as Li-
vonia, either planting and strengthening Anabap-
tist churches, or reducing them to order, until in
1561 he died at Oldesloe, in the duchy of Ilolstein.
The Mennonites had now become a large and
flourishing sect. The warm piety, the indomitable
energy, and the unbending integrity of their founder,
commanded everywhere the highest respect, and by
the combination in his own person of so many esti-
mable qualities, he succeeded in gathering round
liim a numerous body of devout and consistent Chris-
tians drawn chiefly from among the more moderate
Anabaptists. Those who still bear the name of
JWennonites claim to be descended from a party of
the Waldenses, who, driven by persecution, left
Piedmont in the end of the twelfth century, and fled
into Flanders, Holland, and Zealand. But the Men-
nonites, properly so called, can be traced no farther
back than Meuno Simonis in the sixteenth centmy,
and while they undoubtedly sprung from tlie Ana-
baptists, they dissented in several imiiortant particu-
lars from tlie general body bearing that name. They
disowned all expectation of a kingdom of Jesus
Cliri.st to be set up in the world by violence and the
destruction of civil authority. They disclaimed the
expectation of another Pentecostal efi'usion of the
Holy Spirit, by which the church would be restored
to its original purity. They condemned the licen-
tiousness of polygamy and divorce. They renounced
all belief that the Holy Spirit would impart to be-
lievers in these latter days the extraordinary gifts
which belonged to apostolic times. The common
doctrines held by the Anabaptists were retained by
the Metmonites, such as the unscriptural and in-
valid character of infant baptism, the doctrine of the
Millennium or thousand years' reign of Christ before
the end of the world, the inadmissibility of magis-
trates in the Christian church, and the unlawfulness
of wars and oaths.
Towards the middle of the sixteenth century a
controversy arose among the Mennonites on the sub-
ject of excommunication, a party having arisen among
them, who maintained that all transgressors, even
though penitent, should be at once expelled from the
church without previous admonition, and in addition
to this they held that the excommunicated ought to
be deprived of all social intercourse with even their
nearest and dearest relatives. The consequence of
this dispute was, that the Mennonites were split into
two sections, called respectively by the names of
die Feinen, the Fine, and die, Groben, the Coarse.
The latter section inhabited chiefly a district in
North Holland, called Waterland, .and hence they
were often called Wiit)'rUinders. They were also
termed Julummtcs, from John de Ries, who, in 1580,
It
was mainly instrumental in preparing a Confession
of Faith, declaring the opinions of the body, though
it was never admitted as an auihoritative document.
The severer sect, again, called the Fine, chiefly in-
habited Flanders, and hence they received the name
of Flemings or Fkindrians. A dispute soon after
arose among the Flandrians themselves, as to the
oflences which projierly incurred exconjniunication,
and in consequence two sects arose out of the Fine
Mennonites, who were called respectively Flandriarus
and Fne<laiwlers. A third sect, who had chiefly
come from Germany and settled in Holland and the
Netherlands, received the name of Germans. In
course of time, however, the greater number of the
Frieslanders^ the Flandrians, and the Germans be-
came merged in the Waterlanders, while only a very
few remained as a separate body under the name of
Old Flcniinrj Driptlsts. Of these there are only three
congregations still existing in Holland.
From their conunencement, the sect properly call-
ed l\[ennuniti's were exposed to frequent persecution,
and compelled to flee from one country to another.
They were dispersed accordingly over different parts
of Europe, particularly Russia, Prussia, and Poland,
though their principal seat has always continued to
be Holland. Mar.y were obliged also, .at an early
period, to eniigrate to America, where a considerable
number of the body are still found.
The Mennonite Confessions of Faith which have
appeared are far from exhibiting a unity of doctrine.
Thus on the important article which regards the
Person of Christ, the Confession of the United Flem-
ish, Friesland, and other Mennonites, adopted A. D.
1632, exhibits no deviation from the sentiments of the
orthodox churches; but in a 'Summary of Chrisiian
Doctrine,' published by the Rev. J. Gan, the Men-
nonite minister at Ryswick, we find an exhibition of
undisguised Arianism in these words : " The incar-
nate Son of God is set forth to us as inferior to the
Father, not only in his state of humiliation, but in
that of his exaltation, and as subject to the Father.
It must, however, be kept in view, that notwithstand-
ing the incarnate Son of God is inferior to the Fa-
ther, he is, nevertheless, according to the purposes of
the Most High, partaker of glory with the Father, and
an object of religious trust and confidence in like man-
ner as the Father." Such a statement all too plainly
shows, that a party, at least, of the Jlennonites had
sadly fallen away from the purity of their more .ancient
Confession of 1632. And not only do .some appear to
have held Arian views, but the ' Sunnnary' contains
also low Anninian views on the doctrine of justifica-
tion. Thtis " God is so well pleased with the perfect
obedience of the sinless Saviour, that he will consider
the anguish and pain to which the Saviour freely
submitted, and particularly the death of the cross, as
equivalent to the punishment the guilty had de-
served ; and, as the reward of the Saviour's merits,
he will bestow upon those whom the Saviour acknow-
ledges as his own, an abundant share of bliss here-
2 M
410
MENNONITES.
after. This is tlie effect of God's previous mercy
and love. The surteriiigs of the Saviour in no re-
spect tended to move God to a favourable disposi-
tion towards mankind ; but these sufierin^'s were
endured to show his holy aversion to sin, and to give
to the world the sirongost proofs of his mercy; and
thus to inspire the penitent with a i)erfect confidence
in him their heavenly Father. Christ died for all
men in this sense; and tliat all men without excep-
tion might partake, upon conversion and faith, the
salivation obtained by him. Tliis salvation is nin-
versally and unrestrictedly ottered in the preaching
of tlie gospel : none are excluded but by their own
fault. That which makes us partakers of the benefits
of his death and sufferings is the union we have in
In's sufferings, his merits, and in his glory."
One of tlie distinguishing tenets of the Mennon-
ites, as indeed of all the Anabaptists, has always
been the denial of tlie validity of infant baptism.
They delay tlie admini.stration of tlie ordinance until
children reacli the age of eleven or twelve, when
they usually perform it by pouring water upon the
head of the person baptized. In some re.'spects this
sect resembled the Society of Friends. Thus they
reckoned it unlawful to take oaths in any ciroiun-
stances, or to bear arms. They held the doctrine of
non-resistance to injury, and maintained that it is
improper to engage in lawsuits, even to obtain de-
liverance from wrong. They considered it to be
inconsistent witli the Christian character to aspire
after worldlv dignity, or to accept of the office of a
civil magistrate. Tlieir views on these matters have
undergone consideralde modification.
The churches of the Dutch Mennonites are con-
stituted on the Congregationalist model, acknow-
ledging no other ecclesiastical authority than that of
the ministers and deacons of each church. Most of
their places of worship are endowed, but they ac-
cept no supijort from the State. The number of
deacons in each church varies from six to twentj-,
according to the number of the members, and they
are appointed sometimes for life, and sometimes for
five or six years. There are also deaconesses In
each church, whose duty it is to attend to the female
poor. Divine service is conducted in the same way
as in the Hefornied churches, and in some cases a
collection is made in the middle of the sermon, two
bagK being carried from pew to pew by the deacons,
the one bag being for the poor, and the other for the
expenses of public worshi]>.
The iMennonites in Ilollaud form one undivided
Christian body, and a.ssociations of churches are held
cliielly about the lime of F-aster at different places.
In North Holland they were formcrlv convened
every year, but their meetings are now held less fre-
quently, and some of the churches decline .-dl con-
nection with the Associations. Tliere is a Memion-
ite college at Amsterdam, in which some of their
niinieterH are educated, while others have not en-
joyed the [irivilege of a liberal educaliiin. The
pastors are elected in some places by the members of
the church, and in others by the elders and deacons.
Slany of the churches have no pastors, hut are sup
plied eitlier by their own elders, or by ihe neigli
bouring ministers. Occasionally one minister sup
plies several churches.
The difference which exists both in doctrines and
practices among the Mennonites are thus noticed by
Mosheim : '• The opinions and practices which divide
the princiiial associations of Mennonites, if we admit
those of less imporiance, are chiefly the following: —
I. Menno denied that Christ received from the Vir-
gin Mary that human body which he assumed; on
the contrary, he supposed it was produced out of
nothing in the womb of the immaculate Virgin, by
the jiower of the Holy Ghost. This opinion the
Fine Anabaptists or the old Flemings still hold tena-
ciously, but all the other associations liave long since
given it up. II. The more rigid Mennonites, after
the example of their ancestors, regard as disciplinable
offences, not only those wicked actions, which are
manifest violations of the law of God, but likewise
the slightest indications eitlier of a latent inclination
to sensuality, or of a mind disposed to le\ity and
inclined to follow the customs of the world ; as, for
example, ornaments for the head, elegant clothing,
rich and unnecessary furniture, and the like ; and
they think that all transgressors should be excom-
immicatcd forthwith and without a previous admoni-
tion, and that no allowance should be made for the
weakness of human nature. But the other Mennon-
ites hold that none but contemners of the divine law
deserve excommunication, and they only when they
|iertinaciously disregard the admonitions of the
church. III. Tlie more rigid Mennonites hold that
excommunicated persons are to be shunned as if
they were pests, and are to be dcjirixed of all social
intercourse. Hence the ties of kindred must be
severed, and the voice of nature must be imlieeded.
Between parents and their cliildren, husbands and
tlieir wives, there must be no kind looks, no conver-
sation, no manitt'station of affection, and no kind
offices, when the church has once pronounced them
luiworthy of her communion. But the more moder-
ate think that the sanctity and the honour of the
cliurch are sufficiently consulted, if all particular in-
timacy with the excommunicated is avoided. i\ .
The old Flemings maintain that the example of
Christ, which has in this instance the force of a
law, reipiires bis disciples to wash the feet of their
guests in token of their love ; and for this rea-
son, they liave been called I'odoniptai [Feet-wash-
ers]. But others deny that this rite was enjoined by
Christ."
Towards the middle of the seventeenth century,
a party of Mennonites in Friesland obtained some
celebrity under the name of ffi'c^'CH'fiW/.vts', being so
called from their leader, who taught not only that the
strict discipline of Menno ought to be ret.-iincd. but
that there is some reason to hope for the salvation of
MENNONITES IN AMERICA— MENS.
411
Judas and the others who hiid violent hands on our
Sa\ iour. The errors here referred to are no longer
held by any cliurcli or congregation among tlie Men-
nonites. Tlie Waterlanders have in great measure
renounced tlie rigid opinions of the early followers
of Menno, and indeed scarcely ditler either in opin-
ion or practice from otiier Christians. They exist
in two communities in Holland, called the Frieslaiid-
ers and the Waterlanders. The Fletning Church in
Amsterdam was split in 1664 into two parties, called
from tlieir respective leaders, Gidenint.s and A^m/:-
toolians. Some years after, tlie A\'aterlander Churcli
in Amsterdam united with the Galenists — a party
which still exists, but refuses to take the name of
Mennonites.
The whole body of Mennonites in Holland does
not exceed 150 congregations. In Prussia tliey
number about 14,000 persons, and live principally
in the regions of the Lower Rhine. The Dutch
Mennonites are chiefly Arminian in their theo-
logy, and some have degenerated into Socinian-
ism, and even scepticism. A branch of the body
exists in Alsace, mostly in the department of Les
Vosges. A hamlet called Salm is exclusively in-
habited by them. They are almost all employed in
au'i'icultnre. They wear a jiecnliar dress, use neither
buckles nor buttons, and let the beard grow. Un-
married women wear the hair loose, but married wo-
men gather up the hair and bind it round the head.
They baptize youth at the age of eleven or twelve,
not l)v pouring as the other Mennonites do, but by
sprinkling. In Russia, there are a few Mennonite
churches, numbering not more than 5,000 or 6,000
members in all.
MENNONITES IN AMERICA. Mennonite
churches exist in considerable numbers in the United
States. Many followers of Menno, on the invitation
of William Pemi, transported themselves and their
families into the province of Pennsylvania as early
as A. D. 1683. The emigrants of that year, and those
who followed in 1698, belonging to the same body,
settled in and about Germantown, where they erected
a school and meeting-house in 1708. For some
years after, a yearly supply of Jlennonite emigrants
landed on the shores of America, and before 1735
there were nearly 500 families settled in Lancaster
county. The views of the sect were miicli misrepre-
sented for a time by their Transatlantic brethren,
but the prejudices which had been entertained
against them were to a great extent allayed by the
translation into English, and lutblication of the
Mennonite Confession, which had been originally
prejiared in 1632 at Dort. This Confession is en-
tirely free from the heretical views which have been
generally attributed to their founder, as well as from
those errors which were avowed at a later period in
the Confession issued by Mr. Gan of Ryswick.
The Mennonites in America have three orders of
chnreli-oflicers — bishops, elders or ministers, and
deacons. All of these are chosen by lot. Their
pastors receive no .salaries, nor reinuneratiiiii of any
kind for preaching the gospel.
The Mennonites have spread over a great portion
of Pennsylvania, and throughout tlie United States
generally, as well as in Canada. The congregations in
Pennsylvania are divided into three general circuits,
within each of which half-yearly conferences are held
for the purpose of consulting together, and devising
means to advance the jirosperity of the entire body.
A similar conference is held in Ohio, wliere the
Mennonites are very numerous, being cliiefly com-
jiosed of foreign immigrants. The members of tlie
congregations in Indiana are cliietly from Switzer-
land. The whole Mennonite population in the United
States may probably amoiuit to 120,000, but as thev
keep no records of membership, it is difficult to
state the number of persons actually in communion
with the body. It has been calculated, that in all
America, they have about 240 ministers, 400
churches, and from 50,000 to 60,000 inenibers.
MENNONITES (Rkformicd) in Amekica, anew
Society of MeimomteJ: wliicli arose in Lancaster coun-
ty, Pennsylvania, in 1811. It arose in consequence
of various individuals belonging to the body having
become deeply impre.ssed with the thought, tliat
their brethren had fallen away from their original
piu'ity, and did not carry into effect the doctrines
they had formerly taught and professed. At tirst
the number who formed a plan of reforming the
body was small, but It giadually increased, and after
much deliberation and ]irayer, they chose John Herr
as their first pastor. They published a Confession
of their Faith, which, though more condensed than
the Mennonite Confession of 1632, does not mate-
rially difier from it in doctrine, and maintains the
same views as to baptism, the Lord's Supper, foot-
washing, excommunication, and other practical points.
The chief ditlerence between the Reformed and the
other Mennonites, seems to be, that the former are
more strict and rigid in resisting no evil whatever,
in abstaining from oaths of any kind, in separating
themselves from all excommunicated persons, and
other practices on which Menno Simonis i)articu-
larly insisted. Like the other Mennonites they do
not deem themselves at liberty to keep an account
of tlieir members, both from a wish to avoid di.splay
or boasting, and also in order to avoid the sin and
punisliment of David in tlie matter of numbering tlie
people. The Reformed Mennonites, however, are
known to have congregations scattered over many
parts of the LTnited States and Canada.
MEN OP UNDERSTANDING. See Hommf.s
dTnti^lligence.
MENOLOGION, the calendar of the Greek
church.
MENS (Lat. mind), a deity worshipped by tlie
ancient Romans as a personification of mind. She
had a temple built to lier honour on the capitol,
and a festival which was celebrated on the 8th ol
June.
412
MEPHITIS— MERIA-PUJAH.
MEPHITIS, a goddess among the ancient Ro-
mans, who liad a temple in tlie Esquilias, on a spot
wliich it was considered dangerous to approach.
Little is known conccniing this divinity, tliough slie
may possihly liave had some connexion with the
mephitic exhalations which ahonnd in some parts of
tlie Roman States.
.\U:K.A.GE, LEILAT AL (Arab, the night of the
ascension), a night accounted .sacred by the Moham-
medans as beiiig that on wliich the prophet made his
journey to heaven. Tlie}' commemorate this ascen-
eion on the '28ih of the month Regeb.
-MER.'VRITES, a family of the Levites on whom
devolved the duty of carrying the boards of the Ta-
bernacle, and the bars, and pillars, and sockets be-
longing to it, as well as the pillars of the court, the
sockets, pins, cords, and other utensils. This family,
as well as the Gershoiu'tes, was under the care of
Ithamar ; and for their convenience they were al-
lowed to have four waggons and eight oxen.
MERCAV.\, one of the divisions of the Jewish
Cabb.'VL.v (which .see). It treats of the knowledge
of the Divine perfections, and of the celu.-tial intelli-
gences. Masters were not permitted to explain the
Mereava to their scholars.
MERCURY, a god wlio presided over merchandise
among the ancient Romans. A temple was erected
to him near the Circus Maximus, and a festival was
celebrated in his honour on the '25tli of May, cliiefly
by merchants. In later times Mercury was identi-
fied with the Greek IIiiitMKS (which see). He was
also the god of eloquence ; hence the people of Lys-
tra, as we read in Acts xiv. 12, supposed Paul to be
Mercury in disguise.
MERCY (Fr.\teknity of), a Romish Society at
Lisbon in Portugal, instituted for the purpose of
saying masses for the faithful generally, but chiefly
for its osvn members.
MERCY-SE.Vr, the covering of the ark of the
covenant in the rittial ceremony of the Jews. It
was made of pure gold, and was of the s.ime length
and breadth as tlie ark itself. At its two extremi-
ties were placed two cherubim, with their faces
turned towards eacli other, and somewhat inclined
towards the mercy-seat. It appears plain from sev-
eral passages in the epistles of the Apostle Paul,
that the mercy-seat was designed to be a typical re-
presentation of .lesus Christ as the grand medium
of expiation for the sins of men, as well as the chan-
nel through which God holds communion and fel-
lowship with all his believing people.
.MERl.V-PL'J.VII, an annual festival among the
Klioixh ill Orissa, in which human sacrifices were
ofTercd until lately, when the barbarous practice was
forbidden by the British government. The victims,
which are called iimrUm, consi.stof Hindus procured bv
purclia.^e in the plains by the Panwas, a class of Hin-
du servitors, wlio were chiefly employed in supplying
victims for their Ina^teI•s, the Klionds. The design
of this cruel ceremony is to propitiate ISl'ua-Pen-
NOU (which see), their earth-god, and thus to secure
a favourable harvest. The festival was celebrated
at Goomsoor, and is thus described in a Madras
paper in 1838 : '• When the appointed day arrives,
the Khonds (inhabitants of the hill country) assem-
ble from .all parts of the country, dressed in their
finery, some with bear-skins thrown over their shoul-
ders, others with the tails of peacocks flowing be-
hind them, and the long winding feather of the
jungle-cock waving on their heads. Thus decked
out, they dance, leap, and revel, beating drums, and
playing on an instrument not unlike in sound to the
Highland pipe. Soon after noon the Jani, or pre-
siding priest, with the aid of his assistants, fastens
the unfortunate victim to a strong post, firmly fixed
into the ground, and then standing erect, the living
sacrifice suffers the unutterable torture of having the
flesh cut off from his bones in small pieces by the
knives of the savage crowd who rush on him and
contend with each other for a portion of the gory
and quivering substance. Great value is attached to
the first morsel thus severed from the victinrs body,
for it is supposed to possess superior virtues, and a
proportionate eagerness is evinced to acquire it.
" Women are sacrificed as well as men. A female
found her way into the collector's camp, at Patriii-
gia, with fetters on her limbs, who related that she
had been sold by her brother !
" The Khonds are in the habit of sacrificing chil-
dren annually at sowing time, in a most cruel man-
ner, for the purpose of jiropitiating the demon of
their worship, and of securing, as they suppose, a
good harvest by the blood of their victims.
" In January, just before the turmeric shrub is
planted, the Khonds make the sacrifice alluded to.
They select as their victims, male children who are
devoted from infancy to this purpose, and are sold to
the chiefs of the diii'erent villages. When the ground
is ready, the victim is led forth, bound to bamboos
for the better security, and taken into the open plain.
The cultivators assemble, and at the supposed auspi-
cious moment, commence the dreadful carnage bv
hacking with knives the body of the trulv pitiable
creature ; each cutting off a part as quickly as pos-
sible, and hastening with it to the field whose ferti-
lity is the object to be secured. The blood, in which
the Khonds imagine the virtue of the spell to subsist,
is then made, by prcssm-o of the hand, to lall iu drops
upon the soil ; and the flesh, not yet cold, is cast into
the same ground. In hewing the body great care is
taken not to touch a vital part, for should death oc-
cur before the blood is dropped on the field, the
charm, according to the notions of the people, would
be lost.
" Some of the Khonds, on being expostulated with,
asked what else they could do, as they should h.ne
no crops if they neglected to perform this ceremony."
Through the combined efforts of the governniont
agent, ,7. P. Frye, ICsq.. and the missionaries, great
numbers of the incria victims have been rescued from
MERODACH— MERU.
413
tlie sacrificial knife. In tlie Report of the General
Baptist Missionary Society for 1849, it is stated tiiat
Mr. Prye had been instrumental in rescuing 106
victims from the horrid death to which they weie
doomed. In the same report the following interest-
ing details are given : "The last full moon had been
fixed upon for a very great sacrifice, in anticipation
of the agent's arrival, (it is the time for sacrificing
tin'ough the whole sacrilicing country,) but lie was
happily in the midst of them twelve days before the
appointed time, and the fearful waste of human life
was mercifully prevented. The torture with which
the revolting rite is performed in this part of tlie
Khond country exceeds, if it be possible, the worst
tliat has been heard of anywhere. The victim is
surrounded by a crowd of half-intoxicated Khouds,
and is dragged round some open space, when the
savages, with loud shouts, rush on the victim, cut-
ting tlie living flesh piece-meal from the bones, till
nothing remains but the liead and bowels, which are
left untouched. Death has, by this time, released
the uidiappy \'ictim from his torture; the head and
bowels are then burnt, and the ashes mixed with
grain. The efforts of the government to suppress
the abhorred rites of human sacrifice and female in-
fanticide among tliese barbarous people, and in these
liills and jungles, are in a high degree creditable to
its character. The revolting rites of sacrifice and
female infanticide have prevailed from time imme-
morial in the impenetrable jungles and inaccessible
hills of the Khond country. No one can tell where
they originated, or compute the frightful waste they
have occasioned, but it is estimated that, allowing
tliese bloody rites to have prevailed from the com-
mencement of tlie Christian era, as they were found
to prevail when the district was discovered a few
years since, on a moderate computation the awful
aggregate would exceed tliree millions. We have
thought, and talked, and prayed about the Klionds,
and God has anssvered our supplications, though in a
way we did not expect. Who can calculate the re-
sults of so many being brought under Christian in-
fluence?" The report of the same Society for 1853,
mentions the baptism of fourteen of these rescued
children, after giving evidence of sincere conversion
to Christ ; and it states also that during the year
Col. Campbell, the government agent for the sup-
pression of human sacrifices, had rescued 1*20 vic-
tims, and that the chiefs and headmen of the vill.ages
had signed an agreement to abandon the inhuman
practice.
MER0D.\C1I. the name of a divinity worship-
ped by the ancient Babvlonians. The prophet Jere-
miah, when speaking of the destruction of Babylon,
tlius refers to this deity, " Declare ye among the
nations, and publi.«h, and set up a standard ; pub-
lish, and conceal not : say, Babylon is taken, Bel is
confounded, Merodacli is broken in pieces ; her idols
are confounded, her images are broken in pieces."
Notliing is known concerning the god Merodach ;
but we find his name mentioned in Scripture com-
pounded wilh other words to form proper names,
as Evil-.Merodacli and Merodach-Baladan.
MERU, the old or mythic name among the Hin-
dus of tlie Himalaya mountains, especially the most
elevated parts of tiiem, called the Dwalgiri. This was
the world-mountain of the Hindu .system of cosmo-
gony, and the most sacred habitation of the gods.
The physical universe, as it sprung from the Mun-
dane Egg, was said to consist of three world.s — hea-
ven above, the earth below, and tlie interambient
ether. According to a minute division, the universe
consists of fourteen worlds, seven inferior or descend-
ing below the world which we inhabit, and seven
superior or ascending above it, our world being the
first of the ascending series, and its habitable portion
consisting of seven circular islands or continents,
each surrounded by a difl'erent ocean. The central
island, destined to be the abode of man, is called
Janiba-Dwip, and from its centre shoots up the holy
mountain Merit, rising to the height of several hun-
dred thousand miles. This mountain, s,ays Dr. Dutf,
is "in the form of an inverted pyramid, — having its
summit, which is two hundred times broader than
the base, surmounted by three swelling cones, — the
highest of these cones transpiercing upper vacani-y
with three golden peaks, on which are situate the
favourite residences of the sacred Triad. At its
base, like so many gi.ant sentinels, stand four lofiy
hills, on each of whicli grows a mango tree several
thousand miles in height, — bearing fruit delicious as
nectar, and of the enormous size of many hundred
cubits. From these mangoes, as they fall, flows a
mighty river of perfumed juice ; so communicative
of its sweetness, that those who partake of it, exhale
the odour from their persons all around to the dis-
tance of many leagues. There also grow rose ajjple
trees, whose fruit is 'large as elephants,' and whose
juice is so plentiful, as to form another mighty river,
that qonverts the earth, over which it passes, into
purest gold ! "
The base of Mem was supposed to rest upon the
aby.ss of the world-fountain ; and regarding the moun-
tain as the cradle of the world, the Hindus not only
attached to it peculiar sanctity, but on the sides they
excavated little Mr.rus. and inscribed the in.side with
the hieroglyphical symbols of their faith and hopes.
'• It was their firm conviction," .says Mr. Gross, " that
a portion of the essential attributes of the true God-
head lay concealed in the bowels of this Oriental
Alp, and that its profound chasms attested his pre-
sence and proclaimed his cneriiy. This idea, appa-
rently so extravagant, will cease to excite our sur-
prise, if we steadily bear in mind that this mountain
is the Hindu world-mountain ; ay, the infinite mun-
dane pillar, or Siva-pillar, in which the divinity of
Siva was cosmogonically embodied, and from which
the god went forth in the display of his omnipre-
sence and power : as the sun, he rose and set on
Meru, and during his reign above the horizon, he
414
MESATEUS— MESSIAH.
I was tlie south pole ; while in his subterranean orbit,
; he represented or exjiressed the north pole of the
Meru-world. AVithin the jirofound recesses of Hiis
mysterious and wonderful mountain, the gods pre-
pared the life-drink, the primu mutrria or atomic
germs of organic life. Pervaded and animated by
an invisible, divine power, it was here that the em-
bryo-world originated, which, when it was fully de-
veloped, revealed God in space as the nature of
When Sliim tirst appeared in the beginning of
the Kali age, he had come down in a pillar of tire
to settle a dispute among the gods upon the subject
of precedence. To commemoraie this event, the
god converted his pillar of fire into the mountain of
Meri(, that it might be a symbol of his divine pre-
sence and protection. The Budhists, also, have
transferred to their system the n^'th of Meru, which
they hold, according to the doctrines of the Piiranan,
is in the centre of the earth, and under it they believe
the A^urs, or giants of Budliisni, reside, while the
Yakds or demons dwell upon it. The Tamul na-
tions of Ceylon believe, that, in the earliest wars of
the gods, three of the peaks of Meru were thrown
down, and driven to different parts of the world ; one
of them is Trincomalee, which became equally with
Kailasa the abode o{ Shiva. The Hindu tradition is
somewhat different. It alleges that at the marriage
oi Shiva and Parvati, all the gods were present, and
the heavens were left empty. Seizing tliis opportu-
nity, the god of tlie winds flew to Meru, broke the
summit of the mountain, and hurled it into the sea,
when it became the island of Lankii or Ceylon. The
Budhists allege, that around and above the summit
of Meru are the (/ewa and brahma Ivkos, the abode
of those beings who, in their dill'erent slates of ex-
istence, have attained a superior degree of merit.
MESATEUS, a surname of Dionysus, derived
from the town Mesatis, where he was said to have
been educated.
MESAULION. See ArriiUM.
MESCHIA AND MESCHIANEE, ancestors of
the human race, accordhig to the system of the an-
cient Persians. Ahrimmi and Ormuzd were the
jirimary principles of creation, and from the antago-
nism which the univer.se thus presented man was the
only exception. Ahriman, the evil principle, had
no other resource but to slay Kaiomorlx, the i)rinii-
tive human being, who was at once man and woman.
Prom the blood of Kaiumorln, when put to death,
sprang, by means of transformations, Moichia and
MeKChianec, who were soon seduced by Ahriiiuin,
and became worshippers of the Deim, to whom they
offered sacrifices. Thus was evil introduced into the
world, ami the conflict between the good and evil
principles extended also to num.
MESONYCTION (Gr. mems, middle, nyx, the
Jright), the midnight .service of the Caloycrs or Greek
monks, which occupies two hnurs.
MESSALiANS. See Euchitls.
MESSAPEUS, a surname of Zcui, under which
he was worshipped between Amycl* and Mount
Taygetus.
MESSIAH (Heb. the Anointed), an appellation
given to our blessed Lord in the Old Testaniem
Scriptures, answering to the Greek word Chkist
(which see) in the New. The advent of the Mes-
siah was the frequent and almost favourite subject
of ancient prophecy, and at the time of his appeiir-
ance, a very general expectation prexailed through-
out the world, that a remarkable Personage would
soon appear in the East, whose coming would be a
blessing to mankind generally. In several Pagan
writers, accordingly, we And reference to such ;ui in-
dividual. Thus Virgil, who lived about the com-
mencement of the Christian era, addresses a poem to
his patron, Pollio, who at that lime held the office
of consul, and in that poem he describes with some
minuteness a child who was expected to be born
during bis consulate, and whose nativity would be
an important era in the history of the world. The
child was to be of heavenly descent, to bestow uni-
versal peace, and to command the whole world ; he
was to destroy the serpent, and to confer blessings
even upon the brute creation. The general expec-
tation to which we ha\e referred, is very strikingly
noticed by Suetonius and Tacitus. " An ancient and
settled persuasion," says the former writer, " pre-
vailed throughont the East, that the Fates had de-
creed that Judea about this period was to give birth
to such as should attain universal empire;" and al-
most to the same ell'ect Tacitus says : — " Many
were persuaded that it was contained in the ancient
books of the priests, that at this very time the East
should prevail, and that some power shoidd proceed
from Judea and possess the dominion of the world."
While a vague expectation of an imi)orlant Per-
sonage likely to appear, was thus entertained by
the heathen, the Jews also fondly cherished the
idea of a coming Deliverer, to rescue them from the
oppression of the Idumean Herod and his Koman
allies. Their views of the approaching Messiah were
not a little coloured by the peculiar circumstances
in which they were placed. This is ably pointed
out by Ncander in these words : " By the conscious-
ness of the declining condition of the Theocracy, it
is true, that the yearning after the promised e))0ch
of its glorious^x'storation, and by the feeling of dis-
tress under the yoke of foreign anddumestic tyrants,
the longing after the Deliverer, after the appearance
of Him from whom that glorious restoration was to
come, the .Messiah, had been ajinised to greater ac-
tivity. But the .same gruvelling sense which led to a
misapprehension of the nature of the Theocracy gen-
erally, could not fail to lead also to a mi.sapiprehcnsion
of this idea, which fonns the central point and mark to
wards which the whole Theocracy was aiming. From
that worldly sense which was attached to the idea of
the Theocracy, and that worldly timi of the religious
sjiirit generally, could oidy result a secularizing also
MESSIAH.
415
ot the idea of tlie Messiah. As tlie great mass of
the people were bowed down by the sense of out-
ward much more than of inward wretcliedness, dis-
grace, and bondage, it was chiefly a deliverer from
tlie fonner whom tliey expected and yearned after,
in the Messiah. Tlie inclination to the supernatural
tooli here an altogether worldly sliape ; the super-
natm'al, as it pictured itself to the imagination of
the worldly heju't. was but a fantastic imitation of
tlie natural magnified to the monstrous. Thus the
deluded Jews, destitute of a sense for the spiritual
apprehension of divine tilings, expected a Messiah
who would employ the miraculous power, with which
lie was divinely armed, ui the service of their earthly
lusts ; who woidd free them fi-om civil bondage,
execute a severe retribution on the enemies of tlie
Theocratic people, and make them masters of the
world in a universal empire, whose glory it was their
s|jecial delight to set forth in the fantastic images
suggested by their sensuous desu-es."
When the Messiah actually appeared in the com-
mencement of the last year of the reign of Herod
the Great, the circumstances connected with his
birth corresponded in a remarkable degi'ee with tlie
liredictioiis of the Jewish prophets. Thus he be-
longed to the tribe of Judah, and was of the house
of David. The prophet Micah had iixed upon Beth-
lehem as the place of the birth of the Messiah, and
events over which his earthly parents had no con-
trol, led to the hteral fultilnient of this specific pro-
phecy. Daniel had pointed out the precise time
when the Messiah .should come, and when Jesus
Christ appeared, the seventy prophetic weeks were
apiiroaching to theii" termination. The prophet
Isaiah had foretold that Messiah should be born of
a virgin, that he should be " despised and rejected of
men, a man of sorrows, and acquainted with grief;"
and to wlioin did these predictions apply, but to
Jesus of Nazareth? "The correspondence," says
Bishop M'llvaine, "between the several particulars
related of the death of Chi-ist, and the predictions
scattered through the Bible, is extremely strildng.
The evangelists, in this respect, are but echoes of
the prophets. I can give but a rapid sketch. These
predictions include the treacheiy and awful end of
Judas: the precise sum of money for which lie be-
trayed his Ma.ster; and the use to which it was put.
They specify not only the sufferings of Christ, but
of what they should consist. That his back should
be given to the smiters, his face to .shame and spit-
ting; that he should be put to death by a mode
which would cause his hands and his feet to be
pierced ; that he should be wounded, bruised, and
scourged ; that, in his death, he should be numbered
with tran.sgressors, and in his suti'erliigs, have gall
and vinegai- given him to drink ; that his persecu-
tors should laugh him to scom, and shake their
heads, reviling him, and saying : ' He trusted in the
Lord that he would deliver him; let him deliver
him.' Although it was the custom to break llie
bones of tliose who were crucitied, and although the
bones of the thieves crucitied with him were broken,
yet it was predicted that ' not a bone of hirn should
be broken ; ' and moreover, that his garments sliould
be divided, and lots cast for his vesture; that while
he should ' make his grave with the wicked,' as he
did in being buried like the wicked comp.anions of
his death, under the general leave for takmg down
their bodies from the cross — he should at the same
time make his grave ' with the rich,' as was done
when thev buried him in the sepulchre of Joseph of
Arimathea."
In Jesus Christ, and in Iliin alone, have aU the
Old Testament predictions concerning the Messiah
been fultilled to the very letter ; so that all pretended
Messiahs are convicted of imposture. Only one
Messiah is spoken of throughout the whole Jewish
Scriptures, from the first promise in Genesis to the
closing predictions of Malachi. Nor have the pro-
phets limited themselves to general statements, but
they have descended to minute particulars, detailing
with precision what the Messiah was to do and to
sutler. In addition to the character of the incidents
and events which compose the history of the life
and death of the promised Messiah, they have also
connected them with certain times and places, thus
making it next to impossible that they could be imi-
tated by a false Mes.siah. " It was requisite, for
instance," as has been well remarked, "that the
true Messiah should come into the world before the
destruction of the second Temple, because he was to
teach there. It was necessary that he should lay
the foundations of the church in Jerusalem, because
from Mount Sion it was to be difl'used over the
whole world. It was necessary that the Jews should
reject him before their dispersion, because such dis-
persion was to be the punishment of their wilful
blindness. Finally, it was necessary that the con-
version of the Gentiles should be his work or that of
his disciples, since it is by this visible mark that the
prophets point him out. Now that the Temple is
no more, Jerusalem is possessed by strangers, the
Jews are dispersed, and the Gentiles are converted,
it is clear that the Messiah is come ; but it is not
less manifest that no one else can repeat the proofs
which he has given of his coming; and consequently,
no one else can accomplish what the prophets foretold
would be fullilled by the Messiah."
Besides, it is plainly intimated in the Old Testa-
ment Scriptures, that when the Messiah should ap-
pear, tlie sacrifices and rites of the law of Moses
would come to an end. Now, it is a well-known fact,
that since the death of Christ, both sacrifice and obla-
tion have ceased. That this is an actual reality no
Jew can possibly deny, and he finds it impossible to
give a satisfactory explanation, except on the suppo-
sition that the Messiah has already appeared. Jlany
moderate Rabbis, accordingly, admit that the Mes-
siah is come, but that on account of the sins of the
Jews he lies concealed. Others issue an anathema
416
MESSIAHS (False).
against every man who shall venture to calculate tlie
date of his coming. Some Jewish writers allege,
that a twofold Messiali is to be expected ; one who
.xliall appear in a state of poverty and siitlering, and
another who shall appear in grandeiu- and glory.
The first, it is alleged, will proceed from the tribe of
Ephraim, fight against Gog, and be slain by Armil-
liis; the second will arise from the tribe of .Iiulah
and family of David, will conqner and kill Ar-
milhis, bring the first Messiali to life again, gather
together all Israel, and rnle over the whole world.
MESSIAHS (False). The prominence which
the .lews have always given to the notion of a Mes-
siah, and the constant state of expectation in which
thev have professed (o live, have given rise to many
attempts at frand and impustnre. by individuals, who,
from time to time, have assumed the title of Messiah,
and have, in consequence, found numerous followers
among the Jews. That such impostors would api'ear,
our blessed Lord expressly predicted in these words,
Mattli. xxiv. 11, "Many false prophets shall arise, and
shall deceive many." The first in time, as well as the
most di.stinguished in power and iuHuence. was Bar-
CHOCIIAB (which see), who, assisted by Rabbi Akiba,
revolted against the Emperor Hadrian. In the fifth
century, another false Mes.siah appeared in the island
of Crete, who received the name of Moses Cretensis.
This audacious impostor gave himself out as another
Moses, who had come down from heaven to deliver the
Jews, by leading them through the sea to the I'ro-
mised Land. It is scarcely credilile that such )ireten-
sions .should have met with tlie slightest encourage-
ment. Yet we are informed by the historian Socrates,
that so great was the infatuation throughout tlie
townis and villages of Crete, that multitudes followed
ill the train of this would-be deliverer. On an aji-
pointed time, Moses having collected his followers on
the top of a rock, multitudes of the men, women, and
children plunged headlong into the sea, expecting to
be miraculously preserved. But as, of course, many
perished in the waters, those who were still .safe be-
came aware that they had been the dupes of a fla-
grant imjiostiire. Meanwhile, Moses found it con-
venient to secure his own safety by a hasty retreat,
leading his followers to wonder at their own cre-
dulity.
During the reign of the Emperor Justinian, in
A. 1). 5.'J0, a false Messiah arose in the person of Ju-
lianus, whom the Jews and Samaritans set up as
their king. Justinian, however, having attacked the
rebels, killed many of them, and taking their pre-
tendi^d Messiah prisoner, behiiadcd him. In the
commencement of the seventh century, Mohammed
appeared in Arabia, and finding the Jews a very
powerful people in that country, he endeavoured to
win them over to his side by professing to be their
long-expected Messiah. As long as he had any hope
of enlisting the Jews among his followers, lie made
the site of Jerusalem the spot to which they
sliould turn in prayer ; but when he despaired of
receiving countenance or support from the Jews, he
appointed the KiUilia to be the sacred place towards
which the worshippers should ever look. When tlie
Jews rejected him, he fell from bis claims to be the
Messiah, and declared himself to be the prophet of
God sent to restore the only pure faith, that of Abra-
ham, the father at once of their nation and of his
own.
Another false Messiah appeared in vSpain in the
eighth centurj', under the name of Serenus, who at-
tracted numerous followers, promising to conduct
them to Palestine. The career of this impostor,
however, was speedily cut short, he and many of his
followers having been put to death by the Saracens.
After this no similar pretender appeared for a long
period. At length, in the twelfth century, several
false Messiahs successively arose in ditferent coun-
tries. In A. I). 1137, one appeared in France, and
at about the .same time another in Persia. Both ot
them were successful in attracting crowds of ardent
admirers, who, however, were speedily di.spersed, and
the impostors themselves slain. At Cordova in
Spain, a Jewish enthusiast occasioned no small com-
motion in A. D. 1157, by claiming to be the Mess'ah ;
and in A. Ii. 11G7, the Jews, in the kingdom of Fez,
were visited with severe persecution, in consequence
of the ap])earaTice of another individual who made
similar pretensions, while, in the same year, an Ara-
bian impostor .atteinpted to support his claims to the
Messiahship. by pretending to work miracles. Many
were caught in the delusion and subjected to severe
punishment. Soon after a false Messiah arose be-
yond the Euphrates, who founded liis pretensions on
the circumstance, that he was cured of a leprosv in a
single night. In A. D. 1174, a magician and impos-
tor, called David Alniasser, arose in Persia, who
alleged that he was the Messiah, and as a proof of it,
he iiretended that he could render himself invisible.
Notwithstanding this power of escaping from the
hands of his enemies, however, he was soon taken and
|)Ut to death, and a heavy fine was laid upon the
Persian Jews. Another of these false Christs made
his appearance in Moravia in 1176, and bis impos-
ture being reafhly detected, he was slain. In 1109,
a learned Jew came forward in Persia calling himself
the Messiah. This inipo.stor, who was called David
el David, headed an army, but was taken and im-
prisoned, and having escajied he was afterwards
arrested and beheaded. Maimonidcs mentions an-
other Jew who made similar claims ; but he enters hi-
to no details as to the history and doings of this pre-
tender. It would appear that, in the course of the
twelfth century, no fewer tli.an ten false Messiahs
arose and brought severe trials and persecutions up-
on the Jews in diilerent part's of the world.
After this period several impostors from time to
time appeared, who claimed to be the Messiah pro-
mised to the fathers, but they made little imjiression
on the minds of their brethren the Jews. Thus a
Jew, named Ismael Sophus, deceived a few persons
-MICSS-JOHNS— METHODISTS.
417
in Spain in 1497, but lie soon perislied, and his few
fiillowers were dispersed. Three years afterwards a
German Jew, called liabbi Lernleiii, declared him-
self to be the forerunner of the Messiah, and pro-
mised his brethren that in the course of a year they
should be transferred in a body to Palestine. Tlie
disappointment of his expectations in this matter
effectually cured him of his delusion. In 1509, a
Jew of Cologne alleged himself to be the Messiah ;
and the same claim was put forth by Rabbi Solomon
Malcho, but his fraudulent pretensions were visited
with capital punishment by Charles V., the king of
Spain. In 1615, a false Messiah arose among tlie
Portuguese Jews in Hindustan ; and another ap-
peared in the Low Countries in 1C24, who made
great pretensions, promising to destroy Rome, and
to overthrow the khigdom of anticlu'ist and the
Turkish empire.
It is a remarkable fact in the history of the mo-
dern Jews, tliat there are calculated to have arisen
since the dispersion no fewer than sixty-four false
Messiahs. The most remarkable pei'b.aps of the whole
number was Sabbatliai Sevi of Smyrna, who declared
liimself publicly A. D. 1648, to be Me-ssiah of the
liouse of David, who should soon deliver Israel from
the dominion of Cliristians and Mussulmans. "The
Messiah," he declared, " is at hand, and ere long
will assume the turban and crown of the Sultan as
the Cabbala has declared. Tlien, for some time he
will disappear, to seek, in company with Moses, the
ten tribes hidden beyond the river Sablmfion, and to
tiring them back. Then, riding on a lion, descended
from heaven, whose tongue is like a seven-headed
serpent, he will enter Jerusalem in triumph, after
having destro3'ed a nuiltitude of his enemies by the
breath of his mouth. Then will take place the
descent of the Jerusalem from on high, adorned with
gold and precious stones, in which Messiah himself
will otfer sacrifices ; tlien shall happen the resurrec-
tion of the dead, with many other events which can-
not now be revealed." The fame of the false Mes-
siah of Smyrna spread rapidly throughout both
Europe and Asia, so that the Jews unwittingly ful-
tilled the declaration of tlie true Messiah, John v.
4.3, "I am come in my Father's name, and ye receive
me not : if another shall come in his own name, him
ye will receive." Sabbatliai Sevi ended with em-
bracing the faith of Islam, which he openly pro-
fessed for ten years before his death. From this
man aro.se a sect combining Cabbalistic Judaism with
Mohammedanism, mider the name of S.\nnATHAiSTS
(wliicli see), who survived their founder more tlian
a century ; and from them sprung the Chasidim
(which see) or saints.
The last false Messiah who attracted any consi-
derable number of followers was Rabbi Mordecai,
a Gennan Jew, who first set forth his claims in 1682.
For a time he succeeded in deluding many, but the
fraud was soon detected, and he was under the ne-
cessity of escapuig from Italy to Poland, where he
ir.
was lost siglit of, and his history from tliat period ia
unknown.
MESS-JOIINS, a name given formerly in Eng-
land to chapliiins who resided in the houses of tlie
wealthy.
METAGEITNIA, a festival celebrated at Melite
by offeruig sacrifices to Apollo, and supposed to be
kept in memorial of tlie emigration from Melite to
Diomis.
METANGISMONITES. See Hieuacites.
METATRON, an angel frequently mentioned by
the Rabbinical writers, and to whom they ascribe
more illustrious prerogatives than to any others of
the heavenly host. One Rabbi says, " The angel
l\Ietatn»i is the king of angels." Another alleges
that this angel "ascends up to the tlirone of glory
above nine hundred firmaments to carry up the
prayers of the Israelites." He is supposed to have
been the angel who conducted tlie Israelites tlirough
the wildenicss. It has been alleged by some writers
that the Rjibbies must have regarded the Metatron
as a divine and eternal subsistence, in essence and
quality corresponding witli what Cliristians under-
stand by the second personality of the Godhead,
Various Rabbles consider Enoch to have been Meta-
tron, and one tells us, that when this ancient prophet
was in the course of ascending to heaven, the vari-
ous orders of angels " smelled the scent of him 5,380
miles off, and were somewhat displeased at the in-
troduction or intrusion of a human being into their
superior world, till God pacified them by explaining
the cause of his tran.slation."
METAWILAII, a heretical sect of Mohamme-
dans, who maintain that tlie allegorical and not the
literal meaning of the Koran is to regulate the opi-
nions of the faithful. Tliese Mohammedan allego-
rists are principally to be found in the district lying
to the south and east of Tyre. Some of them are
found also in the regions contiguous to the sources
of tlie Jordan, and in Coelo-Syria projier. Like the
Persians they are Svlnites, and recognize the supreme
Imamate of ^&'. Dr. Wilson tells us that they are
nearly as scrupulously observant of the rites of caste
in regard to cleaiiiiess and uncleanuess as the Hin-
dus.
METEMPSYCHOSIS. See Transmigiiation.
METHODISTS, a name of considerable anti-
quity. It was applied in the first instance to a class
of physicians who arose about a century before the
Christian era, and were so-called because they in-
troduced greater precision and order into the science
of medicine. The word was not introduced, how-
ever, into ecclesiastical use luitil the seventeenlh
century, when it came to be ajiplied to a class of
Romanists, who sought to be more precise in their
controversies with Protestants. In the same cen-
tury, we find the term used to denote also certain
Protestants who were more strict and regular in
their general bearing. Dr. Calamy says, " They
called tliem who stood iqi for God, Methodists."
2n
418
MKTHODIST (African) EPISCOI'AL ClinilCII IX AMERICA.
For more tliaii a century past the word Metliodists
is used to denote certain speuilic societies or deno-
minations of Clirisiians in Great Britain and America.
METHODIST (Afkican) Kl'ISCOPAL
CIICKCII, IX AMEUICA. This chm-ch is com-
monly known by tlie name of the Zion Wesley
Methodist comicction. The motlier church of this
denomination was founded in the city of New York
in 179G. It arose in consequence of tlie coloured
members coiniected with the Metliodist Episcopal
CImrch in New York feeling their privileges and
usetuhiess diminished by the prejudices entertained
a'^ainst coloured people by the whites. After bear-
ing for a time their degraded situation among their
fellow-Christians, they resolved to have a .separate
meeting on an independent footing. Bishop .\sbin-y
gave his consent to the movement, and a temporary
place of worship for tlie coloured people coimected
with the Methodists was speedily obtained, where the
services were conducted statedly by three licensed
preachers in the interval between the Sabbath ser-
vices in the white Methodist Church. In this way
thev avoided all interference with the regidar hours
of worship among their brethren, while they en-
joyed the privilege of a separate service of thoir own.
At length in 1799, tlie number of coloured nienibeis
had increased to such an extent, that they resolveil
after mature deliberation to form themselves into a
separate ami distinct religious body, under the name
of the Al'rican Methodist Episcopal Church, though
still under the government of the Methodist Episco-
]ial Church. A place o( worship was erected by
them accordingly in New York by the name of the
Zion Clinrch.
The African Methodist Episcopal Church having
been now establislujd as a separate religious body,
an agreement was formally entered into, whereby
they were rendered distinct from the whites in their
temporalities, but under the spiritual control of the
white Creneral Conference. Matters continued in
this state for a number of years, and the coloured
Methodists rapidly increased both in numbers and in-
fluence. At length, in 1820, the (leneral Conference
of the Methodist lCpisco])al Church i)assed a resolu-
tion, the elfect of which would be, were it carried
into effect, to give the preachers more power over
the temporalities of the cluircli. This resolution was
received with great dissatisfaction by a large body of
the white .Methodists, and it was viewed with still
greater alarm by the coloured Methodists, who felt
convinced that it would prove a serious hindrance to
their prosperity and success, by transferring their
property into the hands of Methodist preachers in
Conference. To i)rotcct themselves, accordingly,
against this dreaded result, the coloured Methodists
lost no time in withdrawing Zion church from the
control of the while bislio[)s and ('ouference.
Thus rendered entirely independent of their while
brethren, the .\frican .Methodist Episcopal Chiirch
proceeded to make their own ecclesiastical arrange-
ments. Not having ordained ministers among them
to take pastoral charges, they elected elders to act
in place of ministers. At the same time they ap-
pointed a committee to form rules of discipline drawn
f'roui those of the Methodist Episcopal Church. The
body was now joined by several other churches, and
on the "ilst June 1821, the first Annual Conference of
the .African Methodist Episcopal Clinrch was held in
Zion church in New York. The number of ministeis
in attendance was twenty-two, and the number of
members reported at the Conference was 1,426. At
the next Conference elders were ordained by the lay-
ing on of hands. In 1838, the Conference elected
the Rev. Christopher Rush to the office ofpennanent
suiierintendent for four years ; and the office has
been continued ever since, the superintendent being
elected every four years by the sutiVage of the mem-
bers of the fieneral Conference.
The doctrines of this body of American Methodists
are of a low Anninian character. Thus, in their au-
thoritative statement of principles, they mention
Christ as " having made full redemption for all men,
on the condition of obedience to (Jod." They say
also, that '• we produce good works as our duty to
(iod ; and then the merits of Chri.st are bestowed up-
on us." Among the sacraments they enumerate
holy matrimony, placing it on the same footing with
baptism and the Lord's l>u|iper. They practise en-
tire temperance, all use of spirituous liquors being
proliibited, except in case of necessity. They bind
themselves to avoid all traflic in slavery hi any way.
The General Conference of the body, which meets
every four years, is composed of all the travelling
ministers of the connection. The Annual Confer-
ence consists of the travelling ministers of a dis-
trict. There is an Annual Conference held in New
York; another in I'hiladelphia ; a third in Boston;
and a fourth in Baltimore. There is also a Quar-
terly Conference, a Monthly Meeting of the trustees
of each church, and a Leaders" xMeetiiig, wliicli meets
monthly, and is composed of all the class leaders
and class stewards.
The ecclesiastical functionaries of this church are,
1. The superintendent. 2. The elder. .'). Deacon.
4. The licensed preacher, o. The exhorter. 6. The
ehiss leader. Besides these there are trustees and
stewards, who are strictly temporal functionaries.
METHODIST (AiitiCAN) El'ISCOl'AL
CIIUKCH IX AMERICA. This church was found
ed in I'hiladelphia in 1816. Its organization was
eli'ected in a convention held for ecclesiastical [iiir-
po.ses by a large number of coloured persons wlm
had seceded fVoin the Methodist Episcopal church,
both in riiiladelphia and Baltimore. Like the church
described in the last article, this cliuivh had its ori-
gin in the oppression and ill-trealment which the
cciloured Methodists endured at the hands of their
white brethren. For many years, indeed, they were
subj' cted to a systematic persecution on the part of
those who professed to be their fellow-Chrisiianu.
METHODISTS (Calvinistic)
419
At last a General Convention was Iield in Philadel-
phia, which was largely attended by coloured people
from Baltimore and other places, and taking into
coiisidt'ration their grievances, they passed a resolu-
tion that the people of Philadelphia, Baltimore, and
all other places, who should unite with them, should
become one body under the name and .style of the
" African Methodist Episcopal Church."
A.s the separation of this church from the Method-
ist Episcopal Church involved no diflerence in doc-
trine or practice, the Convention held in Philadel-
phia in 1816, adopted the same doctrines, discijiline,
and general government as the church they had left.
They differ only in a few not very important |)arti-
culars. Thus they have no presiding elders, simply
because they are not able to maintain them. Their
local preacliers, also, are eligible to membershiji in
the .\nnual Conference, and as such are entitled to
all the privileges of the itinerant members. The
most important jioint of distinction, however, between
tlie .-Vfrican Methodist Episcopal Church and the
church from which it seceded, is, that their local
)ireai-liers have a seat, voice, ami vote in the General
Conference, when sent there as delegates from tlie
Animal Conferences to represent the lay members of
the ehiircli. For every four hundred lay nu-mbcrs
there is one local preacher in the General Confer-
ence.
The first Annual Conference of the body was held
at Baltimore in 1818, when the whole luunber of
preachers in the coimection was twenty-three, and
the whole nimiber of members was 6,778. In 1847
there were upwards of .'lOO preachers, seven .\nnual
Conferences, and upwards of 20,000 members, ex-
tending over thirteen States.
METHODISTS (C.\i.vinistic\ a class of ^Method-
ists in England which derive their name from their
prol'essi(ni of adherence to the Calvinistic views of
Whitefield, as opposed to the Arminian views of
Weslpv. Both these eminent servants of Christ,
animated with an earnest desire to revive the cause
of true \ntal godliness in the land, laboured with un-
broken harn;ony for several years in preaching the
gospel, and labouring for the convei-sion of souls,
bolh in Britain and America. It was not, indeed,
until 1748, that the two great founders of Methodism
separated from one another, tluis dividing the So-
ciefv of ^lethodists into two distinct comnumities.
Mr. Whitetield had all along been km)wn to entertain
those opinions on the great doctrines of C'hristianity,
which are usually termed, in their aggregate form,
Calvinism ; but Mr. John AVesIey, in ibe course of
his preaching tours, often avowed Arminian senti-
ments, and even boldly attacked the doctrine of elec-
tion. For a time variou.s attempts were made to re-
concile their conflicting opinions, and bring about a
complete agreement between the parties, but this
was found to be impracticable, and an open rupture
took ]ilace, We.sley steadily and skilfully constructing
the elaborate system of Wesleyan Methodi.sm, and
Whitelield prosecuting his great work as an itinerant
missionary of the cross, without the slightest desire
to be the founder of a sect. Though separated from
his former coadjutor in the evangelistic work, he con-
tinued to labour with the utmost ardour and assi-
duity, while thousands flocked to listen to his power-
ful ministrations, and he was thus the means of
enlarging the congregations of many dissenting min-
isters, as well as evangelical clergymen in the Pjstab-
lislied Church. On one occasion he preached at
Moorflelds in the midst of the multitudes who were
assembled there at the fair on Whit- Monday, and so
manifestly did the Lord bless his lali(un-s, that he
says in speaking of it. ■' We retired to the Taberna-
cle with my pockets full of notes from persons
brought under concern, ami read them amidst the
praises and spiritual acclani.ations of thousands, who
joined with the holy angels in rejoicing that so many
sinners were snatched in such an unexjiected, un-
likely place and manner, out of the very jaws of the
devil. This was the beginning of the Tabenjacle
Society."
In the winter of Mbb, Mr. Whitefield was asked
by some friends to preach regularly at a licensed
chapel in Long -Acre. He consented to preach
twice a-week and to read prayers. Crowds attended,
and the enemies of the truth were so enraged that
they made systematic efforts to annoy and insult the
preacher. In consequence of the difficulties thus
thrown in his way, it was resolved by some of his
friends and followers tf> build a place of worship
sufficient to accommodate a large nundier of people,
and where he might officiate without any likelihood
of being disturbed in the proclamation of his .Mas-
ter's message. Tottenham Court Chajjel, accord-
ingly, was erected, and formally opened for public
worship in November 1756. In addition to the two
great chapels thus built in the metropolis by tlie
followers of Whitefield, additional places of worship
in the same connection have since been built in dif-
ferent towns throughout England, in many of which
the English Church Service continues to be read.
After the apostolic labours of Mr. Whitelield had
been brought to a close by his de.-ith in New Eng-
land in 1769, the Calvini.stic Methodists not being
united into a sect, continued individually, or in se-
])arate congregations, to hold tlie o])hiioiis of their
founder. It has been alleged by Dr. Haweis, that
their numbers in 1800 amounted ill the aggregate to
as many as the Arminian Meihodists. The congre-
gations are formed on the Iiidejiendent princi]de,
each defraying its own expenses and managing its
own concerns. The Tabernacle in Moorflelds, and
the Tottenham-court chapel, are managed by tnis-
tees ; but their affairs are .arranged on the (,'ongre-
gationabst plan. It is difficult indeed to distinguish
the body generally from the Congregationalist Dis-
senters.
With the exception of the few .separate congrega-
tions scattered throughout different towns in Eng-
420
METHOUISTS (Camp)— METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH.
land will) hold the Ciilvinistic piiiiciples of White-
field, his tiilloweis are t'oiiiid uiuiei" two distim-t
denominations ; the one called Huntingdon's
(Countess of) Connexion (which see), and the
other the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists. See
.UETiioDioiTS (AVelsh Calvinistic).
METHUDISTS (Camp), a name given to those
meinbei's of the Methodi.st body in the Western
States of North America, particularly Kentucky,
who towards the beginning of the present century
adopted ('ainp-iMeetiiigs as a means of promoting
revivals of religion. Dr. Miller of Princeton Col-
lege states it as his opinion that these meetings
began in the Presbyterian church ; that they were
first adopted from a kind of necessity in a country
where house.^ for public worship were few and of
small size, and of course allogether iusiithcient for
receiving the great crowds which collected on par
ticular occasions, and who were hi a slate of mind
which prompted them to remain a number of
days at the place of meeting. In such circum-
stances encampment in the open air seemed to be
unavoidable. IJut what was begun from neces-
sity was afterwards continued from choice ; Camp-
Meetings being found to furnish admirable means
for the propagation of strong excitement. The Me-
thodists in Kentucky adopted the jiractice from their
Presbyterian brethren, and retained it for many
years, thus giving rise to the name of Camp-Metho-
dists. The meetings wliich gave origin to the name
were often scenes of the most painful excitement.
Persons were occasionally seen to tall to the ground
as suddenly as if iliey had been pierced through the
heart with a bullet or a sword; others when falling
would utter a shriek and lie during hours still and
silent; others would weep and moan mourufully.
Throughout the United States, Canip-Meelings are
far more rarely resorted to even in seasons of revi-
val than they wore in the early [lart of the present
centurv.
MICrHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH IN
AMERICA. Methodism may be considered as hav-
ing arisen in America at as early a period as in
England. Both the founders of Methodism, John
Wesley and George Wliitetield, laboured for a long
time as clergymen of the Episcopal Church in Geor-
gia. The tirst Methodist Society in America was
established in New York in ITUtJ. The circum-
stances which led to its original fonnatioii are deeply
hitere.sting. 'I'hey are thus described by the Rev.
I>r. Bangs: " .\ few pious emigrants from Ireland,
who. previously to their removal, had been members
of the Melhodist society In their own countiy,
landed in this city. Amonu their number was Mr.
Philip I'^mbnry, a local preacher. Coming among
strangers :uid tinding no pious associates with whom
they could confer, they came very near making
'hhipwrpck of faith and a good conscience.' In
this state of religious declension they were found the
next year on the arrival of another family from Ire-
land, among whom was a pious ' mother in Israel,' to
whose zeal in the caiuse of God they were all in-
debted for the revival of the spirit of piety among
them. Soon after her amval .she ascertained tliat
those, who had preceded her, had so far departed
from their ' first love,' as to be mijigling in the frivo-
lities and amusements of the world. The knowledge
of this painful fact excited her indignation ; and,
witli a zeal which deserves commemoration, she sud-
denly entered the room in which they were assem-
bled, seized the pack of cards with which they were
playing, and threw them into the fire. She then
addressed herself to them hi terms of expostulation,
and turning to Mr. Embury, she said : ' You must
preach to us, or we shall all go to hell together, and
God will require our blood at your hands!' This
pointed appeal had its intended eft'ect, in awakening
his attention to the peril of their conditioti. Yet, as
if to excuse himself from the })erforinance of an ob-
vious duty, he tremblingly replied : ' I wuinot ]ireaeh,
for I have neither a house nor congregation.'
' Preach in your ovvn liouse first, and to our own
company.' was the reply. Feeling the responsibility
of his situation, and not being able any longer to
resist the importunities of his reprover, he consented
to comply with her request, and accordingly lie
preached his first sermon 'in his own hired house,'
to five persons only. This, it is believed, was the
first Methodist sermon ever preached in America.
" As they continued to assemble together for
mutual edification, so theia- numbers were gradually
increased, and lliey were comforted and strengthened
by ' exhorting one another daily.' Notwithstanding
the fewness of their number, and the secluded man-
ner in which they held their meetings: they veiy
soon began to attract attention, and they accordingly
found that they must either procure a larger place,
or preclude many from their meetings who were de-
sirous to attend.
" This led them to rent a room of larger dimen-
sions in the neighbourhood, the expense of which
was paid by voluntarv contributions. An event
happened soon after they began to assemble in this
place, which brought them into more pubhc notice,
and attracted a greater number of hc;u-ers. This
was the arrival of Cajitain Webb, an ofiicer of the
British army, at that time stationed in Albany, in
the State of New York. He had been brought to
the knowledge of the truth, under the sciu-chiiig
ministry of the Rev. John Wesley, in the city ot
Bristol. England, about the year 17Go; and, though
a inililary character, such was his thirst for the sal-
vation of immortal souls, that he was con.strained to
declare unto them the loving kindness of God.
" His first appearance as a stranger iiniong the
' little fiock' in llie city of New York, in liis military
co.stume, gave them some uneasiness, as they feared
that he had come to 'spy out their liberties,' or to
interrupt them in their solemn a.ssemblics ; but wdien
they saw him kneel in prayer, and otherwise paiti-
METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH IN AMERICA.
421
cipale with tliem in the worship of God, tlieir fears
were exchanged for joy, anil on a farther acquaint-
ance tliey found Captain Webb had ' partaken of
Mice precious faith' witli tliem.selves. He was ac-
cordingly invited to preacli. Tlie novelty of his
appearance in tlie badges of a military otHcer, excited
no little surprise. This, together with the energy
with wliicli he spoke in the name of the Lord Jesus,
drew many to the place of worship, and hence tlie
room in which they now assembled, soon became too
small to accommodate all who wished to assemble.
But what greatly encouraged them was, that sinners
were awakened and converted to God, and added to
the little Society.
"To accommodate all who wished to hear, they
next hired a rigging-loft in William Street, and fitted
it up for a place of worship. Here they assembled
for a considerable time, and were edified in faith and
love, under the labours of Mr. Embury, who was
occasionally assisted by Captain Webb.
" While file Society was thus going forward in
their ' work of faith and labour of love' in New York,
Captain Webb made excursions upon Long Island,
and even went as far as Philadelphia, preaching
wliereverhe could find an opening, the gospel of the
Son of God ; and success attended his labours, many
being awakened to a sense of their sinfulness through
his pointed ministry, and were brought to the ' know-
ledge of salvation by the remission of sins.' In con-
sequence of the accession of numbers to the Society,
and the continual increase of those who wished to
hear the word, the rigging-loft became also too
small, and they began to consult together on the
propriety of building a house of worsln'p.
" But in the accomplishment of this pious undei'-
taking many difficulties were to be encountered.
The members in the Society were yet but few in
number, most of them of the poorer class, and. of
course, had but a limited acquaintance and influence
in the community. For .some time they were in
painful suspense. But wliile all were deliberating on
the most suitable means to be adopted to accomplish
an object so desirable, the elderly lady, wliose pious
zeal has been already mentioned, while earnestly en-
gaged in prayer for direction in this important enter-
prise, received, with inexpressible sweetness and
power, this answer, /, the Loi-d, loill do it. At the
same time a plan was suggested to her mind, which,
on being submitted to the Society, was gener.ally ap-
proved of, and finally adopted. Tliey proceeded to
issue a subscription paper, waited on the mayor of
the city and other opulent citizens, to whom they
explained their object, and received from them such
liberal donations, that they succeeded in purchasing
several lots in John Street, on which they erected a
house of worship sixty feet in length, by forty-two
in breadth, calling it, from respect to the venerable
founder of Methodism, WeMleij Chapel. This was
the first meeting-house ever erected for a Methodist
congregation in America ; this was in the year 1768 ;
and the first sermon was preached in it October 30,
1768, by Mr. ICmbury. This, therefore, may be con-
sidered as the begimiing of Methodism in this conn-
try."
While this cluirch was in course of being built,
the members of the Methodist body in New York
addressed a letter to Mr. W^esley, urging upon him
to send from Europe a supjily of preachers. Two
were accordingly despatched to America, namely,
Richard Boardman and Joseph Pilmore. These
were the first regular itinerant preachers who crossed
the Atlantic. On their arrival, Mr. Boardman was
.stationed in New York, and Mr. Pilmore in Phila-
delphia, from which cities they made occasional ex-
cursions into the surronnding country. About the
same time, Mr. Robert Strawbridge, another local
preacher from Ireland, emigrated to the United
States, and settled in Frederick county, Maryland.
The Methodist cause now made rapid progress, and
in 1771 Mr. Wesley sent over from England Mr.
Francis Asbury and Mr. Richard Wright to the
help of their brethren in America. The arrival of
these energetic and efiicient labourers lent great ail-
ditional impulse to the work. Mr. Asbury in jiar-
ticular, by itinerating through the country, and
preaching in the cities, roused his fellow-labourers
to greater earnestness and activity ; and hence many
new Methodist Societies were established in various
parts of the country.
Thus the good work went on until the arrival of
Mr. Rankui, who having been appointed to supersede
Mr. Asbury as general superintendent, held the first
Conference in Philadelphia on the 4th of July 1773,
at which time there were ten travelling preachers,
and 1,160 members in the various societies. At this
Conference they adopted the Wesleyan plan of sta-
tioning the preachers, and taking minutes of their
proceedings. Matters now went steadily forward,
and a Methodist meeting-house was built in the city
of Baltimore early in the year 1774. Year after
year the Conference reported an increase to the
number both of preachers and of members. Towards
the coniinencement of the American war of inde-
pendence, persecution arose against the Methodists
throughout the States generally. The ostensible
jiretext for annoying them was that most of the
preachers were from England, and that some of
them had openly avowed their want of sympathy
with the American movement, while Mr. Wesley
the foirader of Methodism had himself written
against the American ])rinciples and measiu-es. So
violent in fact did the persecution become, that all
the English preachers, excejit Mr. Asbury, returned
to England before tlie end of the year 1777, and Mr.
Asbury also was obliged to retire from jiublic notice
for nearly a whole year. Nor was the persecution
confined to the native Englishmen ; tlie native
Americans also who had laboured as itinerant preach-
ers among the Methodists were exposed to the
most cruel treatment, and even imprisonment. But
422
METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH IN AMERICA.
amid all opposition tlie cause flourislied, and at tlie
Conference of 1783, wlieii the war of the levohitioii
had come to a close, the body consisted of 43
preachei"s, and 13.740 iiieuiber-.
The year 1784 was the commeiiceinent of a new
era in the history of Methodism in America. Tlie
American colonies had decljired themselves indepen-
dent ; and the Episcopal Church in America beiu^
thus entirely dis.severed from that of England, Mr.
Wesley felt that the difficulties of the case could
only be met by a departure from the usual church
order. He. tlierefore, though only a Presbyter of
the Anglican Church, on his own responsibility in
1784 ordained Dr. Coke bishop or superintendent of
his .\morican Metliodist Societies, and by this act
gave them the character of an independent religious
body, which has since borne the n.tme of the Metho-
dist Episcopal Clnn-ch. At the same time, Mr.
Wesley, who had already reached tlie advanced age
of eightv, made an abridgment of the Common
Prayer Book and the Thirty-Nine Articles, as a
directory for the worship and doctrine of this new
ecclesiastical Society.
Thus furnished with proper credentials, Dr. Coke,
in company with Messrs. Wliatcoat and Vasey,
sailed for America ; and on their arrival a Conference
was held at P.altiinore, in which the measures de-
vised by Mr. Wesley were unanimously approved
of; Dr. Coke acknowledged as superintendent ; Mr.
Asbury consecrated as joint superintendent ; twelve
of the preachers were consecrated as deacons and
ciders, and three others as deacons. At the same
Conference Mr. Wesley's Abridgment of the Bcjok
of Common Prayer was adopted, and also twenty-tive
articles of religion which he had sent along with
various other rules for the regulation of the ministers
and members of the ncwiy-fornied church. Thus the
Methodist Episcn|ial Cliurch of America was fully
organized.
The tirst General Conference of the body was held
in the year 17n2. It was composed of all the tra-
velling elders in full connection, who were appointed
to meet in Conference every four years, with power
to devise rules for tlie regulation of the church. At
this General Conference a secession took place,
headed by James O'Kelly, a presiding elder in Vir-
ginia, because he was dissatislied with the power
which the bishop claimed of stationing the preach-
ers, and pleaded for an appeal to the Conference.
O'Kelly had influence enough to cause consider-
able disturbance in some parts of Virginia and
North ('arolina ; but the excitement was only for a
time, and his inlluence having gradually diminished,
his party became scattered, and finally disappeared,
while the Methodist Episco]ial Church rapidly in-
creased both in iiinnbiTs and influence, having on its
roll, soon after. '2(>6 tnivelling preachers, and G5.980
church members. Circuits were now formed, and
societies established throughout nearly every State
and Teritory in the Union, and also in Upper Canada.
The number of tra\ elling elders was every year on
the increase, and in the course of a short time the
(ieneral Conference became so large that it was
judged expedient to reduce the number. This was
done by adopting the representative system. Tlie
first delegated Conference assembled in the city ol
New York in 1812. in wliich year an increase of
members was reported to the amount of 10,700.
This Conference was composed of one member for
everv five members of eacli annual conference. In
1819 the Missionary Society of the Methodist Epis-
copal Church was formed, its declared object being
" to assist the several annual conferences to extend
tlieir mission.ary labours throughout the United
States and elsewhere." This department of their
work has been prosecuted with remarkable energy
and success. It comprises missions to those who
speak the English language in the destitute or new
portions of the country ; and also missions to foreign-
ers who have settled together in various portions of
tlie country, and in particular quarters of cities. In
addition to these, there is an interesting mission to
New Mexico. Of the various Domestic Missions of
the Methodist Episcopal Cliurch,tliose to theUernians
are the most numerous and successful ; but they
hava also missions to the Swedes, Danes, Norwe-
gians, Welsh, and French, who have settled in the
United States. Missions have also been established
in Oregon and California, and with such success,
that they have each of them been organized into a
regular independent annual Conference.
The prosperity of this energetic Christian deno-
mination in America has not however been un-
clouded. From time to time within her pale, indi-
viduals have arisen who have otiered strong objec-
tions to the government, and some of the usages of
the chnrcli, and finding that their views met with no
general resjionsc, thev have seceded and attempted
to form separate communities. Besides the seces-
sion already referred to nnder O'Kelly, the most
considerable of these secessions has been that which
took place in 18.30, and which led to the formation
of the ' Methodist Protestant Church.'
Since 1847 the Methodist Episcopal Church in the
United States has been divided into two almost
equal parts, a Northern and a Southern. These have
broken oH' all communion with one another, and
have recently had a vexatious lawsuit about the
division of tlic common property. The sole cause
of the separation was slavery. The Methodists of
the Northern and Western States are mostly aboli-
tionists, and they refused to permit their brethren in
the South to hold, buy, and sell slaves. A separa-
tion accordingly took place, and an independent
Society was set up called the Methodist Episc(ppal
Church, South.
The government of this Methodist body, as may
be learned from its name, is strictly Episcojial ; and
in its general arrangements it almost entirely conforins
to the rules laid down by Mr. Wesley for the Mutho-
METHODIST (Primitive) CONNEXION.
423
dist Societi(_"s in England. " All tlie lueinbers are re-
ceived into the cluircli on aprobation of six months;
during which time they have ample opportunity to
make themselv?s acijiiainted witli all the doctrines
and usages of the clunvh : and the church has also an
0[)portunity of becoming a 'quainted with the Chris-
tian experience and the general character of the pro-
bationers : at the end of the probation, if there is a
mutual agreement between the probationers and the
church, they are received into full connexion ; but in
ease there is a disagreement, probationers can with-
draw, or the church can drop them without the for-
mality of a church trial.
" Whenever there is a sufhcient number of per-
sons in a place, wlio wish to unite with the Metho-
dist Episcopal Church, it is customary for the
Iiroacher to form them into a class, and to appoint
one of their niunbera leader, whose duty it is to take
a special oversiglit of them, and to meet them once
a-week for the purpose of religious instruction and
improvement. Classes thus formed are united into a
churcli. and the church is placed under the charge of
a travelling preacher. The churches are situated on
circuits or stations, and tliey are annually supplied
by a preacher from the conference.
'• On each circuit or station there is a quarterly
conference, consisting of tlie presiding elder of the
district, all the travelling and local preachers, ex-
liorters, stewards, and leaders of the circuit or sta-
tion, and none else. Tliis conference po.ssesses an
appellate jurisdiction over the members of the
church on the circuit or station, who m.ay have ap-
pealed from the decisions of the church, and its de-
cisions in all cases are final. It also attends to I lie
general business of the church, both temporal and
spiritual, which cannot so well be attended to by the
members of tlie church in their more private capa-
city. It is properly a connecting link between the
church and the annual conference, and all the busi-
ness of the churdi with the annual conference is pre-
pared and forwariled by this body.
'• A number of circuits and stations form districts,
over which an elder is appointed to preside. And a
number of the districts form a conference, which
meets annually for the transaction of its appropriate
business. And then, again, delegates from these
several annual conferences form a general conference,
wliich meets once in four years.
'■ There are three orders of ministers recognised
in the Methodist Episcopal church ; bishops, elders,
and deacons ; and the duties pertainhig to each are
])lainl3' defined in the Discipline." (See Metho-
DI.STS, AVF.S[.t:YAX.)
According to the last census, the Methodist Epis-
Cf)pal denomination in the United States has 12,464
church edifices, with accommodation for 4,209,.S33
persons. Up to 18.31 this cliurch had no foreign
missions excejit that to the North American Indi;ins.
That vear, however, they commenced a mission to
Liberia in Africa, and since that time they have
established missions in Africa, China, and South Amer
ica, besides recently making arrangements for new
mission stations in Turkey and Hindustan. In the
vear 1843 — the year before the division of the church
— the number of foreign missionaries in connection
with the body was about 60. At'ter the division the
Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, South, was formed, its operations being con-
ducted independently upon the same general princi-
ples as the original Society. In 1854 the Methodist
Episcopal Church, in both its northern and southern
divisions, had seventy-eight missionaries labouring
in foreign parts.
It is remarkable to what an extent Metliodism
flourishes in the United States. In seventy years
the whole body of Methodists in that country has
grown from 13,000 to 1,200,000 memljers, besides
the many hundreds that have died during that time.
'• The Methodist," says Dr. Schafl", ■' is one ot the
most numerous denonn'nations in America, perhaps
the most numerous, and in the state of Indiana it
even controls the political elections. It has uncom-
mon energy and activity, and enjoys an organization
eminently fitted for great general enterprises, and sys-
tematic, successful co-operation. Its preachers have,
in general, little or no scientific culture, but, on an
average, a decided aptness for popular discourse and
exhortation, and they often compensate by fidelity and
.self-denial for their want of deeper knowledge. They
are particularly fitted for breaking the way in new
regions, for aggressive missionary pioneer service, and
for labouring among the lower classes of the people.
Their zeal, however, is very frequently vitiated by im-
pure motives of proselytism, and indulges in the boldest
aggressions on other churches, thinking tliat it alone
can really convert. Amongst the negroes, too, both
free and slave, Methodism has most influence, and
seems, with its emotional excitements, well adapted
to their s.anguine, excitable temperament. Formerly,
appealing to the apostles and evangelists of the primi-
tive church, it used to condemn learning and theo-
logy from princii'le, as dangerous to practical piety;
and to boast, that its preachers had ' never rubbed
their lacks against the walls of a college,' and yet
knew the better how to catch fish in the net of the
kingdom of God. But in this respect a considerable
change has been, for some years, going on. The
Methodists are now beginning to establish colleges
and seminaries, to publish scientific periodicals, and
to follow the steps of the culture of the age. But it
is a question whether they will not thus lose more
in their peculiar character and influence with the
masses than they will gain in the more cultivated
circles." In 1853 there were enrolled in the Me-
thodist Episcopal Church, South, 1.659 travelling
preachers, 4,03G local preachers, and 529,394 mem-
bers; while the same church. North, enrols 5,100
travelling preachers, 6.061 local preachers, and
732.637 members under seven bishops.
METHODIST (Primitive) CONNEXION, a
424
METHODIST (Primitive) CONNEXION.
Society of Methodists which arose in EiiJaiid out of
the revivals of religion which took place about the
commencement of the present century amons:; the
worknuMi at the potteries in Stailbrdshire. One of
the pious and worthy men with whom this denomi-
nation of Christians originated was William Clowes,
who was himself etigaged in the pottery business.
Througliont liis apprenticeship he seems to have
pursued an unbroken career of siu and folly, not,
however, witiiout occasional misgivings, and inward
strivings of the Spirit. In his twenty-fiflh year he
was brought under the saving influence of the truth
as it is in Jesus; and this joyfid event in his history
was speedilv followed by the conversion of bis wife.
The house of this humble pair now became the re-
sort of the godly and devout among their neighbours.
William became emphatically a man of prayer, and
the peace of God flowed through his soul like a
mighty river. " My soul feasted," he says, when
speaking in liis Joiu'nals of this period of his spirit-
ual history, " on the hidden manna, and drank the
wine of tbe kingdom. My soul rose in spiritual
greatness, and I felt withal such a burning sympathy
for souls, and .saw their lost and perishing condition
with such vividness, that I went into the streets
among the licentious and profane, and addressed
tliem in the name of the Lord. The rebels against
God were struck with surprise and astonishment
whilst I bore witness against them, and cleared my
soul of their blood. Indeed, the Are of God's love
became so hot in my soul, as frequently to constrain
me to shout and praise aloud, as I went along the
road. On one occasion I was praising my God
aloud, as a happy inhabitant of the rock, (it was near
midnight,) and a woman, who had formed the dread-
ful resolution to drown herself, was actually approacli-
ing the water-side for the purpose, when Iiearing me
shouting glory to God, she was instantly arrested in
her purpose. She reflected upon the rash and awful
deed she was about to perpetrate ; and said to her-
self, 'Oh what a wicked wretch am I, and what a
happy man is he that shouts and praises God yonder !'
This poor creature was, therefore, mereiliilly diverted
from her intention, and returned home. My soul
enjoyed such ecstasy, both night and day, that the
time I spent in sleep was comparatively trifling, not-
withstanding my daily labours and religious exer-
cises were very great ; for, after tbe toil of the day,
I attended a meeting every evening, and usually la-
boured till my strength failed. My Sabbath laboius
were also unremitting. In the fir.st place, there was
tlie prayer-meeting at six o'clock in the morning ;
another followed at nine ; preaching at eleven ; band-
meeling at one ; preaching at two ; visiting the sick
at four ; preaching again at six ; afterwards a prayer-
meeting at my own house, — besides reading the
Scriptures, family and ]>rivalc prayer, .and other oc-
ca.siunal duties. In the midst of all this pcniderous
labour. I felt strong, active, and unspeakably happy
in God."
The prayer-meetings which were held about this
time at William Clowes' house were attended by
great numbers of people, many of them under deep
spiritual concern. The work of God now made ra-
pid progress among the workpeople at Tnnstall,
Ilarriscaliead, and the neighbourhood. At tliis period
two other kindred spirits, Daniel Shubotham and
Hugh Bourne, became frequent visitors at the house
of William Clowes, for the purpose of conversing
upon spiritual and divine things.. Finding tliat the
prayer-meetings were blessed to not a few, William
and some of bis praying friends resolved to make
still further eflbrts to accomplish the conversion of
sinners. With this view they " agreed that the
person who should first address the throne of grace
should believe for the particular blessing prayed for,
and all the other praying labourers shotdd respond
Amen, and believe also ; and if the blessing prayed
for was not granted, still to persevere pleading for
it, until it was bestowed. We conceived we were
authorized and justified by the Scriptures in praying
and believing for certain blessings, and receiving
them in the act of believing; but that it could not
answer any nsefid purpose in the exercise of praying
to God, to ask perhaps for hundreds of blessings, and
finally to go away without receiving any." As the
result of this plan, " we began," says Clowes, " to
see immediate good done in the name of the Lord,
acting in accordance with tliose views of the word
of God which it is calculated to inspire ; for seldom
a meeting took place but souls were saved and be-
lievers sanctified to God."
In addition to tbe prayer-meetings, a local preach-
ers' meeting was also established for mutual improve-
ment, and the discussion of theological subjects.
This meeting was very profitable, serving as a school
in which many preachers were trained for more en-
larged spheres of usefulness than they occupied be-
fore. Clowes now became a class-leader at a place
called Kidsgrove, where, through his instrumentality,
m.any of the roughest colliers were brought to God.
llngli Bourne was also much prospered in his la-
bours at Ilarriseahead, and one of his earliest con-
verts, Daniel Shubotham, was eminently useful as
a class-leader in the district. One of the most im-
portant moral results wliieli followed, on the earnest
exertions of these humble but devoted men, was the
suppression, to a considerable extent, of Sabbath-
breaking, which was a very prevalent vice in the
StalTordshiro potteries. An association was formed
for this important object, and speedily a powerful
check was put upon Sunday trading, ami other vio-
lations of the Christian Sabbath. A tract-distribut-
ing Society was organized in the town of Bnrslem.
winch sent pious men, two and two, round both
town and country, to deliver Bibles, Testaments, and
Tracts, to all who would receive them, and after
wards to call again .and exchange the tracts for fresh
ones. On these occasions the tract distributors em-
braced the opportunity of conversing with the peo-
METHODIST (Primitive) CONNEXION.
425
pie on the necessity of directing; theii' tlioiiglits to
tlieir spiritual concenis, generally concluding their
visit with earnest prayer for the conversion of every
inmate of the house. By such means a spirit of
inquiry was excited, first prayer-meetings were estab-
lished, tlien class-meetings, and subsequently preach-
ing stations set up. Much opposition was offered,
but the work of conversion went forward, promoted
not a litlle by the arrival in the district of a remark-
able individual named Lorenzo Dow, who preached
with power and great success.
At this point in the history of the work of revival,
it was resolved to hold a camp-meeting after the ex-
ample of the Americau Methodists in Kentucky.
Such a meeting, accordingly, was announced to take
place on Sabbath, May 31, 1807, on Mow-hill, near
the boundary-line which divides Cliesliire from Staf-
fordshire. This was the first camp-meeting ever
held in England, and from its close bearing on the
rise of Primitive Methodism, we quote an account of
it as given by William Clowes, who was himself pre-
sent : "The morning, a rainy one, was unfavourable.
On my arrival about six o'clock, I found a small
group of people assembled under a wall, singing. I
immediately joined them, and several of us engaged
in prayer. When we had concluded the singing and
praying services, a Peter Bradburn preached, and an
individual from Jlacclesfield followed. The people
now began to be strongly atTected, and we began an-
other praying-service. During the progress of these
labours the people continued increasing in large
numbers, but as they came from various places to
the hill, many did not know to what point they
should make. At last a person named Taylor, from
Tunstall, suggested that a flag, or something of the
kind, should be hoisted as a guide and rallying point.
Accordingly, E. Anderson, from Kilham, in York-
shire, unfurled something like a flag, on a long pole,
in a conspicuous and elevated position, which be-
came the centre of attraction. It was about this
time that T stood upon the stand to address the peo-
ple. I began my address by giving the people a
statement of my Christian experience, and an expla-
nation of the motives which had influenced me to
attend the meeting ; then I followed with an exhor-
tation for all immediately to look to the Lord by
faith for a present salvation ; and whilst I was warn-
ing sinners to flee from the wrath to come, Jones,
from Burslem, a man in the crowd, cried out, ' That's
right, Clowes, clear thy blood of them!' During
this period of the meeting, the nnction of the Holy
Spirit rose with great power. Several appeared in
distress ; and the praying labourers engaged most
zealously in pleading with the mourners. But tliis
movement in the meeting did not stay the word of
exhortation ; it rather gave greater energy and effect.
Accordingly, a second stand was fixed, and a person
from Ireland gave an exhortation. When this indi-
vidual had concluded, Edward Anderson, already
-eferred to, followed ; reading a part of his life and
experience in verse, interspersed with sentences of
exhortation. As the people still increased, a third
stand was fixed, and in the afternoon, a fourth w,as
erected; and all were occupied with preachers,
preaching at the .same time ; at this period the wea-
ther was very fine, and the crowds of people im-
mensely large. The first day's praying on Mow-hill
then presented a most magnificent and sublime spec-
tacle. Four preachers, simultaneously crying to sin-
ners to flee from the wrath to come ; thousands lis-
tening, affected with ' thoughts that breathed, and
words that burn'd; ' many in deep distress, and
others (ileading with Heaven in their behalf; some
praising God aloud for the great things which were
brought to pass, whilst others were rejoicing in the
testimony they had received, that their sins, which
were many, had been all forgiven. The camp-meet-
ing continued full of glory and converting power.
About four o'clock in the afternoon, tlie numbers of
people were prodigiously large ! but after this time
many began to move off, and homewards ; yet the
power of the Highest continued with uiuliminished
force and effect to the very last. Towards the con-
clusion, the services were principally carried on by
praying companies, and at the close, which took
place about half- past eight o'clock in the evening,
several fsix) souls were set at liberty. The glory
that filled my soul on that day far exceeds my power
to explain. Much of the good wrought at this great
meeting remains ; but the full amount of that good,
eternity alone will develop to the myriads of the
angelic and sainted inhabit.ants, who will everlast-
ingly laud the eternal Majesty on accotmt of the
day's praying on Mow-hill !"
A second camp-meeting was held at the same
place (m the 19th of July ; and a third at Norton on
the 2.'jd of August. The design of these two latter
is described as having been to " counteract the effects
resulting from the ' wakes' or annual parish feasts,
at wliich much riot and sensuality usually took place ;
and at such seasons, not unfrequently, professors of
religion were drawn from their steadfastness. To
stay the torrent of evil, to preserve God's people,
and to eft'ect thevconversion of sinners to God, were
the ruling motives which influenced us in arranging
these meetings."
All the persons who were mainly concerned in
planning and conducting these camp-meetings were
thus far connected with the We.^leyan Methodist So-
ciety, but their proceedings met with decided disap-
probation from the Wesleyan preachers in the Burs-
lem circuit, who after a time expelled them frnm
their body, simply on the ground tliat they attended
camp-meetings, which were alleged to be contrary
to the Methodist discipline. This act was regarded
as being in accordance with a minute passed by
the Wesleyan Conference in 1807, which declared,
"It is our judgment, that even supposing such
meetings to be allowed in xVmerica, they are highly
improper in England, and likely to be productive of
426
METHODIST (Pu.mitive) CONNEXION.
ci)ii»iflcral)lf iiiiscl\ief; we disclaim all connexion with
llicm." William Clowes, tlius driven out from the
Wosleyan body, still conliniicd along with his friends,
to labour with unwearied enerfry in preaching, hold-
ing prayer-meetings, and other operations of a na-
ture fitted to advance the spiritual good of men.
The burden, however, of the c,im]i-meetings which
were held from time to time, chietiy rested upon H.
and J. liourue. and exjiosed them to much obloquy,
besides iiivoh ing them in various difficulties, and
almost ruining them in their worldly circumstances.
The brethren carried on tlipir classes and mission-
ary labours with great zeal and success, but in se-
parate and detached parties, without any particular
1)011(1 of union or organization. On the 30th of May
1811. however, the work assumed, for the first time,
a regidar comiexioiial aspect, for at that date quar-
terlv society tickets were ordered to be printed, and
given to llie members of all the classes, and regular
visitations of all the societies to take place. The
introduction of tickets was followed by a regulation
tending still more to unite the various Societies which
had now become both numerous and wide-spread.
Ilitherto the whole expenses of the mi.ssionary and
other operations had been borne by four individuals,
but as these men were wholly dependent for their
support upon the labour of their hands, it had now
become necessary to devise some other means of
raising money to meet the increasing expenses of
the movement. The people generally were quite
willing to assist, but had never been called upon to
subscribe. A general meeting, accordingly, was held
at Tunstall on the 2Gtli of July 1811, when it was
resolved that niouev should in future be regularly
raised in the Societies to meet the expenditure of
the Connexion. A preachers' plan about this time
was formed, and preaching appointments regularly
arranged. There were now on the list 2 travelling
preachers; 15 local preachers; 200 members, and
17 preaching places.
Early in the following year a meeting was held at
Timstall, which is thus noticed in Hugh Bourne's
Journal, "Thursday, Tebruary 13, 1812, we called
a meeting, made plans for the next quarter, and
made some other regulations; in particular, we took
the name of the Primitivk Methodist Conni'.x-
RiN." The reason assigned for taking this name is
slated to have been, " becau.se we wish to walk as
closely as we can in the steps of John Wesley." An
attempt was now made by the AA'eslevan body in the
liiirslein circuit, to persuade the ncwly-fornied Society
to return to the Old Connexion, assigning as an in-
ducement th.1t it would be for the glory of God, and
would spread more the kingdom of Christ in the
world. The letter containing this invitation was
taken into serious considcuation, and the proposal
wa< respectfully but firmly declined.
Tlie Primitive Methodist Cinme^-ion was now or-
g.inized a.s a separate and indcpendi'iit body of
Chrietians. Arrangements were made for holding
regular quarterly meetings for the management ol
their affairs. A code of rules was drawn n]i for the
use of the Connexion at large, and having been sub-
mitted for approval to the Societies by the preachers,
thev were carefully revised according to the sugges-
tions made and jirinted in their authorized form early
ill 1814. In this same year an important step in
advance was tnade by the e.stablishmciit of the office
of Sui)erintendeut Preacher. The Connexion was
now extending its labours over a wide extent of
countrv, but particularly in Derbyshire, where it
was joined by large numbers of the labouring jiopu-
lation. At Belper. in that county, several prayer
meetings were conducted with great success. Hugh
Bourne tells us. that '■ when these very powerful
meetings were closed, the praying people in returu-
ing home were accustomed to sing through the
streets of Belper. '-This circumstance," he says,
" procured them the name of Rantei's ; and the name
of Ranter, which first arose on this occasion, after-
wards spread very extensiNely." It is very impro-
per and utterly unchristian to apply opprobrious
terms to any cla.ss of men who are seeking according
to the light given them to advance the cause of
Christ. The Primitive Metliodists as a body, have
ever shown themselves to be an earnest, laborious,
self-denving class of men, whose eflbrts have doubt-
less been blessed in many cases to the conversion of
souls.
The mission.iry labours of William Clowes now
extended into Nottinghamshire, and thence into
Leicestershire. The camp meetings, however, which
in their commencement had been so succe^-sful, be-
gan about this time to decline in their iiiHuence and
usefulness. Hugh Bourne, who had hitherto taken
a special interest in this department of the work,
carefully examined the matter to discover if possible
the causes of this decline, and coming to the conclu-
sion that too much importance was attached to
preaching, and too little to ])raying, he resolved to
take a hint on this point from the American Camp
Meetings, and, accordingly, he aiTanged that each
hour devoted to preaching, should be followed by an
hour devoted to prayer, and that this practice should
be continued throughout the whole d,a\-. This change
restored in a great measure the former efficiency of
the meetings, which were .attended by thou.sauds of
]ieople.
In 1819, the work extended info Yorkshire, and
to c^rry forward operations in this quarter. William
Clowes was stationed at Hidl. At this time was in-
troduced the sy.stem of dividing circuits into branches,
which could easily, when judged pro|ier, be formed
into new circuits. And as the entire connexion was
increasing rapidly, another important stej) was taken
in advance by the uistitiition of regular Annii:d
Meetings, the first of which was lield at Hull on the
2d of May 1820. These were apjioinlcd to consist
of three delegates from each circuit, one of whom
was to be a tra\elliiig |)rcaclicr. The report of the
METHODIST (Primitive) CONNEXION.
4-27
connexion now stooil as follows: — 8 circuits; 48 tra-
velling preachers. 277 local preachers, and 7,842
members. At the Conference in 1821 several im-
portant resolutions were ailoptetl. It was decided
that a printing-pre.ss should be establislied for the
connexion, and also a Book-room. The cause was
now making such encouraging progress, that at the
Conference in 1822 the number of members was re-
ported to have risen to 25.218.
Mr. Clowes, by liis ardent missionary zeal, Iiad
rendered the Hull circuit one of the most prosperous
in the wliole body, and having been so successful in
Yorksliire, he extended bis operations into Northum-
berland, and afterwards into Cumberland. In 1824,
he proceeded to London, but the work went heavily
and slowly on in the metropolis. He next proceeded
by invitation into Cornwall, and after laboiu-ing
there for a time, retunicd to the northern counties
of England, where he was so prospered in liis mis-
sionary efforts, that great numbers were enrolled as
members of the Societj', and not a few seemed to
give evidence of having been savingly converted.
The doctrines of the Primitive Methodists are
declared in their Deed Poll to be "those contained
in the first four volumes of Wesley's Sermons, and
certain Notes by him on the New Testament."
In the leading articles of Christianity, therefore,
they agree with the Wesleyan Methodists as set
forth in their published standards, 'i'he charac-
teristic doctrine, however, of Primitive Methodi.sm,
is, as one of the body alleges, " that of a full, free,
and present salvation," and they beheve in the
doctrine of instantaneous conversions. In defending
this doctrine, they argue that " sudden conversions
are in accordance with Scripture. In the Acts of
the Apostles, we find that ordinarily conversions
were sudden under their ministry. The 3,000 con-
versions on the day of Pentecost all appear to have
taken place during the sittings of one assembly ; and
all the subsequent outpourings of the Spirit with
which the first age of Christianity was blessed seem-
ed to have been characterized by conversions of this
sort. Though Saul was three days seeking the
hord, yet the jailer of Philippi and all liis house
were converted in one hoiir ! And we have reason
to believe that such convei'sions were every day tak-
ing place under the ministry of the apostles. Not
only the example of Scri])ture, but the general sjiirit
and genius of the Bible are favourable to sudden
conversion. The Bible calls upon men to repent
now! It does not instruct them to adopt a course
of action preparatory to their doing so, but allows of
no delay. Its language is, 'Behold, nov) is the ac-
cepted time; behold, nmv is the d,ay of salvation.'
Sudden conversions are neither luiphilosophical, un-
scriptural. nor unusual."
This body of Christians, .at least the great majo-
rity of its preachers and members, is unfaioiu'iible to
all national establishments of religion. They main-
tain the doctrine and follow the practice of infant
baptism, but they reject the dogma of baptismal re-
generation. One of the connexional rules is, "that
the preachers and members use every prudential
means to encourage Temperance Societies;" and
another that " none of the preachers shall be allowed
to make speeches at parliamentary elections, or at
political meetings."
The condition on which members are admitted into
the Society of the Primitive Methodists, is simjjly
that the applicant is animated by "a desire to fiee
from the wrath to come." Three months' probation
is rerpiired before full admission is granted into fel-
lowship. Members can only be excluded from com-
munion by a proved wilful immorality; or absence
from class four weeks successively without assigning
sufiicient reason for such absence. The Connexion
is composed of classes, one member of which is called
the Leader, ;ind usually another called the assistunf.
The members of each class have their names entered
in a class-book ; and further, each member holds a
Society ticket which is renewed (piarterly. A mem-
ber removing from one place to another is furnished
with credentials. The lay-officers of the body arc,
the " Leader," corresponding to the " Eld r" of the
New Testament ; and the " Society Steward," corres-
ponding to the "Deacon." It is regarded as an in-
dispensable qualification of a preacher among the
Prinntive Methodists, that he give satisfactoi'j' evi-
dence of a scriptural conversion to God, and of a
Divine call. In the induction of preachers to the
ministerial office, there is no ceremony or 'aying on
of hands as in the case of ordination in other
churches. From the period of a preadier being
" called out," he enters on a probation of four years ;
after which, if successful, he is admitted into full
connexion. The salary allowed to a preacher of tlie
gospel is proverbially small, so that there is no temp-
tation to any one to undertake the ministerial office
from mere worldly motives.
The object of the Primitive Methodist Coimexicjn
is "to aid in extending the kingdom of Christ
throughout the world by preaching the gos]iel in
the o]ien air. private houses, iind jnihlic edifices, and
by holding various religious services throughout its
societies, congregations, circuits, branches, and mis-
sions." The constitiuion of the body is thus de-
scribed by Mr. Church in his 'Sketches of Primitive
Methodism:' "A number of societies or classes in
different places form what is called a mission ; or
when .self-supporting, a circuit. This generally in-
cludes a market town, and the circumjacent villages,
to the extent of ten or twenty miles. Two, three, or
more iireachers, are annually appointed to a circuit ;
one of these is called the superintendent. This cir-
cuit is their sphere of labour for at least one year,
and not exceeding three years ; while the superin-
tendent may probably remain five or six years in the
same circidt. This constant change of preachers is
an excellent rule. 'Some indeed, have imagined
that this is a hindrance to the work of God ; but
4-28
METHODIST PROTESTANT CHURCH IN AMERICA.
long experience in every part of the kingdom proves
to tlie contrary.
"A number of circuits, from five to ten, more or
fewer, .icconliii;; to circumstances, compose a dis-
trict. Tlic Primitive .MetljoHist Connexion is divid-
cd into 14 districts. Eadi district lias an annual
meeting, preparatory to the Conference. It is at-
tended by a travelling preacher, or a lay delegate
from each of the circuits belonging to the district,
and also bv a delegate from the general or 'Connex-
ional Committee.' 'The district meeting,' according
to the Various Regulations of 18.36, 'inquires re-
specting tlie conduct and success of each travelling
preacher; and whether any trespass on the rules
respecting preaching, or are negligent in ministerial
family visiting, or in other duties, and notes the
same on the minutes.'
"Six delegates from each district attend the Con-
ference. 'They shall consist,' says the Deed Poll,
' of the travelling preachers, one-tliird ; and the
other two-thirds shall consist of those members who
shall sustain each the office of local preaclier, class-
leader, or circuit steward.' The majority, therefore,
is as two to one in favour of the peojjle. Laws made
at the Conference govern the Connexion. The Con-
ference is the supreme church court. It also exa-
mines the numl)er of members, finances, &c., and
stations the preachers for the ensuing year."
Open-air worship is frequently jiractised by the
Primitive Methodists. At tiie risk of imprisonment
and persecution they "go out into the highw.ays and
hedges to compel souls to come in," and be saved.
Love-feasts are observed from time to time, at which
bread and water are distributed in token of Cln-istian
fellowship. Watch-nights also, after the manner of
the vigils of the ancients, are held on the last night
of the year ; and on these occasions the services
consist of prayer, praise, and exhortation by preach-
ers. Silence is usually observed a few minutes be-
fore midnight, and until the new year has commenced,
when the services are ended. Protracted meetings,
which originated in America, were introduced into
England by a Primitive Methodist preacher in 18.38,
and they have ever since been resorted to by the
body generally, as a favourite means of bringing
about a revival of religion. The ordinary worship of
the Society is characterized by great liveliness and
excitement, the people being accustomed to utter
hearty responses with loud voices in the course of
the devotional exercises. In not a few of their con-
gregations in.strumental music has been introduced,
though others are much opposed to what they regard
as an unwarranted imiovation on the primitive sim-
plicity of Christian worship.
The Primitive Metli(jdists liave from their first
rise admitted of a practice which is unknown in
other denominations, with the exception of the
Fiiends, that of female preaching. It has been some-
times argued in del'cnce of this practice, that it ia
not specilically condemned in Scripture, and has in
many cases been blessed for the good of souls. But
while in several circuits females are still enqiloyed
occasionally as local or lay preachers, female preach-
ing is greatly on the decline throughout the Con-
nexion generally. In this and a few other particulars
the Primitive Methodists differ from other churches,
but with all their peculiarities, they are a body of
simple-hearted and devoted Christians, whose pre-
dominant desire is to win soids to Christ.
The Primitive Methodist Magazine commenced in
1818. Subsequently it was edited by Hugh Bourne
until 1843, when a new series was begun under the
editorship of John Flesher, and under the present
arrangement a new editor is appointed every live
years. " Hitherto," says Mr. Church, referring
to 1844, "the Connexion lias been isolated in its
missionary operations. Each circuit, which lias
been able, has employed a missionary, and, with
few exceptions, has had to support him with its own
resources. In the youth of the Connexion this plan
appears to have been best adapted for the difl'usion
of its energies through the land; but growing events
seem to demand a different state of things, and hence
arrangements were made at the Conference to con-
centrate our missionary energies in part, that we may
try, on a partial scale, whether the [ilan is not better
suited to the altered condition of tlie Connexion.
In April, two missionaries set out for America.
During the ."ame month an associatiim of Sunday-
scholais was formed to support a missionary to and
at Adelaide, South Australia." The following year
an association of Sunday-school teachers was formed
to sustain a missionary in New Zealand. The Con-
nexion now organized a foreign missionary Society,
adopting Canada, New Zealand, and Australia, as
their fields of labour. The total number of their
foreign missionaries throughout the world is at present
40; of whom 22 are in Canada, 14 in Australia, and
4 in New Zealand. The whole number of members
in their foreign stations is 3,.363. From the General
Minutes of the Annual Conference held in June
1857, we learn tliat the travelling preachers of the
whole Connexion amount to 598, the local preachers
to 10,205. and the members, including the Home and
Foreign Missions, in connection with the British
Conference, to 110,083. The Primitive Methodists
have uniformly taken a very lively interest in the
religious education of the young. Tlieir Sabliatli
schools were reported at the last Annual Conference
to be 1,01)2, with 25,403 teachers, and 13'J,486
scholars.
METHODIST PROTESTANT CHURCH IN
AMERICA, a respectable body of seceders from tlie
McthodiM E/ii-cnpnl Church, who formed themselves
into a regularly organized church in 1830, the first
General Convention of the body having been lichl in
that year in the city of Baltimore, State of Mary-
land. It would appear that at an early iieriod in the
history of Methodism in America, exception was
taken by not a few members of the body to a pecii-
METHODIST PROTESTANT CHUUCPI IN AMERICA.
429
b'ar feature in tlie government adopted by the Con-
ference in 1784, wliicli consisted exclusively of
preachers. The obnoxious feature was that which
secured to the itinerant ministers the entire exercise
oftlie legislative, executive, and judicial jiowers of
the churcli to tlie exclusion of all otlier classes of
niiriisters, as well as the whole niembersliip of the
body. The spirit of di.s.satisfaction whicli so soon
manifested itself, continued every year to gain ground,
until at length, in 1820, the feelings of the Reform-
iiig party found vent in a periodical wliicli was insti-
tuted, called the ' Wesleyan Repository.' Numer-
ous petitions were now presented to tlie Conference
from all quarters of the country, praying tor a repre-
sentation of both ministers and laymen in tlie rule-
making department ; but no change eitlier in the
principles or praclical operations of the body could
be obtained. At length, at the close of the Con-
ference in 1824, a meeting of the reforming party
was held in Baltimore, at wliich it was determined
to |uiblisli a periodical jiamphlet, entitled ' The Mu-
tual Rights of the Ministers and Members of the
Methodist Episcopal Church,' for the purpose, as was
alleged, of giving the Methodist cimimunity a suita-
ble opportunity to enter upon a calm and dispassion-
ate discussion of the subjects in dispute. Tlie meet-
ing also determined to resolve itself into a Union
Society, and recommended similar societies to be
formed in all parts of the United States, in order to
ascertain the number of persons in the Methodist
Episcoi)al Church friendly to a change in her gov-
erninent. These steps exposed the reformers to
much persecution and annoyance, but their views
were adopted by a large body of zealous Methodists.
The further history of the controversy, until the
secession actually took place, is thus stated by the
Rev. Thomas F. Norris : " Sometime during the
spring of the year 1826, the Baltimore Union So-
ciety recommended state conventions to be held in
the several States, for the exclusive purpose of mak-
ing inquiry into the propriety of making one united
petition to the approaching General Conference of
1828, praying for representation ; and to elect dele-
gates to meet in a General Conventiun for the |Hir-
pose. Conventions were accordingly held, and dele-
gates elected ; in consequence of which, i-eformers, in
different parts oftlie country, were made to feel the
displeasure of men in power. In North Carolina, sev-
eral members of the Granville Union Society were
expelled for being members thereof. In the fall of
1827, eleven ministers were suspended, and finally
ex|)elled from the Methodist Episcopal Church in this
church in Baltimore, and twenty-two laymen, for
being members of the Union Society, and supporters
of mutual rights. The members expelled, and others
who sasv fit to secede, organized under Mr. Wes-
ley's general rules, taking the title of Associated
Methodi.sts.
''In November 1827, the General Convention as-
sembled in Baltimore, composed of mhiisters and
lay delegates, elected by the State Conventions and
Union Societies. This Convention prepared a me-
morial to the General Conference of May 1828, pray-
ing that the government of the church might be
made representative, and more in accordance with
the mutual rights of the ministers and people. To
this memorial the General Conference replied, in
a circular, claiming for the itinerant ministers of
their church an exclusive divine right to the same
unlimited and unamenable power, which they had
exercised over the whole church from the establish-
ment of their government in 1784. Soon after
the rise of the General Conference, several reformers
in Cinciimati, Lynchburg, and other places, were ex-
pelled for being members of Union Societies and
supporters of the mutual rights.
"The reformers, now perceiving that all hope of
obtaining a change in tlie government of the church
had vanished, withdrew, in considerable numbers, in
different parts of the United States, and cidled an-
other General Convention to assemble in Baltimore,
November 12, 1828. This Convention drew up
seventeen 'Articles of Association,' to serve as a
provisional government for the Associated Methodist
churches, until a constitution and book of discipline
could be prepared by a subsequent Convention to be
held in November 1830."
The first General Convention, accordinglv, at
whicli the Methodist Protestant Church was regular-
ly organized, was held at Baltimore in 1830. The
meeting commenced on the 2d of November, and con-
tinued ill session till the 23d inclusive. It was attend-
ed by eighty-three ministerial, and a large number of
lay representatives of about 5,000 members of the
respective associated Methodists, a large majority of
whom had already withdrawn from the Methodist
Episcopal Church on account of her government and
hostibty to lay representation. In this important
Convention, a form of con.stitution and discipline for
the newly organized church was considered and
approved. The jirinciples on which the Secession
proceeded are thus stated in the preamble and arti-
cles which precede the constitution : ■' We the repre-
sentatives of the Associated Methodist churches in
General Convention assembled, acknowledging the
Lord Jesus Christ as the only head of the church,
and the Word of God as the suflicient rule of faith
and practice, in all things pertaining to godliness ;
and being fully jiersuaded, that the representative
form of church government is the most scriptural,
best suited to our condition, and most congenial with
our views and feelings as fellow-citizens with the
saints, and of the household of God ; and whereas a
written constitution, establishing the form of govern-
ment, and securing to the ministers and members of
the church their rights and privileges, is the best
safeguard of Christian liberty : We, therefore, trust-
ing in the protection of Almighty God, and acting in
the name and by the authority of our constituents,
do ordain and establish, and agree to be governed by
430
MKTHODIST (Rekokmed) CHURCH IN AMERICA.
the following elementary principles and constitution :
" 1. A Christian church is a society of believers
in Jesus Christ, and is a divine institution.
••2. Christ is the onlv Head of the church ; and
the Word of God the oidy rule of taith and condiu't.
'■ 3. No person who loves the Lord Jesus Christ,
and obeys the gospel of God, our Saviour, ought to
be deprived of church nieuibership.
"4. Kvery man has an inalienable right to private
judgment, in matters of religion; and an equal right
to express his opinion, in any way which will not
violate the laws of God, or the rights of his fellow-
men.
"5. Churcii trials should be conducted on gospel
principles only ; aiid no minister or member should
be exconinuniicated except for immorality; the pro-
jiagation of unclu-istiau doctrines ; or for the neglect
of duties enjoined bv the Word of God.
" 6. The ])astoral or ministerial office and duties
are of divine appointment ; and all elders in tlie
cluirch of God are equal ; but ministers are forbidden
to be lords over God's heritage, or to have dominion
over the faith of the saint.s.
" 7. The cliurch has a right to fonn and enforce
such rules and regulations only, as are in accordance
wiih the Holy Scriptures, and may be necessary or
have a tendency to carry into effect the great sys-
tem of practical Christianity.
■'8. Whatever power may be necessary to the for-
mation of rules and regulations, is inherent in the
ministers and mendiers of the church ; but so much
of that power may be delegated, from time to time,
upon a plan of representation, as they ma_v judge
necessary and proper.
'• S). It is the duty of all ministers aiul mendiers of
the clnurh to maintain godliness, and to oppose all
moral evil.
" 10. It is ubligHtory on mijiisfers of the gospel to
be faithful in the discharge of their pastoral ami min-
isterial duties ; and it is also obligatory on the mem-
bers, to esteem miiusters highly for their works'
sake, and to render them a righteous compensation
for their labours.
•'II. The church ought to secure to .-ill her official
bodies the necessary authority for tlu' purposes of
good goverinnent ; but she has no right to create any
distinct or independent sovereignties."
Lay representation being adopted as an essential
element in the constitution of the Methodist Pro-
testant Church, its (general ( 'onference, which meets
every seventh year, is composed of an ecpial number
of ministers and laymen, being one minister and one
layman for every thous.'ind persons of its meinber-
ship. The Annual Conferences consist of all the
ordained ilineratjt ministers, and of one delegate from
each circuit and station within the bounds of the
district, for each of its itinerant njinisters. The
Qu.arterly Conferences are the imnu'diate official
nu-elings of the circiMts ami stations. The leaders'
meeting, and, indeed, all llie other arrangements, arc
similar to those of the church from which they se-
ceded. The (rnly dill'erence between the two churches
lies in govermnent, the Methodist Episcopal Church
rejecting lay representation, and adopting an unli-
mited episcopacy, while the Methodist Protestant
Church admits lay representation, and a parity in
the ministry.
MKTh'oDIST (Reformicd) CHURCH IN
AMERICA. This body sprung out of a feeble se-
cession which took place from the Methodist Episco-
pal Church in 1814. The original seceders amounted
to no more than fourteen persons belonging to tlie
towns of Whitingham and Readsborough, Vermont,
who felt straitened in their religious rights and pri-
vileges under the Episcojial mode of church govern-
ment. Having represented their grievances to the
General Conference, and mc eting with no favoura-
ble answer, they formally separated from the church,
and on the 16th of .lanuary 1814 met in convention
at Read.-borougb. .\t this Convention they formed
themselves into a church under the name of the
" Reformed Methodist Church," and appointed a
Conference to be held on the following 5lh of Feb-
ruary, at which they adopted articles of religion and
rules of church government.
The Reformed Methodists agree with the Method-
ist lipiseopal Cluirch in regard to the fundamental
doctrines of the gospel. Their system of church gov-
ernment is essentially Congregational in its character,
all power being considered as vested in the primary
bodies, the churches. The leading men among the
Reformed Methodists have generally maintained,
that the same faith would produce the same effects it
did in primitive times. They believe that the church
has apostatized ; that as all blessings given in an-
swer to prayer are suspended upon the condition
of faith, therefore, faith is the restoring princi]ile.
They d.are not limit faith excejjt by a "tbussaith
the Lord," and hence they believe that the sick are
often restored to health in answer to their pniyers.
Another peculiar tenet which they maintain is, that
it is possible for a believer to att.ain perfection in
this world or complete .sanctification of heart and life
through faith in the atmiing blood of the Lord Jesus
Christ. They bold that the church of Chri.^t is a
spiritual body, and that members ought to be admit-
ted into the church, not by subscribing certain doc-
trines, but by exhibiting clear evidence of the for-
giveness of their sins, and the renewal of their heart.
They .ire conscientiously opposed to war, both offen-
sive and defensive, and also to slavery aiul slavehold-
ing. An article has been added to their Dix'ipline
excluiling all apologists for slavery from church nu'ui-
bership.
Reformed Methodism was planted in Upper Can-
a<la in 1817 or 1818. and its introduction was sig-
nalized by a remarkable revival of religion. Both in
Canada and the United States it has made steady
priigresg; but it had no periodical organ until I8i!7,
when the 'South Cortland Luminary' was started by
METHODIST SOCIETY IN AMERICA— METHODISTS (Romish)
431
tlie New York Cuiit'urence, in tlie first instance, and
after a short time became tlie organ of tlie wliole
cliurcli. In 18?i9 this periodical changed its name
to that of the ' Fayetteville Luminary.' In 1841 an
association was formed between the Reformed Me-
thodists, Society Methodists, and local bodies of
Wesleyan Metliodists, the object of which was liar-
moniously to co-operate, without, however, merging
the various bodies into one churcli. By the terms
of the association the name of the ' Luminary' was
again changed to that of the ' Methodist Reformer,'
wliich became the organ of the association, while the
property of the periodical still belonged to the Re-
formed Metliodists. After the organization of the
Wesleyan .Methodist Church in .\merica in 1843,
the subscription list of the ' Methodist Reformer,'
by an arrangement on the association principle be-
tween the Refonned Methoilists and the Weslevans,
was transferred to the periodical called the ' True
AVesleyan,' published at Boston, Massacliusetts, as a
preliminary step to the union of the two bodies.
Latterly the Reformed Methodists have become com-
pletely merged in the Weslevan Methodist Church.
METHODIST SOCJETY IN AMERICA
(The). This body of Christians was first coin]JOsed
of a small body of seceders from the Methodist Epis-
copal Church in the city of New York in 1820.
The point on wliich the Secession arose, was the
circumstance of the ruling preacher, so called, in-
sisting on receiving the money collected in the dif-
ferent churches under his charge, through stewards
of his own appointment, instead of by the trustees
appointed according to law. and in accordance with
the practice of the church in all time previous. In
addition to this objectionalile practice, tlie Seceders
di.ssented from certain resolutions passed by the New
York Annual Conference of ministers, to petition the
legislature for a law recognizing the peculiarities of
the cliureh discipline, by which the whole property of
the church would have been placed under the super-
vision and control of the body of ministers, who, ac-
cording to tlieir discipline from the bishop down-
wards, are to take charge of the temporal and spirit-
ual business of the church. Having left the Me-
thodist Episcopal Church, the Seceders erected a
new place of worship, and a congregation of about
300 members was organized under the Rev. William
M. Stilwell, who withdrew from the travelling con-
nexion, and became the pastor of this new church.
The brief history of the Methodist Society is thus
.stated by Mr. Stilwell : " In the course of the three
years following their first formation as a separate
body, thev had erected two other places of worship,
and formed a discipline, in which the general prin-
ciples, as taught by the Methodists, were recognized ;
but in the government of the church there was a
difi'erence : 1. No bishop was allowed, but a presi-
dent of each .\miual Conference was chosen yearly,
by ballot of the members thereof. 2. All ordained
•ninisters, whether travelling or not. were allowed a
seat in the Annual Conferences. 3. Two lay dele-
gates from each Quarterly Conference could sit in
the Annual Conference, with the ministers. 4. No
rules or regulations for the church could be made
unless a majority present were lay members. 5. A
preacher could remain with a congregation as long
as they agreed. 6. Class meetings, love feasts, &c.,
were to be attended ; the leader of each class being
chosen by the members. 7. The property of the
Societies to be vested in trustees of their own choice,
and the minister to have no oversight of the tem-
poral affairs of the church. They prospered greatly
for a few years, when some of the jireachcrs and
people, being desirous to have a more itinerant con-
nexion, thought it best to unite with a body of Se-
ceders from the Methodist Episcopal Church, who
held a Convention in Baltimore, and took the name
of Protestant Methodist Church : since which the
Methodist Society have not sought to enlarge their
body so much, as to supply such eongi'egatious as
may feel a disposition to enjoy a liberty, which the
other bodies of dissenting Methodists, as well as the
Methodist Episcopal Church, do not see fit to grant I
to the laity."
METHODISTS (R()Misii\ This name was ap-
plied to certain Romish Controversialists in the seven-
teenth century, who arose in France, and attempted
by ingenious sophistry to silence the Huguenots in
argument. These Methodists are arranged by Mo-
sheim under two classes. The first class attempted
to foreclose the argument by demanding from the
Protestants a direct proof of their doctrines, and
calling upon them to adduce explicit declarations
of the Holy Scripture. By this mode of con
ducting the argument, it was assumed at the very
outset of the controversy, that the Church of Rome
was an ancient church, and in jiossession of a
.system of doctrines which she had held unmolest-
ed for ages ; and. therefore, the Protestants, be-
ing on this theory innovators in religion, the bur-
den of proof lies upon them, and it behoves them
to adduce not indirect and inferential, but direct
and positive statements of the Bible in favour of
their novel doctrines. To this class of Romish Me-
thodists belonged Veron, Nihusius, and Peter and
Adriaii von Walenburg. The second class of Con-
troversialists of this kind refu.sed to encounter the
Protestants, by arguing with them on the various
points in detail, but thevsought to overwhelm them by
urging certain great principles or general arguments
involving the whole subject. One of the most dex-
terous reasoners of this class was the celebrated
Peter Nicole, the Jansenist, and the illustrious Car-
dinal Richelieu. The most distinguished, however,
of all these Romish Methodists was Father Bossuet,
the author of the ' Histoire des Variations des Eg-
lises Protestanfes,' who lays it down as a fundamen-
tal principle, that whatever church freipieully modi-
lies and changes its doctrines, has not the Holy
Spirit. The ingenious author seems to have been
432
METHODISTS (Welsh Calvinistic).
blinded to tlie imijoitaiit fact, that the weapon which
he Iiad so mrefiillv forged against Proto.stantisni bore
wiih eiinal, if not more, ert'eet against Romanism.
Tliis is very ably and conclusively shown in a work
entitled ' Variations of Tojiery,' compiled as an an-
swer to Bossuet by the late Kev. S. Edgar, one of
the ministers of the Presbyterian Cluirch in Ireland.
ME'l'llODlSTS (Welsh C.vlvinistic). This
large and ellicient binly of jMetliodists dates its ori-
gin from 1735. A gentleman of Trevecca in Breck-
nockshire, by name Howel Harris, had entered one
of the colleges of Oxford with the view of taking
holy orders in the Church of England. Disgusted
with the innnorality and unprinci|)led conduct which
tlien prevailed at that seat of learning, he left it and
returrjed home. His own mind being deeply im-
pressed with a sense of divine things, he began to
vi.sit from house to house in his native parish, press-
ing home upon the people the necessity of attending
without delay to the things which belonged to their
eternal peace. Not coniining his labours to house-
hold visitation, he commenced public preaching.
Crowds flocked to hear him, and many individuals,
as well as wliole families, were spiritually awakened.
He now established a school at Trevecca, which was
largely attended, and wliere the young were care-
fully instructed in the great truths of the gospel.
Feeling that his labours for the good of both old and
young met with the most encouraging success, he
proceeded to establish meetings for religious conver-
sation in various )jlaces ; and thus connnenced those
Private Societies which have ever formed a promi-
nent feature in the arrangements of the Wels^h Cal-
vinistic Mctliodids. Mr. Harris now devoted nuich
of his time to preaching, being engaged in this im-
portant work three, four, and even five times a day.
And his labours were eminently successful, multi-
tudes being awakened, and not a few savingly con-
verted. A spirit of opposition now arose against
tliis devoted man. "The magistrates threatened to
punish him; the clergy ju'eached against him; and
the common rabljle were generally prejiared to dis-
turb and to pelt him." In the midst of perseeut on,
however, the cause continued to prosper, and in 1739,
though he liad laboured only four years, and that
too single-handed and alone, he had established about
.300 Societies in South Wales. The revival which
had thus commenced among the Methodists attracted
the attention of good men in all Christian denomi-
nations, and Mr. Harris's hands were eminently
strengthened by the ellicient assistance which he
received from the Uev. Daniel Rowland of Llan-
geitho, Cardigansliire, whose ])opnlarity and elo-
ipience attracted crowds from great distances to wait
upon his ministrations. In a short lime several pious
ministers of the Establisliment seceded and joined
the Methodists. A considerable band of itinerant
missionaries was now formed, who, with aiiostolic
zeal, wandered from place to place ihronglnjul the
Iirincijjality, proclaiming the glad tidings of salva-
tion through a Redeemer. A revival of a most re-
freshing kind now took place among the difliarent
religious denominations ; and the new sect daily
rose in populariiy and influence, being joined in
seven years from its commencement by no fewer
than ten ministers of the Church of England.
The tirst chapel built by the Welsh Calvinistic Me-
thodists was erected in 1747 at Builth in Brecknock-
shire. In the following year two others were built in
Carmarthenshire. The cause made steady progress
in South Wales; but it was nnich hindered in North
Wales by the keen opposition to which its ministers
and adherents were exposed. Shortly after this time
Providence raised up one who was made an eminent
instrument in advancing the spiritual interests of
large masses of the Welsh population. We refer to
tliat devoted servant of Christ, the Rev. Thomas
Charles of Bala, Merionethshire, to whose exertions
and influence the Societies of Calvinistic Methodists
in North Wales are chiefly indebied for their organi-
zation and present flourishing condition. Though in
his early days he had experienced occasional serious
impressions, it was not until his eighteenth year that
he was brought to a saving knowledge of the truth,
thrnugh the jiowerfid preaching of Mr. Rowland.
His thoughts were now turned towards the ministry,
and having passed through the usual preparatory stu-
dies, he entered upon a curacy, the salary of which
was only forty-flve, and was afterwards reduced
to thirty pounds. The fervent piety and devotedness
will) which he discharged the duties of the ministe-
rial oflice gave great ofTence to many of the careless
and ungodly among the people. On this account he
was under the necessity of removing from place to
place, and at length, in 1784, he resolved to leave a
church which was fettered with so many forms, and
to enjoy the free air and the open fields of Method-
ism. 'J'he Welsli principality was at this time one
vast moral wilderness, and although, by the labours
of Harris, Rowland, and the other Metliodist preach-
ers, much good bad been etVected, the most lamenta-
ble ignorance and ungodliness still pervaded the
great mass of the people. A Bible could scarcely
be found in any of the cottages of the peasantry, and
in some parishes very few persons were able to read
it. Such was the state of the principality when Mr.
Charles commenced his labours in connexion with
the Calvinistic Methodists.
The manner in which tliis faithful and earnest min-
ister of Christ entered upon the wide field of Christian
eflbrt whicli was tluis opened up for liim, showed the
eomiirehensiveness of his mind, and his anxiety to
overtake the spiritual destitution of the country in a
systematic way. He inquired into the nun-al statis-
tics of the entire principality, and set himself to de-
vise a system of spiritual machinery suited to the
peculiar condition and habits of the peoide. On a
strict examination into the whole matter he resolved
to eslablisli "circulating schools," which might be
transplanted from one place to another at the end of
METHODISTS (Welsh Calvinistic).
433
a definite period, say nine or twelve months. Two
serious difHciilties, however, presented tliemseK-es,
tlie want of money and the want of teachers. Bnt
Mr. Charles could not easily be deterred by any
obstacles from carrying out his benevolent plans.
He trained the first teachers himself, and went to
England, wliere he succeeded in raising a considera-
ble sum towards defraying the expenses of his ]iro-
ject. The mode in which he managed to establish
his circulating schools, and the benefits which ac-
crued from them, he afterwards described thus :
" In my travels through different parts of North
Wales about twenty-three years ago, I perceived that
the state of the poor of the countiy in general was
so low as to religious knowledge, that in many
parts not one person in twenty was capable of reading
the Scriptures, and in some districts hardly an indi-
vidual could be found who had received any instruc-
tion in reading. I found tlien and still do find daily
proofs of the ignorance of the poor people who can-
not read, and have never been catechetically instruct-
ed, even where constant preaching is not wanting.
This discovery pained me beyond what I can ex-
press, and made me think seriously of some remedy,
effectual and speedy, for the redress of this grievance.
I accordingly proj)Osed to a few friends to set a sub-
scription on foot to pay the wages of a teacher, who
was to be moved circuitously from one place to an-
other; to instruct the poor in reading, and in the
first principles of Clu-istianity by catechising them.
This work began in the year 1785. At first only
one teacher was employed. As the funds increased,
so in proportion the number of teachers was enlarg-
ed, till they amounted to twenty. Some of the first
teachers I was obliged to instruct myself; and these
afterwards instructed others sent to thejii to learn to
be schoolmasters.
" The fruits of these circulating schools arc our
numerous Sunday Schools all over the country : for
without the former, we could not have found teachers
to carry on the latter. Although, through the pre-
sent general prevaleney of Sunday Schools, con-
ducted by gratuitous teachers, the circulating schools
are not so much wanted as formerly, yet I still find
we cannot go on without some of them. There are
yet many dark places in ditferent parts of the coun-
try, where none are found able or willing to set up
Sunday Schools. My only remedy therefore is, to
send tiiere the circulating schools, with a view of
raising up by degrees Sunday Schools to succeed
them, and to keep on the instruction after they are
removed. Besides, I find it absolutely necessary
that the circulating schools should occasionallv re-
visit those places wliere the Sunday Schools are kept,
to revive them and reanimate the teachers and peo-
ple in the work of carrying them on; else, in time,
they gradually decline in country places, where the
children are scattered far from one another. So that
now I constantly employ from six to ten teachers;
and several more might be usefidly employed did
II.
ber."
The schools were soon highly apprecialed bv the
people. Both [mrents and children in many cases
eagerly availed themselves of the opportunity thus
afforded of obtaining in.struction. The Sunday
Schools in particular proved a singular blessing to
multitudes of children, and through them to tliiir
parents. At Bala iji 1791, the Sunday Schools were
made instrumental in giving rise to an awakening.
Seasons of revival indeed were experienced in differ-
ent parts of the country ; and it is remarkable that
there was something of a periodical character in
many of these awakenings, for several of tliem oc-
curred at the interval of seven years.
In 1799, a religious periodical entitled 'The Spiri-
tual Treasury,' was started by Mr. Charles, which,
as the peo])le had now acquired a taste for reading,
was intended to supply them with interesting and
useful information, wholly of a religious nature.
Hitherto there had been a lamentable scarcitv of
Bibles in North Wales in the vernacular language,
and the desire of supplying this want led to the for-
mation in 1804 of the British and Foreign Bible
Society. No sooner was this invaluable institution
organized, than it issued an edition of Welsh Bibles
■and Testaments, which were eagerly received
tliroughout the Principality as a boon of the most
precious kind. For several years longer. Mr. Charles
continued to prosecute the work of a laborious min-
ister and evangeli-t, but in 1814 his labours were
brought to an end, and the country was called to
mourn the loss of one of its greatest benefactors, one
who had done more than almost any other man to
advance the cause of the Redeemer in North Wales.
In the organization of the Welsh Calvinistic Me-
thodist Society, Mr. Charles took an active and
prominent part. At an .4ssociation held at Bala in
1790, he drew up certain Rules for conducting the
Quarterly Meetings of the North Wales Association,
consisting of the preachers and leaders ; which Rules
form the basis of the present system of church gov-
ernment of the whole Society. In 1801, 'Rules of
Discipline' were first published. Laying down the
order and form of the church govenmient and disci-
pline. To these were added several regulations in
1811, which were framed chiefly with the view of
rendering the denomination permanently indepen-
dent, in its organization and ministry, of the Estab-
blished Church.
In 1823 the Welsh Calvinistic Methodisis adojited
and published a Confession of Faiih, which was
unanimously agreed upon at the Associations of
Aberystwith and Bala. The doctrines of this Con-
fession are decidedly Calvinistic, and accord with
the Thirty-Nine Articles and the Westminster Con-
fession in all the essential points of Christian dot-
trine and practice. Their church government is
neither Episcopalian on the one hand, nor Congre-
gationalist on the other, but approaches somewh.at to
2o
434
METHODIST (The True Weslevan) CHURCH— METHODISTS (Wesleyan).
the rresbvtcriaii Ibnii. Tlie private Societies are
suboi-dinatc to the Moiitlily Meetings, and tliese
again to tlie Quarterly Associations, at wliicli the
{jeneral business of the body is transacted. Tlicir
preacliers itinerate from ojie place to another, and
being rarely men of educiition, thoy are generally de-
pendent on some secular employment for their suh-
sislenee.
In the course of the revivals which occurred
so freciuently in Wales during the last half of the
eighteenth century, the practice seems to have been
occasionally followed of "jumping, accompanied
by loud expressions of praise, during the solemni-
zation of public worship." (See Jumpers.) This
practice, however, lias never been encouraged by the
preachers of the Connexion, but is aflinned to be
"a mere accident or non-essential of Welsh Cahin-
istic Mctliodism;" and it is now of rare occurrence,
though the members of the Connexion have not
given it a direct opposition. Of late years the
Welsh Methodists have turned their attention to-
wards the importance of an educated ministry. Ac-
cordin;;ly in l-^'ST a college tor the purpose of train-
ing theological students was established at Bala, and
in 1842 another was established at Trevecca.
Tlie ministers of the Connexion arc selected by
the private Societies, and reported to the Monthly
Meetings, which examine them as to their qualifica-
tions, and permit them to commence on trial. A
certain number only who must previously have been
preachers for at least five years, are ordained to
administer the sacraments, and this ordination takes
place at the Quarterly Associations. The preachers
are expected each to itinerate in a particular coun-
ty ; but generally once in the course of a year they
undertake a mi-ssionary tour to dift'erent parts of
Wales, wlien they preach twice every day, on each
occasion at a dillerent chapel. Their remuneration
is derived from the monthly pence contributed by
the members of each congregation ; out of which
fund a trilling sum is given to them after every -ser-
mon. Some have a staled stij^end.
The number of chapels returned at the Census of
1851 as pertaining to the Welsh Calviiiistic Metho-
di.<t body, amounted to 828, contaiidng accommoda-
tion for 211,951 persons. In 185.3 the luunber in
ministers was reported to be 207, and that of preach-
ers 234, while the number of communicants was
flalcd to be .58,577,
In 1840, this active and energetic body of Chris-
tians formed an association for sciuling missionaries
to the hcatlien, and towards the end of that same
year, a mission wiis commenced among one of the
liill-lribcs in the north-east part of Bengal. They
have also a mission station in Brittany, south of
France, tlie language of that comitry luMug a sister
dialect of the Welsh; and they have besides a mis-
sion to (he .lews. The operations of the Home Mis-
sion of this deiiominiition are carried on among the
Eiigliiih population inhabiting the borders between
England and Wales. There are several Societies in
England belonging to the Connexion, for instance, in
London, Liverpool, ^lanehester, Bristol, Chester,
Shrewsbury, whose worslap, public and private, is
performed in the Welsh language. There is also a
small congregation among the Welsh miners in
Lanarkshire in Scotland, who have the gospel
preached to them in their own language. In some
parts of Wales, and on the borders of England
where the English langunge is most prevalent, wor-
ship is conducted in that tongue.
METHODIST (The True Wesleyan)
CHURCH IN AMERICA. This Methodist body
was constituted at a convention held at Utica, New
York, ou the 31st May 1843. The convention was
composed of ministers and laymen who were sum-
moned to meet for the purpose of forming a Wes-
leyan Methodist Church free from bishojis, intem-
perance, and slavery. Alter a lengthened and har-
monious deliberation, a Discijiline was drawn up,
called " the Discipline of the Wesleyan Methodist
Church in America," granting to all men their rights,
and making them free and equal according to the
Word of God, and the preamble of tlie Declaration
of Independence of the United States. They also
organized six annual Conferences, including the chief
portions of the Northern and Eastern States. This
church thus differed in several points from both the
Episcopal and Protestant Methodist Churches. From
the former, it dill'ered in holding that all elders in
the church of God are equal, and from the latter, in
disowning all connection with slavery as it exists in
America. The .\rticles of Faith maintained by this
Christian denomination are in accordance with those
held by orlhodox churches generally. The six Con-
ferences of whiuh it consists, include about 300 min-
isters and preachers who itinerate, and upwards ot
300 other ministers and preachers to whom stations
have not been allotted, and about 20,0U0 communi-
cants.
METHODISTS (Wesleyan), a very large, ener-
getic and influential body of Christians, originated
by a great religious movement which commenced at
the beginning of the second quarter of last century.
John Wesley, the founder of Methodism in Eng-
land, was born at Epworth in Lincolnshire in 1703,
his father being rector of that parish. While yet a
child he experienced a remarkable providential deli-
verance, having narrowly eseajied from destruction
ill the flames of )iis father's bouse, which was on fire.
This Divine interjiosition in his behalf made a deep
impression on his mind, which seems never to have
been elVaced during life. The first rudiments of his
education were received from his mother, who was
the daughter of the Rev. Dr. Annesley, an eminent
nonconforming minister; and it is highly probable
that from this devoted Christian woman he imbibed
those religious principles and feelings which thnuigh-
out his whole life so eminently chaiaclcrizcd him.
At the age of eleven he was sent to Cliarter House
ycrK^ i/ye.^ c^^
METHODISTS (Wesleyan).
435
school ill London, wliere lie signalized liiiiiself aliove
his fellows bv dilitjence and progress in his stndies.
Being destined for the church, he proceeded, along
with his brother Charles, to the University of Oxford.
After prosecuting his studies with the most exem-
plary diligence and success, Jolm Wesley was or-
dained a deacon in 1725, and in the following year,
lie was chosen Fellow of Lincoln College, and ob-
tained priest's orders. After assisting his father at
Kpworth for a short time, he returned to Oxford in
1729. Here the two brothers fir.^t began to exhibit
that earnestness in religion which was ever after so
marked a feature in their character. Associating
tlieinselves with a few of their fellow-students who
were like-minded, tliey held meetings for prayer and
religious conversation. The marked propriety and
strictness of their behaviour made them objects of
ridicule and reproach among tlie irreligious and un-
godly, who were accustomed to taunt them with
being iret/iodists. a name which was meant to indi-
cate that they were precise and scrupulously atten-
tive to religions duties and exercises. Among those
who shared with the Weslevs in this obloquy were
.Tames Hervev and George Whittiekl, to whose after-
labours in their Master's cause, evangelical religion
in England owes a deep debt of obligation.
John Wesley continued to i-eside at Oxford till
the deatli of his father, wliich took place in 1735;
and although his friends wished him to apply for
tlie living at Epworth, which was in the gift of the
chancellor, he declined to yield to tlieir entreaties,
however urgent. About this time an event occurred
wliich opened up for him a wide sphere of usefulne.ss
in a distant land. A colony had Ju.st been founded by
Governor Oglethorpe in Georgia, who, liaving con-
cluded a treaty witli the Creek Indians, was anxious
to establish a mission among them. John and
Charles Wesley were prevailed upon to undertake the
management of the mission, and in October of the
same year in which their father died, they left Eng-
land for .\inerica. On reaching the colony they enter-
ed Ujion their missionary labours with much zeal, but
unexpected obstacles were thrown in their way, and
after spending two years in fruitless endeavours to
carry the gospel to the Indians, they .abandoned the
mission and returned liome in 1738. While resident
in Georgia, however, .Tohn Wesley had become inti-
mately acquainted with several settlers who belonged
to the Monavian church, and in particular with David
Nitschinan, a bishop of thiVt persuasion. The prin-
ciples and practices of this interesting coinnnmity
attracted his special favour, and suggested doubtless
to his mind many of those arrangements wliich he
afterwards laid down for the regulation of the Me-
thodist Societies.
The intercourse which .John Wesley enjoj'ed with
the Moravians in Georgia led to more serious im-
pressions of divine things than he had ever before
experienced. He tells us that one thing he h.ad
lear i by his mission to the Indians, that he who
had gone to America to convert others had never
been converted himself. The anxiety which lie now
began to feel about his own person.al st.ate continued
to agitate his mind throughout his voy.age liome-
ward ; but through the instructions of Peter Bolder,
a Moravian minister in London, he was en.abled to
exercise a simple faith in the merits and mediation
of .lesus. He dated his conversion from the 24th of
May 1738, and having obtained pe.acc and joy in be-
lieving, he burned with ardent desire that others
should become partakers of like precious faith. The
momentary relief which he him-self had obtained un-
der the teaching of Bolder, led him to entertain
the opinion which he afterwards delighted to pro-
claim of the possible instantaneousness of conver-
sion— a doctrine which, as held by the followers of
Wesley, only implies that they maint.ain the act of
conversion to be sometimes, though not always, in-
stantaneous.
John Wesley now sought access to the pulpits of
some of the most evangelical ministers of the Esta-
blishment, and wherever he was permitted, he
pre.ached justitication by faith in the Lord Jesus,
which had now become his favourite doctrine. One
after another, however, excluded him from their pul-
pits. Private meetings, accordingly, were forced up-
on him. About tifty persons agreed to meet once
a-week in small companies or bands of from five to
ten persons each for mutual conversation, with occa-
sional love feasts. " The first rise of iMethodism,"
says Wesley, " was in November 1729, when four of
us met together at Oxford ; the second was at S.a-
vannah in April 173G ; the third at London on this
day. May 1st, 1738."
A small society of earnest religious persons met
in Fetter Lane, London, and of this little band Wliit-
field iind the two Weslevs were members. To be-
come still better acquainted with the rules and habits
of the Moravian Brethren, John Wesley jiaid a visit
to their settlement at Herrnhut in Germany. On
his return to London, he and his followers were as-
sociated at Fetter L.ane witli the Moravians; but
several Societies wholly composed of Methodists
met in London, Bristol, and other places. Whit-
field and Wesley now commenced outdoor preach-
ing, and with the most wonderful .success. Wher-
ever they went crowds flocked to hear from thcii
mouths the glad tidings of salvation through a Ee-
deemer. In his diary, We.sley frequently mentions
that thousands waited upon his ministry hi the open
fields, and .although the service might commence
amid annoyance and jiersecution, he generally suc-
ceeded ere long in subduing his audience to quiet-
ness and attention. Tims was Methodism at its
first outset beset with ditliculties and much opposi-
tion. But the great founder of the system was un-
wearied in his exertions to advance the good cause.
For a time he took particular pleasure in co-0)ierat-
ing with the Moravians, whose siinjilicily of faith
and purity of life be li.ul learned to admire. But
436
METHODISTS (Wksleyan).
tlio more closely he examined tli3 doctrines and
precepts of tlie Brethren, his admiration diminished,
and at length he became disgusted with tlieir mys-
ticism, their excliisiveness, and their tcndeney to
Antinomianism. He therefore published a protest
against their tenets and practices, and retired with
liis followers to tlie Foundry in Moorfields.
About the same time Wesley sejiarated from
Whitfield in consequence of a ditference of opinion
which arose between them on the subject of election.
The Wesleys had for some time evinced a decided
leaning towards Arniinian views, wliile Whitfield
entertained a strong partiality for Calvinistie senti-
ments. The contest was carried on with the utmost
ardour, and even unseemly bitterness, on both sides,
though not by the leaders in the controversy, at
least by their subordinates. John Wesley was most
unwilling that a rupture should take place, and to
prevent such an unhappy result, he drew up certain
statements in regard to the three disputed points,
unconditional election, irresistiljle grace, and the final
perseverance of the .saints, hoping tliiit both he and
his opponents might still have it in their power to
continue their united labours in tlie cause of Christ.
Tlie diflerence of opinion, however, was found to be
such as to call for their friendly separation, which
■accordingly took place in IT'lO, without however
diminishing the respect and esteem which A\esley
and Whitfield entertained for each other.
Up to this period, the great founder of AVesleyan
Methodism seems never to have contemplated the
formation of a chui'ch or separate denomination of
Christians. Strongly attached to the Church of
England, he continued to minister within her pale
as long as he was allowed to do so, and even when
prevented from ofliciatiiig in her pidpits. he recom-
mended his followers to adhere to her doctrines and
worship. In forming Societies, his primary wish
seems to have been to gather together little bands of
earnest Clirislian men, whose simple design was mu-
tual edification. Tlie Societies were at first accord-
ingly separate and detached, with no other uniting
bond than a common object or end. As they in-
creased'in number, however, certain regulations were
framed for their guidance. These are regarded by
tlie Wesleyan Methodists as binding upon the body
to this day. In the preamble to the Kules, Mr.
Wesley thus describes the origin of the Societies :
" In the latter end of tlie ye.ar 17.39, eight or ten per-
sons came to me in London, who appeared to bo
deeply convinced of sin, and earnestly groaning for
redemption. They desired (as did two or three
more the next day) that I should s|)eiid some time
with tliem in pniyer, and advise them how to flee from
the wrath to come, which they saw continually liang-
ing over their heads. Tliat we might have more
time for this great work, I appointed a day when
they might all come together, which from thence-
forward they did every week, viz., on Thiirsdav in
the evening. To these, and as many more as desir-
ed to join with them (for their number increased
daily), I gave tliose advices from time to time which
I judged most needful for them, and we always con-
cluded our meetings with prayer suitalde to their
several necessities."
Methodism under Jlr. Wesley now began to as-
sume a regularly organized system. Money was col-
lected; meeting-houses were built or rented in dif-
ferent places for the accommodation of the members
of tlie United Society ; .and that each individual
might be an object of careful instruction, the Socie-
ties were divided into classes of twelve persons, each'
class liaving its distinct superintendent or class-
leader, whose duty is thus laid down. 1. To see
each person in his class once a-week, at least, in
order to inquire how tlieir soids prosper; to advi.se,
reprove, comfort or exhort, as occasion may require;
to receive what they are willing to give towards the
poor, or towards the gospel. 2. To meet the minis-
ter and the stewards of the Society once a-week, in
order to inform the minister of any that are sick, or
of any that walk disorderly and will not be reprov-
ed ; to pay to the stewards wh.at they have received
of their several clil^ses in the week preceding; and
to show their account of wdiat each person has con-
tributed.
The only condition required of any person who
wishes to be admitted into a Methodist Society, is. in
the words of Wesley, "a desire to flee from tlit
wrath to come ; to be saved from their sins." Such
a desire, wherever it truly exists, will of course mani-
fest itself by its fruits, and accordingly those -wlin
in joining the Methodist Societies declare that they
are animated by a desire for salvation, are expected
to give evidence of it by tlie following tr.aits of char-
acter and conduct :
"First, hij doini] no harm; by avoiding evil in
every kind ; especially that which is most generally
practised, such as taking the name of God in vain;
the profaning the day of the Lord, either by doing
ordinary work thereon, or by buying or selling ;
drunkenness; buying or selling sjiirituoiis liquors, or
drinking them, unless in cases of extreme necessity ;
fighting, quarrelling, brawling; brother going to law
with brother; returning evil for evil, or railing for
railing; the using many words in buying or selling;
the buying or selling uncustomed goods; the giving
or taking things on usury; i. e. unlawful interest.
"Uncharitable or unprofitable conversation; par-
licnl.arly sjieaking evil of magistrates or of ministers.
" Doing to others as we would not they should do
unto us.
" Doing wliiit we know is not for the glory of
God; as the lu.tting on gold or costly apparel ; the
taking such diversions as cannot be used in the name
of the Lord Jesus.
"The singing those songs, or reading those books,
which do not lend to the knowledge or love of God;
softness and needless selt'-indulgence ; laying up
treasure upon the earth ; borrowing without a pro-
METHODISTS (Wesleyan).
437
bability of paying, or taking up goods without a
probability of paying for them.
" It is expected of all who continue in these Socie-
ties that they should continue to evidence their de-
sire of salvation, —
"Secondly, h;/ doing good ; by being in every kind
merciful after their power, as they have opportunity ;
doing good of every possible sort, and as far as pos-
sible, to all men ; to their bodies, of the ability
which God giveth ; by giving food to the lunigry, by
clothing the naked, by visiting or helping them that
are sick, or in prison ; to their souls, by insfructirig,
reproving, or exhorting all we have any intercourse
with ; trampling under foot that enthusiastic doctrine
of devils, that, ' We are not to do good, unless our
hearts be free to it.'
" By doing good, especially to them tliat are of
tlie household of faith, or groaning so to be ; employ-
ing them preferably to others ; buying one of an-
other; helping each other in business; and so much
the more, because the world will love its own, and
them oidy ; by all possible diligence and frugality,
that the gospel be not blamed ; by running with pa-
tience the race set before them, denying themselves,
and taking up their cross daily ; submitting to bear
the reproach of Christ ; to be as the filth and off-
scouring of the world, and looking that men should
say all manner of evil of them falsely for the Lord's
sake.
" It is expected of all who desire to continue in
these Societies, that they should continue to evi-
dence their desire of salvation, —
" Thirdly, hij attending on all the ordinances of
God; such are, the public worship of God; the
ministry of the word, either read or expounded ; the
supper of the Lord; family and private prayer;
searching the Scriptures; and fasting and absti-
nence."
Such were the general rules drawn up for the Me-
thodist Societies by John and Charles Wesley. No
formal creed was adopted, and pei\sons of all deno-
minations were welcome to join the body provided
simply they were willing to conform to the regula-
tions now stated. As yet it is ipnte plain that
Wesley had no intention to form a ."separate sect.
His whole feelings were in favour of the Church of
Rnr;land, and it would have afforded him peculiar
satisfaction if the clergy of that church would have
taken tlie members of the Methodist societies
throughout the eonntiy under their spiritual over-
sight. The greatest coolness, however, was mani-
fested on the part of the Establislied clergy towards
Wesley and his followers. Hence the necessity
arose for lay agency in order to secure the instruc-
tion and supervision of the converts. Pious and
experienced men were accordingly selected to dis-
charge this important duty. At first they were
permitted only to expound the Scriptures in a plain
familiar style ; but in course of time lay preaching
was reluctantlv sanctioned. Thus there was sent
forth a large staff of zealous men, who proclaimed
the glad tidings of salvation with such energy and
success, tli.at many new converts were added to the
raidcs of Methodism. Several clergymen also con-
nected themselves with the movement, who, along
with Wesley and a large body of lay assistants, car-
ried on a regular system of open-air preaching, which
was attetuled everywhere by immense crowds of
eager and attentive hearers.
The rapid growth of the Methodist Society called
for some furtlier steps towards union and system.
By the invitation of the Wesleys, theretore, the
leaders were in\ited to meet in London, and in June
1744 the first Conference was held. See Confek-
ENCK (Wesleyan). Hitherto the preachers had
carried on their operations simply under the direc-
tion of Mr. Wesley, but without any intercourse with
one another. But by uniting them in Conference
they were en.abled to adopt a regidar and systema-
tic arrangement. At the first Conference oidy six
persons were present, of whom five were clergymen
of the Established Church. With this small Con-
vention originated a thorotigbly organized ecclesi.as-
tical structure, which has proved itself one of the
most potent influences in the religions history of
England. The Methodist moveinent was now re-
duced to order. The country was divided into cir-
cuits, each with it^ assisiai^t or superintendent. All
chapels were conveyed to lay trustees; travelling
preachers were allowed a stated sum for support,
and regulations were laid down for the guidance
of the different officers of tlie Society ; all, however,
being under the undisputed control of John Wesley,
Charles, his younger brother, having withdrawn from
the active management of affairs in consequence of
his disapproval of lay-preiiching.
The Conference met regularly every year, and one
improvement after another was introduced into the
system of Methodi.sm according as peculiar circum-
stances seemed to demand. One point Wesley kept
in view in all his arrangements, to prevent if possible
the separation of the Societies from the Cluirch of
England. It was with the utmost reluctance that
he deviated even in the slightest degree from cluirch
order. Even when the mimbers of liis adherents
were very large, and their preachers bad obtained
great influence over the people, tlie sacraments were
received only in the parish churches. Many years
elapsed before the sacraments were adininistered, or
pastoral authority exercised by the Wesleyan preach-
ers. This of itself is a sufiicient indication how un-
willing Mr. Wesley was to dissever his adherents
from the Church of England, or to establish a se-
parate and independent sect.
How rapidly the Methodists increased in nundier
after the org.anization of the body, may be seen from
the fact, that, in 1749, there were twenty circuits in
England, two in Wales, two in Scotland, and seven
in Ireland. In 17G5 the circuits in England had in-
creased to twenty-five, thone in Scotland to four, and
438
METHODISTS (Wesleyan).
those ill Ireliuid to eiglit. Metliodisin luid now be-
come an iin|iortiiiit agency in reviving Cliiisliaiiity
ill England, and botli in doctrine and discipline it
liad assumed a regular and consistent form, not by
any preconcerted plan on the Jiart of Mr. Wesley,
but simply by the leadings of Providence. " Onr
venerable Founder," says the Conference of 1824,
" kept one end only in view,^-the diffusion of scrip-
tural Cliristianity throughout the land, and the pre
servaiion of all who had believed, through grace, in
the simiilicity of the Gospel. Tliis guiding princi-
ple he steadily followed ; and to that he surrendered,
cautiously, but faithfully, whatever, in liis precon-
ceived opinions, he discovered to be contrary to the
indications of Him wliose the work was, and to whom
he Iiad yielded himself up, implicitly, as his servant
and instrument. In the further growth of the So-
cieties, the same guidance of providential circum-
.stances, — the same ' signs of the times,' — led to that
full provision for the direction of the Societies, and
for their being supplied with all the ordinances of
the Christian Churcli, and to that more perfect pas-
toral care which the number of the members, and the
vastness of the congregations, (collected not out of
the spoils of other churches, but out of ' the world'
which ' lieth in wickedness,') imperatively required.
Less tlian tliis, the demand.-^ of piety and conscience
would not allow; more than tliose interests required,
lias not been aimed at. The object lias, at no time,
been to make a sect, but to extend the Christianit}-
of the Scriptures throughout the land ; not to give
currency to a mere system of opiniori.s, but to bring
men everywhere under the effectual influence of the
'truth which is according to godliness;' and, in the
degree to which God should give his blessing to
these efforts, to fold the gathered flock from danger,
and to supply to it wholesome and sufficient pasture.
These, beloved brethren, are the principles which
lead us to God alone, who has made us 'a people
who were not a people,' — and which constantly re-
mind us of the purposes for which we were thus
gathered in His name, and that our only business on
eartli is to show forth the praises of Him, ' who hath
called us out of darkness into marvellous light.'"
The year 1784 constituted one of the most impor-
tant eras in the history of Wesleyan Methodism. It
was at this period that, in order to secure the stability
and government of the connexion afler his removal,
Mr. Wesley got a " Deed of Declaration" drawn uj)
and regularly eiimlled in the High Court of Chan-
cery, which establi.^lied a leg.al descriplion or defini-
tion of the term " Conference of the peo])le called Me-
thodists." Without tlii.s legal instrument the Confer-
ence would have become, at Wesley's death, a com-
plete nonentity in the eye of law. But another event
which, by its im|iortance and manifold bearings, sig-
nalized the year 1784, was, that, in the course of it,
Mr. Wesley, for the first time, assumed and exer-
cised the power of ordination in the ease of Dr.
Coke, whom he appointed superintendent of the Me-
thodist Societies in North America. In this act he
was assisted by other ordained ministers ; and in
taking upon himself this power, though only a pres-
byter of the Cliurch of England, he justified himself
by an appeal to the exigencies of the case, many of
his adlierents in the southern provinces of North
America being greatly distressed for want of min-
isters to administer the sacraments of baptism and the
Lord's Supper according to the usages of tlie Church
of England. On the same principle, in 1787, three
of the English preachers were ordained for Scotland.
Hap]iily for the interests of Wesleyan Methodism,
its founder lived till he had reached the advanced
age of eighty-seven, and thus enjoyed the high pri-
vilege of seeing the cause which he had originated
fully consolidated, and in vigorous operation, exercis-
ing an influence over the religion of the English peo-
ple second only to that of the National Establishment
itself. Wesley's death, in 1791, necessarily pro-
duced a great alteration in the relations of the peo-
ple and the Conference. Throughout his life he had
acted as the arbiter between these two parties, and
such was the respect, and even veneration in which
he was held, that his decisions invariably commanded
instant and cordial submission. The Conference na-
turally imagined that after his death the power and
autlioritv which he possessed might safely be exer-
cised bv them : but there being no one now to mo-
derate or restrain its exercise, considerable dissension
existed from 1792 to 1797, when at length certain
rules, a |)ortion of which were called "The Rules of
I'aeilication," were agreed to by the Ccuiference,
placing some limitation upon the power of the preach-
ers, and increasing that of the people.
The death of the founder of Methodism was deeply
deplored by the whole connexion. It was felt by
multitudes to be the loss of their spiritual father.
He was the final arbiter in all disputes which arose
throughout the body, and even the Conference itself
had been wont to bow with implicit submission to his
will. No wonder, therefore, that the removal of such
a man, — a man so univer.sally honoured, respected,
and beloved, — should have been mourned as an almost
irreparable loss. And all the more deeply was his
departure regretted, that no sooner was he withdrawn
from them than the most painful dissensions broke out
among his followers. Difficulties began to arise as to
the rightsof trustees over the chaiiels, and over the ap-
poiiitmeiit of ministers ; and a question was now agi-
tated for the first time as to the right of the laity to
participate in the s|iiritual and secular governnieiit of
the body. It had been the anxious desire of Wes-
ley throughout his life, to obviate any chance of a col-
lision between the Methodists and the Established
Church. No such delicacy, however, was felt by his
followers after his decease. The people urged upon
the Conference their " right to hold public religious
worship at such hours as were most convenient, with-
out being restricted to the mere intervals of the hours
appointed for service in the Established Church."
METHODrSTS (Wesleyan).
439
And not only so, but the popular demnmls rose still
liiglier. Tlie members of the Metliodist body were
iio longer contented witli occupying the compara-
tively humble position of a Society, beyond wliich
(he ambition of their founder bad never risen; they
demanded that Methodism should be recognized as
a church, ordaining ministers, dispensing sacraments,
and administering discipline.
For several years the Methodist Societies were in
a state of the utmost confusion and insubordination ;
and this was aggravated by an attempt, on the part
of the travelling preachers, to exercise over the peo-
ple the same power which Wesley liad exercised dur-
ing his life. Year after year the Conference had
under their serious consideration tlie alarming state
of matters in the body generally, and tlie necessity
of discovering some efficient remedy. At lengtli, in
1795, a Plan of Pacirication was devised by the Con-
ference, which, for a time at least, allayed the wide-
s|)read discontent, by yielding to a certain extent to
the demands of the people. Thus it was decided,
tliat the ministerial office should no longer be limited
in its duties to the preacliing of the gospel, but
should include also the dispensation of the sacra-
ments, by those only, however, who were authorized
bv the Conference, and at such times and in such
manner ordy as the Conference should appoint. In
regard to the claims of the chapel trustees and the
laity generally, the Plan of PacifiCiition declared the
absolute right of the Conference to appoint preach-
ers, and the iiialjility of the frustees to refuse their
admission into the chapels. While thus resisting, to
a certain extent, the demands of the trustees, the
Conference formed a new coiu't, fcjr purposes of Dis-
cipline, consisting of all the preachers of the dis-
trict and all the trustees, stewards, and leaders of
the circuit ; and before this court any accusation
against a ]ireacher could be laid, while it had power
to suspend him from his office until next Conference,
to whom the case must be referred.
The Plan of Pacification thus framed in 1795 con-
tiinies in force among the Wesleyans down to the
present day. The framework of Methodism was
now set up, and the body thoroughly organized,
though great numbers of its people still remain-
ed in communion with the Church of England. The
following concise and comprehensive view of the
entire system of Wesleyan Methodism is given bv
the Rev. R. Spence Hardy, in his ' Memorials of
Jonas Sugden : " No one is regarded as a member
of this church who does not meet in class. Each
class consists of from twelve to twenty persons, who
are under the care of a leader. They meet together
every week to relate their spiritual exercises, and
receive advices from tlie leader, commencing and
concluding with singing and prayer, and, at the same
time, a small sum is given towards the sustentation
of tlie miuistrv. The class-meeting is regarded as
the most precious and efficient of the arrangements
peculiar to Methodism ; its safeguard, its power, and
its liope. The leaders of each Society meet toge-
ther weekly, and then pay in the contributions they
liave received to their own steward. Another meet-
ing is held quarterly, of local preachers, leaders,
stewards, and trustees of chapels, from all the So-
cieties in the circuit, when the Society-stewards
hand over tlie contributions from the classes to the
circuit-stewards, through wliom tlie ministers re-
ceive their stipend. A circuit comprises the por-
tion of country under the care of the same ministers,
wlio officiate alternately in all the chapels with-
in its limits. They are assisted by local preacliers,
a useful and honourable class of men, who, without
fee or earthly reward, preach tlie gospel on the Sab-
bath, but on the week-da^'s follow a secular calling.
They are more numerous than the ministers ; there
being at present in the Keigldey circuit, three min-
isters and thirty-five local preachers. No minister
can remain in the same ciicuit more than three
years. Several circuits form a distiict, all the min-
isters and circuit-stewards of which meet together
annually, for the tran.saction of business preparatory
to the Conference; and the ministers, in a commit-
tee of their own, examine character, receive candi-
dates for the ministry, and inquire into tlie spiritual
state of each circuit, taking account of the number of
members in Society. In England there are 439 cii-
cuits and 29 districts. The minister having charge of
a circuit is called the superintendent ; and of a dis-
trict, the chairman. The highest ecclesiastical court is
the Conference. It meets annually in one or other of
the principal towns in England, and is attended by
from three to five hundred ministers. At this time
ministers are admitted and ordained ; every minister's
name in the whole connexion, in whatever part of
the world resident, is read aloud, and relative to
each the question is asked, if there be any objection
to his character, and the representative of the dis-
trict in which he lives must return an answer, found-
ed on previous investigation, in each separate case ;
cases of discipline are examined ; tlie ministers are
appointed to the circuits in which they are to la-
bour during the following year; each of the con-
nexional Institutions and Societies passes under re-
view; officers and committees are appointed; and
all business is transacted that relates to the iiener 1
interests of this branch of the Church of Christ.
Previous to the sitting of the Conference, all matters
connected with finance are arranged, in preparatory
committees, composed of ministers and of the lu'inci-
pal laymen in the Connexion. To the uninitiated
stranger, Methodism may appear like a tissue of
meaningless anomalies ; but on a nearer acquaint
ance he would find that it is a wonderful .system of
nice adjustmeiit and adaptation; in no other church
is lay agency employed to the same extent, and yet
in no other church are the ministers more indepen
dent of any influence that might deter them from the
declaration of unwelcome truth, or the exercise of a
godly discipline; and its efficiency is made manifest
440
METHODISTS (Wesleyan).
in nearly every place in wliich ils course is not ob-
structed by tliose who liave previously rendered
themselves amenable to the censure of its courts, or
by the iricmbers ol' other churches who would seek
to assimilate it to their own institutions."
liesides the Classes, to which the Wesleyan Me-
thodists attach much importance as the very life of
their system, there are also still smaller collections of
four or live persons called '• Bauds," which were first
established bv Mr. Wesley in 174'2. These little
companies were instituted to allbrd an opportuuily
to the members of the Society of a more private
and unrestrained confession to each other, in accord-
ance with the Apostolic exhortation, '• Confess your
faults one to another." The persons forming each
"band" are all of the same condition ; either mar-
ried women or single women, married men or single
men. The rules of the "Bands" are (1.) That no-
thing spoken in the Society be spoken again ; (2.)
That every member submit to his minister in all in-
ditierent things; (3.) That everv member bring once
a-week, all he can spare to a common stock. The
four following questions are to be proposed to the
members separately at every weekly meeting: 1.
What known sins have you committed since our last
meeting? 2. What temptations have you met with?
3. How were you delivered? 4. What base you
thought, said, or done, of which you doubt whether
it be a sin or not ?
The classes attached to each Wesleyan chapel are
termed as a whole, a " Society," which corresponds
to a church or congregation in other denominations ;
and a number of Societies within a certain range are
termed a " circuit." In each circuit there are two
descriptions of preachers, regular and local. The
regular are separated entirely to the work of the
ministry, and are sup])orted by the weekly and quar-
terly contributions of members in their classes, and
the proceeds of what are called Quarterly Collec-
tions, made in every congregation once in three
months. From one to four " itinerant preachers,"
as the regular ministers are called, are apiioinled lor
a term not exceeding three j'pars in immediate suc-
cession to the .same circuit. They are expected not
to confine their ministry to one place, but to itinerate
throughout the circuit. There are probably about
1,000 Wesleyan itinerant ju-eachers in Great Britain.
The local preachers follow a secular calling, and
preach on the Sabbaths according to a plan which is
laid down every quarter. The number of these local
preachers is about l.'J.OOO.
The public worship of the Weslevan body varies
considerably in different places. In some, more
especially of the larger chapels in London, and other
largo towns in Kngland, the Liturgy of the Church
of England is in regular use ; while in many chapels
the service is conducted wholly in an extemporary
form. When the Liturgy is used, it is according to
a revised form, which was prepared by Wesley for
his adherents. The thirty-nine articles also of the
Church of England are reduced in the hands of the
Wesleyans to twenty-five. The rite of confirma-
tion is not practised by the body, but many parents
belonging to the Connexion send their children to be
confirmed by an English bishop. The Ijord's Sup-
per is usually administered according to the rubric
of the Church of England. Love Feasts are occa-
sionally celebrated ; and a solenni Watch-night or
midnight meeting at the close of each year is regu-
larly oliserved. There is also a [iractice observed in
the beginning of the j-ear, called the " renewing of
the covenant," when the members of the Society de-
dicate themselves anew to the Lord. The hymn-
book forms an imiiortant element in the worship of
the Wesleyan Methodists, and where instrumental
music is used in any of their chapels, the utmost care
is taken that the congregation be encouraged to join
with heart and voice in singing the praises of God.
A quarterly fast is enjoined to be kept by each mem-
ber of the Society.
No feature of Wesleyan Methodism h;is given rise
to more frequent and more violent disputes than the
exclusively clerical composition of the Conference.
Towards the end of the last centtu'y, when a love of
change and an impatience of restraint was so strongly
engendered by the French Revolution, a class of
people arose among the followers of Wesley, who,
enthusiastic for liberty, demanded that the laity
should be represented in the Conference as well as
the clergy. And this cry for popular rights was
not only raised without, but also within the Con-
ference, and under the leadership of Mr. Kilham a
secession on this account took place in 1796. The
question as to the admission of lay-delegates was
carefully discussed at the next meeting of Confer-
ence, and after mature deliberation it was decided
"that they caimot admit any but regular travelling
preachers into their body, either in the Conference
or in district meetings, and preserve the system of
Methodism entire ; particularly the itinerant plan
which they are determined to supjiort." This de-
cided refusal on the part of the Coiiference to allow
the introduction of the lay element into their body,
gave rise to the formation of a new society of Me-
thodists, commonly known by the name of Killiam-
ifi'/!, or as thev styled themselves, the Methodist
(Wesleyan) Kew Conni;xion (which see).
The agitation of the subject of lay delegation, and
the secession which followed, led the Conference to
grant several concessions, handing over a portion of
the authority which they themselves had hitherto ex
ercised in financial and other secidar matters, to the
quarterly and district meetings. The laity were also
admitted to a share in the exercise of discipline both
in the matter of the admission and the expulsion of
members. In consequence of these concession.s, har-
mony was restored, .and for thirty years ])eace reign-
ed throughout the whole of the original Connexion.
Every year the Wesleyans increased in numbers,
and grew in influence and political importance. In
METHODISTS (Wesleyan).
441
several public questions they took an active interest,
more especially in tlie suppression of the slave trade,
aiul in the emancipation of the slaves.
In 1827 a controversy arose, which gave rise to
much unseemly contention. The trustees of a
chapel in Leeds being desirous of introducing an
organ, made application to the District Meeting
for jiermission to do so, wliich, however, was re-
fused. Accordingly, the Trustees appealed to the
Conference, who reversed the decision of the Dis-
trict Meeting, and granted the request. A discus-
sion now commenced throughout tlie Society on
the (piestion, whether tlie Conference possessed
tlie right of overruling tlie decision of a District
Meeting. About the same time the question was
revived and keenly discussed as to the power < f
preachers to expel members iVom the Society ; and
as this power was both claimed and exercised by the
preachers, several thousand members left the Con-
nexion.
A still more serious secession took place from the
Wesleyan Methodists in 1835, giving rise to the
We^let/an Methodist Association. This additional
nipture arose out of the case of Dr. Warren, who,
in consequence of his active opposition to some mea-
sures adopted by Conference, was suspended by the
Manchester District Meeting. Against this sen-
tence he appealed to the Court of Chancery, which
decided against him, and affirmed the power of the
District Meeting to suspend, and declared that in the
circumstances they had acted legally. The Con-
ference, in a formal resolution, recorded their fer-
vent gratitude to the Great Head of the Church
for the gracious interpositions of his providence in
this decree of the Court of Chancery, " securing to
the preachers appointed by the Conference the in-
alienable occup!»tion nf our pulpits; recognising the
pastoral supervision and authority of the Conference
as the supreme tribunal of Methodism, through the
medium of its district committees, and afibrding tlie
ample security of British law to the general economy
of Wesleyan Methodism."
Not even by this third secession was the inherent
strength or vitality of Methodism to any consider-
able extent diminished. The year 1889 was cele-
brated as the centenary of the Society, and during
the hundred years which had passed since its foun-
dation, the number of regular chapels had risen to
the large number of 3,000, in addition to the numer-
ous preaching stations where no chapels liad been
built. The ministers of the Wesleyan body were
reported in that year to amount to 1,019, the local
preachers to about 4,000, and the members to 296,801 .
Such is the vigour ,ind efficiency of this compact
body of Christians, that on the occasion of celebrat-
ing their centenary, they contributed a sum amount-
ing to £216,000, which was expended in the erection
of the Theological Institutions, the Centenary Hall
and Mission House in London, and the Centenary
Chapel in Dublin; the purchase of a Mi.ssionary
II.
ship ; the reduction of Chapel-debts to a Large ex-
tent ; the formation of the Education Fund for the
extension of Day-schools, and of the Worn-out Min-
isters and Ministers' Widows Fund, with other im-
portant objects,
.\mid all the rejoicings and congratulations of the
jubilee year, however, new trials were pre[iaring for
Weslej-an Methodism, The idea very generally pre-
vailed throughout the Societies that the legitimate
influence which had once belonged to the Leaders'
Meetings and the Quarterly Meetings was seriously
abridged, and that tlie Conference, or rather a small
party in the Conference, ruled with uncontrolled
and despotic authority. The feelings of discontent
and diss,atisfaction which were entert.ained in many
quarters, found vent in several tracts, which appeared
at intervals between 1844 and 1848, under the name
of the ' Fly Sheets." These tracts, which were pub-
lished anonymously, were evidently tlie production
either of a member of Conference, or at all events
of one who was acquainted w-ith all its proceedings ;
and their chief object seemed to be not a change in
the constitution of the Wesleyan body, but a change
in the mode of its administration. Such severe and
even scurrilous attacks as were contained in the
' Fly Sheets,' were fitted only to produce irritation in
the minds of those whose proceedings were so freely
canvassed, and the Conference therefore proceeded to
take steps for the discovery of the persons who had
been implicated in the preparation and publication of
the ' Fly Sheets.' To facilitate the discovery of the
guilty parties, the question was put to each of the
suspected parties, whether he was the author of the
obnoxious tracts. Three of the brethren declined
to reply to the question, and were in consequence
expelled, while two other ministers were censured
and degraded from the office of superintendent, but
not expelled. These prompt and decisive measures
appeared for a short time to restore order and quiet
throughout the Societies; but in the course of two
vears more the Conference found it necessary to ex-
pel another minister for countenancing the " un-
righteous agitation," The general prosperity of the
bodv, however, was unimpaired by all that had hap-
pened, the members actually .admitted having n-
creased by 9,000 in tlie year ISoO, while 20,000 more
had been taken on trial.
A serious crisis now seemed to be rapidly approach-
ing. The agitation which liiid so long been spreading
secretly among the people, found vent in numerous
memorials to the Conference, which were only an-
swered by an avowal of the determination of that
court to adhere to the true princi)iles of Methodism.
Four hundred delegates from the discontented parties
throughout the kingdom held a meeting in London
previous to the meeting of Conference, and when the
supreme court assembled, petitions, with more than
50.000 signatures, were laid upon the table, praying
for the redress of certain grievances, and the conces-
sion of certain rights. Finding that matters had
2p
442
METHODISTS (Wesleyan).
assuiiiod an aspect so alamiing, tlie Conference re
solved to Jict with tirniness, and, accordingly, with
an unsparing liand, tliev cut oft' from all connexion
wiili the Society every individual wlio liad been in
any way concerned in tlie meeting of delegates, and
all even to the extent of whole classes and societies
who had been accessory to those disturbances which
were threatening the very existence of Methodism
in England.
The Conference of 1851 conducted its proceedings
in a spirit of uuiliminished tinnness. The delegates
again assembled and sought an interview with the
supreme court, but were refused. Still a step in
advance was gained, for several memorials having
been presented from the disafiected. the Conference
appointed a large committee of their number to " ex-
amine the suggestions contained in them, and to
report on the same." The president was also au-
thorized, if he saw fit, to invite a immber of suitable
laymen " to confer with them on the results to
which they had attained." It was all tlie more
necessary to adopt such conciliatory measures, the
Connexion having lost in the course of the year tlie
enormous number of 56,000 members by expulsion
and secession.
\\'ith so large a body of members alienated from
her conimiinion in the course of a single year, the
Wesleyan Methodist Church had now evidently
reached a crisis in her history. But the Conference
refused to be driven from the position they had
taken up, and in their annual address tliey declared
their determination " to hold the pastoral crook with
steady and unfaltering hand." Fimmo.ss, however,
did not avail to check the growing dissatisfaction.
A large assembly of members and office-bearers of
the Society was held at Birmingliam in December
1851, to deliberate upon "the present disastrous
state of Melhodi.sm;" and on this occasion a docu-
ment was sigiuid by more than 700 trustees, leaders,
and local preachers, containing a detailed enumera-
tion of the grievances which it was expected the
Conference would take steps to redress. Yet the agi-
tation, far from being repressed, was as violent as ever
when the Conference met at Sheffield in 1852, de-
termined, although in the course of two years the
Societies had lost 77,000, still to preserve the spirit
of resistance by which it had hitherto been ani-
mated. The Declaratioiiists, who had now reached
the large number of 2,000, presented a respectfid
jietition to the Conference praying to be heard by
deputation. This request was refused, and the irri-
tation thereby excited was aggravated by the cir-
cumstance that the President, while he had invited
745 laymen to meet with the Committee of Con-
ference, had carefully excluded from the number
every individual whose name was atlaclied to the
Hirtningham declaration. By the conjunct labours
of the Committee, and the laymen thus selected to
deliberate along with them, several alterations were
mailu with the view of conciliating the agitators.
But all was of no avail ; the breach only became
wider and wider as time rolled on. Another protest
was issued in December 1852, denying "the right of
itinerant ministers to excommunicate members with-
out the sanction of the church or of its local officers;
nor to depose officers without the sanction of their
peers." " We cannot admit," it is added, "the right
of either ministers, pastors, or others to select whom
they please for special conference on matters upon
which all are equally concerned. We cannot admit
the right of any class of men to fetter all other
classes in the church for the prevention of a free and
honest expression of o|iiuiou on matters of church
polity and discipline, put forth in a peaceable and
godly manner." This protest, which was laid upon
the table of the Conference at its meeting in 185.3,
was rejected, though the seeession had been enlarged
in the course of the previous year by the addition to
its numbers of 10,000 Methodists.
The shock which the Wesleyan body has received
of late years by the large secessions which have from
time to time been thinning its ranks, shows the mas-
culine strength and vigour of the Society, which after
all continues to be one of the most powerful and in-
fluential religious denominations in England. The
seceding bodies of Jlethodists are evidently dis-
posed to maintain their position with firmness and
perseverance ; but none seem to pu.sh their distinc-
tive principles to so great a length as the Wesleyan
Eeformers, a class of peo|ile which, though they have
not assumed the form of a regular sect, hold opi-
nions which are completely at variance with the
fundamental principles of Wesleyan Methodism, as
these are understood by the Conference. Thus they
assert that the right of admitting members into the
church, and excluding them from it, is vested only in
the church members, who are entitled to be luesent
at all meetings in whicli the business of the church
is transacted. They liold also that it belongs to the
church to nominate and elect all office-bearers, and
that the local courts shoidd be independent of the
Conference, and their decisions reckoned final. The
Reformers still account themselves as Wesleyan
Methodists, and instead of seceding from the Society
and forming a new sect, they direct their whole ef-
forts towards a complete change in the constitution
of the original Connexion; and insist, as essential to
the restoration of peace and harmony, that all preach-
ers, officers, and members, who have been expelled
in con.sequence of recent proceedings, should be re-
.stored. But although by the dissensions of late
years Weslevan Methodism is calculated to have
lost 100,000 members, or one-third of the whole, the
Conference and the remanent body maintain that
the proceedings of Conference have been thoroughly
in ac'cordance with the constitution of the Society as
laid down in the poll-deed, and besides, carry with
them the warrant of Scripture. Such assumptions,
of course, are strongly denied by the various seced-
ing bodies, and the Conference is condemned as ex-
L
METHODIST (Wesleyan) ASSOCIATION.
44:!
proising a clerical despotism from which the mind of
Wesley would have revolted, and which is thought
at v<u"iance not only with s|iecial passnges. but with
tlie whole spirit and tenor of tlie Word of God.
The Wesleyan Methodist Society is rapidly repair-
ing the losses it lias sustained by the retirement and
expulsion of so many of its members, tlie number at
present in comnimiiou with tlie Society being, ac-
cording to the latest accountR in Great Britain,
270.095, being an increase during the last year of
6.260. The number of ministers in Great Britain is
reported on tlie same authority to be 1,295, and
preachers on trial, 83. In Ireland the members aie
19,287, the ministers, 107, and the preachers on
trial. 18. " The Wesleyan missions were commenced
in 1786, and were until 1813 confined cliiefly lo
British North America and the West Indies. In
tlie December of that year, however, Dr. Coke, ac-
cmnpaiiied by a band of yoiuig missionaries, em-
barked for India. Up to this period, Dr. Coke liad
mainly raised tlie funds needed to carry on the Me-
thodist Missionary operations. The additional evan-
gelistic enterprise now entered upon made new ar-
r.angements and exertions necessary. Various pl/ins
were suggested ; but that wliicli originated with the
late Rev. George Morley and the llev. Dr. Bunt-
ing, then stationed in Leeds, and .sanctioned by sev-
eral of tlie ministers in that town and neighbour-
hood, was adopted by the ensuing Conference.
That scheme has been greatly owned of God. In
1814 the income of tlie Missionary fund was below
£7,000 ; there were 70 Missionaries, and the number
of members under their care was 18,747. Now, there
are, according to the last returns, 114,528 accredited
church-members, besides 6,922 on trial for member-
ship, under the care of 6.')2 Missionaries ; and the
income is £119.205 8s. 2d."
METHODIST (Wrsley.\n) ASS0CI.4TI0N.
The most frequent source of tlie dissensions wliich
have agitated the Societies of tlie Wesleyan Method-
ists lias involved tlie question, Wliere lies the power of
expelling members from the body ? Is it with the
preachers solely ? as the Conference affirms; or with
preachers and class le.aders jointlv ? as the movement
party maintain. The controversies which have been
raised upon this point have almost uniformly termi-
nated in a secession. One of the most recent of these
disputes led to the formation of the Wesleyan Methad-
iit Associatwn. In 1834 a discussion commenced as
to the propriety of establishing a Theological Institu-
tion, and a minister, named Dr. Warren, having pub-
licly expressed his di.^approval of the measure, and
published a pamphlet against if, was expelled from
the Connexion by the District meeting at Leeds.
Several parties who held and avowed similar senti-
ments were also cut off. Such summary proceed-
ings, on the part of the local courts, led to a keen
controver.sy tliroughout the Wesleyan Societies
ijenerally, affecting the government of the church.
Matters liad now assumed so tlireatening an aspect
that the Conference in 1835 took action on the sub
ject. They refused to yield the point wliieh tliey
had always maintained, that the ministers have the
exclusive power of passing sentence on convicted
members ; but at the .same time they deemed it expe-
dient to introduce certain liniilations whicli fended
to modify the disciplinary authority which tliey held
as essentially belonging to the pastoral office. The
limiting clauses enacted at this time professed to
guard accused members against unfair treatment.
Thus it was enacted (1.) That the sentence should
not be pronounced till a week after the trial. (2.)
That in difficult cases the superintendent should con-
sult the leaders and others. (3.) That cases of pro-
posed expulsion should be brought before the weekly
meeting of preachers ; and (4.) That an appeal
should be allowed by either party to a " minor dis-
trict meeting," composed of live preachers, two se-
lected by the superinfendent, two by the accused,
the fifth being universally the chairman of the
district. Other conciliatory measures were also
passed by the Conference, wbicli, however, left the
entire government of the Connexion, at least in all
essential matters, exclusively in the lands of the
iiiiiiisters. The movement party, therefore, having
tailed to obtain the reforms they sought, seceded,
and in 1835 became a separate and independent Me-
thodist Society.
The Wesleyan Methodist Association differs fiv m
the original Connexion neither in doctrine nor wor-
ship, but solely in constitutional arrangements. The
principal peculiarities are thus stated in their own
published 'Regulations:' "The Annual Assembly
(answering to the Old Wesleyan Conference) is
distinguislied by the introduction of the laity as
representatives. It consists of such of the itiner-
ant and local preachers, and other official or pri-
vate members, as the circuits, societies, or churches
in union with the Association (and contributing
£50 to the support of the ministry) elect. The
number of representatives is regulated by the num-
ber of constituents. Circuits with less than 500
members send one ; tliose with more than 600
and less than 1,000 send two; and such as have
more than 1,000 send three. The Annual Assem-
bly admits persons on trial as preachers, examines
them, receives them into full connexion, appoints
them to their circuits, and excludes or censures
them when necessary. It also directs the apjilica-
tioii of all General or Connexional Funds, and ap-
points a committee to represent it fill tlie next As-
sembly. But it does not interfere witli strictly
local matters, for 'each circuit has the right and
power to govern itself by its local courts, without
any interference as to the management of its inter-
nal all'airs.'"
It is a distinctive feature in the ecclesiastical gov-
ernment of the " Association," that in matters of dis-
cipline the laity are permitted to exercise more in-
fluence than in the original Wesleyan Connexion.
444 METHODIST (Wesleyan) NEW CONNEXIOX— METHODIST (Wesleyan) REFORMERS.
Accordingly, it is provided tliat " no member sliall
be expelled from the Association except by tlie
direction of a majority of a leaders' society, or
Circuit Quarterly Meeting." The Methodist As-
sociation has made rapid progress, and is now a
lar^e and increasing body. In 1857 there were in
England ninetv-three preachers. The members in
England and Scotland were 20,873 ; in AA'ales, 250 ;
in Ireland. ."4 ; and on foreign stations, 1,185.
METIIODI.ST (Wesleyan) NEW CONNEX-
ION. This large body of seceders from the Wes-
leyan Methodist Society owes its origin to the Rev.
Alexander Kilhani. This Methodist minister, who
was a native of Epworth in Lincohisliire, the birth-
place of the Wesleys, first rendered himself conspi-
cuous by claiming the right of the people to meet for
worship in church hours, and to receive the sacra-
ments from their own ministers. In a pamphlet which
he published under the name of the ' Progress of Li-
berty,' he advocated warmly the necessity of the laity
being admitted to a share in the government of the
church. The expression of such opinions rendered
him obnoxious to the Conference, who, in 1796, ex-
pelled him from the Connexion. A large number of
Wesleyan Jlethodists, amounting to 5,000, sympa-
thized with the sentiments of Kilhani, and his ex-
pulsion accordingly led, in 1797, to the formation of
a separate body, called the New Connexion. The
New agrees with the Old Connexion in doctrine, and
in all its distinctive features. It has the same ec-
clesiastical machinery, including classes, circuits,
districts, and the Conference. Tlie chief dilference
between the two lies in the degree of power .allowed
in each communion to the laity. In the Original
Connexion all authority is virtually vested in the
preachers, who not oidy exclusively compose the
Conference, but exercise the chief influence in the
inferior courts. The New Connexion, on the con-
trary, admits in all its courts the influence of the
laity, giving them a share along with tlie preachers
in all matters of church government ; candidates for
membeivship must be .idmittcd, not by the n.ini.ster
alone, but with the consent of the whole of the ex-
isting members ; members cannot be expelled even
on a cliarge of immorality, without the concurrence
of a leaders' meeting ; oflicers of the body, whether
leaders, ministers, or stewards, are elected by the
church and ministers conjointly ; and both in Dis-
trict Meetings and the Annual Conference lay dele-
gates to the same number as ministers are present,
freely chosen by the members of Societies.
In 1847 the Jubilee of the New Connexion was
celebrated, and in honour of the occasion a large sum
of money was raised, whieli has to a great extent
reduced the debt on their chapels, and thus removed
a heavy incumbrance from their congregations.
They have a Magazine jiublislied monthly, which has
a circulation of several thousands; a 'Juvenile In-
structor' for the use of the young, and a weekly
newspaper called the ' Methodist Pilot,' which is the
organ of the denomination. At the Conference of
1857 there were rejiorted as being in England 10
districts, 52 circuits, and 4 missions, 112 preach-
ers, and 19,247 members ; and in Canada 57 circuit
preachers, and 4,405 members. Both hi England
and Canada this denomination is steadily on the in-
crease.
METHODIST (Wesleyan) REFORMERS, a
considerable party of Methodists, who, though they
have not formally seceded from tlie Original Wes-
leyan Connexion, nor formed themselves into a se-
parate sect, occupy the position of a party who liave
been expelled by Conference from the Society, yet
protest against their expulsion as illegal, and de-
mand the restoration of all preachers, officers, and
members, who have thus been, in their view, con-
trary to law and justice excluded. The proceedings
of Conference which led to the formation of this
party, took place in 1849, several ministers having
been in that year expelled in consequence of their
real or supposed connexion with the publication of a
series of pamphlets called ' FI3' Sheets,' in which
some points of Methodist procedure were discussed
in strong and, as it was deemed, scurrilous language.
See Methodists, (Wesleyan.) The chief point
on which the complaints of the Reformers who sym-
pathize with the expelled ministers turns, refers
to ministerial authority in matters of church disci-
pline. On this point their 0)iinions are at complete
variance with those of the Conference. In 1852
they published a ' Declaration of Principles,' whieli
is as follows :
" (1.) That ' the Church of Christ is the vlioic hodij
of true believers.'
" (2.) That Christ is head over all things to His
church, and His Word the only and sufficient rule
both of its faith and practice.
" (3.) That no rules or regulations should be adojit-
ed but such as are in accordance with the Holy
Scriptures, and have received the full concurrence of
the church.
'• (4.) That the admission of inembers into the
church, the exercise of discipline upon them, and
their exclusion from the church, are rights vested
solely in the b.-inds of church members, to be exer-
cised by them, either directly or reiiresentatively ;
and that it is tlie right of members to be present at
all meetings for the traiLsaetion of the general busi-
ness of the church.
"(5.) That the nominiilion .-md election of all of-
fice-bearers is the inalienable right of the church.
" (6.) That, while desirous of maintaining the coii-
nexional principle, we hold that all local courts
.should be independent, and their decisions afi'ecting
internal economy final.
" (7.) That any restriction upon discussion and
free interchange of opinions on matters aflecting the
interests of the church is .an unwarranted interfer-
ence with its liberties and with the rights of private
judgment.
METHYMN^US— METROPOLITAN.
445
" (8.) That preachers of the Gospel are not ' lords
over God's lieritage,' for ' one is your master, even
Clirist, and all ye are bretliren.'
" (9.) Tliat the restoration of all preachers, officers,
and members who had been expelled in consequence
of the recent proceedings of the Conference is essen-
tial to tlie future peace and prosperity of the Con-
nexion."
In accordance with these principles, they have set
in operation a distinct machinery of Methodism,
though still claiming to be considered not as a seced-
ing body, but as Wesleyan Methodists who have
been illegally excluded from the Society. The Cen-
sus in 1851 reports 339 chapels as then in connec-
tion with the movement, but this gives a very imper-
fect idea of the real state of the Reforming party,
which in its present state is calctdated to include at
least one-half of the 100,000 members which the
Wesleyan Methodist Connexion has lost in conse-
quence of the controversies which have successiveiy
agitated the denomination for many years past.
METHY.MNLEUS, a surname of Di'onijaiis, sup-
posed to be derived from Methymna, which was
rich in vines.
METOXIC CYCLE. At the beginning of the
Common Prayer Book of the English Church are
several astronomical tables, most of them simplv
calculations of the day on which Eauter will fall on
iny given year, as well as the moveable feasts which
depend upon it. In the early Christian church, as
we have already shown under the article Eastei;
(which see), disputes arose on this point between the
Eastern and the Western Churches. The subject
was brought under the consideration of the council
of Nice in the founii century, when they came to a
decision on which the following rule was founded; —
" Easter-day is always the first Sunday after the full
moon, which happens upon or next after the twenty-
first day of -March ; ai»d if the full moon happens on
a Sunday, Easter-day is the Sunday after." Pro-
ceeding on this rule, it is necessary in the first in-
stance to discover the precise time of the full moon,
and to calculate accordingly. This would be an easy
matter if the solar and the lunar years were exactly
of equal length, since in such a case Easter would
always fall on the same day. But the lunar year
being shorter than the solar by eleven days, Easter
must for a course of years always fall at a diil'erent
time in each successive year. Accordingly, the
council of Nice adopted the Metonic Cycle, which
enabled them to calculate these changes with toler-
able accuracj'. From the high value attached to
this cycle, its numbers were usuall)' written in letters
of gold in the caleudar, and hence it was called the
Golden Number.
.METROPOLITAN, the bishop who presides over
the other bishops of a province. In the Latin
Chm-ch it is used as synonymous with an archhishop.
In England, the archbishops of Canterbury and York
are both Metropolitans. In the Greek Church it is
applied only to a bishop whose see is a civil metro-
polis. This, it is probable, was the earliest use of
the word, those bishops being exclusively so termed
who presided over the principal town of a district or
province. The title was not in use before the coun-
cil of Nice in the fourth century. What has been
termed by ecclesiastical historians the Metropolitan
Constitution, in all probability arose gradually in the
Christian church. Proclaimed first by the Apostles
in cities, Christianity was tlience spread to the other
provincial towns. Thus naturally the churches of a
province came to constitute a whole, at the head of
which stood the church of the metropolis, whose
bishop would of coiu'se occupy an honoiu'able place
among the bishops of the province. The progress
of the Metropolitan Constitution in the fourth century
is thus detailed by Neander : " On the one haiul. to
the metropolitans was conceded the superintendence
over all ecclesiastical ati'airs of the province to
which their metropolis belonged ; it was decided that
they should convoke the assemblies of provincial
bishops, and preside over their deliberations ; but,
on the other hand, tlicir relation to the entire eoUe-
giiim of the provincial bishops, and to the individuals
composing it, were also more strictly defined, so as to
prevent any arbitrary extension of their power, and
to establish on a secure footing the independence of
all the other bishops in the exercise of their func-
tions. For this reason, the provincial synods, which
were bound to assemble twice in each year, as the
highest ecclesiastical ti'ibunal for the whole province,
were to assist the metropolitans in determining all
questions relating to the general afl'airs of the
church; and without their participation, the former
were to be held incompetent to undert.ike any busi-
ness relating to these matters of general concern.
Each bishop was to be independent in the adminis-
tration of his own particular diocese, although h"
could bo arraigned before the tribunal of the pro-
vincial synods for ecclesiastical or moral delinquen-
cies. No choice of a bishop could possess validity
without the concun-ence of the metropolitan ; he
was to conduct the ordination ; yet not alone, but
with the assistance of at least hco other bishops;
and all the bishops of the province were to be pre-
sent .at the ordination of the metropolitan."
The rise of the authority of Metropolitans seems
to have taken place without any distinct interference
on the part of the church. The coimcil of Nice was
the first to give an express deliverance on the sid)-
ject, particularly with reference to the Alex.antirian
church. The sixth canon of that council ran in
these terms : " Let the ancient custom which has
prevailed in Egypt, Libya, and Pentapolis, that the
bishop of Alexandria should have authority over all
these places, be still maintained, since this is the
custom also with the Roman bishop. In like man-
ner, at Antioch, and in the other provinces, the
churches shall retain their ancient prerogatives."
This canon refers evidently not to the ordinary per-
146
MEVLEVIES.
son of a Metropoli 1,111, but to a peculiar di^'iiity or
rank wliicli seems to have been awarded to Alexan-
dria,aloiig witli Iloincaiid Aiitioch,tlic three great ca-
pital cities of the Koiiian Empire — a rank whicli was
afterwards recognized under tlie name of Patuiarciis
(which see). It is not improbable that the power
oftlie Metropolitans would have become excessive
had it not been checked by the rise of the patriarchal
system, which, though its fouiidalion was laid before
tlie fourth century, was not fully developed until the
middle of the fiftli. The appointment of patriarchs
gave to the Metropolitans a subordinate place, liut
what tended above all to weaken the Metropolitan
constitution was the disorganization of the Roman
Empire bv the descent of the barbarous tribes upon
Italy. This, of cour.^e, introduced confusion into the
limits of Metnipolitan provinces. Difficulties also
arose to prevent the redistribution of ecclesiastical
provinces, which had thus become necessary for the
maintenance of the Metropolitan system. A revival,
indeed, of the Metropolitan authority was attempted
by Pepin and Carloman ; and it took effect in France
and Germany with certain limitations and restric-
tions. But this institution, though on a reform-
ed footing, never took firm root in the new states ;
partly in consequence of the dominant power of the
sovereign, and partly in course of time, because it
was overshadowed by the rising power of the Pope.
Thus tlie Metropolitaus gradually lost their power
over the diocesan bishops of their provinces, and
became little more than their titular superi(]rs.
Many of the bishops, accordingly, were quite pre-
pared to throw off their authority, more especially as
they were frequently chargeable with an unjust in-
terference in diocesan aflairs. In such a state of
matters, the principles of the false decretals were the
more readily adopted, as these laid down the doctrine
that it belonged to the Pope alone to take cogni-
zance of affairs in which bh-^hops were concerned.
The Metropolitan power now underwent a rapid
decline; and ere long the Metropolitans were phiced
merely in the position of papal delegates, and only-
retained so far as they promoted the interests of the
Itomaii see. " The popes often, at pleasure," says
the Kev. J. E. Kiddle, in his ' History of the Pa-
pacy,' " interfered with their ancient riglit of conse-
crating provincial bishops. As late as the eleventh
century, this was regarded as the indefeasible right
of .Metropolitans, which could not be questioned or
disturbed. Even Gregory VII., although he conse-
crated some provincial bishops under peculiar circum-
stances and as exceptional cases, made no attempt
to invade the right of Melro|)olitans in this respect ;
so that, for example, when Robert entreated him to
consecrate a new bishop of Malta, he wrote back
word to him, that he mu«t first show him tliat Malta
did not belong to the Metropolitan province of Reg-
gio, since in that cjuse he would be unable to comply
with Ilia request, inasmuch as by so doing he woiikl
be infringing the right of the archbishop, and give
inexcusable ofience to all his brethren the bishops
Under the successors of Paschal II., however, it be-
came a common practice for bishops elect to run to
Rome for consecration from dit!'erent provinces; and
the Popes now began to iierfoim the ceremony with
out even ofl'ering an apohigy to the Metropolitan foi
so doing. The right of Metropolitans to consecrate
provincial bisho])s was not denied ; but as soon as it
was maintained that the right belonged also to the
Pojie, 'from the fulness of his power,' it was. to a
great extent, taken practically out of their hands.
Some Metroi^olitans sought to indemnify themsehes
for their loss by exercising an immediate jurisdict on
within the dioceses of their provincial bisliop.s ; but
the bishops found themselves ]irolected from this in-
vasion by R(jme; and sucli attempts at immediate ju-
risdiction were expressly prohibited by Innocent 111."
MEVLEVIES, the most remarkable of the rigid
orders of Mohammedan monks. A thousand and
one days is the mystic number prescribed by tlie
noviciate, and the candidate receives his iireliminary
training in the kitclien of the convent. During his
noviciate he is called "tlie scullion," and he is pre-
sented by the head-cook to the abbot or superior for
admission into the order. The cook assists at the
ceremony of initiation, holding tlie head of the no-
vice while the supei-ior pronounces some verses o\er
him ; a ]n-ayer is then chanted, alter which the chief
or abliot pl.aces upon the head of the novice the
cylindrical cap worn by the i\Ievlevies; the candi-
date then sits down beside tlie cook, while the supe-
rior pronounces a form of adinission, enumerates tlie
duties incumbent upon him in connection with the
order, and recommends the new member to the
prayers and wishes of his brethren.
The doctrines of this order of Moslem monks are
chiefly those of the Per.siaii SuFls (which see). In
accordance with their extravagant opinions they
have adopted not only new, but even forbidden
practices. Thus music and dancing were strictly
lirohibited by the Prophet; but the Mevlevies
insisted that the exercise of these in a mystic
sense was an acceptable form of devotion. The
mystic dances of the Mevlevies difl'er from those of
other orders of Mohammedan monks. They are
thus described by Dr. Taylor in his History of Mo-
hammedanism : " Nine, eleven, or thirteen of the
fraternity squat down on sheep-skins in a circle ;
the floor of the dancing-room is circular, its design
being manifestly borrowed from a tent. They re-
main for nearly an hour perfectly silent, with their
eyes closed, as if absorbed in meditation. The pre-
sident then invites his brethren to join in reciting
the first chapter of the Koran, ' to the honour of
(iod, his prophet.s, especially Mohammed, the saints,
Mohammed's wives, disciples, and descendants, the
martyrs, the Khaliphs, the founder of the order,
&c.' Prayers are then recited in chorus, and after-
wards the dance begins. All quitting their places
at the same lime, range themselves on the lel't oi
MEXICO (Religion of Ancient).
447
their superior, and slowly advance towards him, with
folded arms and downcast eyes. Wlien the fii"st of
the Dervislies comes nearly opposite the president,
lie salutes, with a low bow, tlie tablet in the wall
over his head, on which is engraved the name of the
founder of the order ; he then with two springs gets
to tlie right side of tlie president, and having hum-
bly saluted him, begins his dance. Tliis consists in
turning on tiie heel of the left foot, with closed eyes
and extended arms, advancing slowly, and making
as it were insensibly the round of the apartment.
He is followed by the second and third Dervishes ;
after which all begin spinning on the foot, and mov-
ing round, taking care to keep at such a distance
that they may not interfere with each other's mo-
tions. This fatiguing process continues two hours,
interrupted only by two brief pauses, during whieli
the Superior chants some short prayer. Wlien the
performance draws toward a close, the Superior
joins in the dance, and the whole concludes with a
prayer for the royal family, the clergy, the members
of the order, and the faithful tliroughout the world.'"
The Mevlevies are the best endowed of all tlie
orders of Moslem monks ; yet they use only the
coarsest fare and the plainest raiment, while tliey
distribute their superabundant revenues to the poor.
Tiiese Mevlevies or Maulavies are the Dancing
Dervislies of Turkey, who date their origin from
the early part of the thirteenth century. They
chiefly consist of the liigher class of Turks, and
have a large monastery at Galata, and anotlier at
Teoninm.
MEXICO (Religion of Ancient). Before the
arrival of Columbus and the Spaniards in South
America, Mexico formed the most powerful and
populous, and with one doubtful exception, the
most civilized empire of the western world. The
traditions of the Toltecs, handed down by the Az-
tecs or Mexicans proper, inform us that they mi-
grated from an unknown country called the prinn"tive
Tla])allan, about A. D. 544, and advancing southwards
settled in Mexico about A. D. G48. Tlie Mexicans
proper, issuing from the far north, did not reach the
borders of Anahuac till the beginning of the thir-
teenth century, and onh' fixed their habitation near tlie
principal lake in 1325. At the beginning of the six-
teenth century, just before the arrival of the Spaniards,
the .A.ztec dominion reached across the continent
from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In regard to the
religion of the ancient Mexicans, the question h.as
been raised, whether they were wor.shippers of many
gods or of only one God. One thing is certain, that
the\' had a general name for tlie Divine Being wliom
they termed Teo-tl. The kindred word Teot was
used by the aboriginal population of Nicaragua to
denote both the superior gods and also the Spaniards.
That the Teo-tl oi the Mexicans was the invisible,
incorporeal Being, the Supreme Spirit, the Cause of
causes, and the Father of all things, is plain from
the fact that he was idcntilied with the Teo-tl or
sun-god. This one God of highest perfection and
purity was only recognized by superior minds, but
never worshipped by tlie gi'eat mass of the people.
Hence Mr. Prescott remarks, "The idea of unity, of
a being with whom volition is action, who has no
need of inferior ministers to execute his purposes-
was too simple or too vast for their understandings;
and they sought relief as usual in the idurality of
deities, who presided over the elements, tlie changes
of tlie seasons, and the various occupations of man."
The chief divinities of the ancient Mexicans were
thirteen in number, at the head of whom stands
Tezciitlipoca, almost equal in rank with Teo-tl. the
Supreme Being, and his name being interpreted
'• .shining mirror," he is represented on the monu-
ments, and in the paintings, as encircled by the disc
of the sun. It is not improbable, indeed, that this
deity was an impersonation of the generative powers
of nature, and hence the Mexican legend represents
him as united to the primitive goddess, and first wo-
man Cliilmacohuatl, who is always accompanied by
a great serpent. The highest emblem of Tczcatli-
poca was the siin, and annually, in the month of
May, a human being, in the vigour of youth and of
unblemished beauty, was oft'ered up in sacrifice, and
tlie heart of the victim still palpitating was plucked
from his bosom, held up towards the sun, as if to pro-
pitiate him, and tlieii thrown down before the image
of the great divinity, while the people were engaged
in solemn worship. The national divinity, however,
of the Aztecs or Mexicans proper, was the terrible
Hiiitzilopochtli, whose name Miiller derives from
huitzilin, a humming-bird, and opochtli, on the left ;
and in accordance with this name his gigantic image
had always some feathers of the humming-bird on
the left foot. This was the mighty warlike god who
was recognized as the guardian of the country, which
seems to have received the appellation Mexico, front
one of his titles, Mexitli. His wife was called Tea-
yamiqiii, from miqni, to die, and teoyao, divine war,
because she conducted the souls of warriors, who
died in defence of the gods, to the house of the sun,
the Elysium of the Mexicans, where she transformed
them into humming-birds. "The numerous altars
of Huitzihpochtli" says Mr. Hardwick, in his ' Christ
and other Masters, "reeked continually with the
blood of human hecatombs, and that in cities where,
amid some cheering gleams of moral sen-ibiiity, the
conquerors found no lack of goodly structures and
of graceful ornaments, to indicate the progress made
by the ferocious Aztec in the arts of social life.
These desperate efibrts to secure the favour of the
gods by ofl'ering human victims were indeed by no
means limited to ancient Mexico; for all the wild
tribes of America had been wont from ages immemo-
rial to sacrifice both children of their own and pri-
soners taken in tlieir savage conflicts with some
neighbouring people. Acting also on the rude be-
lief, that such oblations would conduce to gratify
the animal wants of their divinity, as well as to ap-
448
MEXITU— MEZUZZOTH.
pease liis wrath, tliey bad coiitiacterl tlie vile liabit
of feasting on tlie remnant of tliese human sacriticts,
and at otlier times proceeded to indulge in tlie most
brutish forms of cannibalism. But when the Aztec
rule eventually prevailed in every part of Analniac,
the sacrilicing of all foreign enemies became a still
more solemn duty. We are told that ' the amount
of victims immolated on its accursed altars woLild
stagger the faith of the least scrupulous believer;'
while cannibalism, that dark accompaniment of hu-
man .sacrilice in almost every country, was in Mexico
pecidiarly rife, and fi-om the partial eflbrts to di.sgui.se
it, had become peculiarly revolting."
The enormous extent to which human .sacrifices
were offered to the national god, appears from the
startling fact, that 1.^6,000 human skulls were found
by the companions of Cort(5s within the temple of
HnitzihipochtlL Such was the importance attached
to the favour and jjrotection of this deity, that, in
the migrations of tlie Aztec tribes, a wooden image
of the god was carried on the shoulders of four
priests.
The water-god of the ancient Mexicans was Tluhic,
on whose altars children were usually ofterod. To
his wife, Chalchincueje, all infants were presented
immediately after birth for purification. One of the
most important divinities, however, of the Aztec
pantheon, was Quelzalcoatl, who ajipears, indeed, to
have been worshipped at an earlier period by the
Toliecji. His birth is said to have been miraculous,
and he was destined to become the high-priest of
Tula, the metropolis founded by the Toltecs when
they passed into Mexico. Great were the benefits
which he conferred upon the nation, constrLieting an
equitable code of laws, reforming the calendar, in-
structing the people in the arts of peace, and setting
his face again.st all war and bloodshed. Tin's was
the goldeTi age of Anahuac, when all was prosperity,
and comfort, and peace. But such a state of things
was of short duratioTi. The trod Tezcutlipoca direct-
ed all his efi'orts towards undoing all that Qtietznk'nuH
had accomplished, and compelled him to quit the
scene of his benevolent labours. On his departure he
wandered towards Cholula, where, for some years,
he carried out his plans for the civilization and im-
provement of the people. It was at this pil.ice that
he was first worshipped as a god, a temple being de-
dicated to his honour. He appears to have been a
personification of natural energies, and his symbols
were the sparrow, the (ire-stone, and the serpent.
He was worshipped by all persons concerned in traf-
fic. Forty days before the festival of the god, the
merchants purchased a beautiful slave, who, during
that time, reiiresentcd the deity, and was obliged to
assume an appearance of mirth, and to dance and
rejoice while devolees worshipped him. On the
feast day they siicrificed him to Quclzitlroatl. At
Cholula this deity was worshi)ipod in a manner
somewhat difVerent, t\\ii lioys and five girls being
sacrificed to him before any martial exjicdiiion was
entered upon. It appears from the moiniments that
the Mexicans exhibited their deities in temples under
the symbols of serpents, tigers, and other fierce and
destructive animals, which insjiired the mind with
gloomy and terrible ideas. They sprinkled their
altars with human blood; .sacrificed in the temjiles
every captive taken in war, and employed various
other means to appease the vengeance of their angry
deities.
MEXITLI, one of tlie principal gods of the an
cient Mexicans. See preceding article.
MEZUZZOTH, schedules for door-posts among
the modern Jews. A Meznzza is a piece of parchment
on which are written, Deut.vi. 4 — 9, "Hear.t) Israel :
The Lord our God is one Lord : and thou shalt love
the I/Ord thy God with all thine heart, and with all
thy sold, and with all th}' might. And these words,
which I commaTid thee this day, shall be in thine
heart: And thou shalt teach them diligently unto
thy children, and shalt talk of them when thou sit-
test in thine house, and when thou walkest by the
way, and when thou liest down, and when thonn..est
up. And thou shalt bind them for a sign upon thine
hand, and they shall be as frontlets between thine
eyes. And thou shalt write them upon the posts of
thy house, and on thy gates ;" and xi. 1.3 — 20, " And
it shall come to pass, if ye shall hearken diligently
unto my commandments which I command you this
day, to love the Lord your God, and to serve him
with all yourhe.art and with all your soul, that I will
give you the rain of your land in his due season, the
first rain and the latter rain, that thou mayest gather
in thy corn, and thy wine, and thine oil. And I will
send grass in thy fields for thy cattle, that thou may-
est eat and be fidl. Take heed to yonr-^elves, that
your heart be not deceived, and ye turn aside, and
serve other gods, and worship tliem ; and then the
Lord's wrath be kindled against you. and he shut up
the heaven, that there be no rain, and that the land
yield not her truit : and lest ye perish quiekl)- from
oft" the good laud which the Lord givetli you.
Therefore shall ye l.ay up these my words in your
heart and in your sold, and bind them for a sign up-
on your hand, that they may be as frontlets between
your eyes. And ye sliall teach them your children,
speaking of them wdien thou sitfest in thine house,
and when thou walkest by the way, when thou liest
down, and when thou risest up. And thou shalt
write them upon the door-posts of thine house, ami
upon thy gates." The iiarchment is rolled up with
the ends of the lines inward, the Hebrew word iSAm/-
dai is in.scribed on the outside, and the roll is pu'
into a cane or a cylindrical tube of lead, in which a
hole is cut, that the word Slinddoi may appear.
This tube is fastened to the door-post by a nail at
each end. The fixing of it is preceded by the repe-
tition of the following benediction' "Blessed art
thou, 0 Lord our God, King of the universe 1 who
b.ast sanctified us with thy precepts, and commanded
us to fix the Mczuzza." The most minute injuuc-
MEZZACHULIANS-MIDGARD.
449
tions are given by the Rabbies as to the skins from
wliicli the parcliments are to be made, the inlc to be
used, and tlie form observed in writing, the mode in
which tlie parclnnent is to be inserted in tlie case,
and tlie lionses and rooms to the doors of wliioli
Ateznzzotli are to be affixed. It is believed that
Meziizzoth ought to be fixed on all the doors of
dwelling-liouses, whether parlours, bed-rooms, kit-
ciiens, or cellars, on the doors of barns, or store-
houses, and on the gates of cities and towns. The
Mezuzza is generally placed on the right baud of the
entrance, and those who are deemed tlie most devout
Israelites often touch and kiss it as they pass. Tlie
synagogue being a house of prayer, and not of resi-
dence, requires no Mezuzxu.
I MEZZACHULIANS, a Mohammedan sect who
are represented as having believed that tliose wlio
have any know-ledge of God's glory and essence in
j this world, may be sa\ed, and are to be reckoned
among the faithful.
MIAS, temples for the worship of the C.A.Mrs
(which see) iii Jii])an. They are usually built upon
eminences, in retired spots, surrounded by groves,
and appro.ached by a grand avenue, having a gate of
stone or wood, and bearing a tablet of a foot and a-
half square, which announces in gilded letters the
name of the Cami, to whom the temple is conse-
crated. So imposing an entrance might lead to the
expectation of the inner temple being a correspond-
ingly splendid structure, but within, we are told,
" there is usually found only a wretched little build-
ing of wood, half hid among trees and shrubbery,
.about eighteen feet in length, breadth, and height,
all its dimensions being equal, and with only a single
grated window, through which the interior may be
seen empt}', or containing merely a mirror of po-
lished metal, set in a frame of braided straw, or
luuig about with fringes of white paper. Just with-
in the entrance of tbe enclosure stands a basin
of water, by washing in which the worshippers may
purify themselves. Beside the temple is a great
chest for the reception of alms, partly by which, and
partly by an allowance from the Dairi, the guardians
of the temples are supported, while at the gate hangs
a gong, on wbich the visitant announces his arrival.
Most of these temples have also an antechamber, in
which sit those who have the ch.arge, clothed in rich
garments. There are commonly also in the enclo-
sure a number of little chapels, or miniature temples,
portable so as to be carried in religious processions.
All of tliese temples are built after one model, tbe
famous one of Isje, near the centre of tbe island of
Kipon. and which within the enclosure is equally
bumble with all the rest."
MICAirS IMAGES. See Tkhaphi.m.
MICII.VEL. one of the chief angels mentioned
both in the Old and New Testaments. The Jewish
Kabbies taught that he presided over the rest of the
angelic ho.st, and in proof of it they quoted Dan. x. 13,
where he is termed " one of the chief princes." They
II.
represented him as the leader of that cla.ss of angels
which is stationed on the right hand of the heavenly
throne, and they ascribe to him in their writings
many wonderful actions. The Mohammedans regard
Michael as the patron of the Jews, who fights against
God's enemies.
MICHAEL (St.) Fkstiv.^l of. See Gabijel
(St.) and JIiCHAEi, (St.) Festival of.
MICH.IPOUS, a name given by some tribes of
the North American Iiidi.ans to the Supreme Being.
They had some conception of a Deluge, and believed
that Jlichapous created heaven, and afterwards all
the animals, whom he placed upon a bridge laid over
the waters. Foreseeing that his creatures could not
live long upon the bridge, and that his work would
be imperfect, he applied to Micliinsi, the god of wa-
ters, and wished to borrow from him a portion of
land on which bis creatures might settle. The water
god denied his request, whereupon he sent the bea-
ver, the otter, and the musk-rat to search for earth
at the bottom of the sea ; but he was only able to
obtain, by means of the musk-rat, a few particles of
sand, with which he constructed first a higb moun-
tain, and then the wbole terrestrial globe. A spirit
of discord arose among the animals, and Michapous
in .anger destroyed them, forming men out of tbe
corrupted carcases of the animals. One of the hu
man beings having separated from ihe rest, discover-
ed a hut in which he found iMichapous, who gave
him a wife, and pointed out the duties of both.
Hunting and fishing were to be the emi)loyments of
men ; the kitchen and the cares of the household
were allotted to the woman. He gave mankind
power over the animals, and warned them that they
must die, but that after death they would pass into
a state of happiness. The men lived happy and
contented for some centuries, but the men having
greatly multiplied, it was necessary to seek for a
new hunting country. Discord and jealousy broke
out at length among the huntsmen, and hence the
origin of war. In this myth the Diluvian predomi-
n.ates over the Cosmogonic element.
MICHE, the name of a priest of the god Proiio
of the ancient Sclavonians.
IMICHINISI, the god of tlie waters among some
tribes of the North American Iiuliaiis.
MICROCHEMI, the Proficients, one of the three
ranks or degrees of the monks of the Greek cburcli.
See Cai.oyers.
IMICTLANTEUCTLI. the ruler of the infernal
regions, in the mythology of the ancient Mexicans,
who with liis wife Mkthmcilmatl were olijccts of
great veneration.
MIDGAKD, the niidsphere or habitable globe
of the ancient Scandinavian cosmogony. " Accord-
ing to Eddaic lore," says Mr. Gross, "it is necessary
in order to form a correct idea of the typography of
Midgard, to conceive the earth to be as round as a
ring, or as a disk in the midst of tbe ocean, encircled
by Jormungand, tbe great Midgard-serpcnt, holding
2q
450
MIGON'ITIS— MILLEXAIUANP.
its tail in its moutli, the outer shores of the ocean
forming the monntainous regions of Jbtnnlieim —
giant-lionie, assiijned in fee-simple to the perverse
Yinir race by tlie generous sons of Bor. In tlie
centre of tliis terrestrial ring or disk, tliese indefati-
gable divinities erected a citadel from tlie eyebrows
of Yinir, against the inro.'ids of tlieir belligerent
fl-ontier neighbours; and this is Midgard. the work
of gods and the home of man. It is, therefore, the
duty of the latter to defend and cherish it again.st
all tlie boreal powers of evil, — the .storms and liail,
the ice and snow, as well as the gigantic mountains,
wliicli raise tlieir threatening peaks in stern defiance
above the clouds : in short, to keep watch and ward
over It despite of every adverse physical influence.
These latter are giants of the lofty alpine species,
and hence we arrive at the origin of the f.Jvus, and
the alp, or nightmare. In the German, the phrase
A/pen- Diiicl- still connnomorates the myth of the
ehei of dtirl-ncs. The clouds which float in the
circumambient air above Midgard, are, a* has been
stated, the spongy productions of Vmir's brain
flung into space. They loom up from the border-
land of Ymir's race, and are variable and deceitful,
like the source from which they are derived. Their
dark hue and tempestuous character are emblemati-
cal of the gloomy thoughts and violent passions of
Ymir. They borrow their brilliant tints from the
luminaries of heaven, but their beauty is delusive ;
and there is continual strife between them and these
bodies, — the resplendent and benign emanations of
empyrean Muspellheim."
MIGOXITIS. a surname of Aphrodite, from a
place called .Migonium, whore she had a temple, and
was worshipped.
M1K.\D0. See D.mui.
MIl.COM. See Moloch.
MILK. In tlie early Clu-istian church it was cus-
tomary to give to the newly baptized a small portion
of milk along with honey, as indicallve that they
were new-born babes In Christ. Jerome informs us
that 111 some of the Western churches the mixture
was made up of milk and wine. The use of milk on
such occasions had reference to the .saying of Paul,
" I have fed you with milk, and not with strong
meat," or to that of I'eter, " As new-born babes de-
sire the sincere milk of the word that ye may grow
thereby." Clemens Alexandrlnus takes notice of
this cu.stom, .saying, " .\s soon as we are born we are
nourished with milk, which is the nutriment of the
Lord. And when we are born again, we are hon-
oured with the hope of rest, by the promise of Jeru-
salem which is above, where it is said to rain milk
and honey. For by the.se material things we are
assured of that sacred food." We learn further from
the tliird council of Carthage, that t)ie milk and
honey administered to the newly b.aptized had a
peculiar consecration distinct from that of the eii-
charlst.
MILL1CX.\U1.\NS, or ('iiii.i.\sTs, those who
hold that Christ, at his second coming, will reign
with his gloritied .Niiiits in visible majesty, yet
withuut carnal accomiianlinents, over a renewed
eartli for a thousand years. It is held on all
biinds to be a doctrine of Sacred Scripture, tliat
a time will come iu the history of this world,
when, for a tliousand years, righteousness, truth
Slid peace will prevail upon the earth. It is also
held on all bands that there will be a second per-
sonal coming of the Lord Jesus Christ from hea-
ven to earth. Both these doctrines are believed
on the testimony of Scripture by all orthodox Chris-
tians. But the important point on which a great
diversity of opinion has existed in the Christian
church in all ages, respects the place which these
two events are destined to occupy in the order of
time. Some maintain that the second corning of
Christ will precede the millennium, and these are
cnWeA Pre-miUetmiiilists ; while others, who are called
Post-vdllennialists, allege that the second coming of
Christ, and the resniTecti(m of the saints, will not
take place until the expiry of the thousand years
which compose the millennium. Such Is the precise
state of the question as between the two gi'eat par-
ties into whieb the Chrislian church is dlvide/1. No
separate sect or denomination exists of MiUciiarians,
as the Prc-millciinialists are loosely termed, but in-
dividuals, and even considerable numljers of Cln-ls-
tians, are found In conneciion with all denominations
who hold and openly avow Pre-nilllennial seiiti-
ineuts.
The following six points are brought forward by
the Rev. J. Cox iu Ills ' Pre-inlUemilal Manual,' as
embodying the opinions of most of those who hold pre-
millennial views: "1. That the present dispensation
will never univer.sally triumph in the conversion of
men: its basis being .sovereign election, and its ob-
ject ' to gatlier out a peojile for God's name.' That
like all otlier dispensations, it will end in apostaey
and judgment. 2. That tlie people of Israel will be
brouglit back to Canaan, inherit tlie laud acciirding
to God's covenant with Abraliam, and become a
truly holy and highly honoured people. 3. That a
resurrection of the saints will take place one thou-
sand years before that of the rest of the dead.
4. That the nations which survive the fiery judg-
ments that will precede and accompany the estab-
lishment of God's kingdom, will be converted by an
abundant effusion of the Holy Spirit, and that then
the earlli shall be filled wiih tlie knowledge and
glory of the Lord. 5. That the creation which is
made subject to vanity, and which now groaneth and
travaileth in pain, shall at the advent of the second
Adam be brought into the glorious liberty of the
children of God, and thus become happy, fruitful,
and "blessed. 6. That the Lord Jesus will come
peivoiwl/i/ before the establishnient of his kingdom,
and iu order to establish it; and that tlie overthrow
of his enemies, the full restoration of the Jews, the
conversion of the nations, and the jubilee of crea-
MILLENAUIAX?
451
tioii, will not take place before his personal appear-
ing."'
The MtUenarians or Chlliasts allege tliat their
distinctive doctrines run " Hke a golden thread from
Genesis to Revelation," and have had believer's in
all ages of the Christian church. They maintain in
particular, that for the first two centuries and a half,
pre-millennialism was the universal doctrine of the
church. Neander, on the other hand, denies that it
can be proved with any certainty that Chiliasm had
ever formed a part of the general creed of tlie
cliurcli, but he endeavours to account for the ex-
istence of pre -millennial views, by asserting that
"the crass images under which the earthly Jewish
mind had depicted to itself the blessings of the
millennial reign, had in part passed over to the
Christians." Yet from whatever quarter the Mil-
lenarian opinions may have come, whether, as the
early fathers alleged, they had been handed
down by tradition from the Apostles, or as Nean-
der imagines, they were the renmants of a car-
nal Judaism which had found its way into the
Christian church, one thing at all events is clear,
that, down to the end of the third or the beginning
of the fourth century, the belief in millenarian views
was universal and undisputed, Papias, Irenseus,
Justin Martyr, a whole succession of fathers, indeed,
onward to Lactantius, speak the same language as
to their belief in the personal reign of Christ during,
not after, the millennium. It lias been attempted,
by some writers, to throw discredit upon these opi-
nions, by classing them among the lieretical notions
of Cerinthus ; but the mere fact that tliey were
held by a heretic, is more than counterbalanced
by the far more undoubted fact that they were held
by a large portion of the most orthodox fathers of
these early times, even those of them who were most
bitterly opposed to Cerinthus. One circumstance,
however, which tended to" destroy the reputation of
millonarianism, was the extravagant representation
of it which was given by the Moiila/ii-ts, and the vio-
lent opposition which was accordingly raised against
this as well as the other doctrines of that grossly
sensualistic school. The Gnostics generally had no
more violent opponents than the Millenarians, who
sign.alized themselves by their earnest contendiiigs for
the faith once delivered to the saints.
Xow, however, a formidable opponent of the views
of the Chiliasts arose in the fanciful Origen, whose
allegorizing interpretation of Scripture was com-
pletely opposed to that literal .system of interpreta-
tion on which their peculiar opinions mainly depend-
ed. From this time the credit of millenarianism
gradually declined, and, with the exception of a gen-
eral statement which occurs in the canons of the
Council tif Nice, A. D. 32.5, we hear little more of
the doctrine until the lapse of centuries brouglit it
again into discussion. Throughout the dark ages,
when popery ruled with despotic sway over the
minds and consciences of men. Chiliasm was utterly
disowned, and it is a remarkable fact, that popery
has not only onuttcd this doctrine from her creed,
but testified against it as a here,sy. During the first
century after the Reformation, it rose again into
notice, and was held by several men remarkable
alike for their learning and their piety. One of its
most violent opponents at this period was Socinus,
who attacked it in a letter "against the Chiliasts."
In the seventeenth century it was held by m.any emi-
nent Nonconformist divines, and a large number of
those who sat in the Westminster Assembly, in-
cluding several Eiiiscopalians, Presbyterians, and
Independents, while Richard Baxter candidly ac-
knowledges, '• Though I have not skill enough in
the exposition of hard prophecies to make a particu-
lar determination about the thousand years' reign
of Christ upon the earth before the final judgment ;
yet I may say, that I cannot confute what such
learned men ,as Mr. Mede, Dr. Twisse, and others
after the old fathers have asserted." No doubt, the
Pre-millenarian doctrine sunk in jinblic estimation
from the imprudent and fanatical conduct of the
Fifth-Monarchy men, who had adopted it as an arti-
cle of their creed. But far from being limited to
men of extravagant and enthusiastic minds, it was
held also by some of the most sober-thoughted men
of the age.
The eighteenth century, and the early part of the
nineteenth, were characterized by the prevalence
of a remarkable decay of \ital religion, not in one
country only, but throughout all Christendom ; and
Chiliasm was almost entirely forgotten. For thirty
years past, however, the interest which, at various
periods in the history of the church, had been wont
to be felt in the subject, has, to a great extent,
revived, and works both for and against Pre-mil-
lennialism have issued in rapid succession from the
press. The most able production in opposition to
the Pre-millennial theory has been that of Dr. David
Brown on • Christ's Second Coming.' This treatise
is characterized by remarkable acuteness and exege-
tical power; but, among others, the Rev. Walter
Wood of Elie published a reply at great length, en-
titled ' the Last Things.' The points of ditl'erence
between the Pre-miUennialists and this recoginzed
champion of Post niillennialism are thus stated by
Dr. Bonar of Kelso, with his wonted cleanness and
precision : —
" 1. Tl'c (/iffei' (i-t to the position of the advent, lie
places it after the millenniimi ; we before it. This
is the great diverging point. It is the root of almo.st
all our difl'erences. We both believe in a millen-
nium and an advent ; but we arrange them reversely.
It seems plain to us that the Lord Jesus is to come
in jjerson to introduce the nnllemiium ; and that
just as there can bo no kingdom without a king-
no marriage-festival without the presence of the
bridegroom, so there can be no njilleimium without
Him who is its 'all in all.' We find the prophets
ami apostles frequently predicting both the advent
452
MILLEXARIANS.
'ind the kingtloin : hikI they iinirui-inly jiliice tlio
advent first, as that without whicli the latter could
not be.
" 2. We ditffrr as to tlie nature of tlie millennium.
Mr. Brown thhiks that it will only be a sort of im-
provement n|)on the present state of things. There
' will be far less n)i.\tin-e than now,' he affirms ; but
that is all the length he goes. Satan, he thinks, is
»o< boimd. bnt merely the 'tables are turned' upon
him. The good and bad tishes are still mingled to-
gether. The tares grow still plentifully, though not
quite so plentifully as before : and the enemy is still
as unreMrainnl and as busy in sowing them. The
parable of the sower is still as lamentably true.
There are still the foolish virgins, no less than the
wise. The church is still ' miserable' without Christ.
There is no change upon the earth. Creation still
groans ; the curse still blights the soil ; and the ani-
mals are still ferocious and destructive.
" Here we differ from Mr. Brown. I think that
Scripture warrants U8 in believing tliat the millennial
state, though not absolutely perfect, will be one of
unspeakablv greater and larger blessedness, holiness,
and glory, than he conceives. Any reinnant of sin
or death will only be as tlie spots upon the face of
the Sim ; utterly hidcleii in the excellent splendoin-.
" 3. We differ m tf> the hindinr) of Satan. Mr.
Brown maintains that Satan is not to be bound or
restr.ained at all. Nothing in the way of positive
restraint, or limitation of power, is to be understood
as meant by the apo.stle, in the twentieth of Reve-
lation. This means merely, says Mr. B., that ' he
will not be able to form a party in the eartli, as
licretofore ; ' and that ' his trade will be at an end.'
He also maintains that it is the church that in to bind
Sata7i. Nowhere in Scripture is the church ever
said to 'bind Satan,' or to ' take the beast;' yet,
without one proof-text, Mr. B. says, ' the church will
do both; not only defeating Antichrist, but there-
after, for a thousand years, never perm ittinr/ the devil
to gain an inch qfr/round to plant hi.<i foot on over the
whole world.' I do not know how Mr. Brown re-
conciles this statement with those formerly made,
regarding the niillenniuiTi being merely a state of ' less
mixture' than the present, but still occupied with
tares as well as wheat. Do the tares not require one
inch of ground to grow upon? Mr. B. maintains
that there cannot be sin where Satan is not, — that
' sin and he are inseparable;' still he says that there
is to be a great deal of sin on the earth, and yet,
that ' Satan is not to gain an inch of ground to plant
his foot on.' We do not know what Mr. B. makes
of the doctrine of man's total dfpravitv ; but we
most seriously ask him, how he can reconcile it with
the above dogma, that sin and Satan are inseparable?
Had a MiUenarian made such a statinnent, he would
have been condemned as tmsouitd in the faith,
" In opposition to this, I believe that Satan )',s
bound ; that just as truly as he now roams the earth,
HO trulv and reallv shall he then be bound. I be-
lieve-that very truth wdiich Mr. Brown so strongly
denounces, — ' the total cessation of Satanic influence
during the millennium.' I believe not only that he
' will not be able to form a party,' but that he will
not be there even to attempt it. I believe that not
only will ' his trade be at an end,' but that he will
not be tl^ere to make an etibrt for its revival. Here
certainly there is a wide and serious difference be-
tween us; — .so wide and serious, that Mr. B. declares
our doctrine to be ' subversive of the fundamental
(irinciples, and opposed to the plainest statements of
God's word.' This is certainly strong language to
use respecting brethren, merely because they believe
that Satanic influences are to cease diu-iiig the mil-
lennium. I shall have occasion to revert to this point
again, and therefore shall make no other remark
than that I deem it unfair in i\Ir. Broun to make his
readers imagine that it is Pre-niilleiniialists alone who
hold this doctrine. Mr. B. knows fully as well as I
do, that many Post-millennialists hold the same doc-
trine, and yet he holds ?<-■ up to suspicion, as men,
who, by maintaining that opinion, are ' making not
only a new dispensation, but a new Christianity.'
Surely this is hastily as well as mifairly spoken.
'' 4. We differ as to the first resurrection . Mr.
Brown holds it to be entirely figurative. He inakes
it to signify that ' the cause which was slain has
risen to life.' I believe it to be a literal resurrection
of the saints at the commencement of the millen-
nium. Mr. Brown dwells at some length on the
passage in the '20th of Revelation, and concludes by
saying, that ' this is the seat of the doctrine, even
by their own admission.' It is by no means so.
MiUenarians do not admit it to be such, nor do they
use it as sucli. In the first century, indeed, it was
so ; and in after years their opponents could oidy get
rid of the testimony of this passage by denying the
whole Apocalypse. It was held to be the strong-
hold of the doctrine then, both by friends and ene-
mies ; and as Origen had not yet taught the latter
the art of spiritualizing, they had no alternative but
either to receive the doctrine or reject the Apoca-
lypse. They did the latter.
" 5 . We differ as to the state of Israel dnrinf/ the
millennium. Mr. Brown does not allow that they
are to have superior privileges and honours to the
rest of the nations. He casts this idea aside as un-
scriptural and carnal. We hold, on the other hand,
that there is a special pre-eniincnce in reserve for
Israel in the Latter day: a national, .an ecclesiastical,
and a temporal pre-eminence ; — just such a pre-emi-
nence as their fathers h.ad, though on a much higher
scale. Many who are not Pre-millcmii.alisfs hold
with us in this view ; but Mr. Brown lays his accu-
sation ag.ainst us alone. Yet let us bear the cen-
sure ; for there is no dishonour in it. We are but
contending for what we believe to be the very truth
of God, in reference to his promises to his .still-be-
loved people. We believe that their chief splen-
dour will be tlieir holiness, no less th.Mii Mr. Brown,
MILLENARIANS.
453
but wliy sliouUl tills be thought inconsistent with
the idea of national supi'eniacy. and outward privi-
leges of surpassing dignity and honour? One wlio
has now altered his opinion, thus wrote ten years
ago, ' In describing the peculiar or distinctive great-
ness and felicity of the descendants of Jacob after
they Iiave been finally established in their own land,
the prophets employ language which cannot be un-
derstood otherwise than as indicating a state of
things transcendeuily grand and blessed. There is
no cerkibiti) or definitenes> in hinrjnaye. if these scrip-
tures do not delineate a state of things to be enjoyed
upon the visible surface of this earth, much changed
and renovated no doubt, by men still dwelling in
talieruacles of clay. It shall be a state of things of
inexpressible splendour and bliss ; for Jerusalem
shall be created a rejoicing. Tl>ere shall be a city
whose walls are salvation, and whose gates praise.
There a temple shall he reared, to which the glory of
Lebanon and the most precious things of the earth
shall be again brought ; and which, as the place of
Jehovah's throne, shall be hallowed by manifesta-
tions of the Divine presence, exceeding!)' more glo-
rious than were seen in that first temple which of
old covered the heights of Zion. .\nd as Jerusalem
shall tluis be called the throne of Jeliovah, the glory
ofall lands, so shall her people stand the first indignity
and office in the kingdom of Christ ; they pre-emi-
nently shall be the priests and ministers of the Lord,
the seat of s|)iritual power, and the centre of a blessed
light and influence that shall radiate thence to the
most distant regions of the earth.' What !Mr. Fair-
bairn held ten years ago we still continue to hold
regarding the glory of Israel, and also regarding the
physical changes to take place in their land, which he
describes at large, wondering how ' the strong and
mascidine intellect of Calvin should be so misled by
the taste for spiritualizing,' as not to see that what
the prophets testified to is, a literal city and literal
temple, yet to be built in the latter davs."
The passages of Scripture on which Millenarians
found their opinions are very numerous, but it may
be interesting to the reader to peruse a few in con-
nexion with the remarks which are inade upon them
by Mr. Cox, an intelligent Baptist minister in Kug-
land, who has published a ' Pre-Millennial Manual.'
"The Scripture," he says, "to which we refer is
Acts iii. 19 — 21, ' Repent ye, therefore, and be con-
verted, that your shis may be blotted out, when the
times of refreshing shall come from the presence of
the Lord, and he shall send Jesus Christ, who before
was preached unto you, whom the heavens must re-
ceive, until the times of the restitution of all things
which God hath spoken by the mouth ofall his holy
prophets since the world began.' Three things are
observable in this passage. 1. The names given to
that future glorious state of things for which all
Christians look ; 'titnesof refre.shing from the pre-
sence of the Lord,' and 'times of the restitution of
idl things. 2. That until then the heavens will re-
ceive Christ, but that then God will send him who
is now preached. 3. That these glorious times,
viewed in connection with the second advent, have
been the theme of all the holy prophets since the
world began. Yes, from the holy Enoch, whose very
words we have recorded in Jude 14, 15, down to Mala-
chl, the last of the prophets, the same strain Is heaid.
There is no cessation of the melody, no jarring notes.
They all unite in declaring, ' Behold the Lord
Cometh' — 'with his saints' — 'taking vengeance;'
yet he comes to renovate — to restore — to reign. His
is the right and the might, and his shall be the domi-
nion and the glory. Thus those watchmen on the
grand old mountains of ancient times took up the
strain one after another, and as the ages rolled on,
the desires and expectations of the godly were more
and more quickened, mitil angel voices were heard
over Bethlehein proclaiming that the long looked-for
ONE was really come. These holy prophets and
tho.se who believed their glorious words, found no
rest for their hope on the tiu'bid billows of earthly
things ; and therefore soared away to the distant
ages of Messiah's reign, and solaced their souls
amidst its coming glories. Their faith was 'the
substance of things hoped for, the evidence of
things not seen.' Peter and all his fellow apostles
deeply sympathized with them ; ever rejoicing in
hope of the coming deliverer, who shoidd glorify his
church, restore Israel, fill the earth with holiness,
renovate crrntion, and swallow up death in victory.
Where do we ever find the apostles foretelling the
gradual progress of truth till it should imiversally
prevail? AVhere do we ever find them speaking of
Christ reigning over all nations hi\fiire he comes in
person ? But how constantly we find them predict-
ing 'evil times,' even apostaey and judgment, and
dwelling with holy ecstacy and strong de.sire on the
return of their Lord, and ' their gathering together
unto him' in resurrection life. How singular their
silence, and how strange their testimony, if the post-
millennial view is the scriptm-al one.
" To a few passages from the prophets and apos-
tles we ask attention ; they have often been cited,
and their importance demands that they be prayer-
fully considered.
"The prophet Daniel testifies that he 'saw in
vision one like the Son of man come in the clouds of
heaven,' (vii. 13), at the time of the destruction of
the fourth beast, or the Roman power. Nothing in-
tervenes between that dreadful tyranny, and the
peaceful universal kingdom, except the Lord's com-
ing and terrible acts of judgment. .According to
Daniel's prophecies, both here and in the parallel
vision of the great image, there can be no millennium
between the time of Xebuchadnezzar and the glorious
coming of the Son of Man. Hii co.MES, iiE judges,
HE REIGNS !
'•That this coming 'in the clouds of heaven,'
Irfore the universal kingdom is ii peiscnal coming, i.s
evident from utu- Lord's own words in his last pro-
454
MILLEXAIIIANS.
pliecy (Matt. xxiv. 30); liis testimony before tlie
Jewish Iiit;li priest (Matt. xxvi. G4) ; tlie declaration
of the angels just after tlie resurrection of Cliri.-t
(Acts i. 9 — 11); and llie propliecy of John (Rev. i.
7, 'Behold he conieth witli clonds. and every eye
sliall see him.')
''This one passage in Daniel, compared with the
four texts above referred to, is sufficient, we think,
to prove that the personal advent of Christ will be
before the millenninni. Oh, that Christians would
ponder God's simple testimony, and compare one
portion of scripture with another, in order to see
whether these things are so !
"Next study the parable of 'the tares and wheat'
(Matt. xiii. 24 — 30;. and the Saviour's explanation of
jt (37 — 4.3\ and ask how all this agrees with the
idea of a millennium durinri the gospel dispensation.
Observe, the whole period between the Saviour's
niinistiy on earth and his advent in glory, is included
in this parable, but not a word is said about any
millennium, or the gcneial [irevalence of holiness,
till after tlie seiiarat^in of the fares from the wlieat ;
on the contrary, an evil state of things is sjioken of
as existing during the wliole of the gospel dispensa-
tion, or to 'the end of the age.'
"Rev. xi. 15 — 19, describes the coming of 'the
kingdom of God and his Christ.' We are there
plainly told, that at the time when this universal
kingdom will be established, the dead will be raised,
the righteous of all ages rewarded, and the destroyers
of the earth destroyed. All allow that these three
events are frequently comiected with the second
coming of the Saviour; the two first always; and
this passage connecis all with the beginning of tlie
universal kingdom, — thus proving that the advent is
before the reign.
'• In 2 Tliess. ii. 8, the apostle teaches that there
will be ' a falling away' before tlie coming of Clirist ;
that this apostacy, wliatever and whenever it is, will
continue until His coming, and that its leader, ' the
man of sin,' will be destroyed by his bright appear-
ance. He also connects this apostacy with evil
principles working in his own time. If, then, error
and sin, beginning in the apostle's days, work
through the whole dispensation, grow worse towards
its end, and are crushed only liy the personal pre-
sence of Christ, there c;in be no millennium of truth
and righteousness Vefore the advent of the Son of
God.
" Turn to the prophecies of Christ, in Matt. xxiv.
and Luke xxi. We have in these chapters an out-
line of the principal events which are to happen,
until the Lord comes in the clouds of heaven. But
among all the things spoken of as sure to occur
before the Saviour's advent, there is no menlion of
a niillenniuin. Instead of this, it is foretold, that
wars, error, wickedness, and sorrow, will abound tin-
til the Lord's return.
'•Zeeh. xiv. lias been justly considered as the
most literal of the unfullilled prophecies of scripture.
That it has never yet been fulfilled in the past liiji-
tory of the Jews (and to the Jeics it refers through-
out), must be evident to every one. It is, we tliiiik,
utterly iinjiossible to interpret it as applicable to the
church now ; nothing remains (if we allow it has a
meaning at all) but to apply it to Israel's future his-
tory. If this is done, the fact of a pre-millennial
advent is established beyond aU dispute. Tlie
chapter contains few symbols or figures, but relates
in plain words the things yet to be done at Jerusa-
lem and in the land of Judah. It exhibits the trou-
bles of restored Israel just before their conversion
(1,2); foretells the coming; describes the judgments
and prodigies that shall accompany it (3 — 8) ; says,
that all his saints shall come with him, that his feet
sliall stand on the Mount of Olives (4, 5) ; and that
subsequent to this coining 'the Lord shall be king
over all the earth; in that day there shall be one
Lord and liis name one' (9). Why, if this last
(pioted verse be litercd, should all the rest be allego-
rical ? There is no reason, but that a human system
requires it.
" Tills striking chapter then describes the physi-
cal changes which will take place in the land ^8 — 10);
declares that men sluill dwell in it, and that Jerusa-
lem shall be safely inhabited (11); see also Isaiah
xxxiii. 20 — 24. Then the utter and terrible destruc-
tion of Jerusalem's enemies is minutely detailed
(12, 13), and Judah's victories and riches described.
After this, Jerusalem is spoken of as the throne of
the Lord, to which all nations are to be giithered
(16 — Jer. iii. 17) : and it is declared that those who
will not come up (we suppose by their representa-
tives— Lsa. xiv. 32). 'to worship the King the Lord
of hosts,' shall be afflicted by divine judgments. The
chapter concludes with a minute description of the
holiness of Jeru.salem, and of all persons and tilings
coiiiiected with it.
"Surely in the literal fulfilment of Zech. ix. 9,
when Israel's king came ' meek and lowly, riding on
an ass,' we have a pledge that this chaiiter which re-
lates to his glory will be as literally fulfilled.
"lsa. Ixvi. is a similar jirophecy to Zeeh. xiv.;
containing a chronological history of Israel in the
latter days. First, a ]iroud people who have gone
back to their own land in unbelief, and «ho repeat
the deeds of their fathers, are described, rebuked,
and judged (1 — 6). Then comes deliverance and
blessedness — a nation is born in a day ; whom the
Lord comforts with abundant promises, and calls upon
others to rejoice with them. Israel then becomes a
fountain of blessing to the world (8 — 14). But be-
fore this scene of glory and joy, there must be one
ol terror and destructimi. 'Behold the Lord will
come with fire and with his chariots like a whirlwind,
to render his anger with fury, and his relnike with
llanies of fire ; for by fire and by his sword will the
Lord plead with all flesh, and the slain of the
Lord shall be many' (15, 26). After this conu-s
as in Zeeh. xiv., the exaltation of Jerusalem, and
MILLKXAIUAXS.
45Ji
tlie gathering of all imtions tliere to worship (19
—23).
"We entreat the reader to pause a moment over
the solemn words just quoted, with reference to that
whirlwind of wrath, and to compare them with two
passages from the [)roiihecies of Jeremiah. Tlis
25th cliapter of that prophet is one of the most aw-
ful portions of God's word: much of it, we think, is
yet to be fulfilled. (See 15—3.3.1 'Alas! who
shall live when God doeth this?' Here we have the
figures of tlie vintage, the sword, and the whirlwind.
'Thus saith the Lord of liosts, Belmld evil shall go
forth from nation to naiion, and a great whirlwind
sliall be raised up from the coasts of the earth. And
the slain of the Lord .shall be at that day from one
end of tlie earth esen to the other end of the earth.'
To the same judgment the ]u-oplict refers — xxx. 2.3,
24. 'Behold tlie whirlwind of the Lord goetli forth
with fmy, a contiiiiiin// whirlwind, it shall fall with
pain upon the head of the wicked. The fierce anger
of the Lord .shall not retiu'U until he have done it,
and until lie have performed the intents of his heart ;
in the latter dai/s ye shall consider it.' Now mark
the next words. ' At the same time, saith the Lord,
will I be the God of all the families of Israel, and
tliey shall be my people.' This is the time of trou-
ble spoken of by Daniel, when his people are deli-
vered, when Mich.ael stands up, when the dead are
raised, and tlie servants of (rod rewarded. (Dan.
xii. 1 — 3.) The saiue time of trouble as is described
in most terrible terms in Isa. xxiv., at the close of
which chapter of woes it is said, 'The moon shall be
confoimded and the sun ash.amed, when the I^ord of
hosts shall reign in Mount Zion, and in Jeru.salem,
and before his ancients gloriously,' (v. 23).
"Thus all these prophets agree in binding toge-
ther terrible judgmeats on the nations — Israel's last
trouble and final deUrerance — Messiah's adverd — the
resurrection of the xainU — a glorious reign, and ti re-
novated irorld.'"
Before quitting the subject we may avail ourselves
of Mr. Cox's Manual to show the extent to which
Pre-niillennial views are held among the principal
denominations of Christians in Great Britain : " The
Episcopal Church stands first. Some of her bishops in
years past, among whoTn may be mentioned Bishops
Newton, Horsley, and Hurd, with many of her most
eminent and useful clergy of the last and the present
generation, have been zealous and successful advo-
cates of pre-millennialism. Hundreds of her ministers
now preach it, and teas of thousands of her members
rejoice in it ; and we think that holding this truth
has been in some measure the reason lor the growth
of spirituality in the Church of England, ,and, under
God, a cause of her success. Them that honour
Gdd bv u|iholding a contemned truth, he will honour.
While diti'ering from tliat Church in some important
points, we can but greatly rejoice to see her ministers
thus uplift God's truth, and to see so many souls
new born and nourished bv their instrimientalitv.
" Among the Presbyterians this doctrine has nut
spread to the same extent. By the Westminster
formidaries and creeds, belief in ]iost-millfinnialism is
not required ; some expressions seem rather opposed
to the present popular view. In the national Cluu'ch
of Scotland there are some advocates of this doc-
trine ; prominent among them is Dr. Cumming, by
whose writings this truth has been m.ade extensively
known. In the Free Cluu-ch, and especially north
of the Tweed, there are several eloquent tongues and
readv pens, constantly heralding the coming one. and
ever ready to defend this truth against all opposers.
"One great luan connected with this body, 'who
being dead yet speaketh,' should here be mentioned.
Dr. Chalmers in his earlier works contended for the
renovation of creation at the Lord's coming. (See
Works, vol. vii., 280.) And his posthumous writ-
ings clearly prove, that latterly he held the pre-nd'-
lennial view. Just take a specimen or two : 'It is
quite obvious of this propliecy (Isaiah Hi. 8 — 10),
that it expands beyoiul the dimensions of its t\'pical
event, ami that it relates not to a past, but to a
fidiu'e and final deliverance of the Jews. . . .
Their seeing eye to eye, makes for the personal
reign of him whose feet shall stand on the Mount of
Olives.'
" In this projdiecy (Isa. xxiv. 13 — 26) is fore-
shown a visitation v^wn tlie earth — still future —
which is to emerge into the millennium. How em-
phatically are we told in this place, 'When the Lord
shall reign in Jerusalem and before his ancients
gloriou.sly.'
"Tlie Wesleyans are, as a body, decidedly against
this doctrine, and seldom do we find an advocate of
it, or even a believer in it anion" them. Yet some
of their chief founders were decitfedly pre-millennial-
ists. John Wesley inclined to some of our view^s.
His brother Charles was full and running over with
the subject. His hymns, poems, and paraphrases
set forth all the pre-millennial points strongly and
clearly. Fletcher of JIadely, the great polemic of
the Wesleyans, has written as fully and clearly upon
the subject in prose, as his friend Charles Wesley
did in poetry. He is accounted a standard in doc-
trine, but repudiated as an interpreter of prophecy.
To some persons this appears like calling bitter,
sweet ; and sweet, bitter. We do not much wonder
at the dislike of Wesleyans to pre-millennial truth ;
as the latter views, when honestly carried out, are
assuredly, to a great extent, incompatible witli Ar-
minianism.
"'In truth,' says one, ' Chiliasm has always
showed the strongest affinity for Calvinism, and an-
tagonism to the opposite.' One great point of the
pre-millennial view, as already stated, is, that during
the present dispensation God is working out his
great purpose of electing love in gathering out a
people for his name (Acts xv.) ; and that conse-
qiienlly universality cannot be one of its character-
i.--tiis. These facts, which are ignored, if imt denied
456
MINARETS— MINEUVA.
by tlie moiiern poiuilur view, and verv much left out
of the teaching of iiiany, are written as with a sun-
beam in vast numbers of passages in tlie New Tes-
tament. Wesley anil Fletcher did not see the con-
nection between pre-mijjennialisni and Calvinism ;
their descendants perliaps du.
■•The Congregationalists have had their Good-
wins, Caryls, Husseys, Tliorps, and many others in
past d:iys, but at present there are very few among
tliem who are in sympatliy witli these great and
good men. By their periodicals the doctrine of the
Lord's coming to reign is constantly opposed ; and
one, the ' Evangelical Magazine,' has for some time
past been employed in endeavouring to write it
down; but doubtless this etfort, like those of Dr.
Brown ami others, will only help to tall attention to
the despised truth, and result in its being more e.\-
tensively spread abroad.
'• Among the Baptists, there are a few more who
hold and promulgate pre-millennialism. In past ages
the doctrine of the personal reign was rather gener-
ally maintained in this body. It may be found in
the writings of Benjamin Keach, Dr. Gill, B. Fran-
cies, and many others. Several of them held that
there would be first what they called 'the spiritual
reign of Christ;' whicli would be followed by an
apostacy, the personal advent of the Saviour, and
tlie reign of all his risen saints with him on earth
for 1,000 years. These millenariaus differed from
those who are now called by this name in three re-
spects. They separated the spiriiual and personal
reign of Christ — limited the latter to the risen saints
— and taught that many ages would certainly pass
away before the coming of the Lord and the resur-
rection of the saints. The best statement and de-
fence of this view is found in Dr. Gill's Body of
Divinity ; also in Toplady's works. Very few per-
sons hold it now.
"The following extract from Bunyan proves that
he had. at least, leanings toward some of our views.
'None e\cr saw this world as it was in its first crea-
tion, but only Adam and Eve; neither shall any
ever see it until tlie manifestation of the Son of God,
that is, until the redemption or resurrectioii of the
saints. But then it shall be delivered from the
bondage of coiruption into the glorious libeily of
the children of God.'
"The name of another celebrated man ainong the
Baptists may here be mentioned. Mr. Thorp, of
Bristol, thus writes in the preface to his work on
'The Destinies of tlie British Empire.' 'The senti-
ments stated in these lectures, concerning the pro-
phecies in general, the present state of the empire,
and the gloomy aspect of things at this crisis, were
entertained by the late illustrious Kobert Hall.
They formed part of the subject of the last evening's
conversation which the author enjoyed with that ex-
traordinary man only a few days before his decease,
and upon each point the most perfect unanimity of
opinion prevailed.'
'• Milton, it is said, was a Baptist in principle,
and held views similar to those of Bunyan, as may
be seen in Paradise Lost. In his prose works we
have the following sublime invocation : ' Come forth
out of thy royal chambeis, O Prince of all the kings
of the earth. Put on the visible robes of thy Impe-
rial .Majesty ! Take up that unliiuited sceptre which
thy Almiglity Father hath bequeathed thee. For now
the voice of thy bride calls thee, and all the crea-
tures sigh to be renewed.' Milton believed that the
millennium was past, but he waited for the speedy
advent of the Redeemer, wdien he should appear to
judge mankind and renovate the earth.
"Among the most earnest advocates of this doc
trine, those Christians called by others ' the Ply-
mouth Brethren,' may be mentioned. They very
generally receive the doctrine of the advent and
reign of Christ. Some of their tracts and works on
this subject are simple and scriptural ; with others,
statements and expositions of a very doubtful char-
acter are mixed up. But while we do not agree
with these Christians on several points, we would
bear cheerful testimony to their zeal in this subject,
and own to having received much instruction and
consolation from some of their earlier works."
Great activity has been manifested of late years
by the Pre-millenniallsts in propagating their views
both in England and Scotland. The Bloomsbury
Lectures by ministers of the Church of England, the
writings of Mr. Brooks of Clarebro', Retford, and
the Journal of Prophecy, so ably edited by Dr. llo-
ratius Bouar, have done much to recommend the
subject to the special attention of the Christian com-
munity, and have gained numerous converts to the
doctrines of Pre-millenuialism.
MINARETS, the towers on the Mohammedan
mosques. There are usually six of these towers
about every mosque, each having three little open
galleries situated one above another. These towers,
as well as the mosques themselves, are covered with
lead, and adorned with gildings and other ornaments.
From the minarets the faithful are summoned to
prayer by the Muezzin (which see).
JMINCIIA (Heb. an oblation), usually rendered in
the Old Testament, '' meat-ofi'ering," although it
consisted of flour, cakes, wafers, &c. ; a more cor-
rect translation would be " meal-oflering," or " wheat
ofleriiig." The miiic/ia, when given by one man
another, denotes some jiecnliar dignity in the receive,
of which such a gift is the acknowledgment, and the
token even of submission, if not subjection, on the
jiart of the giver. But when a miiwlia is presented
by man to God, it usually, though not invariably,
signifies a "bloodless oblation," in contradistinc-
tion from the zeba or " bloody sacrifice," though the
minclia was for the most part joined with the zeba
in the .sacred oblations.
MINERVA, the goddess of wisdom among the
ancient Romans, who accounted her one of their
chief divinities. She was regarded as identical wiili
MINIAX— MISSAL.
457
the Greek guileless Athbxa (which see). Tlie Ko-
maus woi'shipped lier as presiding over the arts and
sciences, and hence she was invoked by all who
wished to distinguish tliemselves in any department
of human knowledge, or in any of the arts in which
men were wont to employ tliemselves. Tliis god-
dess was also the protector of men when engaged in
war, and hence the trophies of victory were often
dedicated to lier, while she herself is frequently re-
presented as wearing a helmet and a coat of mail,
and before her she carried a shield. A temple to
Minerva stood on the Ca|}itoline, and another on the
Aventine hill, wliile her image was preserved in the
innermost part of the temjjle of Vesta, being looked
upon as tlie safeguard of the Roman state.
MINERVALIA. See Quinquati!I.\.
MtXGRELlAN MONKS. See P.f.kes.
MIXIAN (^Ileb. number), a word often applied to
a Jewish youth who is thirteen years and a day old,
at wiiici age he i.s looked upon as a man, and is un
der an obligation to observe all the commandments
of the law. As he is then considered to be of age,
he can make contracts and transact any affairs with-
out being responsible to guardians, and may act both
in spiritual and temporal matters, according to his
own inclination. .Jewish females are reputed women
at the age of twelve and a-half years.
MINIMS, a religious order in the Church of Rome,
founded in the fifteenth century by St. Francis de
Paula of Calabria. See Fr.vxcis (St.) de Paula.
MINISTERS. See Clergy.
MINISTRA, a name which is applied to the oflice
of deaconess in the Christian Chinch by I'liny, in
his celelirated Epistle.
MINORESS, a nun under tlie rule of St. Clair.
JIINORITES. See Cori^f.lieks.
MINORS (Friars). See Franciscans.
MINOS, one of the judges of souls in Ilades, son
of Zeus and Eiirnpa, and said to have been, before
his death, king of Crete, where he instituted a .system
of wise and eipiitable laws.
MINSTER, an old Saxon word which anciently
signiried the cliurcli of a monastery or convent.
MIRA B.\IS, a Hindu sect, or rather a subdi\i-
sion of the VallahhacharU, originated by Mira Hai,
who flourished in the reign of Akbar, and was cele-
brated as the authoress of sacred poems addressed
to Vishnu. She was tlie daugiiter of a petty Rajah,
the sovereign of a place called Merta. She adopted
the worship of Itanachhor, a form of the youthful
Krishna. On one occasion she visited the temple of
her tutelary deity, when on the completion of her
adorations the image opened, and Mi'ra leaping into
the fissure, it closed, and she finally disappeared.
In memory of this miracle, it is said that tlie image
of Mi'ra I5ai is worshipjied at Udayapur, in conjunc-
tion with that of Ranachhor.
MIR.\MIOXES. See Genevieve (St.) Ncns of.
MISERERE (Lat. have mercy), tlie beginning of
the fifty -first or penitential psalm. j'
MISERERES, stalls frequently seen in cathedrals
or collegiate churches, the seat turning up on a hinge,
so as to form two seats of different lieights.
MISHNA, the second law of the Jews, a collec-
tion of all the oral or traditional commandments.
This work, whicli is arranged in the form of six trea-
tises, was completed about A. D. 190, by Rabbi Jn-
dali, the lioly, though tlie first idea of such an under-
taking is thought by many to have originated with
Rabbi Akiba (which see). The Mishiia is believed
to cont.iiu what the Jews called the oral law, that is,
all the preceiits which, according to the legends of
the Rabbins, Moses received from the Lord during
the forty days he remained on the mount, which
were transmitted by !Moses to Joshua, and thus
handed down from generation to generation. The
later Rabbins have made various commentaries upon,
and additions to, the Mishna. The whole collection
of these commentaries is named Ge.mara (which
see), and along with the Mkhna, its text-book, it
forms the Talmuds (which see). The Mishna has
been held in great veneration by the .lews ever
since its completion, and is regarded of equal autho-
rity with the written word.
MISSA, a name anciently given to the service of
]nibl!C worship in the Christian Church. It was
divided into two parts, the missa cutedi.umenorum, or
first part of the religious service, designe especially
for catechumens ; and the missa fidelium, the after
service, which was particularly intended for the
faithful or believers, neither catechumens nor any
other persons being permitted to be present, not even
as spectators. On occasions when the elements of
the Lord's Supper were received some days afte?;^
they had been consecrated, the se(=vice was called
miasaprmsanctijicatorum. Cardinal Buna in his writ-
ings speaks of a missa sicca, or dry mass, that is,
without the grace and moisture of the consecrated
eucharist, and which he says, profits the faithful no-
thing. Durantus, in his book De Ritilius, mentions
a ntis-sa natitica, or seamen's mass, beciiuse it was
wont to be celebrated at sea, and upon the ri\ers,
where, on account of the motion and agitation of the
waves, the .sacrifice could hardly be otl'ered without
danger of etfnsion. In the Romish church there is
a missa privata or solitaria, where the priest receives
the sacramental elements alone, without any other
communicants, and sometimes says the oflice alone
without any assistants. Such are those private and
solitary masses in Roman Catholic churches, which
are said at their private altars in the corners of their
cliurches, without the presence of any but the priest
alone; and such are all those public masses where
none but the priest receives the elements, though
there be many spectators of the service. The
Lord's Supper being in its very nature a service of
communion, instances of its observance by solitary
individuals were unknown in the primitive Clirisliaii
Church.
MISS.VL, the Romish mass-book, containing the
.J
458
MITUUA— MITRE.
masses wliicli are appointed to be said on particuliii'
(lays. It is derived from the word MissA (wliicli
see^, used in ancient times to denote all tlie parts of
Divine service. The Mixsal, which was formed in
the eleventh or iwelftli century, consisted of a col-
lection for the convenience of the priest, of the sev-
eral liturgical books formerly in use in the religious
services ; and in its collected t'orni it was culled the
Complete or Plenary Missal or Book of Mi.-^ste. In
1570, Pius V. issued an edict conimiuiding that the
Missal, which he had caused to be re\ised, should be
nsed throughout the wliole Catholic Church; and
with the exception of a few verbal alterations intro-
duced bv Clement VIII. and Urban VIII., and the
addition of some new masses, the edition of Pius V.
confiuties in use down to the present day.
MIT11K.\, the principal fire-goddess among the
ancient Persians. In Assyria she was worshipped
under the appellation of Mylitta, and in Arabia
under that of Alitta. She was believed to be the
mother of the woild. and of all its generative pro-
ductions. The name Mithra is supposed to be de-
rived from the Persic word Mihr or Mihir, love,
and the goddess who bears the name is justly re-
garded as the Persian Venus. She is viewed as the
spouse of Mithras, the Persians having been accus-
tomed to regard tlieir Supreme Deity, whom they
term Zentane Akcrene, as resolved into two sexes,
represented by Milfiras and Mithra, male and female
fires. Mithra tlieu is the mundane body, enclosing
in her womb the fires of creation, infused into it by
the primordial source of light, through the medium
of Ormiizd, tlie creator of the world.
MITIIIIAS, the sun god among the ancient Per-
.siaus, the first, the highest, and the purest eniauatiou
from the Supreme Being, or Zeruane Akerene. Un-
der the name of Perses, Mithras received the hom-
age due to a divinity of light and fire, in Ethiopia,
Egvpt, and Greece. His worship was introduced
at Rome about the time of the Roman emperors, and
spread rapidly throughout the whole empire. In
Persia the god of light was adored in the worship
and under the name of Mithras, the personified sym-
bol of fire, as the masculine element of creation :
'• In his solar attribute," .says Mr, Gross, " Mithras,
considered in regard to day and night, is represented
as dwelling Iwth in the spheres of light and in the
regioius of darkness. As mediator between god and
man, he is tlie sufiVring yet triuni|]hant saviour. He
is emphatically called the hii/he.'it r/od: a title which
is strictly appropriate oidy when lie is compared
with other euiaiiations of the Supreme Being; for
he is the protolohos — the first-born of the gods.
This circumstance, as also the fact that he is de-
miurgus, in as far a.s he supplies more immediately
the means and |ire eminently directs the ends of
creation : thus acting as medical factor, or nexus,
between the Eternal and Orinuzd, justly elevate him
to the rank of the highest j/mwr/aw divinity. Hence
lie is expressly called the organ or cosmic agent
through whom all the elements and laws of the uni-
verse are controlled agreeably to the divine will.
With the increasing civilization of mankind, and the
consequent improvement of their religious ideas, the
Mithras-creed was very widely disseminated. The
Ethiopians revered the Persian fire-god as their old-
est lawgiver and the founder of their religion. It
was the popular belief of the people of the Nile that
in Egypt — the laud of inoimmental fame, where
Mithras and Menmou reciprocated dominion or reign-
ed in juxtaposition, the former built On or Hcliopo-
lis — the ■-^xm-cily, whose first king bore the name of
Mitres or Metres ; and that upon the suggestion of
a dream he erected obelisks. They were sun-obe-
lisks— solar monuments, or the architectiual symbols
of the origin and refractive expansion of the solar
rays, and of the light which, emanating as the active
principle of creation from the throne of God, reveals
itself in the production of the universe, as its vast,
famous, obeliskio base." ,
The Persians celebrated a gi'eat festival on the
first day succeeding the winter solstice, the ob-
ject of which was to commemorate the birth of
Mithras, or the return of the god of day to the
northern hemisphere. In Rome this festival was
observed on tlie 25th of December; a day of uni-
versal rejoicing, being celebrated with illumina-
tions and public games. Witli the progress of ihe
Roman conquests, the Mithriaca were iutrodnced
into Germany, where, accordingly, various liiero-
glyphical remains of this kind of worship h.ive been
discovered. According to Photius, the Greeks and
Romans offered human sacrifices to Mithras; and
Suidas tells us that those who were to be initiated
into the mysteries of his worship passed through the
fire.
illTHRION, a temple of Mithras, or the sun-god
of ancipiit Persia.
MITRE, an ornament or covering for the head worn
by the ancient Jewish high-priest. Josephus describes
it as a bonnet without a crown, which covered only
about the middle of the head. It was made of linen,
and wrapped in folds round the head like a turban.
The mitre was pecidiar to the high-priest, though
the bonnets of the other priests somewhat resembled
it in form. The dill'erence between tlie two was
that the Bonnet (which see) came lower down iijion
the forehead than the mitre, which did not cover the
forehead at all, and was flatter than the bonnet, but
much broader, consisting of more numerous folds,
and to some extent resembling a half s|ihcre.
A mitre is also mentioned by various Christian
writers of antiquity, as a head-dress worn by bishops
or certain ablmts, being a sort of turlian or cap cleft
at the top. Eiisebius and Jerome allege that the
apostle John wore a mitre, and ICpiphaiiiiis declares
the same concerning James, first bishop of Jerusa-
lem. Bingham, however, is of opinion, that such a
head-dress was worn by the apostles, not as Chris-
tian bishops, but as Jewish priests of the order ijl
MXEME— MOII AMM ED.
453
Aaron. A statue of the apostle Peter, wliich whs
erected at Kuiiie in tlie seventh century, is re-
presented as wearinj; a high, round cap. shaped hke
a pyramid. Tlie Pope wears four different mitres,
whicli are more or less richly adonied, according to
Hie festivals on which tliey are worn.
MIZUAIM. See Osiris.
MN'EME (Gr. memory), one of tlie Muses (which
see) worshipped anciently in BiBotia.
MNEMOXIDES, a name given hy Ovid to the
Mwes, probably as being the daughters of Mne-
mosyne (wliicli .'iee).
M.VEMOSYNE (Gr. memory), a dangliter of
Uranus, and the niotlier of the Miissi.
MXEVIS, one of the three sacred bulls woi>liip-
ped by tlie ancient Egyptians, particidarly at Hello-
polls. See Apis, Bull-Wohship, Calf-Worship.
MO.\BITES (Religion of the). This people
inhabited the country which was situated on the
east side of the Dead Sea. and which was origiiiallv
occupied by a race of giants called Emim, whom
the_v subdued and expelled. They were descended
from Lot, Abraham's ne|iliew, and had in all proba-
bility been worshippers of the true God at an early
period of their history. It is impossible to say when
they first fell into i<lolatry, but in the time of Moses
tliey were so devoted to the worship of Chemosh
(which see), their national god, that they are called
the sons and daughters of that false god. Another
idol of the Moabites referred to in Scripture is Baal-
Peor, sometimes called simply Peor, or as the Sep-
tnagint writes tlie name, Phegor. Both Chemosh
and Baal Pear are supposed by Jerome to have been
names of one and the same idol. Other writers who
consider them as ditlerent from each other, look npon
them as deities who were wont to be worshipped
with obscene rites. Vossius sup|ioses Baal-Peor to
be Barcluis, and Bishop Cumberland takes him to
be the same with Afenes, Mizraiia, and Osiris. The
Israelites were warned against too close intimacy
with the Moabites, but in the face of the Divine
prohibition, they devoted themselves to the worship
of BaabPeor. and in consequence the anger of the
Lord was kindled against them ; and in reference to
the Moabites who had seduced the Lord's peoiile
into idolatry, the solemn declaration was given forth,
that they " shall not enter into flie congregation of
the Lord ; even to the tenth generation shall they
not enter into the congregation of the Lord for
ever." The temples of the idols of Moab were built
on high places, and it has been alleged, but with-
out sufficient foundation, that the Moabites were
accustomed to ofTer human sacrifices.
MOBAH, what may be either done or omitted,
according to the law of Mohammed, as being indif-
ferent.
MOBAIEDIANS, a name given to the followers
of a famous Mohammedan impostor called Berkai or
Mokanna They made an insurrection in the pro-
vince of Kliorassan against the Caliph Mahadi, who,
however, at length del'eated them. Their name is
derived from an Arabic word signifying white, that
being the colour of tlieir dress, to distinguish them
from the supporters of the cAliph, who were clothed
in black garments.
MOBEDS, the otficiating priests among the Par-
sees, or fii'e-wor.shippers in India. They read the
holy books in the temples, and superintend all
the religious ceremonies, but being themselves gen-
erally unlearned, they seldom understand the mean-
ing of the books they read, or the prayers they re-
cite, these being written in the Zend or Pehlevi
language. The mobeds are distinct from the destiirs,
who are the doctors and expounders of the law
There is an inferior order of clergy among the Par
sees, called hirhetU, who have the immediate charge
of the sacred fire, and sweep and take care of tlu
temple. The priests are a peculiar tribe, their office
being hereditary. They have no fixed salary, but
are paid for their services. Many of them follow
secular employments, and they are under no restric-
tion as to marriage. There is no Parsee niohed-mo-
hedan. or acknowledged high-jiriest in India.
M0D.\L1STS, a name applied to those who hold
that there is a sort of distinction between the Sa-
cred Three in the Trinity, though they will not allow
it to amount to personality or subsistence. This
system is called an economical or Modal Trinity, and
hence the name oi Modallsts is applied to those who
believe in it. See S.\bellians.
MODERATOR, tlie minister who presides in any
one of the courts of a Pre.sbyteriaii Church, whether
a kirk-session, presbytery, .synod, or General As-
sembly. The moderator has only a casting-vote.
MODESTY, a goddess worshipped in ancient
Rome under the name i)S Pudicitiu.
MOGOX, a Pagan deity mentioned by Camden
ill his Britannia, as having been anciently worship-
ped by the Cadeni, who inhabited that part of Eng-
land now railed Northumberland. In the year 1007
two altars were found in that district bearhig inscrip-
tions which declared them to have been dedicated to
this god.
MOHAMMED, the great prophet of Arabia, who,
in the commencement of tlie seventh century, pro-
mulgated Islaml^in, which has ever since maintained
its groinid as one of the leading religions of the
world. The time when this remarkable man appeai-ed
was peculiarly favourable for the accomplishment of
his great object, which was to restore the fundamen-
tal doctrine of the Divine Unity to its due promi-
nence in tlie religious belief of mankind. " The
Lord God is one God," was the grand jill-absorbing
truth which he conceived himself commissioned to
proclaim. The whole world seemed to him to be
mad upon their idols. Not only did Paganism, with its
numberless false gods, prevail over a very large por
tion of the earth, but even Christianity itself, with iLt
professed adherence to the worshi]) of the true God,
ii.id become extensisely idolatrous both in the East
4G0
MOHAMMED.
eni aiid the Western churches. Saiiit-worsliip, niar-
tyr-worshiji, and Mary-worship liad overspread Cliris-
tendoni. Arabia, in iiarticiilar. had become tlie seat
of a gross idolatry, the superstitious Arabs being
divided between two Pagan sects, tlie Tsabiaiis, wlio
were worsliippers of images, and the Magians, wlio
were worshippers of lire. Jews also had settled in
large numbers in the Arabian Peninsula from the
time of their dispersion by the Romans ; and Chris-
tianity also, from a very early period of its liistory,
had found a lodgment in that country.
At the birth of .Mohammed, his countrymen, while
they worshipped one Supreme God, whom they
termed Allah, combined with Iiis worship that of
angels and of men. Their idolatry seems to have
partaken of an astronomical character, the number of
idols in the temple of Mecca being 360, which was
the precise number of days in the .\rab year. And
while their Pagan deities were thus numerous, the
subdivisions among the Christian sects in the Penin-
S[da it were difficult to enumerate. The entire East-
ern Church groaned under the contentions and con-
flicts of Arians, Sabellians, Nestorians, and Eut\'-
chians. In .\rabia itself, Ebionites, Beryllians,
Nazarenes, and Collyridians, were engaged in eager
struggle for ascendency or for existence.
Such was the state of matters when the great teach-
er of Islamism arose to denounce the all but univer-
sally pre\'ailing idolatry, and to proclaim, as with a
voice of thunder, tlie great truth tliat God is One.
Mohammed, who claimed this mission as his own,
was born in April A. D. 509 at Mecca, the sacred city
wliich contained tlie Ka.\ba (which see), or holy
shrine of the Arabians. The birth-place of the pro-
phet was a rich commercial emporium, and among
the most prosperous of its merchants was the family
of Hasliem, who belonged to the tribe of Koreish,
in whom was hereditarilj' vested the guardianship of
the Kaobii, a post alike of honour and of protit.
From this honourable family Mohammed was de-
scended. His great-grandfather had been governor
of Mecca when it had been attacked by the Ethio-
pians, and had signalized himself by his valour in
its defence; and his son, .Abd-al-Motalleb, succeeded
to the same post, and sustained it with equal bravery,
having, only two months before the birth of his
grandson, saved the city from capture by the Abys-
sinian viceroy. Tliis valiant governor of Mecca
lived to the very advanced age of 110 years, and was
the fatlicr of six daughters and thirteen sons. Ab-
dallali, the father of the prophet, was one of the
youngest of this numerous jirogeny ; and so capti-
vating was the beauty of his person, that as Wash-
ington Irving informs us, on tlie authority of East-
ern tradition, no fewer than two hundred maidens of
his tribe died of broken hearts at the marriage of
tlie handsome youth to Amina, a daughter also of
the Koreish tribe. The only ofl'spring of this mar-
riage was Mohammed. His father died prematurely
on returning from a commercial journey, leaving
Amina and her child but imperfectly provided lor.
Abd-al-Motalleb now took the infant Mohamiiied
and his widowed mother under his .special care,
sending the child to be nursed by a Bedouin woman,
the wife of a shepherd, who, however, speedily sur-
rendered her charge, tliinkiiig him to be possessed
by an evil spirit.
While yet very young, Mohammed was rendered
an orphan by the death of his nioiher. His aged
grandfather now befriended the child more anxiously
than ever, and with his dying words commended him
to the care of his eldest son, Abu Tlialeb, who suc-
ceeded him in the guardianship of the Kaaba. Thus
the childhood and youth of the future prophet of Ara-
bia were spent in a household where the strict obser-
vance of religious rites and ceremonies tended to
jirepare him for the important part which he was
destined yet to act as the founder of a new religion.
At this early period of his life he began to evince
that love of solitude and that calm thoughtful frame
of mind which so peculiarly marked his after ca-
reer. To a meditative spirit Mohammed added a ha-
bit of acutely observing men and manners. Desirous
even at twelve years of age to extend his field of ob-
servation he accompanied his uncle in a caravan
journey to Syria ; and it is generally believed that
while thus engaged, he acquired those strong im-
pressions of the e\il of idolatry, which seemed like a
ruling passion to call forth the utmost energies ot
his heart and mind. In his mercantile speculations
he was remarkably successful, and such was the
honour and the integrity which marked all his deal-
ings, that before he had reached his twenty-fifth
year, he received the title of the Aniin or faithful.
The high character which he had thus earned, re-
commended him to the notice of Khadijah, a wealthy
widow, by whom he was employed to carry on her
commercial speculations. The confidence she re-
posed in the youthful Mohammed led this lady to
entertain towards him feelings of a still more tender
kind wliich terminated in marriage.
Of the fifteen years which elapsed between the
marriage of Mohammed and the commencement cf
his career as a prophet, little is said by his biogra-
phers. By the honourable alliance which he had
formed, he was now possessed of both rank and
wealth. Keliriiig therefore almost wholly from
commercial luirsuits, he spent much of his time in
meditation, and throughout the whole of the month
Kamadhaii he gave himself up to solitary ]irayer.
It was during this deeply interesting portion of
the prophet's life that he was led to contrast the
])iirity of the primitive faith with the corruptions
which had from time to time been enurafted on it.
His soul burned with indignation while he thouglit of
the fearful exient to which the religion of God had
been perverted by tlie corruiit devices of men. Is it
not possible, he asked himself, to rescue mankind
from the worship of idols, and to restore the worship
of the One true and living God? The accomiilish-
MOHAMMED.
461
nient of such a task appeareri to liim the liigliest and
the holiest mission wliich a man couki uiidertake.
From tliat moment his decision was formed, and he
resolved to stand boldly forth in the face of an idola-
trous world as the Apostle of the Divine Unity.
" The feeling," says Neander, '• of the supremacy of
God above all creatnres, of the immeasurable distance
between Him and all things that are made ; the feel-
ing of the perfect independence of the almighty and
incomiirehenslble One, — this was the fundamental
prevailing key-note of his religious convictions. But
the other element necessary to the perfect develop-
ment of divine consciousness, the feeling of relation-
ship and comniunion with God. this was altogether
defective in Muhamed. Thus he had but a one-
sided comprehension of the divine attributes, the
idea of oniiiipotence suppressing the idea of a holy
love; .and hence omnipotence appeared to him as a
limitless self-will ; and though he had occasionally a
sense of God's love and mercy, beaming through
him in the way of religions consciousness, yet even
this was in antagonism with that exclusive ground-
tone of his system, and was necessarily marked
therebv with a species of particularism. Hence the
prevailing doctrine of fatalism, and the utter denial
of moral freedom. As the etliical form given to the
idea of God determines the character of the moral spi-
rit to whicli a religion gives birth, so, consequently,
although some isolated sublime moral sentiments,
strangely contrasted with the ruling spirit of his re-
ligion, may be met with in the system of Jfuhanie*!.
yet, taking it as a whole, it is singularly defective
through this want of fiuid.amental truth in the ethi-
cal comprehension of the idea of God. The God
who is regarded but as an almiglity self-will, may be
worshipped by a mere unreserved subjection to that
will, by a servile obedience, by the performance of
various outward acts, as works of benevolence,
which it may have plea-^ed him to command, as
.signs of honour to his name ; or homage may be
rendered him. on the other hand, by the destruction
of his enemies, as idolaters, by the en.slaving of un-
believers, by the vain repetition of prayers, by fasts,
lustrations and pilgrimages. Through the contracted
notion of the divine nature, Muhamed's .system was
also wanting, as to its moral character, in the all-
perv.isive and illuminating principle of a holy love.
The ethical element being thus defective, no room is
found for the feeling which points to the necessity
0^ redemption. We read in the Koran of the origi-
nal state of man, and of his eating of the forbidden
fruit, but the tradition is given not as it exists in the
Old or New Testament, but rather as it is found in
the apocrvphal-Je wish or Jewish Christian stories;
as something, indeed, peculiarly fictitious, and only
as it agreed with the poetical disposition of A[uha-
mcd and his people, without any relation to its
ethics, or comiection with the substance of the reli-
gion ; so that Midinmedanism. as far as its peculiar
character is concerned, would lose nothing were this
tradition entirely left out. This constitutes, in fact,
the great distinction between Midiamed.anism and
Christianity, that the founder entirely denies the
want of a redeemer and redem])lion.''
At the commencement of his career as a religious
reformer, Mohammed had no desire to establish a
new religion, but simply to restore that pure Theism
■which he found lying at the foundation of both Ju-
daism and Christianity. His labours were in the
outset limited to his own countrymen, and his prevail-
ing desire was to recover theui from gross idolatry,
simply in its Pagan aspect ; meeting with violent
opposition, however, not only from the heathen,
but also from Jews .and Christians, he took higher
ground, and declared himself to be sent from God to
be the restorer of pure Theism, delivering it from
those impurities with which it seemed to be mingled
both in Judaism and Christianitv. The mission
which he now undertook, accordingly, w.as to revive
what he termed the religion of Abraham, of Mo.ses,
and of Jesus. The written word, he alleged, was
brought to him from heaven in detached passages by
the angel Gabriel, .and these portions of revel.ation,
when afterw.ards collected into a volume, were called
the Koi!,\x (which see), a volume recognised down
to this day as the sacred book of the Mohammedans.
It was in the night of power, as it is termed, in
the mouth of .abstinence, that the angel Gabriel first
appeared to the prophet. A condensed account of
this strange vision is given by Mr. Osburn, in his
' Religions of the M'orld.' It runs as follows : " Mo-
hammed was awakened one dark night by the angel
Gabriel, as usual, who brought with liim a wonder-
ful female creature, called Al liorak, or the light-
ning. The prophet was directed to moimt, .and the
creature permitted him, on hearing from the angel
the high favour in which he stood with God, on con-
dition of the prophet's prayers on his own behalf.
The steed cleaves the air with the swiftness of light-
ning. The prophet is directed todisnniunt and pray
on Mount Sinai, and ,at Bethlehem, the birth-jilace
of Jesus Christ. He then hears and disregards the
voices of two fair damsels, imiiloring him to st.ay and
converse with them ; the one on the right hand, who,
as the angel tells him, impersonated .Judaism, the
other on the left representing Christianity; and
presses forward. They hurry onward, and alight at
the gate of the holy temple of Jerusalem. Having
fastened the bridle of Borak to a ring, he entered
the temple, .and found there Abraham, Moses, and
.Jesus, with miiny other prophets, with whom he con-
versed and prayed for some time. While thus en-
gaged, a ladder of light was let down from heaven,
and its lower end rested on the sluakra. or founda-
tion-stone of the temple, which was likewise the
stone on which .Jacob slept at Luz. Aided by the
angel, Mohammed d.arted up the Ladder with the r.a-
pidity of lightning, and entered the first heaven,
where he .saw Adam, the father of mankind, who
embraced him as the greatest of his descendants.
4G2
MOHAMMED.
He tlieii moiiiited to the second heaven where was
Noah, tlie second parent of tlie human race, wlio
greeted him witli the same saUilalion. In the thh-d
heaven sat Asrael, the aiigel of deatli ; in the fonrdi
heaven, Isratil, the angel of pity- To tlie tiftli hea-
ven the new prophet was welcomed by Aaron ; to
the sixth by Moses, who wept wlien he foresaw the
far greater success with which Mohammed's mission
would be attended than his own. In the seventh
lieaven he was received by Abraham, and from
thence he mounted to the dwelling of God himself,
which is described in language taken altogether from
the Bible. Before the Divine presence .stood the
pattern whence the Caaba had been built, and roimd
this Mohammed was permitted to walk in the angelic
])rocession that incessantly encircled it. Gabriel
now could go no further ; but tlie prophet was per-
mitted to stand before God, and to hear from Hiin
tlie command to teach his disciples to jiray five times
daily. He then descended by the ladder of light to
the temple at Jeru.salem,- found AI Borak where he
had left her, and niountiug, was instantaueoiisly
transported to his bed in the lioiise of Mutem Ibn
Adi. So brief a portion of earthly time had been
occupied by this marvellous journey that a pitcher of
water, svliich he accidentally upset in leaving his bed
to set out, had not reached the ground on his return,
and he was able to catch and replace it without one
drop being spilt."
" After this appearance," says Mr. Macbride, in
his ' Mohaniinedan Religion Explained,' " there is
said to have been an intermission of two years,
during which he suffered hallucination of his senses,
and several times contemplated self-destruction.
His friends were alarmed, and called in exorcists,
and lie himself doubted the soundness of his
mind. Once he said to his wife, 'I hear a sound
and see a light : I am afraid there are gins ispirits)
in me:' and again, 'I am afraid I am a Kaliin ;'
that is, a soothsayer possessed by Satan. 'God,'
replied Kliadijah, ' will never permit this, for thon
keepost thy engagements, and assiste.st thy rela-
tives;' and, according to some, .she added, 'Thon
wilt be the prophet of thy nation.' These sounds,
as from a clock or a bell, are enumerated as symp-
toms of epilepsy. In this morbid state of feeling he
is .said to have heard a voice, and on raising his head,
ht'liijld G.abriel, who assured hiin he was the prophet
of God. brightened, he returned home, and called
for covering, lie had a lit, and they poured cold
water on him ; and when he came to himself he
lieard those words (Ixxiv.), ' Oh, thon covered one,
arise, and picich, and magnify thy Lord ;' and hence-
forth, we are told, he received revelations without
intermission- Before this supposed revelation he
had been medically treated on account of the evil
eye ; and when the Koran lirst descended to him he
fell into I'ainting fits, when, after violent slniddcrings,
his eyes closed, and his mouth foamed. Kliadijah
olTered to bring him to one who would dispossess
him of the evil spirit, but he forbade her. All his
visions, however, were not of this painful nature
To Ilarith cbn HIsham's inquiry, he said the angel
often ajipeared to him in a human form (coinnioniy
as his friend Dihla), and sometimes he had a revela-
tion without any appearance. ' Many,' says an
author much used by Weil, ' he had immediately
t'roin God, as in his journey to his throne ; many in
dreams; and it was one of his common sayings, that
a prophet's dream is a revelation.' According to
-Ayeslia, whenever the angel appeared to him, though
extremely cold, perspiration burst forth on his fore-
head, his eyes became red, and he would bellow like a
young camel. ' On one of these occasions,' says a
traditionist, ' his shoulder fell upon mine, and I never
felt one so heavy.' Once the commmiicator came
to him riding on a camel, and he trembled violently,
and knelt down. He was angry when gazed iijion
during these fits. He looked like a drunken man,
and they thought he would have died. It is ditliciilt
to t'orin a positive judgment on such a person ; yet
enthusiasm, if at any time it deserted him, seems to
have revived, for his conduct, during his last illness,
is not that of an hypocrite."
The first convert whom Mohammed gained over
to his new religion was his own wife Kliadijah, fol-
lowed soon after by the youthful Ali, and by Zaid,
his slave, whom he immedi.-ilely emaneipated, but
who, notwithstanding, still continued in his service.
Beyond his own family the first who acknowledged
him as a prophet sent from heaven was Abubkkr
(which see), a man of rank and riches, who at'ler-
wards .succeeded him in the caliphate. For three
years he was engaged in laying the foundation of
his great undertaking, and so slowly did his reli-
gion make way, that at the end of that period his
[iroselytcs amounted to no more than fourteen per-
sons. Not contented with so small a number of fol-
lowers, he resolved now to make a public declara-
tion of his religion. Begiiiiiiiig with the heads of
his own family, he called njion them to recognize
him as a prophet of God, and Ali, the son of Abu
Tlialeb, as his caliph or successor. The heads of the
Koreish, however, refused to yield to his demands ;
but nothing discouraged, he addressed him.-'elf to the
great body of the people, inveighing against the [ire-
valent idolatry, and exhorting both Jews and Chris-
tians to receive his book along with their own. At
first he was satisfied that his religion should be re-
garded as one of many religions which he declare
were alike acceptable in the sight of God. Even in
the more public ditfusion of the new faith, he met
with but little success; and so persecuted were his
few followers, that they were under the neee.ssity of
seeking refuge in Abyssinia. Amid all opposition
the prophet persisted in asserting his claims to he
accounted a heavenly messenger, and no longer con-
fining his mission to the .Arabians, he declared its
extent to be limited only by the world itself. His
doctrine was summed up in his own aphori.sm,
MOHAMMED.
4G3
"There is no (hn\ but God, and Mohaininetl is liis
propliet."
At lenjjtli came the year of mourning, as it is
termed, wlien he was deprived by dcatli of liis be-
loved wife, Kliadijiili, and his kind uncle, Abu Tha-
leb, wlio, though he put no faitli in Mohammed's pre-
tensions, ever acted towards him as a faithful protec-
tor and friend. Thus left comparatively undefeuded,
he judged it prudent to retire from Mecca, but after
an absence of only one month, he found his way back
to the sacred city. Taking advantage of the oppor-
tunity which the annual pilgrimage atTorded to gain
proselytes to his opinions, he made many but inef-
fectual attempts to convince the strangers of the divi-
nity of his mission. Both the pilgrims and his fel-
low-citizens were alike unbelieving. The disappoint-
ed prophet now addressed himself to the Jews, of
whom there were a large niunber in Mecca and its
neighbourliood, and who, looking as they were for
the consolation of Israel, would be ready, he flat-
tered himself, to recognize liim as the long-expected
Messiah. Accommodating himself, accordingly, to
these Jews who had been oppressed by the idolaters,
he represented his mission as designed to restore the
original glory of the religion of Mo.?es ; and still fur-
ther to please this class of his hearers, he instructed
his followers to tuni their faces in prayer towards
Jerusalem. All, however, was unavailing ; the Jews
rejected him, and enraged at the failure of his at-
tempts in this quarter, he substituted the ATonJa as
the Kiblali of his followers, instead of Jerusalem,
charged the Jews with having corrupted the religion
of their fathers, and declared that he was sent to re-
store the only jiure faith, that of Abraham.
Thus far Mohammed, while he asserted himself to
be a prophet sent from God, had made no pretensions
to the possession of the gift of miracles. Now, how-
ever, he changed his tone in tliis respect, and boldly
set forth tliat one night in a vision he had been car-
ried (irst to Jerusalem, and thence through the hea-
vens to within a bow-shot of the throne of God.
The story for a time met with little credit, until
Ahnhelr publicly declared his tirm belief in all that
came from the mouth of Mohammed ; and accord-
ingly we find that to this day his followers, appeal-
ing to the traditions, are accu.stomed to avow their
belief in the prophet's heavenly journey.
At this point in his history Mohammed began to
assume sovereignty over his converts. Having met
twelve of them on Mount Akaba, at a short distance
from Mecca, he bound them by an oath to renounce
idolatry, not to steal, not to commit fornication, not
to put their female infants to death, not to calum-
niate, and to obey all his reasonable commands. He
asscuibled them for public worship once a-week, reg-
ularly on the Fridays, when he delivered a dis-
course to them on some point either of doctrine or
duty. 'Ilie twelve who were thus organized as not
only his followers, but his subjects, belonged to Ya-
treb, a town not far from .Mecca, to wliich citv ihev
annually resorted on pilgrimage. The next year, on
their retm-n, their number had increased to .seventy-
three, and Moliammed, meeting them by night, re-
ceived their renewed protestations of fidelity, and
promised them Paradise if they fell in his cause.
He now, in imitation of Jesus Christ, selected twelve
to be liis apostles.
The idolaters of Mecca, and more especially the
Koreish, were not a little alarmed at the aspect
which matters had assumed. A religious crusade
had been proclaimed by Mohammed against the wor-
ship of false gods, and a political association had
been formed, which threatened the peace and safety
of the community. It was resolved, therefore, to put
the alleged prophet to death, and a person from each
tribe was chosen, the more effectually to compass In's
destruction. His flight from Mecca was therefore
absolutely necessary. ."Vccompanicd by Abubekr and
All, he left the sacred city, and after wandering
about for sixteen days, he reached Yatreb, which
was from that time called Mediiuit Alnahbi, the city
of the prophet. The Hegiraor flight of Mohammed,
which coincides with 16th July A. n. OS'i, was ap-
pointed by the Caliph Omar to be the Mohammedan
era, and has continued ever since to mark the lunar
years of the Mohanunedan nations.
On entering Medina with his companions, the pro-
phet was welcomed with acclamations of loyalty and
devotion ; his adherents, who had been scattered by
persecution, rallied round him, and from this time a
distinction was recognized between the faithfid of
Mecca and those of Medina. Mohammed now as-
sumed tlie twofold oflice of king and priest, and, hav-
ing purchased a piece of ground, he built a dwelling-
house and a maxjiil or mosque. He married about
this time Ai/esha,lhe daughter of .•lt«?«7,j-, and effected
also a marriage between A/i iiud his favourite daugh-
ter Fuiima. Having established himself in Medina,
and become an independent sovereign, he entered
upon a new career, tliat of warrior ; propagating the
new religion by the sword, and waging war against
all unbelievers. His course was now marked by
carnage and plunder. His followers were allowed to
take the female captives as wi\ es and concubines ;
and the maxim was inculcated upon all the faithful,
tliat " one drop of blood shed in the cause of God, or
one night spent in arms, is of more avail than two
months einployed in fasting and prayer. Whoso-
ever falls in battle, his .sins are forgiven : at the day
of judgment his wounds shall be resplendent as Ver-
million, and odoriferous as musk ; and the loss of his
limbs shall be supplied by the wings of angels and
clierubiins." The Arabs listening to such doctrines
were fired with enthusiasm ; and thirsting for the
blood of infidels they rushed fearlessly into battle.
While thus acting the warrior, Mohammed did not
neglect the duties of a priest. He constantly led
the devotions of his followers, oft'ered up the public
prayer, and preached at the weekly festival on the
Fridavs, .About this time he instituted the fast of
4G4
MOIIAM.MED.
the iiiDiitli U;i!iiailli;ui, and to ilistiiigiiisli his peo-
ple from tlu! .lews and Clii-istians, he substituted for
the trumpets of the one. and the bells of the other,
a special class of oHicer.s called mwjzzinx or criers,
whose dutv it was to .summon the faithful at the
hours of praver. The first mosque was built in a
burvius-grouiui. ami the prophet himself assisted in
its erection. At first he w,as tolerant to those, wlie-
thor .lews. Christians, or idolatrous Pagans, who re-
fused to embrace Islamism, hoping to win thetn
over bv persuasion to his cause; but when he des-
paired of their conversion by gentle means, .and
found himself strong enough to coerce, he girt on
his sword, and went forth at the head of his armed
bands, scouring the deserts in search of blood and
))linider. His first warlike engagement is known
l)v tlie name of the battle of Bedr. The story is
thus brietiv told : Receiving at this time the intelli-
gence tliat an unusually wealthy carav.an was return-
ing from .Svria, guarded by a strong escort from
Mecca, he resolved to lead his limited forces against
it. The news, however, of his crusade reached
^leeca. and his ancient enemies, the Koreishites, .at
once armed, and sallied forth to the defence of the
caravan. In consequence of their discovering the
track of the Moslem p.arty, they gave information by
which the mercli.andise was conveyed to a place of
.safety ; but, rendered bold by this escape, and burning
with rage .against Mohammed, it was resolved, in a
council of war, nnder the influence of the aged and
intrepid Abu Jahl, to give battle to the Moslems.
The engagement was very fierce on both sides, and
the Mohammedans were about to give way, when their
leader, pretending to be suddenly inspired, cast a
handful of dust into the air, and cursed his foes.
His warriors, thus emboldened, renewed the fight,
and the Afeccans were signally routed, Abu Jahl
himself was slain, some of the most illustrious Kor-
eishites taken prisoners, and heavy ransoms dem.and-
cd, whilst a very satisfactory spoil was divided
amongst the Moslems,
Enr.aged .at the signal defeat tliey had snfi'ered on
the field of Bedr, the Meccans organized tlieir forces
in the following year under the leadership of Aim
Sofian. A second battle was fought on Mount Ohud,
.six miles to the north of Medina; but on this occa-
sion, after a desperate struggle in wliicli Mohammed
was wounded, the Moslems lost the day. This dis-
astrous engagement had almost proved fatjil to the
cause of Islam, as the followers of the prophet were
tempted to deny the divine authority of his mis.sioii ;
but to quiet their murmm's he persuaded them that
their ill success was to be traced to the sins of some,
.and the nnl)olief of others.
The following year the enemies of the Moslems,
encouraged by their success, laid siege to Medina
with an army of 10,000 men, Mohannned was tm-
willing to risk an engagement in the open field, but
entrenched himself behind the defences. The Mec-
cans .s.at down before the walls of the city for twenty
days, but dissensions having broken out in theii
camp, and their tents having been overturned bv a
tempest, they retmaied home without having accom-
plished anything. No sooner had tlie enemy raised
the siege thiin the Moslems attacked the Jews in
Jlediua, murdering their men, and selling their wo-
men and children as slaves. Following up the advan-
tage he had gained, Mohammed .attacked the Jewisli
fortress of Khaibar, and having taken it by storm, he
divided the phmder among his soldiers. On this
occasion the life of the prophet was endangered, a
female slave having sought to poison him, and al-
most succeeded in her .attempt. On being asked
wh.at w,as her motive, the slave replied, " I w'ished to
ascertain if thou wert a prophet ; if thou art, it will
not hurt thee ; if not, I shall deliver my country frotn
an impostor."
Medina being thus completely in his power, Mo-
hammed now formed the resolution of subjugating
Mecca also. He had strictly enjoined the Moslems
to turn their eyes five times each day towards the
s.acred city, .and he himself never lost sight of the
Kaaba day nor night. Warned of God, as he ima-
gined, in a dream, he set out at the head of 14,000
men to revisit the city from which he had been com-
pelled to fly. On reaching Medina he concluded a
ten years' truce on condition that all the inhabitants
of Mecca, who were so inclined, sliould be at liberty
to join liini, and th.at he and his people might come
on iiilgrimage un.armed, provided they rem.ained in
the city only three days. The next year, Mohammed
returned to conqilete his pilgrimage, and according to
the treaty he left the city on the fourth day. The
faithfulness which he thus showed to the promises
he had given, gained over some to his party, and
more especially three persons of note, Othman ebn
Telha, the guardian of the Ka.aba. and Khaled, and
Amru, the future conquerors of Syria .and Kgypt.
The prophet had risen rapidly both in power ami
influence among his countrymen in Arabia, and
proud of the distinction he had won. he desp.atched
mission<aries to three foreign potentates, inviting
them to adopt the .Moslem faith. The.se were He-
raclius, the E.astern enqieror. the prefect of Egypt,
and Sapor, king of I'ersia. By the two first they
were treated with respect, and dismissed with pre-
sents. The last tore the letter to fr.agmcnts, and
wrote to his viceroy at Yemen, that immediiite steps
should be t.akeii to punish the inipostor.
Mohammed kept in view the conquest of Mecca,
and regardless of the truce, he set out with a large
army to surprise the sacred city ; and after encoun-
tering Abu Sofian, and taking him captive, he en
tered Mecca in triunqih, passing through its gates
with a countless host of followers. Mounted on his
favourite camel, he rode directly to the Kajiba, and
performing the seven circuits, he entered the temple
and destroyed the idols with his own hands, not
sparing even the statues of Abraham and Ishmael.
The Meccans gave in their adherence to the religion
MOHAMMEDANS.
465
of tlie ll^olplle^, and it wiis etiaoterl tliat hencefortli no
unbeliever slioiild dare to enter tlie precincts of the
holy city. Tliis was tlie crowning achieveinent of
Mohammed's martial prowess, and no sooner had he
ert'ected the conquest of Mecca than the Arabian
tribes generally hastened to submit themselves to
his authority. An obstinate remnant, however,
still refused to yield, and tlie battle of Hoiiain,
only three miles from Mecca, though at first it ap-
peared to threaten his destruction, terminated in
his final triumph. From the field of Honain ho
inarched without delay to the siege of 'lay efi'; but
at the end of twenty days he was compelled to sound
a retreat. His |irowess had excited, however, such
awe in the minds of all the tribes, particularly of
the north of .\rabia, that they hastened to despatch
legates to Mecca and Medina to express their sub-
mission to the new prophet. All Arabia was now
purged from idolatry, and embraced the religion of
Islam, irohammed ne.\t led an expedition into Sy-
ria, which, though its territorial conquests were
limited in themselves, difi'used throughout the wide
extent of the Roman dominions a dread of the Mos-
lem power, and led to the ultimate subjugation of
the Eastern Empire.
If, as the whole course of his history would .seem
to indicate, it had been the grand object of Moham-
med's ambition to establi.sh to himself a name, as the
founder of a new faith, his desire had been attained
already to a wonderful extent. He had been pro-
mulgating the religion of the Koran, and in the
course of only a few years he had seen it widely dif-
fused on every side. But now that the foundation
of his empire was laid, his own task was near its
termination, and he was about to leave the world.
The infirmities of age were creeping fast over him.
and his constitution had never completely recovered
from the etfects of the poison administered at Kliai-
bar. Feeling that his end was not far distant, he
resolved upon making a final pilgrimage to Mecca.
Though in much weakness he accomplished the jour-
ney to the sacred city, sacrificed si.\ty-tliree camels,
and liberated sixty-three slaves," in honour of the
number of years he had lived upon the earth, and
having taken a last look of the venerated Kaaba, he
returned to Medina to die.
It is not a little remarkable that the last hours of
Mohammed's life are not only characterized by the ut-
most serenity and peace, but betray not the slightest
misgivings as to the reality of his mission as a pro-
phet sent from God. He expired in the arms of his
beloved Ayesha, feebly uttering the words, '• To the
highest companions in Paradise," which were iin
derstood as referring to his desire for heavenly
bliss. Thus died Mohammed, the great prophet of
Arabia, in his sixty-fourth year, on the 8th June,
A. D. 632, having in the course of ten short years,
which elapsed between the Ilegira and his death,
planted in the East a religion which has taken root
so tirinlv, that amid all llie revolutions and changes
II.
of tsvelve centuries, it still exercises a powerful con-
trolling influence over the minds and consciences o1
140,000,000 of luuiian beings.
MOHAMMEDANS, the believers in the religious
system devised and ]n-omulgated by .Mohammed, tlie
great prophet of Arabia. The principles of Ishiin,
as this religion was termed by its originator, are said
to rest on four foundations : — 1. Tho Koran. 2. The
Soniiah, or Tradition. 3. The harmony in opinion
of the orthodox Mohammedan theologians. 4. K/as,
reasoning. The Koran is regarded by the faithful
as the word of God ; the Sonnah as the word of his
inspired iirophet. The first, accordingly, is looked
upon as divine, both in language and meaning, the
second in meaning only.
The religion o{ Islam is both theoretical and prac-
tical ; or, in other words, it is divided into faith and
practice. The faith includes six articles : 1. Belief
in God. 2. In his angels. 3. In his Scriptures. 4. In
his prophets. 5. In the resurrection. 6. In predes-
tination. The Din or practice, again, includes four
points : 1. Prayers and purifications. 2. Alms. 3.
Fasting. 4. The pilgrimage to Mecca.
The first and fundamental principle of the Moliam-
medaii faith is usually stated in these words : " There
is no God but God," thus asserting the existence and
unity of the Divine Being in opposition to the Poly-
theism of the heathen, on the one hand, and the
Trinity of the Christians (111 the other, whieh latter
Mohammed regarded as equivalent to Tritheism, or
the assertion of three Gods. The peculiar designa-
tion of the Deity, in the mouth of the faithful, la Allah,
besides which there are ninety-nine epithets appli-
ed to him ; and to assist them in repeating these
they use a rosary. The sovereignty of God is a
favourite doctrine with all Moliammedaus, and pre-
destination is taught in almost every chapter of the
Koran. As originally enunciated by the i>ropliet,
the Moslem creed was simple, and received the un-
doubting belief of all his followers. In process of
time questions began to be started in regard to the
nature of God, which gave rise to various sects or
divisions, the chief of which were the Motazelites,
who denied the existence of eternal attributes as be-
longing to the Divine essence; ihe Kaden'Ics, who
denied the Divine decrees, while their opponents,
the Jaberite-9, declared that man is constrained by the
Divine decrees, whieh are immutable ; the Almor-
iq/ites, who declared that the faithful could not be
injured by sin, nor unbelievers benefited by obedience,
while their ojiponents, the Waairlitrn, maintained
that believers, however orthodux in their creed, would
endure eternal punishment if they eoiilinned in sin.
The Mohammedans entertain peculiar opinions in
regard to avr/d-i. alleging that ''they have pure and
subtile bodies, created of fire ; iieilher is there among
them any ditTerence of sexes, or earnal appetites, and
they have neither lather nor mother. Also they are
endowed with dilVcrent forms, and severally preside
over ministrations. Some stand, sonu! incline down ■
2 R
I
4G0
MOHAMMf:DANS.
wards, some sit, or adore with a lowered fureliead ;
otlicrs sing hs-mns and praises of God, or land and
extol tlieir Creator, or ask pardon for linman offences.
Some of tliein record the deeds of men, and guard
over the human race ; others support the throne of
(rod, or go about it, and perform other works wliieli
are pleasing to the Deity." Two angels, who are
changed daily, are assigned to every man to record
his good and bad actions. The most eminent of
the angelic liost are believed to be Gabriel, who
brouglit down ilie Koran from heaven ; Michael,
the patron of the .Jews, who fights against God's
enemies ; .\zrael, the angel of death ; and Isratil,
who will blow the trumpet on the resurrection morn-
ing. The Koran alleges, in regard to the evil angels,
that Satan was cast down from heaven for refusing
to worship or do homage to Adam, and in conse-
quenee obtained the name of Erlis (which see).
The Mohammedans also believe in an intermediate
race between angels and men, called Jinn, who, like
the angels, have bodies created from fire, but of a
grosser structure, who propagate their kind, and
though long-lived, are not immortal. Tliese beings
are said to have inhabited the earth under a succes-
sion of sovereigns before the creation of .\dam. Mo-
hammed declared that his mission included the JtJis.
Another article of the Moslem creed refers to tlie
prophets, wliose number they allege exceeds 800,000.
They begin with Adam, and end witli MohauMiied,
who is far superior to every one of them. They are
considered as tVee from mortal sin, and professors of
Islam. The books wliicli God has sent down, from
time to time, containing his revealed will, are be-
lieved by the MoliammedMus to amount to 104, of
which ten were given to Adam ; fifty to Seth ; tliirty
to Knuch or Idris ; ten to Abraham ; one, wliicli
was the law, to Moses ; one, the Psalter, to David ;
one to Jesus, the gospel ; and the Koran to Moham-
med, which has abrogated all the rest that are ex-
tant.
The last article of faith among the followers of the
prophet is the day of judgment, including the inter-
mediate state. They believe that the dead are in-
terrogated by two beings of tremendous aspect, named
Monkey and A^akir, (see Dbad, Examination of
TilK,) concerning the unity of God, and the mission
of the prophet. Unbelievers will be beaten with
iron maces, and their b(iilies gnawed by dragons till
the resm-rection ; while believers will be refreshed
with gales wat"ied from paradise. The soids of the
prophets are admitted immediately into paradise, and
those of martyrs jiass into the crops of green birds
which feed <in tlie fruits of paradise. The souls of
ordinary believers are supposed to hover near their
graves. It is believed by the Moliannncdans tliat the
Rksuriii;ction (which seei, though its precise lime
is known oidy to God, will be preceded by certain
signs, such as the appearance of the sun in the west ;
the appearance of an extraordinary wild beast, who
ivil! distinguish between believers and unbelievers,
by a peculiar mark u|)oii their faces ; the manifesta-
tion of Dajal (which see), or the false Messiah, who,
after a short but imiversal sovereignty, will be shiin
by Jesus, who will descend on the mosque of Da-
mascus, and reign in prosperity and peace till his
death, and the last Im.'lm, who is now believed to be
lying hid in a cave, will appearand act as his deputy.
Tlie Mohammedan Hell has seven compartments;
the first appropriated to unworthy Moslems; the
second to Jews ; the third to Christians ; the fourth
to T.sabians; the fifth to the Maglans ; the sixth to
idolaters ; and the seventh to hypocrites. The Mo-
hammedan heaven is thoroughly sensual in its char-
acter, its highest pleasures and enjoyments being of
a carnal description.
The practical religion of the Koran attaches the
highest value to prayer, which among the followers
of Mohannned is invariably jireceded by ablution,
on the principle that while prayer is the key to para-
dise, it will only be accepted from persons bodily
clean. The morning ablutions and prayers are thus
described by Mr. Macbride, following the account
given by Mr. Lane, in his 'Modern Egyptians:'
" The believer first washes his hands three times, say-
ing, ' In the naine of God the mercifid, the comjias-
sionate : Praise be to God, who hath sent down wa-
ter for purification, and hath made Islam a light, and
a conductor, and a guide to thy gardens — the g.ar-
dens of delight, and to thy mansion, the mansion of
peace.' Then, rinsing his mouth thrice, he -says,
' 0 God, as.sist me in reading the Book, and in com-
memorating thee, and in thanking thee, and in wor-
shipping thee well.' Then thrice he throws water
up his nostrils, .saying, ' O God, make me to smell the
odours of paradise, and bless me with its delights, and
make me not to .smell the smell of the fires [of hell.]'
Then he proceeds to wash his face three times, sav-
ing, ' 0 God, whiten my face with thy light on the
day when thou shalt whiten the face of thy favour-
ites, and do not blacken my face on the day when
thou .shalt blacken the faces of thine enemies.' His
right hand and arm, up to the elbow, are washed
next thrice, with the prayer, ' 0 God, give me my
book in my right hand, and reckon with me with an
easy reckoning.'
" The allusion is to a book in whicli all his actions
arc recorded : that of the just is to be placed in his
right hand, that of the wicked in his left, which will
be tied behind his back ; and when lie proceeds to
his left hand he says, ' O God, give me not my book
in my lel't hand, nor behind my back, and do not
reckon with me with a diflicult reckoning, nor m.ake
me to be one of the peojile of tire.' His head he
washes but once, accompanying the action with this
petition, 'O God, cover me with thy mercy, and
pour down thy blessing upon ine, and shade me un-
der the shadow of thy company on the day when
there shall be no other shade.' Putting into his ears
the tips of his forefingers, he is to say, ' O God, make
me to be one of those who hear wliat is said, and
MOHAMMEDANS.
467
obey what is best,' or, ' 0 God, make me to hear
gooil.' Wiping his neck with In's lingers, he says,
' O God, free my neck from tlie fire, and keep me
from chains, collars, and fetters.' Lastly, he waslies
his feet, saying, tirst, ' 0 God, make linn my feet
upon Sirat on the day wlien my feet sliall slip on it;'
and, secondly, ' Make my labour to be approved, and
my sin forgiven, and my works accepted, merchan-
dize that shall not perisli, through thy pardon, 0
Mighty One, O most forgiving through thy mercy,
O Thou most merciful of those who show mercy.'
Having completed the al)hition, he continues, look-
ing up to heaven, ' Thy perfection, 0 God, I extol
with thy praise ; I testify there is no God but thee
alone. Thou hast no companion. I implore thy
forgiveness, and turn to thee with repentance.' Then,
looking down to the earth, he adds the creed, and
slioidd recite, once at least, the chapter on Power."
When water cannot be procured, or its use might
be injurious to the health, sand is permitted to be
substituted. That the faithful may perform their
ablutions before entering the mosques, the courts are
sup]died with water. It is interesting to observe the
mode in which tlie Moslem goes through his devo-
tions. " The worshipper," we are told, f raising his
open hands, and toucliing with the ends of his
thund.is the lobes of his ears, repeats the Tacbir, that
is, Allah Akbar, ' God is most great.' |j5till stand-
ing, and placing his hands before him, a little below
the girdle, the left within the right, he recites the
opening chapter of the Koran, and a few verses frojii
any other which he pleases : he often chooses tlie
112th. He theiijaf'ter having said, 'God is most
great,' seats himself on his carpet, on his knees, and
recites thrice (I extol) the perfections of my Lord
the great; adding, ' May God hear liim who praiseth
him. Our Lord, praise be unto thee.' '^5 Then, rais-
ing his head and body, 'God is most great. 'J He
next drops gently upon his knees, repeating, 'God is
most great, \ puts his nose and forehead lothe ground
between his hands, during which prostration he ex-
claims thrice, ' The perfections of my Lord the Most
High. ''\ Then, raising his head and body, sinking
backwards on his heels, and placing his hands on his
thighs, he says again, ' God is Most High,' whicli he
repeats on a second prostration ; and, again rising,
uttei-s the Tacbir. This ceremony is called one ra-
caat. He rises on his feet, and goes through it
a second time, only varying the portion of the Koran
after the oi)ening chapter. After the last racaat of
all the prayers, lie says, ' Praises belong to God, and
prayer, and good works. Peace be on thee, O pro-
lihet, and the mercy of God, and his blessing ! Peace
be on lis and on the righteous worshippers of God.'
He then recites the creed. Before the salutations
in the final prayer, the worshipper inay offer up any
short petition for himself or friends, and it is consi-
dered better to word it in Koranic Language than in
Iiis own. If devoutly disposed, he may add this su-
pererogatory service, the recitation of the Throne
verse (Koran xi. 25G). He may then repeat the
perfections of God thirty-three times, and ' Praise to
Him for ever' once, with ' Praise be to God, extolled
be his dignity for ever!' thirty-three times; then
the same number of times, 'There is no God but He;
God is most great;' then, 'God is most great in
greatness, and praise abundant be to God !' In those
repetitions he rinds his rosary, ndiich has a mark
after the thirty-third bead, very convenient to pre-
vent his praying too little or too mucli. Any wan-
' dering of the eye, or inattention, must be strictly
avoided ; and if interrupted, except imavoidably, the
worshipper must begin again. As thus described,
the service seems long; but Lane, who must have
often witnessed it, says that the time it occupies is
under five miimtes, if restricted to what is indispen-
sable, and that the supererogatory addition will take
up about as much more."
In the mosque on the Friday, which may be termed
the Mohammedan Sabbatli, the Kiiotbeii (which
see), is regularly recited, a prayer which Mohammed
himself was accustomed to use, in whicli practice he
was follow^ed by liis successors. A moral discourse
is frequently preached by the olSciating Khatib, who
holds a wooden sword re\ersed, a custom said to be
peculiar to the cities taken from the unbelievers. In
each mosque there is a niche in the wall, which marks
the position of Mecca, towards wliich the faithful must
turn their faces in prayer. The congregation, with-
out regard to rank, arrange themselves round the
Ini.^m, who guides them in the performance of the
nine attitudes of prayer. It is incumbent on the
iMoslem to pray five times every day hi the same
words, and from the very frequency of the repetition
the exercise is in danger of degenerating into a mere
form. Mohammed appears to have set the examjile
to his followers, of a strict attention to the duty of
prayer. He spent much of his time in devotion, not
only during the day, but during the night also. Nor
did he confine himself to prescribed forms, but he
was accustomed to intermingle frequent extemporary
ejacidations. Hence it is that no class of people are
found to utter pious exclamations more habitually
than the Moh.ammedans, even on the most ordinary
occasions. Throughout life the Moslem is scrupu-
lously attentive to the regular observance of the ap-
pointed seasons of prayer ; and when he is Laid upon a
bed of sickness and death, wailing women are hired
to join with the family in uttering loud lamentati(jns
as he expires, while Fakirs are called in to chant
the Koran.
Next in importance in the eye of a Moslem to the
duty of prayer, is that of almsgiving, which is fre-
quently recommended in the Koran, and is there said
to give efficacy to prayer. The exercise of fasting
is also hold in high estimation. The comparative
value of the three great duties is thus stated by tlie
second Omar : " Prayer will bring a man halfway to
God. and fasting to the door of the pal.ace ; but it is
to alms that he will owe his admission." In iniita
4G8
MOHAMMEDANS.
tioii of tlio Pacini Arabs, .\[oIiamiiied commaiifled
tlmt a wliole month, tliat of Uainaillian, sliould be
appropriateii to tbe exercise of tasting, whicli is so
strictly obsei-ved, tliat on every day of that month,
from sunrise to snnset, total abstinence is rigidly
adhered to from all liquids, as well as from solids.
Children are alone exempt, and if any one of the
faithful is necessarily precluded from the observance
of the fast at the ajipointed time, he must fast after-
wards for as long a period. At sunset of each day
during the fast of Ramadhan, the mosques are open
and brightly ilhiminafed, when multitudes resort thi-
ther for public devotions, more especially on the last
five nights of the month, including that o( j'Otrei;
when the Koran began to be revealed from heaven.
In addition to this great public fast, the Moslems
observe also voluntary fasts, the principal of which
is the Aanlmra, held on the tenth of the month jl/o-
harrem, being a day of mourning in commemoration
of the martyrdom of Hussein.
The Mohammedans have only two special festivals,
which are called by the Turks the greater and the
lesser Beiram; the first, which is the festival of
breaking the long fast, being their principal season of
rejoicing ; tlie second, which is an important YJ'i-''t of
the pilgrimage to Mecca, being tlie feast of sacrifice
observed in commemoration of Abraham's intended
offering of his son. It is customary, also, in all Mo-
hamiTiedan countries to keep the festivals of their
numerous saints, and to perform frequent pilgrimages
to their tombs. On sucli occasions the Koran is re-
cited by hired readers, and the dervishes go through
their sacred dances. On the 12th of the third inonth
the prophet's birth-day is celebrated at Cairo. This
festival lasts for nine days, when the town is ilhi-
minafed, t!ie shops are open all niglit, and the peo-
ple indulge in all kinds of amusement. Another
festival religiously kept up by the Moslems in Tur-
key is the Hirlcahi-cliei-if, or adoration of the pro-
phet's raaiille, a relic which is carefully preserved
along with his seal and the original copy of the va-
rious portions of the Koran collected by Ahuhekr.
Tlie Iladj or pilgrimage to Mecca is another great
duty connuanded in the Konan, and to whicli Mo-
hammed himself attached so much importance, that
lie considered a believer neglecting it might as well
die a Jew or a Christian. The DuhHIiajja is the
month on which this sacred duty is discharged. (See
.Mecca,, Pii.gkimagh to).
Mohammedans are divided into two great par-
ties, the Schiitrji and the Somiites, who hate each
other more bitterly than they do the Jews or the
Christians. The first are the admirers of Ali, who
reject tlie traditions, and take the title of Ada-
I'ujah, or Followers of Justice. They curse the
three first caliphs, Abubekr, Omar, and Othnian,
as intruders into the pl.ace of Ali ; but the Son-
nites, while they lionour all the four as guides,
consider Ali as holding a rank subordinate to the
others. The division which has thus taken place
among the Moslems had its origin in the circum-
stance, that the prophet, before his death, gave no
instructions in regard to his successor. Legends
which, however, are entitled to no credit, exist among
the Persians, tending to show that he had nominated
Ali ; but it is well known, tliat even Ali himself
acknowledged that Mohammed had preserved entire
silence on the sulyect of a successor to him in his
sacred office. The Somiites, on the other hand, bring
forward traditions with the view of showing that
Abubekr was the prophet's declared nominee; but
these are entitled to a.s little credit as the legends of
the Schiites. After the death of the prophet the
claims of the rival candidates were keenly contested
by their respective friends. Tlie claims of Ali consist-
ed in his being a cousin of Mohammed, and his son-
in-law, being the hu.sband of his beloved and only
surviving daughter, Fatimah. He was also the first
who embraced Islamisni beyond the immediate cir-
cle oftlie prophet's household. The party who sup-
ported these claims maintained that Ali was entitled
to succeed the founder of the Moslem faith from his
twofold affinity to the prophet. The Somiites, on
the contrary, maintained that the succession ought
to be determined by the voice of the whole com-
pany of the faithful. The controversy, which raged
with bitterness for a time, and threatened to pro-
duce a violent rupture in the ranks of the Moslems
was tcrminaled by the conciliatory spirit of Omar,
himself a candidate for the vacant office, who ad
vanced to Abubekr, the father of Mohammed's favour-
ite wife Ayesha, and taking him by the hand, openly
declared his allegiance to hiin as the ctiliph or suc-
cessor of Mohammed. This act on the part of Omar
led to tlie immediate choice of Abubekr by the unit-
ed voice of the whole company. Not long after,
Ali also was induced to give his approval to the
choice. AVlien near death, Abubekr nominated
Omar, whose claims to the caliphate were readily ac-
knowledged. After a reign of ten years Omar died
by the hand of an as.sassin, and was succeeded by
Othman, at whose death the dispute about the suc-
cession was renewed with great violence. During
the caliphate of Abubekr, Omar and Othman, the
supporters of Ali, had so increased both in numbers
and influence, that at length the great body of the
Arabian people were enlisted on his side, and though
reluctant to accept the caliphate, it was literally
forced upon him by the zeal and attachment of his
partizans. To Ali succeeded his sons, Hassan and
Hossein, and the rest of the twelve Imilms. The
Schiites, ainong whom the Persian Mohammedans oc-
cupy a conspicuous place, execrate the memory of
the three caliphs who ) receded Ali, whom other
Mo.slems regard with the highest respect.
To the intelligent reader of history there is no
circumslance in connexion with the Mohammedan
religion which forces itself more strikingly upon the
attention than the rapidity with which that faith was
propagated after the death of the propliet. Only
^ s4 I
■^.
MOIIAMMEDAXS.
4(;y
eiglity-two years after that event, tlie eniiiire of tlie
calipli?, or successors of Moliammed, covered liy far
tlie greater portion of tlie then known world ; and
much more than one-lialf of its then existing inha-
bitants had embraced the faith of Islam. In A. D.
714, this empire, as described by Mr. Osbnrn, " was a
huge broad belt, embracing exactly the central por-
tion of the continent then known to be inhabited by
man, extending eastward and westward, and nearly
from ocean to ocean. Its western boundary at this
extremity was the Atlantic; its nortliern, the Py-
renees, soon to bf overpassed by the Moslem war-
riors. To the southward, it was already coextensive
with the Sahara, and included the whole of North
Africa and the kingdoms of Egypt and Abyssinia.
In Asia, the Sinaitic peninsula, Palestine, Syria,
parts of Armenia and Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Per-
sia, Cabul, and the coimtries eastward to the mouths
of the Indus, liad already received the faitli of Islam ;
and its votaries had already girt on their armour for
the conquest of India, and gone forth for the conver
sion of the Tartar tribes. To tliis huge empire vast
accessions have been made in the eleven hundred
years that have siiice elapsed ; and with the single
exception of Spain, from no one point has Islaniism
ever receded during this long interval."
India was one of the latest acquisitions of the
Mohammedans, for it was not till the eleventh cen-
tury that the Moslem power was established in that
country by Sultan Malnnud, who having formed a
kingdom between Persia and India, which has conti-
nued to subsist under ditierent dynasties and names,
entered the Punjab, and in twelve .sacred expeditions
carried off much valuable plunder. In particular,
this conqueror took possession of the temple of Som-
natli, and broke in pieces the gigantic idol which it
contained, carrying off the sandal-wood doors of the
temple as a trophy, which continued till lately to
ornament the mausoleum of Sidtan Mahnuid at Ghiz-
ni. These gates, a few years ago, attracted the no-
tice of Lord Ellenborough, then governor-general
of India, who, in order to avenge upon the Afghans
the murder of our officials, and tlie anniliilation of
our invading army, brouglit them back to India as
evidence of victory. It was dilticult, however, to
find a suitable place for the sacred doors, the temple
of Soinnath having, in the lapse of ages, become a
solitar3' deserted ruin. It was not till two centu-
ries after Mahmud that the founder of the succeed-
ing house, Mohammed Gouri, established himself at
Delhi, which down to the recent insurrection, and
consequent destruction of the city, continued to be
the capital of a Mo.slem power ; but owes its fame
to the Mongolian dynasty of princes, commencing
in the fourteenth century with the Emperor Baber.
From the first association of the Mohammedan.s
with the Hindus, mutual toleration was exercised ;
and even after the Mongolian conquest, when North-
ern India fell under t)ie sway of the descendants of
Timur, no attempt was made to interfere with the
religion of the Hindus. Na)', such was the harmony
which prevailed between the adherents of the two
creeds, that we find Rrahnianical practices and many
of the prejudices of caste adopted by the conquerors
at a very early period, while, on the other hand, the
Hindus learned to speak with respect of Mohammed
and the prophets of Ish-tm. And what is perhaiis
still more remarkable, the Moliammedan sectaries,
the Somites and Sdiiites, laid aside wonted animosi
ties when they entered the Peninsula. The change
which thusgradn.ally took place in the religious feel-
ings of all parties, encouraged the emperor, Akbar,
who ascended the throne in A. D. 1.556, to make an
attempt at the establishment of a new religion, wliich
he termed Ii,AHr (which see) the Divine, its sym-
bol being, "There is no God but God, and Akbar is
liis caliph." The object of this religions reformer
was to unite into one body Mohanmiediuis, Hindus,
Zoroastrians, .Jews, and Christians. The creed of
Akbar, indeed, bears considerable resemblance to
tliat of the Persian Sufis, or to that of the Hindus /'
the Vedanti school.
Another combination of the IMoslem and the Ilii.
du faiths is seen in the religion of the Sikhs, which
was founded by Naiiak Guru of Lahore, in the closing
part of the fifteenth centuiy. During the reign of
Akbar the Great, this sect met with considcrabh
encouragement. But when .Jelianguc-ir, the son of
Akbar, revived tlie bigotry and intolerance of the
Moslem creed, the Sikhs were suly'ected to a bitter
liersecution ; and from that period, down to the pre-
sent day, they have continued to entertain the most
unrelentuig hostility to the followers of Mohainmod.
The religion of Akbar the Mohammedan, and
Nanak the Hindu, are not the only examples of a
uiixtLU'e between the Mohammedan and Brahmanic.-d
religions in India. Hindu practices have been ex-
tensively adopted by the Moslems in that country,
some of which are not only inconsistent with, but
utterly opposed to, the precepts of the Koran ; saints
have been adopted by the Mohammedans in India,
who were not even Mussulmans, and festivals have
been instituted in honour of them. Thus the idola-
trous worship of saints, which in other countries is
looked upon by the followers of Mohammed wiili
aliliorrcnce, has been adopted by them as an admit-
ted practice in Inilia.
The chief potentates, at the present time, of the
Mohanmiedan world, are the Sultan of Turkey and
the Shall of Persia. The former is regarded by tlii>
Traditionists as a pope, as well as an emperor. It
is true he devolves upon thenmftl the office of decid-
ing cases of conscience, which was once ve.stcd in
himself; but he is still considered, notwithstanding,
as the fountain of ecclesiastical authority, and on
that account invested with peculiar sanctity. Tht
Shah of Persia, on the other hand, is looked upon
with the utmost veneration by his jicople as the
leader of the Schiite-i, wlio became the dominant sect
of the country under Shah Ismail, who ascended tliu
170
MOIIARKAM— M0LHED1TE3
I'ersiiiii tliiuiie in 1492. From that time a fierce
animosity sprung up between tlie Tnrks and the
Persians, and wliich has given rise to many bloody
wars between tlie two conntries.
The Mohammedan power, once almost invincible,
is now in a state of feebleness and decay. " The
Ottoman empire," says Mr. Macbride, " lias been
rapidly declining ; Greece has become an indepen-
dent kingdom ; little support can be looked for from
Egypt ; and province after province, both in Enrope
and Asia, liave been surrendered to the arms or sub-
tle diplomacy of Knssia. The Czar, regiu-ding the
Tm-k as in the agony of political death, hastened to
tfcomplish the long-cherished project of his family,
and it seemed as if, at last, he might drive the un-
believers out of Enriipe. But the hour for the
restoration to Christendom of the capital of the
Greek empire had not, as he fondly imagined, ar-
rived. The autocrat head of the Greek church, and
the self-appointed protector of his co-religionists in
the Ottoman dominions, came forward like a crusa-
der. The Sidtan, instead of yielding, as expected,
advanced to the conflict, with troops trained accord-
ing to European tactics ; and France and England,
the representatives of Papal and Protestant st;ites,
alarmed at the prospect of Russian aggrandizement,
sent forth their armies for his protection. Politi
cians were looking forward to a protracted and
doubtful contest ; but the Russian emjieror who had
provoked the war is removed by death ; and, wliile
E]i'^land was about to act with redoubled energ)',
liostilities have, contrary to oiu- expectations, ceased.
Russian statesmen nuist siu'ely have been convinced
by these determined exertions of the Allies tliat the
surrender of Constantinople is indefinitely post-
poned; and the terms of the peace are so moderate,
that we may reasonably calculate on its continuance.
Sh'irt as the war lias proved, it has been long enough
to show the Turks that there are Christians who
abhor the worship of images, and scarcely yield to
themselves in the simplicity of their ritual : and if
they had any intercourse with our soldiers, they must
have seen that many, both officers and privates,
adorned and recommended their religion by their
conduct. While the politician is satisfied with the
residt, the Christian philanthropist rejoices in the
imperial decree, which places all the subjects of the
Sultan on an equality, and tolerates the conversion
of his Mohammedan subjects; a decree which, pro-
bably, never would have been issued, had he not felt
the depth of his obligjitions to his Christian allies.
The observer of the signs of the limes knows that
the seed that has long been abundantly scattered
over Tin-key by the zealous agents of the Bible So-
ciety, has not all fallen by the wayside ; but, owing
mainly lo American missionaries, has in many places
sprung up; and that Protestant congregations have
even been formed in liriisa, the original Ottoman capi-
tal, and in otlier places in Asia Minor, the reinited
last home of Islam. The Mohammedan system is a
palace of antiquated architecture, not in keeping
with the neighbouring buildings, undermined and
nodding to its fall. It has from the first apjiealed
to the sword, but the sword to which it owed its ra-
pid progress is no longer in the hands of its sup-
porters; and while the zeal of its real adherents lias
cooled, a mystical pantheistic philosojihy, fostered
by their most admired poets, has long superseded,
among tlie men of letters, the simple unitarianism of
the Koran, while European knowledge is gradually
spreading in the masses of the Moslem population
which are under the authority or within reach of the
influence of France and England. The Sultan may
be said only to exist by their sutTerance. Algeria
has been for more than a quarter of a century' a pro-
vince of France ; and we trust that from Sierra
Leone a better ci\ilization, founded not U]ion the
Koran but the Bible, will penetrate the interior of
Africa; and England is pressing more and more up-
on Islam in the East."
MOHARRAM, the first month of the jAioliamme-
dan year, and one of the four sacred months, both
among the ancient Arabians and the modem Mos-
lems. The ten first days of this month are reck-
oned peculiarly sacred, because on these days it is
believed the Koran was revealed from heaven to the
prophet. The Koran, in several passages, forbids
war to be waged during this and the other sacred
months, against such as acknowledge them to be
.sacred ; but it grants permission, at the same time,
to attack all who do not so acknowledge them. The
Persian Sc/iiites devote the first days of the month
Moharram to a solemn mourning, in commemoration
of the death of Hvssrin, the son of ^4//.
MOIR.E. See Fatks.
M01R.A.GETES, a surname of Ztttn, and also of
Apollo at Delphi.
MOISASUU, the chief of the rebel angels in the
system of Illndiiixm. His emblem is a bufliih',
which is represented as pierced with a spear by the
hand of Diirrjn mounted on a lion.
MOIv.\NX.\ (Al), the veiled prophet, a name
given to Ilakem-ben-Haschem, the founder of the
Mohammedan sect, called tlie II.\ki;miti:s (which
see).
MOKLUDJYE, a sect of the Ansarians (which
see).
MOL^-E, goddes.ses among the ancient Romans,
who were said to be daughters of Mitrs, It has
sometimes been alleged tliat, as their name would
seem to indicate, they liad some connexion with the
grinding of corn.
MOI.A SALSA (Lat. salted cake), a mixture of
roasted barley meal and salt, which, among the an-
cient Romans, was in most cases strewed upon the
head of an animal about to be sacrifiiid. Hence the
name often applied to a sacrifice is an immolation
from this peculiar fcu'in of consecration.
MOLHEDITES, a name applied sometimes lo lliv
sect of the Assassins (which see).
MOLINISTS— MOLOCH.
471
MOLINISTS, the followers of Lewis Molina, a
Siiaiiisli Jesuit, who jniblisheti ii work in the six-
teeiitli century on the Ilannoiiy of Grace with Free-
Will, in which he professed to have found out a new
way of reconciling the freedom of tlie human will
with the divine prescience. This new invention was
termed scientia media, or middle knowledge. Mo-
lin:i tauglit that " free-will, without the aid of grace,
can produce morally good works ; that it can willi-
stand temptation ; that it can even elevate itself to
this and the otiier acts of Iiope, faith, love, and re
))entance. When a man has advanced thus far, God
then bestows grace on him on account of Christ's
merits, by means of which grace he experiences the
supernatiu-al effects of sanctification ; yet as before
this grace had been received, so still, free-will alwavs
holds a deterniiiung place.'' Man thus begins a work
which God afterwards continues by man's assistance.
The doctrines set fortli by Molina gave great offence
to the Dominicans, who followed implicitly the opi-
nions of Thomas Aquinas (see Tiiomlsts), and at
their instigation the Jesuits, m.any of whom were
Molinists, were charged witli reviving Pelagian er-
rors. A keen controversy arose, and Pope Cle-
ment VIII. found it necessary, in 1598, to enjoin
silence on both the contending parties, declaring,', at
the same time, his intention to take the wliole mat-
ter into serious and careful consideration, with the
view of giving forth his decision. The Dominicans,
however, were too impatient to allow the Pope time
for deliberation, and his Holiness, therefore, overcome
by the urgency of their entreaties, summoned a con-
gregation at Rome to take cognizance of the dispute.
Having carefully examined Molina's book, which had
been lirst published at Lisbon in 1588. they thus stated
the fundamental errors into which, in their view, the
author h.ad fallen : — " I. A reason or groimd of
God's predestination, is to be found in man's right
use of his free-will. II. That the grace which God
bestows to enable men to persevere in religion may
become the gift of perseverance, it is necessary that
they be foreseen as consenting and co-operating
with the divine assistance offered them, which is a
tiling within their power. III. There is a mediate
prescience which is neither the free nor the natural
knowledge of God, and by which he knows future
contingent events before he forms his decree. (Mo-
lina divided God's knowledge into natural, free, and
mediate, according to the objects of it. What he
himself effects or brings to pass by his own imme-
diate power or by means of second causes, he knows
naturally or has natural knowledge of; what depeiuls
on his own free-will or what he hiinself shall freely
choose or purpose, he has a free knowledge of; but
what depends on the voluntary actions of bis crea-
tures, that is, future contingencies, he does not know
in either of the above ways, but only mediately by
knowing all the circuinstances in which these free
agents will be placed, what motives will be present
lo their miudi, and thus foreseeing aiid knowing how
they will act. This is God's scientia viediu. on
wliieli he fouiuls his decrees of election and repro-
bation.) IV. Predestination may be considered as
either general (relating to whole classes of persons),
or particular (relating to individual persons). In
general predestination, there is no reason or :. round
of it beyond the mere good pleasure of God, or none
on the part of tlie persons predestinated ; biU in
particular predestination (or that of individuals),
there is a cause or ground of it in the foreseen
good use of free-will." The assemblies which the
Pope convened on the Molinist controversy, have
been called, from the ]irincipal topic of discussion,
Congi-egations on the Aids, that is, of grace. They
were engaged until the end of the century in hear-
ing the arguinents urged on both sides, the Domini-
cans defending the doctrines of Aquinas, and the
Jesuits vindicating Molina from the charge of teach-
ing Pelagian or at least Seii;i-l*elagian error. At
length, after long and earnest debate, the Congrega-
tion decided in favour of the Dominicans, and against
the Jesuits, condenming the oijinions of Molina as
opposeil to Scripture and the writings of Angustin.
Clement, accordingly, was about to decide against
Molina, when the Jesuits, alarmed for the honour of
their order, implored the Pontiff' not to come to a
hasty or rash decision. He was persuaded accord-
ingly to give the cause a further hearing, which
extended over three years, he himself presiding in
seventv-eight sessions or congregations. At the
close of this lengthened investigation, His Holiness
was about to luiblish his deci.^ion, but was prevented
from doing so, having been cut off by death on tlie
4tli of March 1605. Clement was succeeded by
Paul v., who ordered the Congregations to resume
tlieir inquiries into this knotty theological coiitro-
versv, but after spending several months in imxious
deliber.ation, no decision was come to on the suliject,
each party being left free to retain its own senti-
ments.
MOLLAH, a doctor of the law among the Mo-
hdimncdans. He is a spiritual as well as civil officer
among the Turks, being a superior judge in civil
and criminal causes.
MOLOCH, the chief god of the Ammonites, to
whom lunnaii sacrifices are alleged to have been
offered. In various passages of the Law of Moses,
the Lsraelites were forbidden to dedicate their chil-
dren to this deity, by causing them to '-pa.ss through
the fire," an expression the precise meaning of
which is somewhat doubtful. See Fire (Passing
THROUGH the). Moloch, which signifies in Hebrew
a king, is thought to have represented the sun. He
was worshiiiped under the form of a calf or an ox.
His image was hollow, and was provided with seven
receptacles, in which were deposited the different
otferings of the worshijiiiers. Into the iirst was put
an offering of fine flour; into the second an offenng
of turtle-doves; into the third a sheep; into the
fourth a ram; into the fit'th a calf; into the sixth an
472
MOLUNGO— MOMIERS.
ox ; and into the seventli a child, wliich was con-
simied ill tlie iiimgo. The cliildi-en were wont to be
SHcrlliccd to Moloch in a valley near Jenisalcni,
called the valley of llio sons of lliiinoin, which, on
account of tlie sound of drams and cymbals by whicli
the cries of the children were drowned, received
also the name of the Vale of Toiihet. It has been
conjectured, and not without reason, that Saturn and
Moloch were the same deity. The Jewish liabbis
assert the image of Moloch to have been made of
brass, and to have been represented sitting on a
braseii throne, adorned with a royal crown, having
the head of a calf, and his arms extended to receive
the youthful victims. In Lev. xx. 2, we find the
e.ipress command, "Again, thou shalt say to the
children of Israel, Whosoever he be of the children
of Israel, or of the strangers that sojourn in Israel,
that giveth any of his seed unto Molech ; he shall
surely be put to death : the people of the land shall
stone him with stones." On this pas.>^age, Michaelis,
in his ' Commentai'ies on the Laws of Moses,' thus
remarks: "These are not the terms in which Moses
usually speaks of the piuiishment of stoningjudicially
inflicted; but 'all the jieople shall stone him; the
hands of the witnesses shall be the first upon him.'
Besides what follows a little after, in verses 4 and
5, does not appear to me as indicative of anything
like a matter of judicial procedure : ' If the neigh-
bours shut their eyes, and will not see liim giving
his children to Moloch, nor put him to death, God
himself will be the avenger of his crime. I am
therefore of opinion, that in regard to tbi.s most ex-
traordinary and most unnatural crime, which, how-
ever, could not be perpetrated in perfect secrecy,
Moses meant to give an extraordinary injunction,
and to let it be understood, that whenever a parent
was about to s.acrifice his child, the first person who
observed him was to hasten to its help, and the peo-
ple around were instantly to meet, and to stone the
unnatural monster to death. In fact, no crime so
justly authoriiies extra-judicial vengeance, as this
hon-ible cruelty perpetrated on a hclidess child, in
the discovery of which we are always sure to ha\'e
either the lifeless victim as a proof, or else tlie liv-
ing testimony of a witness who is beyond all sus-
picion ; and where the mania of human sacrifices
prevailed to such a pilch as among the Canaaiiites,
and got so completely the belter of all the feelings
of nature, it was necessary to counteract its effects
by a measure equally extraordinary and summary."
Another peculiarity in the worship of Moloch is
tenned the taking up of the tabernacle of Moloch,
which was practised by can-ying in procession images
of the deity in tabernacles or |iortable tents, probably
in imitation of the practice followed by the Israelites
of cairying the tidiernade of Moses ui their journey-
ings through the wilderness. It seems to have been
also customary among the heathen to consecrate
chariols and hoises to Moloch. From certain pas-
sages of Scriplnre this god would seem to be identi-
cal with Baal. Thus Jer. xxxii. 35, "And they
built the high places of Baal, which are in the valley
of the son of Ilinnom, to cause their sons and their
daughters to pass through the fire unto Molech ;
which I commanded them not, neither came it into
my mind, that they should do this abomination, to
cause Judah to sin." Moloch is also supposed to be
the same with Adrammelech and Ananmtelech, gods
of Sepharvaim. He is sometimes' called 7l/i7co»i in
the Old Testament.
MOLTEN SKA. See Laver.
iMOLUNGO, the name given to the Supreme
Being bv some of the tribes of Central Africa.
MOLYBDOMANCY (Gr. molyhdos, lead, and
mcmteid, divination), a species of divination among
the ancient heathen, in which they drew conjectures
concerning future events from the motions and
figures presented by melted lead.
MOMIEHS, a term applied in derision to those
warm supporters of evangelical doctrine who arose
about fort)- years ago in the bosom of the Churcli
of Geneva. These godly men no sooner began to
call upon the churcli to shake oft' the spiritual
lethargy and iiiditference by which it had so long
been overcome, than they forthwith were exposed to
violent persecution on the part of the clergy. But
the more bitterly the Momiers were op[iosed, tlie
more did they increase in numbers and grow in zeal.
They were ere long joined by some earnest minis-
ters of the national church, who were in conse-
quence expelled from the church, and even visited
with the vengeance of the civil authorities. The
ejected ministers retired to other countries, and
waited till the storm should abate. A few remained
behind and continued to preach in private dwellings.
Meetings for mutual encouragement and prayer
were held by these pious and sinqdc-minded jicople
in one another's houses. "Within the space of
three or four years," says Mr. Carne in his Letters
from SwitzerLaiid and Italy, "since these sentiments
were first stated and discussed at Lausanne, they
have been diti'used fiir and wide, in village and jiam-
let, as well as town ; even the jvge cle pays, as well
as the merchant, have declared their adherence. In
more than one situation, the jicople are able to
maintain the minister who visits them; not a week
elapses in the chief towns of the canton de Vaud
without several assemblies in jirivate.
"The minister's arrival at the [ilace from his own
residence is carefully kept a secret from all but the
members. The large room is well lighted, (for it is
night,) while the assembly of both sexes, the men
ranged on one side, and the women on the other, sit
in silence. He enters at last, to their great joy ; an
inspiring hymn is sung, and he commences an aiii-
nialing and iiiijiassioned discourse, quite extenii>oia-
neous, and addressed chieHy to the feelings of his
audience.
"When will govenimciits both civil and ecclesias-
tical kain wisdom y How strange, after the experi
MOMUS— MONACHISM.
473
ence of ages, tliat the Swiss authorities should not
have bettef uiulerstood tlie human mind and ciiaiac-
fer, tlian to tliink tliat menaces and imprisonment
could stifle religious enthusiasm. They have proved,
in this instance, the cradle from wliich it has sprung
fortli with new and unconquerable vigour. This
cause is not like the transient and vehement system
of the celebrated Kiudeuer, who was also expelled
the cantons a few years since, for promidgating her
wild sentiments. She was too lofty and retined a
visionary to seize on the feelings of the common
people, who could not enter into her mysticism, or
sliare in her transports. The efi'ect she produced
was short-lived, and her clause faded away for want
of zealous supporters. But this system of the Mo-
miers, thougli perfectly simple, is concentrated and
strong, and bears with it the very elements of suc-
cess and victory. No lofty or peculiar revelations
are claimed ; no member is exalted high above the
rest for surprise or imitation ; but the minister and
the poorest of the people, the avoait ;md t)\e p(ii/<an,
the lady and llie washerwnmau, all meet alike on the
same kindred soil, drink of the same fountain of in-
spiration on a footing of perfect equality, speak of
their hopes, fears, and triumphs witli mutual sympa-
thy and mutual kindness. All feel that they are
embarked on the same troubled but exciting cotu'se,
that the same tide wafts them onward for good or
for ill : for the system is a purely spiritual one, and
also an eminently social one.
'■ The interests of tlie society are admirably served
by the private and earnest visits of the female mem-
bers to families and individuals. They enter with
an air of perfect simplicity, and being seated, com-
mence a touching and earnest address on the sub-
ject of their best and highest interest. Two or three
of their books and pamghlets are not forgotten, and
are placed in the hand of the hearers. They have
already their own liymn books : many of the pieces
ai'e of original composition, and do no discredit to
the genius of the composer; and treatises also, ex-
planatory of their sentiments touching on the dark-
ness that shrouds too much of the land, tlie supine-
ness that lulls the spirits of its people, and so on.
No Quaker, however, can be more imassimiing or
persevering than these female disciples, wliom the
rest of the natives call Quixotes, and regard with
dislike ; but if success is the test of a good cause,
they have it, and will reap it in future years still
more abmidantly."
The origin of the Momiers, as the Evangelical pas-
tors and laymen in Geneva, and the Canton de Vaud
generally, are called, is to be traced primarily to the
widedift'usionofthe Holy Scriptures through iheactive
operations of tlie British and Foreign Bible Society,
and in an eminent degree also to the labours of the
Rev. Csesar Malan, and the instructions of the devoted
Robert Ilaldane. At the commencement of his
ministry, Mr. Malan seems to have had very dark
and imperfect views of gospel truth, but towards the
close of tlie year 1815, his mind underwent a serious
and saving change, and his Iieart burned with fer-
vent desire to bring others to participate in the
precious blessings of .salvation througli a crucified
Redeemer. The ministers of the Cluirch of Geneva
were at that time almost all of them strangers to
evangelical doctrine, and the zeal which Mr. Malan
manifested in proclaiming the glad tidings which had
brought peace to his soul, roused against him a spi-
rit of active persecution, which at length in 1818
deprived him of his pastoral charge, and diove him
into the ranks of dissent. It was about this time
that Robert Ilaldane was led in the course of Provi-
dence to visit Geneva. The Iieart of the good man
was deeply grieved at the ignorance of evangelical
truth which prevailed even among those whose views
were directed towards the sacred miuistiy. Accord-
ingly, he spent the winter of l^'lG-17 in instruct-
ing a class of theological students in the peculiar
doctrines of Christianity ; and .-o remarkalily did the
Divine blessing accompany the labours of Mr. Hal-
dane, that of the eighteen students of wliich his
class was comjiosed. no fewer than sixteen were sav-
ingly converted, one of them being Merle d'Aubign^,
who has since attained world-wide distinction as the
historian of the Reformation ; and another, tlie able
and |)ious Gaussen, the now celebrated author of the
' Theopneustia.' Thus there arose in Geneva a
goodly band of devout and faithful men, whose great
aim was to awaken a spirit of vital godliness all
around them. An evident blessing rested upon their
labours, and the venerable company of Genevan [pas-
tors, jealous of the growing influence of the Mo-
miers. threw every possible obstacle hi their way,
requiring them, under pain of exjiulsion from the
church, to confine their teaching to the doctrines
contained in the mutilated Catechism of the Gene-
van Cliiux-h. The contest was carried on for a time,
but at length inatters came to a crisis, and " The
Evangelical Society of Geneva" was instituted, not
only to protect the cjuise of evangelical truth, and
to inoclaim it from the pulpit, but by means of a
theological seminary to train up a rising ministry in
the pure doctrine of the New Testament. Thus by
tlie zealous efVorts of the despised and persecuted
Momiers was formed in 1831 a Society, which has
been eminently instrumental in reviving spiritual
religion, not only in the city of Geneva, but tlirongh-
out the neighbouring cantons. In the Canton de
Vaud, on the opposite side of the Lake of Geneva, a
similar society was formed, which has been produc-
tive of great benefit to the cause of evangelical truth
in Switzerland. See V.\UDOis Church.
MOMUS, a deity among the ancient Greeks who
was a personification of jesting and mockery, lie is
described as tlie son of Nyx, and to have eniployid
himself chiefly in ridiculing the other gods.
MONACHISM. The monastic spirit has been
generally regarded as having had its origin among
the early Christians. This view of the subject, how-
474
MONACHISM.
ever, is fai- from being accurate ; tlie fact being no-
torious to all wlio are acquaiiitcil witb ecclesiastical
lii>tory, tliat nearly a century and a-lialf before tlie
Christian era, tbe principle of Monacliisrn liail begun
tu make its appearance in Syria. During the ad-
ministration of John Hyrcanus arose the Jewish sect
of the EsSEMCs (which see), having as the avowed
object of their institution the attainment of superior
i sanctity by a life of seclusion and austeiity, and for
I this purpose they formed a settlement in a desolate
tract of country stretching along the western shores
of the Dead Sea. In their habits, principles, and
rigorous discipline, as well as in the internal arrange-
ments of their communities, the Essenes of Judea
bore a striking resemblance to the monks of after
times. It is not improbable, indeed, that the pre-
vious existence of Essonism led to the establishment
of monastic institutions ; these having arisen at a
time whenClu-istiainty had not yet entirely dissevered
itself from the principles and the practice of Judaism.
Tlie earliest furin in wliich the monastic spirit de-
veloped itself in tlie Cliristian church, was not in the
formation of societies or communities of recluses,
but merely and for a considerable length of time in
the seclusion of single individuals. (See Ascetics.)
It was not, indeed, till about the middle or towai'ds
the close of the third century, that Monacliism, pro-
perly so billed, came into opei'atiou, the habits of
the primitive Ascetics having, at this period, passed
into those wliicli chaiacterized the Monastics of sub-
sequent ages. The earliest instance, in the history
of the Christian church, of the adoption of a monas-
tic life, was that of Paul, an Egy|itiaii Christian, who
was driven by the fury of the Deciau persecution to
take up his residence in the desert of Thebais. Here,
it is alleged, in a mountain cave, far from the abodes
of men, he spent upwards of ninety years, support-
j ing himself wholly, as Jerome informs us, by the
j labour of his hands. The fruit of the palm was his
I only food, and a garment constructed of palm lca\es
his only covering.
Another recluse of Thebais was the celebrated
Anthony, who, though not the iirst in order of time
who became a monk, is, nevertheless, generally
regarded, from the weight of his influence and exam-
ple, as the founder of the monastic order. Tlie
influence of Anthony was chiefly exerted in prescrib-
ing a more uniform mode of life to the numerous
recluses who now thronged the deserts of Eastern
Africa. Hitherto no communities of monks had
been formed ; but the example of Paul and Anthony
had been followed by mimerous individuals, even of
rank and wealth, who voluntarily adopted a life of
seclusion and retirement from the world. Of these,
one of the most distinguished and influential was-
Ililarion, who is said by Jerome to have been the
first who practised the monastic life in Syria and
Palestine. But with the increase of its votaries,
Monacliism became liablct to various errors and abuses,
not the least of which was the infliction of many self-
imposed and unwarrantable austerities. " Ilitherin.'
says the Rev. R. K. Hamilton, " a submission to the
ordinary privations of nature, and a denial of ihe
more superfluous comforts of life, were all that had
distinguished the jiractice of the Anchorites. 15ut
now the recluses seemed to vie with each other in
the extent to which they could carry their ingenuity
in devising new modes of self-torture, and their
powers of endurance in submilting to them. To
subsist on the coarsest anil most unwholesome diet,
to abstain from food and sleep till nature was almost
wholly exhausted, — to repose uncovered on the bare
and humid ground, — to live in nakedness, in filth, in
surt'ering, — to shun all intercourse even with the
nearest relatives and connexions ; in a word, to adopt
the means most directly calculated to stifle the cha-
rities and .sympathies of social and domestic life, and
to transform that beneficent religion, which was de-
signed for the happiness of mankind, into an engine
of punishment and self-torment ; these were the ob-
jects, the attainment of which now constituted the
first ambition of the recluse. Of llie truth of these
assertions many instances might be adduced. Sn-
crates mentions an Egyptian, named Macarius, who,
for twenty years, weighed every morsel of bread, and
measured every drop of water that lie swallowed,
and whose place of rest was so formed, that he could
not enjoy repose for more than a few moments at a
time. Marianus Scotus tells us of another solitary,
named Martin, who, from the time of his retirement
to the desert until tlie period of his death, kept him-
self constantly chained by the foot to a huge stone,
so as to prevent lilin ever moving beyond the nar-
row circle he was thus enabled to describe. In So-
zomen we read of a still more di.sgusting fanatic,
who abstained, to such an extent, from food, that
vermin were engendered in liis mouth."
Another evil which early began to connect itself
with the monastic .system, was the spiritual pride
which was engendered by the flattery of the world,
which regarded the monk as necessarily invested
witb peculiar sanctity. The hermit's cell was ea-
gerly resorted to by the noble, the learned, the de-
vout, all desirous to pay houLige to the holy man.
The monastic life came to be held in such esteem,
that many adopted it as a highly honourable em-
jiloyment. Instead, therefore, of single individuals
resorting to the solitude of the desert, communities
of such recluses began to be formed, and the rules
laid down by Anthony for the guidance of single
monks came to be applied to the administration of
these monastic institutions. Thus the monacliism
of tlie cloister was substituted for the monacli-
ism of the cell. At first, however, the monastery
consisted of an assemblage of wattled huts, or simi-
lar rude dwellings, arranged in a certain order, and
in some cases encircled by a wall surrounding the
whole extent of the community. These primitive
monasteries were termed Laiirm. By the consent ol
anliiiuity the formation of the first regular muuas-
MO.NACHISM.
47S
tei-y or camobium is ascribed to Pachoiiiius, an Kgyp-
tian monk. lie is also said to liave been the origi-
nator of conventual establislniients for females.
Until nearly the close of tlie iiftli century tlie
monks were regarded simply as laymen, and laid no
claim to be ranked among the sacerdotal order. Cir-
cumstances, however, in coiu'se of time, led the monks
to assume a clerical eliaracter. " Tiie new order,"
says Mr. Riddle, in liis ' History of the Papacy,'
" had this in common witli tlie clergy, that they were
specially engaged in the cultivation of spiritual life,
and many of its members began to occupy themselves
with the work of reading and expounding tlie Scrip-
tures,— an occupation which, together with their aus-
tere mode of life, being supposed to indicate superior
sanctity and virtue, gave them great favour with the
multitude, and speedily actiuired for them such
popularity and influence that the clergy could not
but tind in them either powerful allies or formidable
rivals. When they began to form large and regular
establishments, it was needful that some members of
their body should be ordained, in order to secure the
regular performance of Divine worship ; and, at
lengtli, not oixly was it usual for many members of
a monastery to be in holy oi'ders, but they frequently
exercised their clerical functions beyond the contincs
of their establishineuts. At the same time, monas-
teries were placed under the superintendence of the
bishops ; and, eventiialh', not only were the monks
for the most part in holy orders, but it came to be
regarded as an advantage for the clergy to po.^sess
the additional character of monastics. Thus these
two orders were, to a great extent, identified, at least
in popular apprehension ; and the result was, that a
large portion of the influence and popularity of the
monks was reflected upon the clergy."
The abljots, by whom the monasteries were gov-
erned, soon became jealous of tlieir spiritual supe-
riors, the bishops, and out of tlieir mutual jealousies
sprang frequent quarrels, until at length the abbots,
to deliver themselves from dependence upon their
rivals, made earnest application to be taken under
the protection of the Pope at Rome. The proposal
was gladly accepted, and very quickly all the monas-
teries, great and small, abbeys, priories, and nunneries,
were taken from under the jurisdiction of the bishops,
and subjected to the authority of the see of Rome.
This event was the source of a great accession to the
pontifical power, establishing in almost every quarter
a kind of spiritual police, who acted as spies on the
bishops as well as on the secular authorities. The
complete exemption of monasteries from diocesan
jurisdiction did not take place until the eighth cen-
tury. About this period an attempt was made, by
the institution of the Canonical Life, to convert the
whole body of the clergy into a monastic order. All
the clergy of a particular church or locality were
collected together in one Iioiise, where they resided,
subject to special regulations as to diet, occupations,
devotions, and the like. The houses of the clergy
who thus lived in communiiy were called nioiiHs
teries ; the regular clergy adopted a uniform dress,
and lived together under the superintendence of jiro-
vosts and deans. Such a system, which soon became
prevalent throughout the West, was introduced about
A. D. 7()0 by Clirodegang, bishop of Metz. Before
ilie middle of the ninth century, it became the rule
of all the churches of Germany, France, and Italy ;
ajid was authorized by the State in all countries
belonging to the Prankish monarchy.
The abuses to which the Monastic system gave
rise came to a height towards the end of the ninth
and the beginning of the tenth century. All disci-
pline had disappeared from the monasteries, and they
had become hotbeds of profligacy and vice. Such
flagrant enormities demanded a reformation of mo-
nastic institutions in general. At this crisis in the
history of Monachism, was established the monastery
of Clugny, which, from the regularity and order of
all its arrangements, was soon recognized as a model
institute, and formed the centre of a work of refor-
mation which spread rapidly throughout the monas-
teries in every part of Euroiie. Public opinion now
declared loudly in favour of the life of a monk ;
large sums were dedicated to the support of monas-
tic establishments, and children were devoted by
their parents to the conventual life. i\lany monas-
teries sought to associate tliemselves with Clugny,
that they might share in its prestige, and in the
benefits arising from its reformed disci|iline.
In the beginning of the tliirteenth century Mona-
chism received a powerful impulse from the estab-
lishment of the Mendicant orders. The two leading
societies, founded on the principle of renouncing all
worldly wealth, and siibsisling exclusively on alms,
were the Frtinclscans in Italy, and the Doiidnicans
in France. This new movement was at its outset
viewed with coldness by the Papal court, but in the
course of a few years both orders were confirmed by
the authority of the See of Rome. And assuredly
no monastic establislniients were better fitted to re-
commend themselves to public favour tlian those of
the Mendicants. Their numbers rapidly increased,
and besides the regular members of their societies,
both the Franciscans and the Dominicans adopted
into connection with them a class of laymen under
the name of Tertiaries, who, without taking the mo-
nastic vow, pledged themselves to promote the in-
terests of the order to which they were attached.
Thus the influence of the Mendicants became widely
diffused.
As we have already seen, the monastery of
Clugny had become the centre of a large number of
a.ssociated monasteries, which gradually spread over
all Eurojie. The Benedictine order was monarchi-
cal, the abbot of Clugny being the absolute master
and head of all the monasteries. The Cistercian
order, however, was founded on a difl'erent principle,
the abbots of the subordinate monasteries being in-
vested svitli a share in tlic government of tiie hIujIc
476
MONACHISM.
body, and having a chief part in tlie election of the
abbot of Citeaux. The essential features of the Cis-
tercian in»<titiitiun were adopted by the new order of
spiriuial knights, as well as by the Carthusians, the
Pnenionstratensians, and other later orders. In-
nocent III., in the Lateran council A. D. 1215,
decreed that eacli of those orders should hold a
ch.'ipter once in every three yeai's like the Cister-
cians. These orders of monks were for a time sup-
l)orted to a great extent by volinitary contributions;
but they sooji got into their hands large portions of
cliin-eli property.
MonacluBui had now become a powerful institu-
tion. " Tlie abbots," .says Mr. Kiddle, " especially
the great abbots of Clugiiy and Citeaux, and the
generals of the Dominican and Franciscan orders,
soon became formidable to the bishops, whom, iji
fact, they greatly exceeded in power; and they stood
in close connection with the Pope, who often em-
ployed tliem as his legates in matters of importance.
The monastic orders were, indeed, the natiu'al allies
of the papacj', and were always ready to assist it in
carrying out any of its pretensions which did not in ■
terfere with their own uiterest. The popes gave
the monks protection agahist all opponents or rivals ;
and they received in retin-n not only a portion of
revenue from the monasteries, but, what wa,s of far
greater iniportajice, zealous fi'iends to advocate tlie
CAuse aiid uphold the interests of the papacy all over
Europe. Great privileges were, therefore, accorded
to the monks. Sometimes their property was de-
clared exempt from the piavment of tithes ; sometimes
their chiu'ches declared to be beyond the reach of an
interdict which might be imposed upon the whole
province in wlijch they were situate; and they were
generally made independent of episcoi)al jurisdiction.
By degrees, however, the popes became disposed to
be more sparing in the grants of such privileges and
exemptions; and hence arose a practice of forging
documents jirofessing to contain such grants from
earlier pontiffs. The monastery of St. Medard, at
Soissons, became famous as a source from whence
such forged documents were liberally supplied; and
this practice liad become so notorious by the begin-
ning of the thirteenth century, that from that time
there was com|iarati\X'ly little opportunity of mak-
ing use of it."
'i'he Monastic orders having become both impor-
tant and jiowerful, rapidly multiplied; and the most
serious results were likely to arise. But Gregory
X., with a view to clieck the growing evil, issued a
decree i)roliibitiiig all llie orders wliich had origi-
nated since the time of Innocent III., and in parti-
cular he reduced the Mendicants to four orders —
the Dominicans, Franciscjuis, Carmelites, and Au-
gustinian friars. These four classes of begging
monks wandered over all Europe, instructing the
jieople both old and young, and exhibiting such an
aspect of sanctity and self-denial, that they speedily
became objects of universal admiration. Their
churches were crowded, while those of the regular
parish priests were almost wholly deserted ; all
classes sought to receive the .sacraments at tlicir
hands ; their advice was eagerly courted in secular
business, and even in the most iiitricate political
all'airs ; .so that in the tlurteenlh and two following
centuries, the Mendicant Orders generally, but more
especially the Dominicans and Franciscans, were
intnisted with the m;inagcnicnt of all matters both
in church and state. See MiCN'niCANT Okdkks.
The higli estimation, however, into which Monn-
c/iixm had risen, more particularly through the wide-
spread influence of the begging friars, awakened a
spirit of bitter hostility in all orders of the clergy,
and in the universities. In England the University
of Oxford, and in France the University of Paris,
laboured to overthrow the now overgrown power of the
Mendicajits. These exertions were most efi'ectually
seconded by the labours of WyelilTeand the Lollards.
And this hatred against the Mendicants was not a little
increased by the persecution which raged against the
Ber/lmrds in Germany and the Uow Countries. The
monks, like a swarm of locusts, covered all Europe,
proclaiming everywhere the obedience due to liolv
mother church, the reverence due to the saints, and
more especially to the Virgin Maiy, the efficacy of
relics, the torments of ])urgator3', and the blessed
advantages arising from indidgences. These were
emphatically the Dark Ages, when the minds of
men were envelojied in the thick darkness of ignor-
a.nce and superstition.
It was at this point in the history of Monachism
that the light of the blessed licformation burst upon
the world. The profligacy and deep-seated corrup-
tion of the monastic institutions had now reached its
height, and the flagrant absurdity of the dogma of
papal indulgences was so apparent to every intelli-
gent and thoughtful mind, that the protest of the
Keforniers met with a cordial response in the breasts
of multitudes, whose attachment to the Church of
Rome was warm and almost inextinguishable. And
yet although the monks had forced on the keen and
unsuccessful contest whidi the church was called to
maintain with Luther, yet, so infatualed was the
Papacy, that she si ill cleaved to Monachism, as most
likely to subserve her intci'e.sts at this eventful crisis.
No dejiendince, it was plain, could any longer be
placed on the Mendicants, who had irrecoverably
lost the rejiutation and influence which they once
possessed. A new order was necessary to meet the
peculiar circumstances in which the charch was now
|>laced, and such was found in the Society of Jesus
fouiuh'd by Ignatius Loyola. See .Tt^uiTS. These
inouks were specially adapted to the al'crcd stale of
things. They occupied a sort of intermediate place
between the monaslics of other da\« and the secular
clergy. Instead of spending their time in devotion
and penance and fasting, they gave themselves U]i in
a thou.'^and ways to the active service of the church.
One of the chief oljects of the order was to prevent
MOXAKCHIANS.
477
tlie growth of dissent, and to reclaim tlie heretics
wlio had left its cominiuiion in siicli overwlielming
ninnbers. In this active and indefatigable Order,
tlie Roman pontitls found a most efficient auxiliary
ill the accomplishment of their plans. Tlie Jesuits
soon becjinie a formidable power in the interests of
Romanism, possessed alike of wealth, learning, and
reputation. All the other orders of monks dwindled
into insignificance before this Society, which ex-
tended it.self by a thousand rarnitications, not only
over Europe, but the whole field of Christendom.
In the beginning of the seventeenth century, the
state of the monasteries generally was very lamenta-
ble. As the century advanced, however, the atten-
tion of manv was turned towards the necessity of
reform in this respect, with the view of bringing
back these institutions as far as possible to the rules
and laws of their order. In consequence of the
movement which originated about this time, the
m(.nks of the Romish church became divided into
two classes, the Reformed and the Unreformed,
But the order which drew forth the most determined
opposition from all the other orders was that of the
Jesuits. And not only were the members of the
Order of Loyola obnoxious to the monks and clergy,
but the ditferent governments of the European na-
tions also viewed them with such jealousy, that
one after another expelled them from their domi-
nions. The theological sentiments of the Order,
though avowedly founded on those of Thomas Aqui-
nas, were thoroughly Pelagian, and, therefore, op-
posed to the writings of Augustin, which have always
been held in the highest estimation in the Church of
Rome. Zeal for the Augustinian doctrines of grace
gave rise to the Jansknists (which see), who enter-
ed into a keen and protracted controversy with the
Jesuits, which raged throughout the seventeenth
and part of the eigbteenth century, nntil the follow-
ers of Jansenius, though victorious in argument, were
vanquished and overthrown by the violence of per-
secution. Carnal weapons, not spiritual, terminated
the contest, and drove the Jaiisenists to seek refuge
in Utrecht in Holland, where the small but faithful
church still adheres to her protest against the Pela-
gian doctrines taught by the Church of Rome.
MONAD THEORY. See Leidnitz (Philoso-
phy of).
MONARCHIANS [monos, only, and archo, to
rule), a Christian sect which arose in the second cen-
tury, and as its natne imports, maintained that there
is no other Divine Being besides one God, the Fa-
ther. Among the ancient heathen nations we find
men, even while holding a polytheistic creed, tracing
all their deities up to one principle or arcli^. In the
same way the Christian sect under consideration,
founded by Praxeas, appears to have been afraid of
seeming to admit the existence of a variety of original
principles. Dr. Lardner says, that they held the Lo-
gos to be " the wisdom, will, power or voice of (4od;"
that Jesus was the Son of God by the Virgin
Mary, and that " the Father dwelt in him," whereby
a union was formed between the Deitj' and the man
Christ Jesus. Neander alleges, that the Monarch-
ians must be distinguished into two classes. The
one, professing to be guided by reason, taught that
"Jesus was a man like all other men ; but that from
the first he was actuated and guided by that power
of God, the divine reason or wi.sdom bestowed on
him in larger measure than on any other messenger
or prophet of God ; and that it was ]n'ecisely on this
account he was to be called the Son of God." The
other "regarded the names. Father and Sou, as only
two difierent modes of designating the same subject,
the one God." The first class saw in Christ nothing
but the man ; the second saw in him nothing but
the God.
A Moiiarchian party appeared in Rome, headed
by one Tlieodotus, a leather-dresser from Byzan-
tium, who, on account of his heretical opinions, was
excommunicated by Victor the Roman bishop. The
party continued to propagate their opinions inde-
pendently of the dominant church. Another Mo-
narchian party was founded in Rome by Artemon,
and hence they received the name of Artf.mon-
ITES (which see). They .seem to have disclaimed
all connexion with Theodotus and his followers.
They continued to diti'use their opinions in Rome
nntil far into the third century. A third class oi
Monarchians originated with Praxeas, a native ot
Asia Minor, and from the doctrhie which they held,
that the Father was identical with the Son in all
resiiects, and, therefore, that the Father may be .said
to have suft'ered on the cross as well as Christ Jesus
the Son, they were called P.iXitiPASSlANS (which
see).
One of the most violent opponents of the Mo-
narchians was Oiigen, who succeeded in so ably
refuting their opinions, that they found it neces-
sary to devise a new theory concerning the person
of Christ, which aimed to strike a middle course
between those who dwelt almost exclusively on
his humanity, and those who dwelt almost exclu-
sively on his divinity. This modified Monarchian
view is thus described by Neander : " It was not
the whole infinite essence of God the Father which
dwelt in him, but a certain efllux from the divine
essence ; and a certain influx of the same into hu-
man nature was what constituted the personality of
Christ. It was not before his temporal appearance,
but only subsequently thereto, that he subsisted as a
distinct person beside the Father. This personality
originated in the hypostatizing of a divine power.
It was not proper to suppose here, as the first cla.«s
of Monarchians taught, a distinct human person like
one of the prophets, placed from the beginning un-
der a special divine influence ; but this personality
was itself something specifically di\ine, produced by
a new creative comnnmication of God to human na-
ture, by such a letting down of the divine essence
into the prwincts of that nature. Hence in Christ
478
MOXASTERY— MONOPHYSITES.
tlie divine and tlie luimaii are united togellier;
hence he is tlie Son of God in a sense in wliicli no
otlier beini; is. As nmions derived from tlie tlieory
of emanation were in tliis period still widely diftused ;
as, even the church mode of apprehending the incar-
nation of the Logos, tlie doctrine of a reasonable
human soul in Christ was still but imperfectly un-
folded (it being by Origen's means, that this doc-
trine was first introduced into the general theological
consciousness of the Eastern Church) ; — so, under
these circmustanccs a theory which thus substituted
the divine, which the Fatlier communicated from his
own essence, in place of the human soul in Christ,
could gain the easier admittance. If we transport
ourselves back into the midst of the process whereby
the doctrines of Christianity were becoming imfolded
in consciousness, into the contiict of opposite opi-
nions in this jieriod, we shall lind it very easy to
nndersland how a modilied theory of this sort came
to be formed."
The first who taught this modified Moiiarchianism
was Beryllus, bishop of Bostva, in Arabia, from whom
the adherents of tlie middle doctrine were culled
Bkuylmans (which see). Another, who followed in
the track of Beryllus, was Sabellius of Pentapolis in
Africa, who maintained that the names Father, Son,
and Holy Ghost were simply designations of three
dirtercnt pha.sea under which the one divine essence
reveals itself. (See Sabellians.) Soon after,
Monai'chianism was revived by Paul of Samosata,
who gave prominence to Cluist's human person alone,
the Divine appearing only as something which super-
venes tVom without. (See Samosatf.nians.)
MOXARCIIY MEN (Fifth). See Fifth .Mon-
archy Mi;n.
MONASTERY, a house built for the reception of
monks, mendicant friars, and nuns. It consisted
originally of an a-^semblage of connected buildings.
ill which monks dwelt together under a common su-
perior. See CKNOfiiTKS.
MONET.V, a surname of Juno among the ancient
Romans, as presiding over money, and under this
appellaiion .she had a temple on the Capitoline hill.
A festival in honour of this goddess was celebrated
on the 1st of June.
MONIAl.ES. See Nuns.
MONITORY, a command which the Church of
Rome lays upon all her members to discover what-
ever they know of any important matter with which
it is desirable that she should be acquainted. If the
monitory is not complied with, exconnnunicalinn en-
sues.
MONKEY-WOltSIIlP. S.e Ai-i; \A'oiisiiip.
MO.NKIR. See Dead (ICxamination oi- thi:).
MONKS. See .Monachism.
MONt-ECUS, a surname of Ilerwhs, proliahlv be-
cause, in the temples dedicated to him, no other deity
was worshipped along with him.
MONOISM (Or. mnno^, alone\ that .system of
plnloKophico-thcological doctrine which Imlds that
there is one infinite priiimrdial substance from which
all others emanate. This in all llie Gno.stic .systems
is something invisible, the Unknown Fatlier, the
Abyns or Bi/t/ios. This is, in the language of modern
]]hilosophy, the ground of being, the substance, in-
comprehensible in itself, which is concealed under
what appears. The Monoistic view characterized the
Alexandrian, just as the DiuiJiftic characterized the
Syrian Gnosis. " As Moiwisni," says Neander, " con-
tradicts what every man should know immediately —
the laws and facts of his moral consciousness ; so
Dualism contradicts the essence of reason which de-
mands unity. Monoism, shrinking from itself, leads
to Dualism ; and Dualism, springing from the desire
to cr.mpreliend everything, is forced by its very
striving after this, through the constraint of reason,
which demands unity, to refer back the duality to a
prior unity, and resolve it into this latter. Thus
was the Gnosis forced out of its Duali.sm, and obliged
to aflinii the same which the Cabbala and New Pla-
tonism taught ; namely, that mattir is notlnny else than
the nece-isai-y bounds between being and not being,
which can be conceived as having a subsistence for
Itself only by abstraction — as the opposite to exist-
ence, which, in case of an evolution of life from
God. must arise as its neces.sary limitation. In some
such way, this Dualism could resolve itself into an
absolute Monoism, and so into Pantheism." See
Dualism, GNOSTirs.
MONOPHYSITES (Gr. inonns, one only, and
jyhiisis, nature), a large body of Christians which
arose in the fifth century, denying the distinction of
the two natures in Christ, under the idea that the
human was completely lost and absorbed in the Di-
vine nature. Under the general name of Monophy-
sites are comprehended the four main branches of
separatists from the Ea.stern church, namely, the
Syrian .lacobites, the Copts, the Abyssinians, and
the Armenians. The originator of this numerous
anil powerful Christian coninninity was Eulyches,
abbot of a convent of monks at Constantinople, who,
in his anxiety to put down the Nestorian heresy,
which kept the two natures almost entirely distinct,
rushed into the opposite extreme, and taught that
there was only one nature in Christ, that is the
Divine. He held, in common with bis opponents,
the perfect correctness of the Nicene creed, the doc-
trine of a trinity of persons in the Godhead; that
the Word was made Hesh ; tli.at Christ was truly
God .and truly man united, and that al'ter the union
of the two natures, he was one Person. ISnt Enty-
ches maintained, that the two natures of Christ,
after the union, did not remain two distinct natures,
but constituted one nature ; and, therefore, that it
was correct to say Christ was constituted of or from
two distinct nalures, but not that he existed in two
ii.atures ; for the union of two natures was such, that,
although neither of them was lost, or was essentially
changed, yet together they constituted one nature, nf
which compound nature, and not of cither of the
MONOPIIYSITES.
47S
original natures alone, must tliencefortli be predi-
cated eacli ami every property of both natures. He,
accordingly, denied that it is correct to say of Cbrist,
tliat as to ids human nature he was of tlie same na-
ture with us. On the ground of Ins lieretical views,
Eutyclies was excommunicated by an occasional
council held for other purposes at Constantinople ;
and again.st tliis sentence he appealed to a general
coinicil of the whole cluu'cli. Sucli a council, accord-
ingly, was convened by the Emperor Theodosius at
Epiiesus, A. D. 449 ; and it was presided over by
Dioscorus, bishop of Alexandria, who, holding the
same opinions as Eutyclies himself, so managed mat-
ters that Eut_vches was acquitted of the charge of
heresy, and by acclamation the doctrine of two na-
tures in the inc-irnate Word was cimdemned. 'I'his
council of Ephosus is disowned by the Crrcelc
church, and stigmatized as an assembly of robbers,
all its proceedings having been conducted, as they
allege, by fraud and violence. Various unsuccessful
attempts were made to persuade Tiieodosius to call
a general council with the view of settling the im-
portant question raised by the Nestorians on the
one hand, and the Eutychians on the other ; but on
the death of this emperor, his successor, Marcian,
summoned a new council at Chalcedon, a. ti. 451,
which is called the fourth general council. This is
the last of the four great cecunienical councils whose
decrees, on the fundamental doctrines of the Trinity
and the Person of Christ, are universally received,
not merely by the Greek and Roman churches, but
by Proteslanl churches, ou the ground that they are
in harmony with the statements of Holy Scripture.
At this famous coimcil, a decree was passed, wliich,
after recognizing the Nicene and Constanlinopoli-
tan creeds, goes on to declare, " Following, there-
fore, these holy fathers, we unitedly declare, that
one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, is
to be acknowledged as being iierfect in his Gud-
head and perfect in his humanity ; truly God and
truly man, with a rational soul and body ; of the
same essence with the Father as to his God-
head ; and of the same essence with us as to his
manhood ; in all things like us. sin excepted ; be-
gotten of the Father from all eternity as to his
Godhead ; and of Mary, the mother of God, in these
last days, for us and for our salvation as to his man-
hood ; recognized as one Christ, Son, Lord, Only-
begotten ; of two natures, unconfounded, imchanged,
undivided, inseparable; the distinction of natures,
not all done away by the union, but rather the pe-
cidiarity of each nature preserved and combining
info one substance ; not separated or divided into
two persons, but one Son, Oidy-begotten God, the
Word, the Lord Jesus Christ ; as the prophets before
taught concerning him, so he the Lord .Jesus Christ
hath taught us, and the creed of ihe Fathers hath
transmitted to us."
From the period when this decree was passed by
the council of Chalcedon, the Eidijc/iuiiis gradually
departed from the peculiar views of Eutyclies, and
therefore laid aside the Uiime which they had de-
rived from him, and assumed the more appropriate
designation of Monopliysites, which indicated their
distinguishing tenet, that the two natures of Chri.st
were so united as to constitute one nature. The
controversies which ensued were .-ittended with the
most disastrous results to the Oriental church. At
first the contest raged in Egypt and Palestine, but
soon extended far and wide over the whole of the
East. To settle the manifold dissensions which were
disturbing both church and state, the Emperor Zeno,
A. D. 482, oti'ered to the contending parties the formu-
la of concord, known by the name of the Ileiiotivnii,
in which he fully recognized the doctrines of the
council of Chalcedon, without alluding .at all to that
body ; and afhrming that these doctrines were em-
braced by the members of the true chiu-ch, he called
upon all Christians to unite on this sole basis, and
" anathematizes every person who has thought or
thinks otherwise, either now or at any other time,
whether at Chalcedon, or in any other synod what-
ever, but more especially the aforesaid persons, Nes-
toriu.s, and such as embrace their sentiments." In
Egypt the Henoticon was extensively adopted, but
the bishops of Rome were opposed to it, and had
suflicient influence to render it generally ineffi-
cient.
Among those who suliscrilied this formula of con-
cord was Peter Moggus, bishop of Alexandria, whose
conduct in doing so roused a consider.able part of the
Monopliysites, who had hitherto acknowledged him
as their leader and head, to renounce him altogether
in that capacity, thus .acquiring for themselves the
name of Aci;i'HAI,i (\vhich see). To this zealous
piirty of the Monopliysites, the Emperor Jusfinl'an
was violently opposed, and published what is known
as .Justinian's creed, in which he defined the Catholic
faith as established by the first four general councils
— those of Nice, Constantinople, Ephesus, .and Chal-
cedon, and cundemned I he opposite errors. Tin's
document, instead of settling the controvensy, only
agitated the church still more severely, .and the em-
peror found it necessary to refer the matter to a gen-
eral council. He accordingly assembled what is
called the fit'th general council at Constantinople, in
the year 553, which was attended almost exclu.sively
by Eastern bishops, who gave their sanction to the
views of the emperor. Vigilius, the Roman pontiff,
refused to assent to the decrees of this council, and
was in consequence biinished ; nor was he allowed to
return from exile until he yielded to the wi.shes of
the emperor. Pelagius and the subsequent Roman
pontiffs .accepted these decrees ; but neither popes
nor emperors could prevail upon many of the West-
ern bishops to give their sanction to the decrees of a
council in which they h.ad taken no part, and which
seemed at once to attack the authority of the coun-
cil of Chalcedon, and to favour the Monopliysites.
On this account the churches of Isiria, and several
480
MOXOTHErSTS— MONOTHELITRS.
oilier cluirclies of the West, renounced the lellow-
bhip of tlie Roman churcli.
The Emperor Jnstinian, towards the end of Ids
reign, carried Ids sunpoit of tlie JIono])li_vsitc party
to a lieight by extending his favour to tlie Apiithar-
TODOCiTES (which see), more especially as lie was
stronglv inclined to favour the most extravagant ex-
pressions, provided they indicated that the human
attributes of Clirist were entirely absorbed in the
Divine. But while preparing, by another edict, to
make this new form of Monopliysite doctrine a law,
the evils which were thus threatening the whole
Oriental cliurch were suddenly averted by the death
of the emjieror A. i). 565.
Throughout his whole life Justinian had used
his utmost efforts to reunite the Monophysites with
the Catholic church, but so far was he from be-
ing successt'ul in these attempts, that the breach was
every day becoming wider ; and the later dominion
of the Arabians, who particularly favoured the Mono-
physites, rendered the breach incurable. In Egypt
tliey had made an open separation from the Catholic
church, and chosen another patriarch. To this day
they continue under the name of the Coptic church,
with which the Ethiopian church has always been
connected. The Christians in .\rmenia also adopted
-Monophysite opinions, which they still retain, and
are only separated from the other Monophysite
cliurches by peculiar customs, the most remarkable
of which are their use of unmixed wine at the Lord's
Supper, and their observance of the day of Epiphany
as the festival of tlie birth and baptism of Jesus.
In Syria and Mesopotamia, on the other hand, the
Monophysites had nearly become extinct by perse-
cution towards the close of tlie sixth century, when
.Jacob Baradaeus revived their churches, and supplied
tliem with pastors. Hence it was that from this
date the Syrian Monophysites received the name of
the Jacobite Church (which see), while the term
Jdcohite-i was sometimes applied to the whole Mono-
physite Jiarty.
MONOTIIEISTS (Gr. moiios, one only, and t!ieos,
God), those who believe in one only God, as ojiposed
to PohjtIieiMs, who acknowledge a plurality of gods.
In all the dilVerent mvthologies of the various nations
on the face of the earth, we tind, amid their number-
less gods and goddesses with which they people
heaven, earth, and air, an invariable recognition of one
Supreme Being, the author and governor of all things.
.\11 the ancient nations appear in the early periods
of their existence to have believed in the existence of
one infinite God, and no more than one. The farther
back we trace the liiBtory of nations, we find more
evident traces of the pure worship of the One
Infinite and Eternal Jehovah. There is no doubt
that all nations, except the Jews, were once poly-
theists, and this establishes the great truth, that
whatever the light of nature may teach, it is to Kc-
velation tliat we owe the knowledge of the exist-
ence and tlie unity of God.
MOXOTHELITES (Gr. moiios, one only, and
t/iclema, the will), a sect which arose in the seventh
century, out of a well-meant but unsuccessful at-
tempt on the part of the Emperor Heraclius to re-
concile the Mmwphi/si/ei to the Greek church.
Anxious to terminate the controversy, he consulted
with one of the leading men among the Armenian
Monophysites, and with Sergius, jiatriarch of Con
stantinople, and at their suggestion he issued a de-
cree A. D. 630, that the doctrine should henceforth
be held and inculcated without prejudice to the truth
or to the authority of the Council of Chalcedon, that
after the union of the two natin-es in the Person of
Clirist Jesus, there was but one will, and one opera-
tion of will. Heraclius had no wish to make this
foiTOidary universal in the church, but simply to
introduce it into those provinces where the Mono-
physites chiefly prevailed, and thus, if possible, to
eflect a union. The plan succeeded in the case of
the two patriarchs of the East, Cyrus of Alexandria,
and .Vthanasius of Antioch, the former of whom held
a council which solemnly confirmed the decree of the
Emperor. The intention of Cyrus was to gain over
the Severians and the Theodosians, who compo.sed a
large part of the Christians of Alexandria, and to
accomplish this important object, he considered it
the most effectual plan to set forth the doctrine of
one will and one operation. In several canons, ac-
cordingly, of the council at Alexandria, he spoke of
one single theandric operalion in Christ, yet for the
sake of peace he refrained from aflirmiiig either one
or two wills and operations. This step, though
taken with the best intentions, gave occasion after-
wards to the most violent theological contests.
Sopbronius, a monk of Palestine, who had been
present at the council of Alexandria, called by Cy-
rus A. D. 633, olVered the most strenuous opposition,
though standing alone and misiiiiported, to the article
which related to one will in Christ. Next year
having been promoted to the high ofiice of patriarch
of Jerusalem, he took occasion, in the circular letters
to the other patriarchs announcing his consecration,
to condemn the Monothelites, and to show, by a host
of quotations from the Fathers, that the doctrine of
two wills and two operations in Christ was the only
true doctrine. Sergius of Constantinople, dreading
the increased inlluence which Sophronius was likely
to exercise from the elevated position which lie now
occupied, endeavoured to gain over as a cotmter-
poise, Ilonorius the Human pontif)', who, although
Komish writers are reluctant to admit it, was induced
openly to declare in favour of Monothelite doctrine,
since there could be no conflict between the human
and the divine will in Christ, as in the case of the
world, in consequence of the presence of sin.
The controversy was now can-ied on with great |
zeal and earnestness in various parts of the Christian '•
world. Heraclius, dreading the political effects of
these theological disputes, published A. D. 639 an
EcTHKSis (which see), drawn up by Sergius, in
MONOTHELITES.
481
which, while the most tolerant setititnents were ex-
Iiressed towards those who held the doctrine of a
twofold will, the Monothelites were nevertheless
spoken of in the most indulgent and favourable
terms. This new law met with the approval of
many in the East, and it was expressly confirmed hj-
a synod convened by Sergius. But in Northern
Africa and Italy the edict of tlie Emperor was re-
jected, and in a council held by John IV. at Rome,
the doctrine of tlie Monothelites was publicly con-
demned. In Constantinople the Ei-thesis was still
regarded as law, even after the deatli of Heraclius in
A. D. 641. But the controver.sy, instead of being
lulled by this imperial edict, only waxed more fierce
and vehement. At length, in A. D. 648, the Empe-
ror Constans publi.shcd a new edict under the iiajne
of the Tiijye, by wliich the Ecl/ie-'iis was annulled,
silence was enjoined on both the conteinhng parties
in regard to one will, and also in regard to one ope-
ration of will in Christ. This attempt forcibly to
still the voice of controversy on a point of theologi-
cal doctrine, was productive of no other eftect but
that of increased irritation. The monks viewed
silence on such an occasion as a crime, and hence
they prevailed on Martin I., bishop of Rome, to
summon a council. This assembly, called the Late-
ran Comicil, consisting of one hundred and five
bishops, met at Rome and passed twenty canons
anathematizing both the Ecthesi-^- and the Tijpe, and
likewise all patrons of the Monothehtes. In these
canons the doctrine of the twofold will and opera-
tion was clearly asserted, and the opposite opinion
condemned.
Pope Martin caused the decrees of the Lateran
Council to be published throughout the Western
Cluu'ch, and sent a copy of them to the Emperor
Constans, with a request that he would confirm
them. This bold step on the part of the Roman
Pontiff roused the indignation of the Emperor, who
issued an order for the arrest of His Holiness, and his
transportation to the island of Naxia. Thence he
was conveyed to Constantinople, where he under-
went a judicial trial, and woidd have been condemned
to die, had not the Emperor been prevailed upon to
commute his punishment into banishment to Cher-
Bon, where he soon after died in gi-eat distress.
Thus by measures of extreme severity did the
Emperor compel the whole Eastern Church to ac-
knowledge the Type, and along with the adoption of
this formulary the bishops of tlie principal cities
combined the avowal and support of Monothelite
doctrines. In the Romish cluirch, on the contrary,
zeal for the Dyothelite doctrine was continually on
the increase. A schism between the Eastern and
Western churches therefore seemed to be inentable.
Under Pope Adeodatus, a. d. 677, matters came to a
crisis. All intercourse ceased between the Pope of
Rome and the Patriarch of Constantinople. The
Emperor Constantinus Pogonatus was much dis-
tressed at the division between the two churches,
II.
and by his authority the sixth cecumenical council
was assembled A. D. 680 at Constantinople, for the
purpose of investigating the points in dispute. This,
which is usually termed the council in Trullo, was
the third of the general councils convened in Con-
stantinople. The Emperor attended in person, and
the argument between the DyuthelUes and the Mono-
tJielites was conducted throughout several sessions
with great ability. At length, however, a remark-
able occurrence broke in upon the delibeiations of
the assembly, and turned the tables in favour of the
supporters of one will in Christ. The incident to
which we refer, along with the eflect which it pro-
duced, is thus related by Neander: "A monk named
Polychroiiius, from Heraclea, in Thrace, presented
himself before the assembly. He declared that a
band of men, clothed in white ganiients, had appear-
ed to him, and that in their midst was a man invested
with indescribable glory : probably Christ was in-
tended. This wonderfid personage said to him, that
those who did not confess the o)ie will lUid the tliean-
dri'c energy, were no Christians. He also commanded
him to seek the emperor, and to exhort him to re-
frain from making or admitting any new doctrines.
The monk then offered to prove the truth of the
principles which he advocated by a miracle, and to
restore a dead man to life by means of a confession
of faith embodying the Monothelite belief. It was
considered necessary to accept liis proposal, in order
to prevent his imposing on the credulity of the peo-
ple. Tlie entire synod, and the highest officers of
state appeared, surrounded by a multitude of people,
in an open place, into which a dead body was
brought upon a bier decorated with silver ornaments.
Polychronius laid his confession upon the corpse '
and continued, for several hours, to whisper some-
thing into its ear. At length he was obliged to
acknowledge that he could not awake the dead.
Loud were the clamours which burst forth from the
[leople against this new Simon Magais. But no such
clamours could weaken the conviction formed in the
depths of his mind, and Polychronius remained firmly
devoted to his error. By means of this Council, the
doctrine of two wills, and two modes of operation in
Christ, obtained a victory throughout the Eastern
church. It was now made part of a new confession,
and was carefully defended against the conclusions
which the Monothelites endeavoured to draw from
its principles. ''I'wo wills, and two natural modes
of operation united with each other, w ithout opposi-
tion and without confusion or change, so that no
antagonism can be found to exist between them, but
a constant subjection of the human will to the di-
vine,' this was the foundation of the creed. An ana-
thema was also pronounced upon the champions of
Monothelitism, upon the patriarchs of Constanti-
nople, and on Honorius, to defend whom some at-
tempt had been made by a skilful interpretation of
his words."
The anathema prononnced upon the MonotheliUs
2s ,
482
MOXTANISTS.
b_v tlie Tnilliaii cuimoil did not succeed in destroy-
ing the sect. Siill fiirtlier measures, tlierefore, were
iidopted to extiiii,'iiisli tlie heresy. The decrees of
the sixth oecimieiiical council in reference to the dis-
piited doctrine, were repeated by the second coun-
cil in TruUo in A. 1). G91. a council which, as it was
designed to complete the work of the two preceding
councils, the fifth and the sixth, is generally known
by the name of the Concilium Qii.iuieejutum. In the
year 711, ihe Monothelites received no small en-
couragement from the succession to tbe imperial
thnme of Bardanes, or as he called himself, Philip-
picus, who was a zealous champion of their party.
Under his presidency a eoinicii was held at Constan-
tinojile, wdiicli overthrew the decisions of the sixth
general council, and proposed a new .symbol of faith
in favour of the iMonothelite doctrine. The reign of
Bardanss. however, la.sted only two years, and his suc-
cessor, Anastasius II., neutralized all that he had done
in matters of I'eligion during bis brief imperial rule.
Moncithelitism now retreated to the remote moun-
tainous strongholds of Libanus and Anti Libamis,
where it established itself among the Maronilcs.
who separated from the Greek church, and subse-
quently were able to maintain their independence'
against the Saracens. Tlic Marniiitc church for
several centuries appears to have held Monothclite
views, lliough the most learned of the modern Ma-
ronites deny the charge, and it was not until the}-
were reconciled with the Romish church in 1182,
that they renounced the doctrines of t!ie Monothe-
lites.
MONTANISTS, a Christian sect wliicli arose in
Phrygia in the course of the second century, deriving
its name from an enthusiastic fanatic named Mon-
tanus, who lived in the village of Ardaban on the
boimdary line between Phrygia and Mysia. The
prevailing idea of the whole system was, that man
is wholly passive, a mere machine, wrought upon by
the Divine Spirit, to which be bears the same rela-
tion as the lyre does to the plectrum with which it
was played. Not regarding the Di\ine word as ade-
quate for the guidance of the church, Montanus at-
Vvched the highest importance to the Paraclete,
through wliose indwelling operation in the soul new
revelations were imparted. Accordingly, ho taught
that by this means m.iny new positive precepts were
imposed upon the church ; and hence the whole sect
was characterized by a spirit of fanaticism and super-
Ktilion of the grossest kind. The leader of this strange
body of enthusiasts was seized with occasional fits of
ecstasy, i[i which he fancied him.self under the in-
fluence of a higher spirit, which enabled him to pre-
dict llie approach of new persecutions. He announ-
ced the Judgments impending over Ihe persecutors of
the churcli, the second coming of Christ, aiul the ap-
proach of the ndllennial reign. He alleged that be
was a divinely-commissioned proiihet sent to elevate
the church to a higher stage of i)crfectiou than she
had ever yet attained. In connexion with Montanus
there were two women, Priscilla and Maxiniilla, who
claimed to be regarded as prophetesses.
Montanism was clearly explained, and reduced to
a system by Tertullian, one of the most learned of
the Latin fathers. He maintained thai the doctrines
of the church were immutable, but that the regula-
tions of the church might be changed and improved
by the progressive teachings of the Paraclete,
according to tlie exigencies of the times. To com-
municate these instructions, the clnu'cb was believed
to enjo}' the extraordinary guidance of the prophets
awakened by the Paraclete, wdio were regarded as
succes.sors of the apostles in the possession of mira-
culous gifts. Those who followed the teaching of
the Holy Ghost speaking through the medium of the
new prophets, were considered as constituting the
church properly so called. Nor was the possession
of the gifts of tbe Spirit confined to one class only,
but belonged to Christians of every condition and
sex without distinction. The iMontanistic notion of
inspiration was that of an ecstatic condition in which
the individual was thrown into a state of uncon-
sciousness, speaking under the exclusive agency of
the Holv Spirit, without fully nnderslanding what
tliey announced : " States," says Nennder, " some-
what akin to what occurred in jiagan divination,
plienomena like the magnetic and somnambulist
appearances occasionally presented in the pagan
cultus, mixed in with the excitement of Christian
feelings. Those Christian females who were thrown
into ecstatic trances during the time of public wor-
ship, were not only consulted about remedies for
bodily diseases, but also plied with questions con-
ceniing the invisible world. In TertuUian's time,
there was one at Cartliage, who, in her states of
ecstacy, imagined herself to be in the society of
Christ and of angels. The matter of her visions cor-
responded to what she liad just heard read fr(im tbe
holv scriptures, what was .said in the Psalms that
had been sung, or in the pr.ayers that had been
ofl'ered. At the conclusion of the service, and afier
the dismission of the cluu'ch, she was made lo relate
her visions, from which men sought to gain informa-
tion about things of the invisible world, as, for
example, about the nature of tbe soul."
The i\I(mlani6ts, following out their principles as
to the progressive development of church ordinances,
introduced a number of new preee)>ts, chiefly bear-
ing on the ascetic life. Pasting, which had hithcrlo
been voluntary on the stationary days, that is, on
Thin-sday and Friday, was prescribed as a law for all
Clu-istians. It was held also to be imperative on nil
Christians to practise a partial fast during three
weeks of the year. Believers were encouraged to
long for nuirtyrdom. •' Let it not be your wish," i
they were told, " to die on your beds in the pains of |
childbed, or in debilitating fever; but desire to die !
as martyrs, that He may be glorilied who sufl'ered
for yon." Celil)acy was held in high cstimaticn
among tbe Montanists, but at the -same time they
MOXTENEGKINE CHURCH— MONTH.
483
gave peculiar prominence to marriage as a spiritnal
union, and lience tliey regarded it as belonging to
tlie essence of a truly Christian marriage, tliat il
should be celebrated in the clun-ch in the name «i'
Christ. Carrying out this view of the mairiage
union, tliey would .allow of no .second marriage after
the death of the first husband or the first wile,
recknning as they did that marriage being an indis-
.soluble union in the spirit, not in the flesh alone,
was destined to endure beyond the grave.
From the peculiar rigidity of many of their prac-
tices, the Montanists considered themselves to be
the only geiniine Christians. They did not, how-
ever, for some time separate from the church, but
wished only to be viewed as the spiritual portion of
the church. At length they proceeded to fomi and
propagate themselves as a distinct sect, called Gifa-
phryijians, from the country in which they had their
origin ; and also Pepv^iaiis. because Montanus taught
that at Pepuza in Phrygia the millennial reign of
Cliri.st would begin, this place being the New Jeru-
salem spoken of in the Book of Revelation. Ter-
tullian calls those who hold Monlanist views, the
Spiritual; while he denominates tliose who oppose
their opinions, the Carnal. Amidst the changes
which this sect introduced was an alteration of the
form of baptism, the ordinance being administered
by tliem, as St. Basil alleges, in the name of the
Father, Sou, and Montanus or Priscilla. This al-
teration may have arisen from an idea which Mon-
tanus inculcated upon his followers, that he himself
was the Holy Ghost. Hence the council of Lao-
dicea decreed that all Montanists who should return
to the Catholic church should be rebaptized. A
decree to the same eftect was pas.sed by the first
general council of Constantinople. Jeronie alleges
that the Montanists, though professing to believe in
the Trinity, were in reality Sabellians, believing in
only one person in the Godhead, but under dift'ereut
manifestations, which they called Persons. Philas-
trius declares it to have been a practice followed by
the Montanists, that they baptized men after death,
when the ordinaTice had been neglected during life.
The same author also aftinns that they administered
the eucharist to the dead under similar circum-
stances. From the opinion which they held that
the extraordiuarv gifts of the Spirit were communi-
cated indiscriminately to Christians of all conditions
and of both sexes, thev allowed women to preach, and
to hold oflices in the church, some being bishops,
and other presbyters.
Towards the end of the second, or according to
others, the begimiing of the third century, the ex-
travagance of the Montainsts. and of some belong-
ing to the true church wlio had imbibed their prin-
ciples, brought upon Christians generally the charge
of disaffection to the ci\il power. Accordingly,
Severus, the Roman Emperor, whose reign had
Iiitherto been tolerant, changed his policy, and is-
suing an edict against proselytism, commenced a
persecution of the church which he continued with-
out intermission till his death.
MONTENEGRINE CHURCH, a section of the
Greek Church, including 00,000 inhabitants of a
mountain district in the south of Albania. TIm"s
church is under the direction of the Most Holy gov-
erning Synod of Russia, and though professedly be-
longing to the Oriental Church, it is tolerated in the
maintenance of several practices in which it dilr'ers
from that church, particidarly in rejecting images,
crucifixes, and jiictures. The Montenegrines enter-
tain a deep-roofed aversion to the Pope of Rome,
and also to their neighbours the Turks. When a
Roman Catholic applies for admission into their
church, they invariably deem it necessary to re-bap-
tize him before admission.
MONTFORT (A Si;ct at). In the eleventh cen-
tury a my.stic Christian sect appeared in the north
of Italy, having its headquarters at Montfort, in the
neighbourhood of 'J'urin. When discovered by
Heriberf, archbishop of Milan, it was presided over
by one Gerhard, whom he summoned to give an
account of himself. The account which he gave of
his views, however, was far from satisfactory. The
Son of God, he said, is the sold, beloved, enlightened
of God ; the Holy Spirit is the devout and true
understanding of the Sacred Scriptures. The birth
of Jesus from the Virgin, and his conception by the
Holy Ghost, denotes the birth of the divine life in
the soul, by means of a right undersfanding of the
vScriptin-es, proceeding from a divine light which is
designated by the Holy Spirit. Thus in the view of I
the sect at Montfort, persons denoted things, and
the whole history of Christ was a myth, intended to
be a .symbol of the development of the divine lite in
each individual man. They held that all Christians
liad one only priest from whom they received the
forgiveness of sin, and they acknowledged no other
.s.acrament than his absolution, thus rejecting bap-
tism and the Lord's Supper. They refused to ad-
mit of any other marriage than a spiritual union
between the parties, which they believed would lead
to a spiritual progeny, so that in course of time men
would cea.se to inherit a carnal nature. They held
that Christians ought to lead a life of prayer and
abstinence and jioverty. The reproach and iiersccu-
tion which they endured on account of their doc-
trines they bore with cheerfid submission, believing
them to be judgments inflicted by God for their past
sins, and designed to purify their soids, fitting them
for the society of the blessed in heaven. Those,
therefore, who were denied the pri\ilege of dying as
martyrs, died cheerfully under self-inflicted tortures.
No sooner had this mystical sect attracted notice,
than they were visited with severe persecution,
great nimibers of them being doomed to |icrish at
the stake.
MONTH. The word used by the Hebrews to
denote a month, in early limes, was UkhIlsIi, which
signil'.es a new moon, as the month began with ilic
434
MONTH'S MIND— MOQUAMOS.
new moon, and indeed tlie changes of that hiniiiiai'y
seem to liave afforded tlie first measure of time.
After the Israelites left Egypt they had two modes
of reckoning months ; the one civil, the other sacred.
While the Jews were in the land of Canaan they
regulated the months by tlie appearance of the moon.
As soon as tliey saw the moon they began the
montli. Persons were stationed on the tops of high
mountains to watch the first appearance of the new
moon, which was immediately intimated to the san-
hedrim, and public notice given by sounding trum-
pets or lighting beacons in conspicuous places so as
to be seen throughout the whole country, or de-
spatching messengers in all directions to make the
announcement. Since the dispersion the Jews have
regulated their months and years by astronomical
calculations. The present Jewish calendar was set-
tled by Rabbi Hillel about the middle of the fourth
century. It is founded on a combination of Imiar
and solar periods: "That the festival of the new-
moon," says Mr. Allen, "might be celebrated as
nearly as possible on the day of the moon's conjunc-
tion with the sun, the months contain alternately,
for the most part, twenty-nine and thirty days. But
each hmation containing more than twenty-nine days
and a half, the excess renders it necessary to allot,
in some years, thirty days to two successive months.
The year is never begim on the first, fourth, or sixth
day of the week. This circumstance causes further
variations in the lengllis of some of the months.
The montlis in which these variations take place arc
the second and third, Marchesvan and Chisleu ;
which contain, sometimes twenty-nine days each,
sometimes thirty days each ; and sometimes there
are twenty-nine days in the former and thirty in the
latter." Among the ancient Egyptians the hiero-
glyphic signifying month was represented by the
crescent of the moon.
MONTH'S MIND, a solemn office in the Roman
Catholic Church, for the repose of the soul, per-
formed one month after decease.
MOXTOLIVETENSES, the monks of Mount
Olivet, an order of religious in the Romish church,
which originated in A. D. 1407, and was confirmed
by Pope Gregory XII. They resided on a hill,
wliich they called Mount Olivet, professed the Rule
of St. lienedict. and wore as the habit of their order
a white dress.
MOON-WORSIIII'. In Eastern nations gen-
erally, and among the Hebrews more es|iecially,
the Moon was more extensively worshipped than
the Sim. Moses warns the Israelites, in Dent, iv,
19, xvii. .3, against the idolatrous worship of this, as
well as the other heaveidy bodies. There is a re-
ference also in Job xxxi. 2G, 27, to the .'■aine species
of worship, " If I beheld the sun when it shined, or
the moon walking in brightness; and my heart liath
biten secretly enticed, or my mouth hath kissed my
hand." In the Old 'I'estament Scriptures the Moon
is sometimes called the Queen of Heaven, and to
this divine luminary the Hebrews oflered cakes,
made libations, aTid burned incense, customs to which
we find an allusion in Jer. vii. 18, xliv. 17, 19. Tlie
goddess AsJitarolh or Astarte, worshipped by the
Zidonians, is supposed to have been the Moon, who
was represented among the Phoenicians by an
efligy having the head of an ox with horns, perhaps
resembling a crescent. Her worship is uniformly
joined with that of Baal or the Sun. A feast in
honour of Astart^ was held every new moon, which
was called the feast of Hecate. We learn from Sir
John G. Wilkinson, that "The Egyptians represented
their moon as a male deity, like the German Mond
and Monat, or the Lunus of the Latins; and it is
worthy of remark, that the same custom of calling it
male is retained in the East to the present day,
while the Sun is considered female, as in the language
of the Germans. Thoth is usually represented as a
human figure with the head of an Ibis, liolding a
tablet and a pen or pahn-brancli in his hands ; and in
his character of Lunus he has sometimes a man's
face with the crescent of the moon upon his head,
supporting a disk, occasionally with the addition of
an ostricli feather; which last appears to connect
him with Ao or wilh Tlnnei." Plutarch says that
there were some who scrupled not to declare Isis to
be the moon, and to say tliat such statues of hers
as were horned, were made in imitation of the cres-
cent; and that her black habit sets forth her disap-
pearing and eclipses. The Israelites appear to have
learned the practice of Mocm-worship from the
Phoenicians and Canaanites. Tlie ancient Arabians
also worsliipped this planet under the name of Ali-
lat, the Greeks under that of Artemis, and the Ro-
mans of Diana.
Tlie moon was considered by many of the ancient
heathen nations as having a peculiar influence over
the aflairs of men. Hence, as we learn from
Liiciaii, it was laid down by Lycurgus as an estab-
lished rule among the Spartans, that no military ex-
pedition should be undertaken except when the moon
was at tlie full. The Zend-Abesta of the ancient
Persians reckons the Moon not among the deities,
but among the Amsch.aspands or seven .archangels of
the heavenly hierarchy. Mani was the Moon god
of the Scandinavian Edda. The moon has diti'ercnt
sexes in diflerent mythologies. In Hebrew it is
sometimes male, when it is allied Yurrach, and at
other times female, when it receives the name of
Lebanah. Tliis was tlie Men of the Syrians, Cappa-
docians, and Lydians, the cock of Frci/a, and the
Moon-god of the Litluiaiiians and ancient Sclavo-
niaiis.
MOQUAMOS, the name given to the temples of
the idolatrous inhabitants of the island of Socotia,
off Cape Guardafui, on the east coast of Africa. The
p.agan islanders worship the Moon as the great
parent of all things. Eor this purpose they resort
to their Moquamos, which arc very small and low,
while the entrance is such that a person requires ic
MORABITES— MORAVIAN CHURCH.
485
stoop almost to tlie ground before lie can find liis
way into tlie sacred place. Here a number of stiaiige
ceremonies are performed in honour of the Moon
by the Huilainon, as their priests are called.
ilOKABlTErf, a Mohammedan .sect, wlio are
chiefly found in Africa. They arose about the eighth
century, having been originated by Mohaidin, the
last son of Hosnein, who was the second son of Ali,
Mohammed's son-in-law. They live chiefly in se-
questered places, like monks, either separately or in
small societies, following many practices utterly op-
posed to the Koran. They are licentious in their
habits, and on occasions of festivity they sing verses
in honour of Ali and his son Hossein, and amuse the
company with their dances, which are conducted
with the most boisterous vehemence until utterly
exhausted they are carried away by some of their
disciples to their solitary residences.
MORALITIES, a kind of allegorical representa-
tions of virtues or vices, which were accustomed to
be made by the ecclesiastics of the middle ages, in
order to instruct the peoi)le, who, being very igno-
rant and unable to read, were thus taught many
truths wliieh they could not otherwise have learned.
The Moralities were so contrived as to exhibit virtue
in the most favourable, and vice in the most odious
aspect.
MORAVIAN CHURCH. Tlie members of this
church commonly assume to themselves the name
of the United Bretln-en. They are a continuation of
the ancient Bohemian Chtirch, which, after being al-
most aiMiihilated by sore persecution, was revived by
Count Zinzeiuiorf in the eighteenth century. Its
commencement was truly a day of small things. Ten
individuals in 1722 were permitted to settle on a por-
tion of tlie lands belonging to tlie Count, and the
small colony thus formed was called ''Herrnhut," as
being situated on the declivity of a hill called Hutberg.
This Christian community rapidly increased in num-
bers, and in the course of live years it had risen to five
hundred [lersons. It was proposed by some to form
a combination with the Lutheran church; but hav-
ing appealed to the lot, it was decided that they
should continue a distinct Society. Accordingly,
under the guidance of Count Zinzendorf, certain
articles of faith and rules of discipline were agreed
upon as the basis on which the Society should rest ;
and to the furtherance of the interests of this ' Uni-
tiis Fratrum,' as it was termed, its pious founder
from that time forward devoted his whole life, pro-
perty, and energy. Their doctrines were, and still
are, in liarniony with those of the Augsburg Con-
fession.
At a general synod of the Brethren held at Biirby
in 1775, the following statement of iirinciples was
adopted : " The chief doctrine to which the Church
of the Brethren adheres, and which we must pre-
serve as an invaluable treasure committed imto us,
is this — tliat bi/ tJie sacrijice for sin made hij Jesus
Christ, aiul hij that alone, grace and deliverance from
sin are to be obtained for all mankind. We will,
therefore, without lessening the imiiortance of aiiy
other article of the Christian faith, steadl'astly main-
tain the following five points : —
" 1. The doctrine of tlie universal depravity of
man ; that there is no health in man, and that, since
the fall, he has no power whatever left to help him-
self.
" 2. The doctrine of the divinity of Christ : that
God, the creator of all things, was manifest in the
flesh, and reconciled us to himself; that he is before
all things, and that by him all things consist.
"3. Tlie doctrine of the atonement and satisfac-
tion made for us by Jesus Christ : tliat he was de-
livered for our oflences, and raised again for our
justification: and that, by his merits alone, v/e re-
ceive freely the forgiveness of sin and sanctitication
in soul and body.
"4. The doctrine of the Holy Spirit, and the ope-
rations of His grace: that it is He who woiketh in
us conviction of sin, faiih in Jesus, and pureness in
lieart.
"5. The doctrine of the fruits of faith : that faith
must evidence itself by willing obedience to the
commandments of God, from love and gratitude."
Witliin their pale the United Brethren include
three ditierent modifications of sentiment, the Lu-
theran, the Reformed, and the Moravian, the last of
which includes all other Protestant denominations.
Tliey object to be called a sect or deiioniination,
because tlieir union is founded on great general prin-
ciples belonging to Cliristianity as such, and the
only peculiarities whicli they have, refer exclusively
to conduct and discipline. Having become quietly
located at Herrnhut, the rights and regulations of
the congregation were confirmed by grants from the
sovereign. A second settlement of the Brethren
was set on foot by Bohemian refugees in 1742 at
Niesky, near Gorlitz in Upper Lusatia, where a
Moravian classical school is established. Other set-
tlements of the Brethren were commenced in 1743
and 1744 at Gnadenherg, Gnadenfrey and Neusalz
in Lower Silesia; at Kleinwelke in Upper Lusatia
in 1750; and at Gnadenfeld in Upper Silesia, in
17^0, by a special grant from the sovereign. At
tlie last-mentioned place there is a college, where
young men are educated for the ministry both at
liome and abroad. Congregations of the Brethren
were also established in Saxony, Prussia, and other
parts of Germany. The first settlements both in
England and in the United Slates were made about
1742.
At an early period in the history of the Moravian
Brethren, they undertook the holy enterprise of pro-
|iagatiiig the gospel among heathen nations. Count
Zinzendorf, though a man of rank and wealth, de-
voted himself to the office of the niinislry, and his
whole estate to the dillusion of Christianity in con-
nection with the Brethren's Church. Ha\iiig been
through false accusations banished from Saxony, on
48G
MORAVIAN CHURCH.
qiiittiiis; tlie Uill^'(i(Hll, he remarked, "Now we must
collect a Congregation of I'iljpims, and train labour-
ers to go fortli into all the world and preach Christ
and liis salvation." Aw'ordingly, from this time he
■was constantly snrrounded with a goodly company
of godly men, who were preparing for the service of
the church either in home ministerial, or foreign
missionary work. These persons, who constituted
tlie Congregation of Pilgrims, followed the Count in
all hi.s changes of residence. The missions of the
United Brethren had I heir origin in a providential
circumstance, whicli directed their attention to the
condition of slaves in tlie West Indies. In 1731
the Count happened to reside in Co|)enhagen, where
some of his domestics became acquainted with a
negro named Anthony, who told thein of the sufl'er-
ings of the slaves on the island of St. Thomas, and
of their earnest desire for religious instruction. The
Count was deeply alfected with the statements of
Anthony, and on his return to Herrnhut, he made
them known to his congregation ; and such was the
interest thereby excited in behalf of the slaves in the
"West Indies, that in the following yeaj- two of the
Brethren were despatched as missionaries to the Dan-
ish West India Islands. These self-denied heralds of
the cross went forih resolved to submit to be them-
.'elves enslaved if such a step should be nece-ssary in
order to gain access to the slaves; and though no
such painful sacrifice was required of them, they still
maintained themselves by niaiuial labour under a
trojiical sun, embracing every opportuidty of con-
versing with and instructing the heathen. The spi-
rit which animated these holy men in the first
nussionaiT enterjnise of the United Brethren, has
been imiformly characteristic of their missionaries in
all (piarters of the world. The Greeidand mission,
■which has received so many tokens of the Divine
favour, was commenced in 173.3. There, as every-
where else, the grand aim of the Moravians has been
to make known among the heathen the unsearchable
riches of Christ. Their motto is, "To humble the
sinner, to exalt the Saviour, and to promote holi-
ness."
The genenil superintendence of the Moravian
missions is vested in the synods of the church ; but
as the synods meet only occasionally, the elders'
conference has the oversight of the missions. 'I'he
Brethren's Church has no |iernianent fimd for mis-
Bions. They are maintained by voluntary contribu-
tions, collected njostly at stadd tinu's in their con-
gregalions; and also by the many female, young
men's, and juvenile missionary societies in the cluu'ch.
To these also are added many liberal donations from
the mend)ers of other Christian eonmiunities, particU'
larly from members of the Church of England. Mo-
ravian missions are in active operation in (ireerdand,
Labrador, the Dani.^h AVest India Islands, .Jamaica,
Antigua, St. Kitts, Barbadoes, Tobago, Surinam,
South Africa, Australia, and the North American
Indians. 'I'lie nundjcr of labourers in (he present
missionary field, which includes 72 stations, amounts
to 159 males, and 131 females. No church indeed has
surpassed the Moravians in zeal, perseverance, and
energy In prosecuting the great work of Christian
missions.
In all their operations, whether home or foreign,
the Brethren seek to be regulated by a suiireme re-
gard to the will of God, and hence they endeavour
to test the purity of their purposes by refeiring
them to the light of the Divine word. As a society,
all their movements are submitted to this test; and
if in any case they are at a loss how to act, they are
in the habit of using the lot, humbly hoping that
God will guide them rightly by its decision. In
former times no marriage could take place without
the consent of the elders, who, when they were
at a loss whether to give or to withhold their ap-
proval, had recourse to the lot. This custom, how-
ever, is abandoned, and the consent of the elders is
never denied, where the parties are of good moral
character.
The Moravian church is episcopal in its mode of
government, and the bishops claim to be in regular
descent from those of the ancient Bohemian church,
which has been described under (he article Hit.'n-ites.
The dillcrent orders of the clergy among the Bre-
thren are bishops, presbyters, and deacons, the
bishops alone having the power of ordination.
Every church is divided into three classes: (1.) The
catecliuinrns, comprising the children of the brethren '.
and adult converts ; (2.) The comiiiuiiicaiits, who are
adinitted to the Lord's Supper, and are regarded as
members of the church ; and (3.) 'I'he perftct, consist-
ing of those who have pjersevered for some time in a
course of true Jiiety. From this last class aie cho-
sen in eveiy church, by a phu-ality of voles, the
elders, wlio are from three to eight in number. Every
congregation is directed by a board of elders, which
is termed, " The Elders' Conference of the Congre-
gation;" whose office it is to watch over that con-
gregation with reference to the doctrine, walk, and
conversation of all its members, the concerns of the
choirs, and of each individual person. The distinc-
tion of choirs refers to the ditierencc of age, sex. and
station. Boys and girls above, and under, twehe
years of age are considered as belonging lo separate
choirs ; and the difference in the station of life con-
stitutes the distinction between the single, married,
and widowed choirs. Each choir has its ]iarticular
meetings, besides those of the whole congregation.
In every congregaticjii there is a committee of over-
seers appointed, whose duty it is to watch over the
domestic affairs, and the means of outward subsist-
ence of the jieople, and to settle all dillerenccs
anujiig the members. The elders are bound lo \ isit
each family once in three months, and to rejiort to
the pastor whether or not family worship is regu-
larly maintained, and whether each mendjer of the
family is acting in accordance with the Christian
profession. It is also their duty to visit the sick,
MORAVIAN CHURCH.
487
aiul to assist tlie poor bretlireii witli money contri-
buted by tlie members of tlie churcli.
Tlie management of tlie general affairs of tlie Mo-
ravian cliiircli is committed to a bnard of elders
appointed by tlie general synods, which assemble at
irregular intervals, varying from seven to twelve
yeai'S. One of these boards, which is stationary at
Herrnluit, maintains a general supervision over the
whole Society ; while the others are local, being con-
nected with particular congregations. There are
female elders, who attend at the boards, but they
do not vote. " The synods," says Mr. Coiider, " are
composed of the bishops with their co-bishops, the
civil seniors, and 'such servants of the church and
of the congregations of the Brethren as are called to
the synod by the former Elders' Conference, ap-
pointed by the previous synod, or commissioned to
attend it, as deputies from particular congregations;'
together with (in Germany) the lords or ladies of the
manors, or proprietors of the land on which reguliu'
settlements are erected, provided they be members
of the Unity. Several female elders also are usually
present at the synods, in order that, in the delibera-
tions referring to the female part of the congrega-
tions, the needful intelligence may be obtained from
them ; but the)- have no votes. Sometimes, several
hundred persons attend these meetings. All the
transactions of the syniid are committed to writing,
and communicated to the several congi-egations.
From one synod to another, the direction of the ex-
ternal and internal affairs of the Church of the
Brethren is committed to a board consisting of bish-
ops and elders chosen by the synod, and individually
confirmed by lot, which bears the name of ' The
Elders' Conference of the Unity of the Brethren.'"
The ordinances of baptism and the Lord's Supper
are administered in nearly the same way as in other
Protestant churches. In baptism, however, both
the witnesses and the minister bless the infant with
laving on of hands, immediately after the rite has
been performed. The Loril's Supper is celebrated
in regular settlements of the Brethren every four
weeks, on Saturday evening; and in other places on
every fourth Sabbath. After the bread has been
consecrated, the deacons distribute it among the
communicants standing, who liold it in their hands
until the distribution is completed ; after which it is
eaten by all at once, in a kneeling posture. Tlie
consecrated cup is also given from one to the other
standing, until all have partaken of it. Absolution
is implored of the Lord in fellowship before the coin-
mimion, and sealed with the holy kiss of peace.
In the churches of the Moravian Brethren a Li-
tany is regularly used as part of the morning's ser-
vice on the Lord's Day ; hut the minister occasion-
ally uses extemporary prayer. Singing and instru-
mental music are regarded as very important parts
of Divine worship ; sometimes services are held
which are exclusively devoted to such exercises.
Love feasts, in imitation of the Aijapa: of the early
Christian Church, are occasionally celebrated by the
Brethren. The pediluvium or feetwashiny was for-
merly observed in some Moravian congTegations be-
fore partaking of the coniniuninn ; but now it is
practised only at particular times, as on Maunday
Thursday, by the whole congregation, and on some
other occasicms in the choirs. This ceremony is per-
formed by each sex separately, accompanied with
the singing of suitable hymns. In the Brethren's
Societies on the Continent, the sexes, previous to
marriage, occujiy separate establishmeiits, called re-
spectively the "Single Brethren's Houses," and
" Single Sisters' Houses," each establishment being
under the control of a male or female elder, who en-
deavours to instruct and train the inmates.
On a dying bed the Brethren generally invite the
.attendance of one or more elders, who seek to pre-
pare them for their deiiarture by prayer and singing
a portion of a hymn, with imposition of hands.
When the body is cjirried out to burial, it is accom-
panied by the whole congregation, as well as by
the pastor, who delivers an address at the grave.
Easter morning is devoted to a solemnity of a pe-
culiar kind. At simrise the congregation assem-
bles in the burial-gi'ouud ; a service, accompanied
by music, is performed, and a solemn commeinora-
tion is made of all those by name who have, in the
course of the previous year, departed this life from
among the members of the congregation.
The church goveninient of the Moravians is of a
mixed character. It is partly Episcopal, as we have
seen, having bishops, in whom is vested the power
of ordination ; it is partly Presbyterian, each con-
gregation having a board of elders, who are subordi-
nate to a general board or conference of elders, who
again are subordinate to the general synod, which is
the supreme court of the whole chnrcliJ| it is partly
Congregational, the di-cipline of the church being
more especially of this character. (See Dlscil'LINK.)
Colonies of Moravians, formed on the plan of the
parent society, are foiuul in dirt'erent parts of Ger-
many, England, Ilollajul, and America, all, however,
responsible, even while regulated by local boards, to
the General Board of tlie Directors, seated at Betli-
elsdorf, near HeiTiihut, and denominated the Beard
of Elders of the Unity. With this board rests the
appointment of all the ministers and officers of each
community, except in the case of England and Amer-
ica, where all the aiipointments are made by the
local boards. This Board of Elders of the Unity,
however, is responsible to the (ieneral Synod, finm
whom all authority emanates.
It is calculated that the number of actual members
of the Moravian cluu'ch does not exceed 1'2,00() in
the whole of Europe, nor (5,000 in America; but it
is believed, that nearly 100,000 more are in virtual
connexion with tlieSociety,aiid under the spiritual care
of its ministers. The number of Moravian chapels
ill England and Wales, as reported by the census
of 1851, was 32, with 0,306 sittings. They are now
488
MORELSTrtCIIIKI— MOUIMO.
increased to 34 cliapels, with six home mission sta-
tions in Ireland. 'I'hoy have various educational
institutions in Great Britain, tlie principal of whicli
are Fnlneck in Yorksliire, Fairtield in Lancasliire,
and Ockbrook in Derbyshire. They have 28 set-
tlements and congregations in the United States,
along with a number of home missionary stations.
They are a small connnunity, witli little or no pros-
pect of growth ; but the influence which they exert
upon tlie connnunity around them is of a very
benelicial kind ; more especially through their well-
known and highly-prized schools at Bethleliem, Na-
zareth, Lititz, and Salem. They are said to have
kept the German language and customs more pure
than any other class of emigrants to the United
States ; and there, as in Europe, the Brethren art-
remarkable for their industrious, peaceable, and
pious character and deportment.
MORIi^LSTSCHIia, a sect of dissenters from the
Jiiisso- Crreel- CImrch, who act the part of voluntary
martyrs. On a certain day every year a number of
them assemble in secret, and having celebrated a
ninnber of Pagan rites, they dig a deep pit, tilling it
with wood, straw, and other combustibles ; and set-
ting tire to the mass, they throw themselves into the
midst of it, and |)erish in the flames amid the plau-
dits of tlieir admiring companions, who calmly wit-
ness the scene. Others, without proceeding the
length of self-murder, inflict upon themselves cruel
mutilations. This sect carefully conceals its peculiar
doctrines, which liave never been connnilted to writ-
ing. They are believed to hold the Sabellian
lieresy in regard to the Trinity, recognizing only the
Father as God, and tlie Son and the Spirit as merely
manifestations of the Godhead. They deny the
reality of the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ,
maintaining that the body which was buried was
that of a soldier, substituted for the body of om-
Lord. They look for the speedy return of the Sa-
viour, who they believe will make his triimiphant
entrance into Moscow, to wliich place the saints will
flock to meet him from all quarters of the earth.
They hold their religious meetings on Saturday
iiiglit, and do not observe the Sabbath. Easter is
the only holiday which they observe, and on that
occasion they celebrate tlie Lord's Supper with bread
wliich has been buried in the tomb of some saint,
under the idea that it has thereby acquired a pecu-
liar .sacredness.
MORGIAXS, a kind of Antinomian sect among
the Mohammedans, who niainlain that the faith of a
Ariissuhnan will save him wliatever inav have been
his character and conduct in this world, and they
even go so far as to allege, that to the true followers
of the prophet good works are whollv useless.
MOUID, a name given by the IMohainmedans to
those who aspire to a life of extraordinary spiritualilv
and devotion.
iMORIMO, a word used by some of the native
tribes in South Africa, to denote a particular object
of worship among them. It is a compound word in
the Bfchuana language, mo being a personal prefix,
and riiDO, derived from yoriiuo, above. " Moriino."
says Mr. Moflat, in his ' Missionary Labours and
Scenes in South Africa,' " to those who know any
thing about it, had been re]jresented by rain niakei>
and sorcerers as a malevolent selo, or thing, which
the nations in the north described as existing in a
hole, and which, like the fairies in the Highlands of
Scotland, sometimes came out and inflicted diseases
on men and cattle, and even caused death. This
Moriino served the purpose of a bugbear, by whiuli
the rain-maker might constrain the chiefs to yield to
his suggestions, when he wished for a slaugliter ox,
without whicli he pretended he could not make rain.
Morimo did not then convey to the mind of those
who heard it tlie idea of God ; nor did Barimo, al-
though it was an answer to the question, ' where do
men go when they die?' signify heaven. Accord-
ing to one rule of forming the plural of personal
nouns beginning with mo, Barimo would only be the
plural of Morimo; as Monona, 'a man;' Banona,
' men.' But the word is never used in this form ;
nor did it convey to the Bechuana mind the idea of
a person or persons, but of a state or disease, or what
superstition would style being bewitched. If a per-
son were talking foolishly, or wandering in his iiilcl-
Icct, were delirious, or in a tit, they would call hiin
Barimo; which, among some tribes, is tanlamount
to liritl, shades or manes of the dead. ' Going to
Barimo,' did not convey the idea that they were
gone to any particular state of permanent existence ;
for man's immortality was never lieard of among that
people ; but, simply, that they died. They could
not describe who or what Morimo was, except some-
thing cunning or malicious ; and some who had a
purpose to serve, ascribed to him power, but it was
such as a Bushman doctor or quack could grunt out
of the bowels or afflicted part of the human bod}'.
They never, however, disputed the propriety of our
using the noun Morimo for the great object of our
worship, as some of them admitted that their fore-
fathers might have known more about him than ihey
did. Tliey never applied the name to a human be-
ing, except in a way of ridicule, or in adulalion to
those who taught his greatness, wisdom, and power.
" As to the eternity of this existence, they appear
never to have exercised one tlionght. Moriino is
never called man. As the jironouns agree witli the
noun, those which Morimo governs cannot, without
the greatest violence to the language, be apjilied to
Mor/orimo, ' a heavenly one,' which refers to a hu-
man being. This power is, in the mouth of a rain-
maker, what a disease would be in the lijis of a
quack, just as strong or weak as he is pleased to call
it. I never once lieard that Morimo did good, or was
supposed capable of doing so. More modern inqui-
ries among the natives might lead to the su|iposilio!i
that he is as powerful to do good as he is to do evil ;
and that he has as great an inclination for the one as
MORIUS— MOKMONS.
439
for the other. It will, however, be found that this
view of his attributes is the result of twenty-iive
years' missionary labour; the influences of which,
in that as well as in other respects, extends hundreds
of miles beyond the immediate sphere of the mis-
sionary. It is highly probable, however, that as we
proceed fartlier into the interior, we shall find the
):atives possessing more correct views on these sub-
jects.
"According to n.ative testimony, Morimo, as well
as man, with all the different species of animals, came
out of a cave or hole in the Bakoiie country, to the
north, where, say they, their footmarks are still to
be seen in the indurated rock, which was at that
time sand. In one of Mr. Hamilton's early journals,
he records that a native had infurmed him that the
footmarks of Morimo were distinguislied by being
without toes. Once I heard a man of influence tell-
ing his story on the subject. I of course could not
say that I believed the wondrous tale, but very
mildly hinted that he might be misinformed ; on
which he became indignant, and swore by his ances-
tors and his kijig, that he had visited the spot, and
paid a tax to see the wonder ; and that, consequently,
liis testimony was indubitable. I very soon cooled
his rage, by telling him, that as 1 should likely one
day visit those regions, I shoidd certainly think my-
self very fortunate if I could get him as a guide to
that wonderful source of animated nature. Smiling,
he said, ' Ha, and I sliall show yon the footsteps of
the very first man.' This is the sum-total of the
knowledge which the Bechuanas possessed of the
origin of what they call Morimo, prior to tlie period
when they were visited by missionaries."
Among the Batlapis, Morimo is equivalent to
wi.se and powerful. The Basutos again regard Mo-
rimo as a wicked deity, who comes from below, not
from above, having his habitation in a subten-aTiean
cavern.
MORIUS, a surname of Znis as being the protec-
tor of olive-trees.
MORMO, a female spectre with which the ancient
Greeks were wont to frighten little children.
MORMOLYCE. identical with the spectre called
MoRMO (which see).
MORMONS, one of the most remarkable poli-
tico-religious systems which has appeared in mo-
dern times. The " Latter-Day Saints," as the ad-
herents of Mormonism term themselves, pretend to
derive the word Mormon from the Gaelic and
Egyptian languages, alleging it to be compound-
ed of )nor, great, and mon, signifying good, thus im-
porting "great good." The founder of the sect was
Josepli Smith, a native of Sharon, Windsor County,
Vermont, United States, born on the 2.3d December
1805. When he was ten years old, Joseph's parents
removed to Palmyra, New York. His father was a
farmer, a man of a strange visionary turn of mind,
addicted to the use of divitiation and encliantments,
and frequently spending whole -iights in searching
II.
for treasure, which he imagined to be hid in the
ground. Joseph seems to have imbibed the pecu-
liarities of liis father's character with probably in-
crea.sed force. According to his own statement, he
was impressed, when about fourteen years of age,
with the importance of being prepared for a future
state, but his mind was staggered by the diversity of
opinion wdiich prevailed among the different deno-
minations of Christians.
While in this state of mental conflict, Joseph
tells us that he sought a solution of his difficulties
at a throne of grace. The result we give in his
own words: "I retired to a secret place in a grove,
and began to call upon the Lord. While fervently
engaged in supplication, my nihid was taken away
from the objects with which I was surrounded, and
I was enrapt in a heavenly vision, and saw two glo-
rious personages, who exactly resembled each other
in features and likeness, surrounded with a brilliant
light, which eclipsed the sun at noonday. They
told me that all the religions denominations were
believing in incorrect doctrines, and that none of
them was acknowledged of God as his church and
kingdom. And I was expressly commanded to ' go
not after them,' at the same time receiving a pro-
mise that the fulness of the gospel should at some
future time be made known unto me.
" On the evening of the '21st September, A. n.
182.3, while I was praying unto God and endeavour-
ing to exercise faith in the precious promises of
scripture, on a sudden a light like that of day, only
of a far purer and more glorious ajipearance and
brightness, burst into the room; indeed the first'
sight was as though the house was filled with con-
suming fire. The appearance produced a shock that
affected the whole body. In a moment a personage
stood before me surrounded with a glory yet greater
than that with which I was already surrounded.
This messenger proclaimed himself to be an angel of
God, sent to bring tlie joyful tidings, that the cove-
nant which God made with ancient Israel was at
hand to be fulfilled; that the preparatory work for
the second coming of the Messiali was speedily to
connnpnce ; that the lime was at hand for the gos-
pel in all its fulness to be preached in power, unto
all nations, that a people might be prepared for tho
millennial reign.
" I was informed that I was chosen to be an in-
strument in the liands of God to bring about sonn>
of his purposes in this glorious dispensation.
" I was informed also concerning the aboriginal
inhabitants of this country, and shown who they
were, and from whence they came ; — a brief sketch
of their origin, progress, civilization, laws, govcni-
ments, of their rijhteou.sness and ini(inity, and the
blessings of God being finally withdrawn from them
as a people, was made known unto me. I was also
told where there wcredeposited some plates, on which
was engraven an abridgment of the records of the
ancient prophets that had existed on tliis continent.
2t
490
MORMONS.
The angel aiipeared to me three times tlie same
night and unfoUied the same things. Aftei- having
received many visits from the angels of God, nn
folding the majesty and glory of the events that
should transpire in the hust days, on the morning of
the 22d of September, A. D. 18'27, the angel of the
Lord delivered the records into my hands.
"These records were engraven on plates which
liad the appearance of gold ; each plate was six
inches wide and eight inches long, .and not quite so
thick as common tin. They were tilled with en-
gravings in Egyptian characters, and bonnd togellier
in a volume, as the leaves of a book, with three
rings running through the whole. The volume was
something near six inches in thickness, a pai't of
wliich was sealed. The characters on the unsealed
part were small and beautifully engraved. The
whole book exhibited many marks of antiquity in its
construction, and much skill in the art of engraving.
Witli the records was found a curious instrument
which the ancients called ' Urim and Thummim,'
which consisted of two transparent stones set in tlie
rim on a bow fastened to a breastplate.
"Through the medium of the Urim and Thum-
mim I translated the record, by the gift and power
of God."
Such is the history from the pen of the Prophet
himself of the discovery of the Book of Mormon, which
has ever since been regarded by this extraordinaiy
sect as the cln'ef portion of their revealed Scriptures.
Joseph now began to preach his new doctrines, which
occasioned no small sensation, and a few professed
themselves his followers. A convert, named Cowdery,
baptized him, at the command of the angel ; and the
prophet then baptized his convert. At tliis cere-
mony, wliich took place in the woods of Pennsyl-
vania, there are alleged to have been present the
angels or spirits of Mo.ses and Elias, of the Old Di.s-
pensation, along with Peter, James, and John, of the
New ; the stamp of heaven being thus given to the
first step in the formation of this new church.
On the 6th of April, 1830, the "Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-Day Saints," was first organized, in
the town of Manchester, Ontario county. State of
New York. "Some few," says the Prophet, "were
called and ordained by the Sjiirit of revelation and
prophecy, and began to preach as the Spirit gave
them utterance, and though weak, yet were they
strengthened by the power of God ; and many were
brought to repentance, were immersed in the water,
and were tilled witli the Holy Ghost by the laying
on of hands. They saw visions and prophesied,
devils were cast out, and the sick healed by the lay-
ing on of hands. From that lime the work rolled forth
with astonishing rapidity, arid churches were soon
formed in the States of New York, Pennsylvania,
Oliio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri: in the last
named state a considerable settlement was formed in
Jackson county; numbcr.« joined thecliiu'ch, and we
were increasing rapidly ; we made large purchases of
land, our farms teemed with plenty, and peace and
happiness were enjoyed in our domestic circle and
throughout our neighbourhood ; but as we could not
associate with our neighbours, — who were, many of
them, of the basest of men, and had tied from the
face of civilized society to the frontier countr3', to
escape the hand of justice — in their midnight revels,
their Sabbath-breaking, horse-racing, and gambling,
they commenced at first to ridicule, then to perse-
cute, and fuudly an organized mob assembled and
bunied our houses, tarred and feathered and whip-
ped many of our brethren, and findly drove them
from their habitations ; these, houseless and home-
less, contrary to law, ju.stice, and humanity, had to
wander on the bleak prairies till the children left
the trades of their blood on the prairie. This took
place in the month of November, and they had no
other covering but the canopy of heaven, in that
inclement season of the yeaj-. This proceeding was
winked at by the government ; and although we had
warrantee deeds for our land, and had violated no
law, we could obtain no redress. There were many
sick who were thus inhumanly driven from their
houses, and had to endure all tliis abuse, and to seek
hunies where they could be found. The result was,
that a great many of them being deprived of the
comforts of life, and the necessai'y atlendance, died;
many childi'en were left orphans ; wives, widows ;
and husbands, widowers. Oiu' farms were taken
possession of by the mob, many thousands of cattle,
sheep, horses, and hogs were taken, and our house-
hold goods, store goods, and jirinting-press and types
were broken, taken, or otherwise destroyed."
UndeteiTed by the threats and bitter ]iersecution8
of their enemies, the Moniions removed to a spot
in the State of Missouri, which, as they alleged,
was pointed out to them by revelation. There, it
was said, " was the New Jerusalem, to be built by
the saints after a pattern sent down from heaven,
and upon the spot where the garden of Eden bloom-
ed, and Adam was formed." The altar on wliich
Adam .sacrificed was shown to Joseph, at least some
of the stones of which it was built ; and on the north
side of the river, a city was located in the place
where Adam blessed his children.
Driven from Missoin'i, the Momions sought re-
fuge in the State of Illinois, where, in the fall of 1839,
they began to build a city called Nauvoo, in Han-
cock county, which in the following yeaj' was incor-
porated by the legislature. In a few years this city
had made such rapid increase, that it contained
20,000 inhabitants, and a splendid temple was built for
Di\ ine worship. The Monnons, however, were view-
ed with jealousy, suspicion, and hatred, by the peoplt
generally, and every crime which was cummitted in
the city or neighbourhood was attributed to then;.
This hostility to the Mormons ended in the murder
of Joseph the seer, and Ilyrum the patriarch, by
the mob at Carthage jail in 1844 ; after which the
Society was reorganized luidcr Brighani Yoiuig as
MORMONS.
491
tlie Lord's Prophet aiul rieer to tlie Saints, to receive
tlie revelations for them iu a church capacity, with
the title of First President. For a time the storm
of persecution somewhat abated, but as it seemed to
gather force again, tlie Mormons resolved to seek
another home ; and pretending to be guided as for-
merly by revelation, they settled in 1847, under
Brigliam the Seer, in the Salt Lake Valley, far in
the interior of America, where they have formed a
state, which has assumed the name of Deser^t, a
mystic word taken from the Book of Mormon, and
signifying the Land of the Honey-Bee. The Valley
wliich forms the (iresent residence of this peculiar
sect is situated in tlie Great Basin, a region in the
heart of the Rocky Mountains, where they have
entrenched themselves, but in all probabilit)' the
Government of the United States may succeed ere
long in dispersing a people who, both in principle
and practice, bid defiance to the plainest rules of
morality and good order. At this moment indeed
they are said to be in search of another settlement.
Though professing to disown all connection be-
tween church and state, their system of government
is, as they delight to call it, a Theo-Democracy,
somewhat resembling the ancient Jewish Theocracy.
The president of the churcli is the temporal civil
governor, and all disputes are settled under a church
organization, to which is attached the civil jurisdic-
tion with officers, from the inferior justice of the
peace, up to the governor. But the justice is a
bishop of a ward in the city or precincts of the town
or county ; the judges on the bench of tlie sujierior
courts are constituted from the high priest, from the
quorums of seventies, or from the college of the
apostles; and the seer is the highest ruler and con-
sulting judge. The entire management is under the
presidency, which coii.sists of three persons, tlie seer
and two counsellors. This board governs their
universal church.
The Mormons claim to be the only true chtu'ch
of God, and of his Son, and they look forward to
a time when all the sects of Christendom will be
absorbed into this one body. Tlieir expectations
as to the future are thus described by Lieutenant
Gunnison in his ' History of the Mormons : '
"When the two hosts are fairly marshalled, the
one under the banner of the Pope of Rome, and ' the
saints' around the 'Flag of all nations,' 'led by
their Seer,' wearing the consecrated breastplate, and
flourishing the glittering golden sword of Laban,
delivered him by angelic hands, from their long
resting-place ; then shall be fought the great battle,
mystically called, of Gog and Magog : — the Lord
contending for his people with fire, pestilence, and
famine ; and in the end, the earth will become the
property of the Saints, and He will descend from His
lieavenly throne to reign over them through a happy
Millennium.
" During the preparations for those battles, to be
more tierce than man ever yet has fought, the Jews
will be erecting another temple at the Palestine
Jerusalem, on which their long-expected Saviour will
stand and exhibit Himself in the conquering bright-
ness that they supposed he would bear at the first
appearance, and their hearts will be bowed as one
man to receive Him, with repentant humility for the
past, and glorious joy for the future, and the city
will rise in great magnificence ; — and the New Is-
raelites of America will have their head-quarters of
the Presidency in Jackson County, Missouri, where
tliey will build up the New Jerusalem, the joy of
the whole earth ; and, at the presence of the Ijord
of Majesty, the land which ' loas dwidecV in the days
of Noah into continents and islands, shall be ' Bcu-
lah, iiuirried^ and become one entirely as at the ori-
ginal creation, and, from these two cities, villas and
habitations shall extend in one continuous neighbour-
hood, anKjiig which shall prevail entire concord : no
one will have the disposition to rebel or be allowed
to act ag.ainst the harmony of the whole.
"And there shall be 'thrown up,' between the two
Jerusalems, ' the highway on which the lion bath
not trod, and which the eagle's e)'e hath not seen' —
then the temple described by Ezekiel will be erected
in all its particulars for the exercise of the functions
of the two priesthoods, — for the Aaronii, held by the
tribe of Levi, who will return to their duties and
renew animal sacrifices ; and for the Melchisedek,
the greater priesthood, held by those commissioned
through Joseph the Seer. ^
"At the end of the Millennium, those who have
not been sincere in their obedience to the Lord's
reign will be permitted to show their rebellious spi-
rit a short time under the direction of their captain
Satan ; and at last be overwhelmed with destruction
from the presence of the good : — and the Earth,
which is believed to be a creature of life, will be
celestialized and gloriously beautified for the meek
and pure in heart."
In conducting Divine service, the Mormons imi-
tate other Christian sects. The senior jiriest com-
mences with asking a bles.sing on the congregation
and exercises, after which a hymn from their own
collection is sung, an extempore prayer offered,
another hymn sung, followed by a sermon from
some one previously appointed to preach ; and when
the sermon is concluded, exhortations and remarks
are made by any of the brethren. Then notices of
the arrangement of the tithe labour for the ensuing
week, and information on all secular matters, inter-
esting to them in a church capacity, is read by the
council clerk, and the congregation dismissed with
a benediction. Both at the commencement and close
of the service, anthems, marclies, and waltzes are
played by a large band of music.
The chief doctrines of the sect were thus em-
bodied in the form of a creed by Joseph Smith their
founder:
" We believe in God the Eternal Father, and in
his Son Jesus Christ, and in the Holy Ghost.
492
MORMONS.
" We believe tliat men will be punished fur their
own sins and not for Adam's transgression.
" We believe that throni^h the atonement of Christ
all men mav be saved by obedience to the laws and
ordin,ances of the gospel.
" We believe that these ordinances are : 1st,
Faith in the Lord .Jesus Christ; 2d, Repentance;
3d, Baptism by immersion for the remission of sins;
4th, Laying on of hands for the gift of the Holy
Ghost.
"We believe that a man must be called of God
by ' prophecv, and by laying on of bands,' by those
who are in authority to preach the gospel and ad-
minister in the ordinances thereof.
"We believe in the same organization that existed
ill the primitive church, viz., apostles, prophets,
pastors, teachers, evangelists, &c.
"We believe in the gift of tongues, prophecy,
revelation, visions, healing, interpretation of tongues,
&c.
" We believe the Bible to be the word of God as
far as it is translated correctly ; we also believe the
Book of Mormon to be the word of God.
" We believe all that God lias revealed, all that he
does now reveal, and we believe that he will yet re-
veal many great and important things pertaining to
the kingdom of God.
" We believe in the literal gathering of Israel, and
in the restoration of the Ten Tribes. That Zion
will be built upon this continent. That Christ will
reign personally upon the earth, and that the earth
will be renewed and receive its paradisal glory.
"We claim the privilege of worshipping Almighty
God according to the dictates of our conscience, and
allow all men the .same privilege, let them worship
how, where, or what they may.
" We believe in being subject to kings, presidents,
rulers, and luagistrates ; in obeying, honouring, and
sustaining the law.
" We believe in being honest, true, chaste, bene-
volent, virtuous, and in doing good to all men ; in-
deed we may say that we follow the admonition of
Paul; 'we believe all things : we hope all things:'
we have endured many things, and hope to be able to
endure all things. If there is any thing virtuous,
lovely, or of good report, or praiseworthy, we seek
thereafter."
The authoritative standard books of this sect are
' The Book of Mormon,' ' Doctrines and Covenants,'
' Voice of Warning,' ' The Gospel Reflector,' ''I'lie
Times and Seasons, edited under the eye of the Pro-
phet,' ' The Millennial Star,' ' General Epistles of
the Presidency in Deser(5t,' and the writings of Jo-
seph the Seer, and Parley P. Pratt, wherever found.
The MoiTnons believe the Bible to be inspired,
l)ut that there have been many interpolations by the
corrupters of CIn-istianity, and many misunderstand-
ings of several passages. These they allege have
all been corrected by Joseph the Seer, to whom was
given the key of all languages. The Bible is to be
taken, in their view, in the most literal sense, and
those are to be condemned who spiritualize its con-
tents. The ' Book of Mormon,' and ' Doctnnes and
Covenants,' are maintained to be as much entitled to
be c;dled the word of God as the Bible itself. Addi-
tional revelations are made from day to day according
to the exigencies of the church. They believe not
in a Trinity, but rather a Duality of Persons in the
Godhead, the Holy Ghost being simply the conco-
mitant will of both the Father and the Son. God
the Father is held to be a man perfected, being pos-
sessed of a body and all bodily properties like our-
selves. The Son Jesus Christ is maintained to be
the ofl'spring of the Father by the Virgin Mary.
The Eternal Father came to the earth and wooed
and won her to be the wife of his bosom. lie sent
Gabriel to announce esjiousals of marriage, and the
bridegroom and bride met on the plains of Palestine,
and the Holy Babe that was bom was the tabernacle
prepared and assumed by the Spirit-Son, and that
now constitutes a God. The Holy Ghost, unlike
the Father and the Son, has no material body, but is
merely a spiritual soul or existence. They bold a
twofold order of the priesthood, the Melchisedek and
the Aaronic ; and the members of the church pay a
tentli of their incoine for the support of the priest-
hood, .and devote a tentli part of their time to the
temple and other public works. They maintain that
baptism is only duly performed by the party being
immersed in water. A. strange peculiarity, however,
in the practice of the Mormons, is their vicarious
immersion of living persons for their dead friends
who have never had the opportunity of being bap-
tized, or have neglected it when living. This they
call '• Baptism for the Dead," by which they allege
any man may save a friend in the eternal world, imless
he has committed the unpardonable sin. Tlie child be-
gins to be accountable at eight 3'ears of .ige, at which
time the parents are bound to have baptisna adminis-
tered, but infant baptism is held to be an abomination
and a sin. Regeneration is begun in baptism, and
perfected by the laying on of hands, by which the reci
pieiit is baptized by the Holy Ghost, through the
Melchisedek priesthood. In the Lord's Supper the
Mormons use water instead of wine ; and, accord-
ingly, every Lord's Day the bishops carry round tlic
bread and a pail of water, with a tin or glass vessel,
while the congregation in their pews, both old and
young, ma}' partake.
The difl'erent ecclesiastical orders among the Mor-
mons are thus described by Mr. Guimison : " The
hierarchy of the Mormon church has many grades
of offices and gifts. The fir.st is the presidency o(
three jiersons, which, we were led to understand, an-
swered or corresponded to the Trinity in heaven, but
more particularly to Peter, James, and .John, the
first presidents of the gospel church.
" Next in order is the travelling High Apostolic
College of twelve apostles, after the primitive church
model, who have the right to preside over the stakes
MORNING HYMN— MORXIXG SKRVICK.
4'J3
in any foreign country, according to seniority ; tlien
tlie iiigli-priests — priests, elders, bisliops,teaclier9,and
deacons — togetlier witli evangelists or missionaries
of tlie ' three seventies.' Each order constitutes a
full quorum for tlie discipline of its members and
transacting business belonging to its action; but
ajipeals lie to higher orders, and tlie vvliole chui'ch is
the final appellate court assembled in general council.
" Their prophets arise out of every grade, and a
patriarch resides at head quarters to bless particular
members, after the manner of Jacob and his sons,
and that of Israel towards Esau and his brother.
" A high council is selected out of the high-priests,
and consists of twelve members, which is in perpe-
tual session to advise the presidency ; in which each
is free to give and argue his opinion. The president
sums up the matter and gives the decision, perhaps
in opposition to a great majority, but to which all
must yield implicit obedience ; and probably there
lias never been known, under the present head, a
dissent when the 'awful nod' has been given, for it
is the ' stamp of fate and sanction of a god.'"
It is not unfrequently denied by the Mormons
that tliey liold the lawfulness of the practice of po-
lygamy, or the marriage of one man to a plurality of
wives. But the testimony of all travellers to the
Salt Lake valley, and residents in Deseret is uniform
on this point. The addition of wives to a man's
family after the first, is called a " sealing to him,"
wlncli constitutes a relation with all the rights and
sanctions of matrimony. The seer alone has the
power which lie can use by delegation of granting
the privilege of increasing the number of wives ; and
as he can authorize, so he can annul the marriage
and dissolve the relationship between the parties.
In their remote settlement of the Far West, the
Mormons have made rapid material progress, though
their nnn-al condition seems to be of the most de-
graded character. They have sent missionaries into
almost all parts of the world, and liave successfully
propagated their .system in England, Scotland, and
more especially in WaUis, where they have obtained
thousands of converts. They have made little or no
progress in Germany, but have been very successful
in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. In England and
Wales, the census of 1851 reports as many as 222
places of worship belonging to this body, most of
them, however, being merely rooms. The number
of sittings in these places of worship is stated to be
30,783. But since that time the sect has made great
additions to its numbers in Great Britain and Ire-
land, more especially among the working classes,
many of whom are yearly attracted to emigrate to
the Salt Lake valley, buoyed up with ctiiectations
which are only doomed to meet witli bitter disap-
pointment.
MORNING HYMN. The author of the ' Apos-
tolical Constitutions ' mentions a sacred hymn for
the morning, which, however, he calls the morning
prayer. Other writers term it tlie hymn, the an-
gelical hymn, and the great doxology. (See An-
gelical Hymn.) The Morning Hymn ran in
these words: "Glory be to God on high, on earth
peace, good will towards men. We praise thee, we
laud thee, we bless thee, we glorify thee, we wor-
ship thee by the great High Priest, thee the true
God, the only unbegotten, whom no one can ap-
proach, for thy great glory, O Lord, lieaNcnly King,
God the Father Almighty: Lord God, the Fa-
ther of Christ, the immaculate Lamb, who tak-
eth away tlie sin of the world, recei\e our prayer,
thou that sittest upon the cherubims. For thou only
art holy, thou only Lord Jesus, the Christ of God,
the God of every created being, and our King. By
whom unto thee be glory, honour, and adoration "
Chrysostom speaks of this hymn as said daily at
morning prayer. It was used anciently in the com-
munion service, and among the monks as an ordi-
nary hymn in their daily morning service. This
hymn is used also in the modern Greek church.
" MORNING SERVICE. According to the Apos-
tolical Constitutions the morning service in the an-
cient Christian church commenced with singing the
sixty-third psalm, which Chrysostom alleges to have
been appointed by the fathers of the church to be
said every morning -as a spiritual song and medicine
to blot out our sins; to raise our souls and inflame them
with a mighty lire of devotion ; to make us over-
flow with goodness and love, and send us with sncli
preparation to approach and appear before God."
Athanasius also recommends this psalm to virgins
and others as proper to be said privately in their
morning devotions. Immediately after this p.salm
in the morning service follow the [uayers for the
several orders of catechumens, energumens, candi-
dates for baptism, and penitents. To these suc-
ceeded the prayers of the faitht'ul or communicants,
that is the prayer for the peace of the world, and all
orders of men in the church. At the close of these
lirayers the deacon thus exhorted the peojde to pray
for peace and prosiierity throughout the day en-
suing and their whole lives : " Let us beg of God
his mercies and compassions, that this morning and
this day, and all the time of our pilgrimage, may
be passed by us in peace and without sin: let us beg
of God that he would send us tlie angel of peace, and
give us a Christian end, and be gracious and merci-
ful unto us. Let us commend ourselves and one
another to the living God by his only-begotten Son."
The deacon having now bid the people commend
themselves to God, the bishop otiered up the Co.M-
MEN'D.\TORY PuAYER (which See), or, as it is also
called, the Morning Thanksgiving. After this the
dsacon bids the people bow their heads, and receive
the imposition of hands, or the bishop's benediction,
which was conveyed in these words : " 0 God, failh-
fid and true, that showest mercy to thousands and ten
thousands of them that love thee ; who art the friend
of the humble, and defender of the poor, whose aid all
things stand in need of, because all things serve
494
MOKPHEUS— M0TAZELIST3.
tliee : look tlowii upon this tliy peujile, who bow
Hieir heads unto tliee, ami bless tliem with thy spirit-
ual benediction ; keep them as the apple of the eye ;
preserve them in piety and righteousness, and vouch-
safe to bring them to eternal life, in Christ Jesus thy
beloved Son, with whom unto thee be glory, honour,
and adoration, in the Holy Ghost, now and for ever,
world without end. Amen." At the close of this
solemn prayer the deacon dismisses the congrega-
tion with the usual form of words, " Depart in
peace."
MORPHEUS, the god of sleep among the an-
cient Greeks, and the originator of dreams.
MORPHO, a surname of Aphrodite, under which
she was worshipped at Sparta.
MORRISONIANS. See Ev.^NGELic.iL Union.
MORS (Lat. death), one of the infernal deities
among the ancient Romans.
MORTAL SINS. In the theology of the Church
of Rome, sins are divided into two great classes,
called mortal and venial. The former is defined to
be a grievous offence or transgression against the
Law of God ; and it is styled morUil, becanse " it
kills the soul by depriving it of its true life, which is
sanctifying grace ; and because it brings everlasting
death and damnation on the soul." The mortal or
deadly sins are reckoned by Romish divines seven in
number, — pride, covetousness, Inst, anger, gluttony,
envy, sloth. All the connnaudinents of the church
are declared to be binding under pain of mortal sin.
Those who die in mortal sin are alleged to go direct
to the place of eternal torment. This distinction as
taught by the Romanists was unknown to the an-
cient church. Augustine indeed speaks of mortal
sins, such as murder, theft, and adultery, because
they were not pardoned without the solemnity of a
public repentance.
MORTAR (Holy), used in tlie Romish Cluirch for
cementing altar-stone and relic-tomb. It is conse-
crated by the prayer, " 0 most High God, sanc-
tify and hallow these creatures of lime and sand.
Through Chri.->t our Lord. Amen." Holy water is
used in the preparation of this mortar, and when
made tlie Pontiff, with his mitre on, blesses it.
MORTMAIN (mortua nianu, by a dead hand), a
donation or bequest of lands to some spiritual per-
son or corporation and their successors.
MORTUARIES, a sort of ecclesiastical heriots,
being a customary gift claimed by and due to the
incumbent in very many parishes on the death of
his parishioners.
MOSCABE.\NS, a Mohammedan sect, who hold
the notions of the ANTiiitoPOiiORPHlTics (which see)
in regard to the Deity, believing him to be possessed
of a material body like a human being.
MOSCH.\TARA, one of the seven planets men-
tioned by Pocock, as having been wcjrshipped by
the ancient Arabians.
MOSHAI'.r.EHlTES, or assimilators, a heretical
sect of the Mohammedans, who maintain that there
is a resemblance between God and his creatures.
They stippose him to be a figure composed of mem-
bers or parts, either spiritual or corporeal, and that
he is capable of moving from one place to another.
Some persons belonging to this sect believe that God
can assuine a human form as Gabriel does, and in
proof of this they refer to Mohammed's words, that
he saw the Lord in a most beautifid form, and that
in the Old Testament Moses is said to have talked
with God face to face.
MOSLEMS, a name derived from the Arabic verb
salama, to be devoted to God, and ajiplied to those
who believe in the Koran, and who, in the Moham-
medan sense of the word, form the body of the
faithful.
MOSQUE, a Mohammedan place of religious
worship. The Arabic term is Mnsjid, an oratory
or place of prayer. Mosques are built of stone, and
in the figure of a square. In front of the principal
gate is a square court, paved with white marble, and
all round the court are low galleries, the roofs of
which are supported by marble pillars. In these
the Mohammedans perform their ablutions before
entering the place of prayer. The walls of the
mosques are all white, except where the name of
God is written in large Arabic characters. In each
mosque there are a great mimber of lamps, between
which hang crystal rings, ostrich eggs, and other
curiosities, which make a fine show when the lamps
are lighted. About each mosque there are six high
towers, each having three little open galleries raised
one above another. These towers, wiiich are called
Minarets, are co\'ered with lead, and adorned with
gilding and other ornaments, and from these Jlinarets
the people are simimoned to prayer by certain offi-
cers appointed for the purpose, whom they call
Muezzins. Most of tlie mosques ha\e a kind of
hospital attached to them, in which travellers,
whether believers or infidels, may find entertainment
for three days. Each mosque has also a place called
Tarbd, which is the burying-place of its founders ;
within which there is a tomb six or seven feet in
length, and covered with velvet or green satin ; at
each end are two wax tapers, and aroimd it are sev-
eral seats provided for those who read the Koran,
and pray for the souls of the deceased. No person
is allowed to enter a mosque with his shoes or
stockings on ; and hence the pavements are covered
with pieces of stufl", sewed together in bmad stripes,
each wide enough to hold a row of men in a kneel-
ing, sitting, or prostrate position. Women are not
allowed to enter the mosques, but are obliged to re-
main in the outer porches of the building.
MOSTEHEB, a word used by Mohanunedan
doctors to denote those things which ought to be
observed, but which if neglected do not merit pun-
ishment nor e\en a reprimand.
MOTAZELISTS, or Separatists, a Mohanunedan
sect so called, because they seimratod from the
orthodox. They are said to have twenty subdixi-
.wK'j"w"h r'r''f'ii|i'if''ii'r'''i!ri'r»''M'''iir[i'ffi[pi'>tiri''' yr'<y'W''''i!'n''tBii'ffl!i'f'iiriiiiF''''
W|]iE|ii0tt|ltm«|i^»'0»' ilpM?!. |]
%.. RnnRifiT'
MOTECALLEMUN— MOURNING.
490
isious, but all agree in excluding eternal attributes
from the Divine essence, saying, that the Most High
God knows not by knowledge, but by his essence ;
and they were led to this subtle distinction by the
belief that their opponents, the Attributists, gave
these attributes an actual existence, thus making
ihem so many gods. Their object was to avoid the
Christian doctrine of Persons in the Divine Essence.
They al.so maintained the creation of the Koran ;
and some of them declared that its composition was
no miracle, since it niiglit be surpassed in eloquence.
MOTECALLEMUN, those who make profes-
sion of, or have written upon, tlie scholastic theology
of the Mohammedans. See Kei..\m.
MOTETT, a term used in church music to denote
a short piece of music, highly elaborated, of which
the sublpct is taken from the psalms or hymns used
in the Cluu'ch of England.
MOTHER CHURCH. See Ecclf.sia M.rrr.ix.
MOTHER-GODDESSES (Lat. Matres Due), a
name applied by the ancient Romans to female divi-
."■Ilies of the first rank, particularly to Cybele, Ceres,
Juno, and Vesta.
MOUNTAIN MEN. See Covenantkh.s, Re-
formed PKESBYTEIilAN ChUKCH.
MOUNTAINS. See High Places.
MOURNERS. See Flentes.
MOURNING. The modes of giving expression
to sorrow have varied in diflerent ages and coimtries.
In the East the mourner has always been remark-
able for his dejected and haggard aspect. His dress
IS slovenly, his hair dislievelled, his beard untrim-
med, and bis whole apparel in a state of negligence
and disorder. The Israelites of old were wont to
rend their garments, sprinkle dust upon their heads,
and to put on sackcloth and other mourning apparel.
Hence we find it said of Joshua when the armies of
Israel were compelled to flee before their enemies,
that (Josh. vii. 6.) "he rent his clothes, and fell to
the earth upon his face before the ark of the Lord until
the eventide, he and the elders of Israel, and put
dust upon their heads." And Jeremiah, when he
foresaw the approaching desoLation of their country,
calls upon the Jews to prepare for the funeral obse-
quies of their nation in these aC'ecting words, ix. 17,
18, "Thus saith the Lord of hosts. Consider ye, and
call for the mourning women, that they may come;
and send for cunning women, that they may come :
and let them make haste, and take up a wailing for
us, that our eyes may run down with tears, and oin-
eyelids gush out with waters." On the Egyptian
monuments also are seen represented various in-
slances of extreme grief, indicated by sunilar tokens,
sir J. G. Wilkinson, who may be regarded as the
highest modern authority on all that regards Egyp-
tian anti(iuities, gives a very graphic description of ihc
modes of expressing grief in the ancient land of the
Pharaohs. "When any one died," he says, "all the
females of his family, covering their heads and faces
with dust and nuul, and leaving the body in the
house, ran through the streets, with their bosoms
exposed, striking themselves, and uttering loud la-
mentations. Their friends and relations joined them
as they went, uniting in the same demonstrations of
grief; and when the deceased was a person of con-
sideration, many strangers accompanied them, out of
respect to his memory. Hired moimiers were also
employed to add, by their feigned demonstrations of
grief, to the real lamentations of the family, and to
heighten tlie show of respect paid to the deceased.
'The men, in like manner, girding their dress below
their waist, went through the town smiting their
breast,' and throwing dust and mud upon their heads.
But the greater number of mourners consi.^ted of
women, as is usual in Egypt at the present day ; and
since the mode of lamentation now practised at
Cairo is probably very similar to that of former
times, a description of it may serve to illustraie one
of tlie customs of ancient Egypt.
" As soon as the marks of approaching death are
observed, the fem.ales of the family raise 'he cry of
lamentation; one generally commencing in a low
tone, and exclaiming, ' O my misfortune 1 ' which is
immediately taken up by another with increased
vehemence ; and all join in similar exclamations,
united with piercing cries. They call on the de-
ceased, according to their degree of relationship; as,
'O my father!' O my mother!' '0 my sister!' '0
my brother!' 'O my aunt!' or, according to the
friendship and connection subsisting between them,
as, ' 0 my master ! ' ' 0 lord of the house ! ' ' 0 my
friend!' '0 my dear, my soul, my eyes!' and many
of the neighbours, as well as the friends of the
family, join in the lainentation. Hired mourning
women are also engaged, who utter cries of grief,
and praise the virtues of the deceased; while the
females of the house rend their clothes, beat them-
selves, and make other violent demonstrations of
sorrow. A sort of funeral dirge is also chanted by
the mourning women to the sound of the tambourine,
from which the tinkling plates have been removed.
This continues until the funeral takes place, which,
if the person died in the morning, is performed the
same day; but if in the afternoon ore\ening. it is
deferred until the morning, the lamentations being
continued all night."
Mohammed forbade the wailing of women at
funerals, but notwithstanding this prohibition of the
Prophet, the custom is still foimd even where the
Koran is in other respects most firmly believed.
Thus Mr. Lane tells us that in modern Egypt he
has seen mourning women of the lower classes fol-
lowing a bier, having their faces, which were un-
veiled, and their head -coverings and their bosoms
besmeared with mud. The same writer inform us,
that " the funeral of a devout sheikh differs in some
respects from that of ordinary mortals; and the
women, instead of wailing, rend the air with the
shrill and (piavering cries of joy, called ziiyliiirict :
and if these cries are discoiitiuued but for a niiuute,
L
496
MOITRN'IXG.
lliu bearers of the bier protest tliey camiut proceed,
that u siipenmturiil power rivets them to tlie spot."
The Moisy inonriiiiig of the Egyptians appears to
have been iinitatetl by the Israelites, wlio hired pro-
fessional mourners eminently skilled in the art of la-
mentation, and these, commencing their doleful strains
immediately after the person Iiad expired, continued
at intervals until the dead body had been buried.
Instrumental music was afterwards introduced on
these occasions, the trumpet being used at the funer-
als of the wealthy, and the pipe or tlute at those of
the Inimbler classes. Such were the minstrels whom
our Lord found in the house of Jairiis, making a
noise round tlie bed on which the dead body of his
daughter lay. The mournfid wailing over the dead
was more particularly violent when the women were
engaged in washing the corpse ; in perfuming it ;
and when it was carried out for burial. While the
funeral procession was on its way to the place of in-
terment, the melancholy cries of the women were
intermingled with the devout singing of the men.
Hired mourners were in use among the Greeks, at
least- as early as the time of the Trojan war, as is
seen in the description which Homer gives of a
baud of mourners surrounding the body of Hector,
whose funeral dirge they sung with many sighs and
tears.
Anotlier mode of expressing intense sorrow in
the East among the relations of the dead was by
cutting and slashing their bodies with daggers and
knives. (See Cuttings in the Flesh.) To this
barbarous custom Jeremiah alludes, xlviii. 37, " For
every head shall be bald, and every beard clipped :
upon all the hands shall be cuttings, and upon the
loins sackcloth." Moses forbids the practice, Lev.
xix. 28, -'Ye shall not make any cuttings in your
flesh for the dead, nor print aiiy marks upon you : I
am the Lord;" and again, Deut. xiv. 1, "Ye are the
children of the Lord your God. Ye shall not cut
yourselves, nor make any baldness between yonr
eyes for the dead." The Persians express their sor-
row with similar extravagance wdien celebrating the
aimiversary of the death of HOSSEIN (which see).
The time of mourning in ancient times was longer
or shorter according to the dignity of the person who
had died. The Egyptians mourned for Jacob se-
venty days. Among the ancient (ireeks the moiu'n-
ing lasted till the thirtieth day after the funeral.
At Sparta the time of mourning was limited to eleven
day.s. During the period allotted to mourning the
relatives remain<:d at home in strict seclusion, never
ai)pearing in public. They were accustomed to wear
a black dre.ss, and they tore, cut off, and sometimes
shaved their hair. The Jews also in ordinaiy cases
ot sorrow let their hair hang loose and dishevelled
upon their shoulders ; when their grief was more
aevere, they cut oft' their hair, and in a sudden and
violent paroxysm of grief they plucked the hair oil'
with tlieir hands. To this there is an allusion in
Kzra ix. 3, ''Ami wlion 1 heard tliis thing, 1 rent my
garment and my mantle, and [ducked oft' the hair (^f
my head and of my beard, and sat down astonied."'
It has been usual from remote ages for mourners
to wear for a time a dress or badge of a particular
colour. The ofiicial mourners at an ancient Egyp-
tian funeral bound their heads with tillets of blue.
The same colour is still adopted by mourners in
modern Egypt. The dress worn by chief mourners
.it a Chinese funeral is composed of coarse white
cloth, with bandages of the same worn round the
head. In Burmah also white is the mourinng colour.
The ancient Greeks, as we have already noticed,
wore outer garments of black, and the same colour
was worn by mourners of both sexes among the
ancient Romans imder the Republic. Under the
Empire, however, a change took place in this parti-
cular, white veils being at that time worn by the
women, while the men continued to wear a black
dress. Men appeared in a mourning dress only for
a few days, but women for a year when they lost a
husband or a parent. From the time of Dumitian,
the women wore nothing but wdiite garments, with-
out any ornaments of gold, jewels, or pearls. The
men let their hair and beards grow, and wore no
wreaths of flowers on their heads while the days o(
moiu'uing lasted. Mourning was not used among
the Greeks for children under three years of age.
It was an invariable custom among Oriental mourn-
ers to lay aside all jewels and other ornaments.
Hence we find Jehovah calling upon the Israelites
thus to manifest their heartfelt sorrow for sin, Exod.
xxxiii. 5, 6. " For the Lord had said unto Sloses,
Say unto the children of Israel, Ye are a stift'-necked
people : I will come up into the midst of thee in a
moment, and consume thee : therefore now put otT
thy ornaments from thee, that I may know what to
do unto thee. And the children of Israel stripped
themselves of their ornaments by the mount Horeb."
The same practice was followed by the ancient
Greeks and Romans. In Judea mourners were often
clothed in sackcloth of hair. To sit in sackcloth
and ashes is a very frequent Oriental expression to
denote mourning. In deep sorrow persons some-
times threw themselves on the ground and rolled in
the dust. In the Old Testament we find various in-
stances of individuals expressing their sorrow by
sprinkling themselves with ashes. Thus Tamar
'■ put ashes on her head," and Mordecai " rent his
clothes and put on sackcloth with ashes." In the
same way mourners sometimes put dust upon their
heads. Thus Joshua, when lamenting the defeat of
the Israelites before Ai, "rent his clothes and fell to
the earth upon his face, he and the elders of Israel,
and put dust upon their heads." In some cases
mourners, with their heads uncovered, laid their hands
upon their heads, and when in great distress they
covered their heads. Ilaman, when his plot Bga'nst
Mordecai was discovered, " hasted to his house
mourning, and having his head covered." To cover
the face, also, was among the Jews, as among almost
MOVEABf.E FEASTS— MUDITA.
497
all nations, a symptom of deep nioiiniing. Tims it
is said of David when be heard of Absalom's death,
" he covered his face and cried with a loud voice."
Covering the hps also was a very ancient sign of
mourning. Tims Ezelciel, when In's wife died, is
commanded, xxiv. 17, " Forbear to cry, malie no
monrning for the dead, bind tlie tire of thine head
upon thee, and put on tliy shoes upon tliy feet, and
cover not thy lips, and eat not the bread of men.''
The Hebrew prophets sometimes describe mourn-
ers, wlien in deep distress, as sitting upon the
ground. Thus Lam. ii. 10, "'I'lie elders of the daugli-
ter of Ziou sit upon the ground, and keep silence :
they have cast up dust upon their heads ; they have
girded themselves with sackcloth : the virgins of
Jerusalem hang down their heads to the ground.''
A very common sign, more especially of penitential
sorrow, was smiting upon the breast. This, indeed,
anuing Eastern females, is a frecjuent mode of dis-
playing excessive grief. Tliey beat their breasts,
tear their fiesli and faces with their nails. The mo-
dern Greeks at their funei'als employ women, who
repeat a deep and hollow succession of prolonged
nioiujsyllables. The Chinese women, also, make
loud lamentations and wailings over tlie dead, parti-
cularly in tlie case of the death of the head of a
family. Miuigo Park, in liis Travels in Africa,
mentions that among various tribes of negroes, when
a person of consequence dies, the relations and neigh-
bours meet together and engage in loud wailings.
The .same practice is followed at an Irish wake, wlien
the keeners or professional mourners give way to the
most vociferous expressions of grief.
Among tlie modern Jews the mourning which fol-
lows the death of a relative continues for seven days,
during which tlie mourners never venture abroad,
nor transact any business, but sit upon the ground
without shoes, receiving the condolences of their
brethren. They are not allowed to shave their
beards, cut their nails, or wash tliemselves for tliirty
days. Among the natives of Nortliern Guinea, all
tlie blood relations of the deceased are required to
shave their heads, and wear none but the poorest and
most tattered garments for one month. Tlie wives
are expected to come together every morning and
evening, and spend an hour in bewailing their hus-
band. This term of mourning is continued for one
month, after which the male relations come together,
and the wives of the deceased are distributed among
them like any other property. .They are then per-
mitted to wasli themselves, put away the ordinary
badges of mourning, and before taking up with their
new husbands, they are permitted to visit their own
relations and spend a few weeks witli them.
In Japan mourners are dressed in white, and re-
main shut in the house with the door fastened, and
at the end ot that time they shave and dress, and
return to their ordinaiy employments. Bright col-
ours, however, are not to be worn, nor a Sinto temple
entered for thirteen months.
The early Christians, who were accustomed to
contemplate death not as a melancholy but ajoyful
event, gave no countenance to immoderate grief,
or excessive mourning, on occasion of the decease ot
a Christian brother or sister. The mourning cus-
toms of the Jews, accordingly, were completely
discarded, as entirely inconsistent with Christian
faith and hope. Some of the fathers actually cen-
sure the practice of wearing black as a sign of mourn-
ing. Augustine especially speaks with severity on
tliis point. " Why," says he, " should we disfigure
ourselves with black, unless we would imitate unbe-
lieving nations, not only in their walling for the
dead, but also in their niouriiiiigaiiparel? Beassui-ed
these are foreign and unlawful usages ; but if lawt'ul,
they are not becoming." No rules were laid down
in the early Christian church as to the duration of
mourning for the dead. Tliis matter was left to
custom and the feeling of the parties concerned.
Heatlien customs, however, gradually crept into the
church, which called forth the animadversions of
some of the fathers. Thus Augustine complains of
some in his time who superstitiously observed nine
days of mourning in imitation of the Novettdiak of
the Pagan Romans.
MOVEABLE FEASTS, tliose feasts observed in
various sections of the Christian church which fall on
different days in the calendar in each year; as for in-
stance Easter and the feasts calculated from Easter.
The English Book of Common Prayer contains several
tables for calculating Easter, and also rules to know
when the moveable feasts and holidays begin. Thus,
Easter-day, on which the rest dejiend. is always the
tirst Sunday after the full moon, which happens up-
on or next after the twenty-tir.st day of March, and
if the full moon happens upon a Sunday, Easter-day
is the Sunday after. Advent Sunday is alwavs the
nearest Sunday to the feast of St. Andrew, whether
before or after. The moveable feasts before Easter
are Septuagesima Sunday, nine weeks ; Sexagesima
Sunday, eight weeks ; Quimpiageslma Sunday, seven
weeks ; and Quadragesima Sunday, six weeks. The
moveable feasts after Easter are Rogation Sunday,
five weeks ; Ascension Day, forty days ; Whlt-Sun-
dav, seven weeks ; Trinltv Sunday, eight weeks.
'mOZARABIC liturgy. See Liturgies.
MOZDARIANS, a heretical Mohammedan sect
who held it possible for God to be a liar and unjust.
Mozdar, the founder of the sect, declared those per-
sons to be infidels who took upon them the admin-
istration of public alVairs. He condemned all indeed
wlio did not embrace his opinions as chargeable with
infidelity.
MUDITA, one of the five kinds of Bhawana
(which see), or meditation, in which the Budhist
priests are required to engage. The natdihi is the
meditation of joy, but it is not the joy arising from
earthly possessions. It feels indilferent to indivi-
duals, and refers to all sentient beings. In the exer-
cise of this mode of meditation, the priest must
498
MUEZZIN— MCGGLETONIANS.
express the wish, " Mav tlie good t'urliiiie of tlie
prosperous never pass away ; may each one receive
his own appointed reward."
MUEZZIN, an otlictr belonging to a Mohamme-
dan viosque, wliose duly it is to summon tlie faitlii'ul
to prayers live times a-day at the appointed hours.
Stationed on one of tlie minarets he chants in a pe-
culiar manner the form of proclamation. Before do-
ing so, however, the Muezzin ought to repeat the
following prayer: "0 my God! give me piety;
purify me : thou alone hast the power. Thou art
my benefactor and my master, O Lord ! Thou art
towards me as I desire, may I be towards thee as
thou desirest. My God ! cause my interior to be
better than my exterior. Direct all my actions to
rectitude. 0 God ! dei;,'n in thy mercy to direct
my will towards that whicli is good. Grant me at
the same time, true honour and spiritual poverty, O
thou, the mot<t mercifid of tlie merciful." After this
prayer, he must make proclamation in the following
terms : " God is great (four times repeated) ; I bear
witness, that there is no God but God (twice re-
peated) ; I bear witness, that Mohammed is the pro-
phet of God (twice repeated) ; Gome to the Temple
of salvation (twice repeated) ; God is great, God is
most great ; there is no God but God, and Moham-
med is his prophet." The same proclamation is made
at the ti\e canonictd hours, but at morning prayer,
the Muezzin must add, " Prayer is better than sleep"
(twice repeated).
MUFTI, the liead of the Mohammedan faith in
Turkey, and the chief eccle-'-iastical ruler. He is
held in the highest respect, and his authority is very
great throughout the whole of tlie Ottoman Empire.
The person chosen to this responsible office is always
one noted for liis learning and the strict purify of
his life. The election of the Mufti is vested in the
Sultan, who uniformly receives him with the utmost
respect, rising up and advancing seven steps to meet
him ; and when he has occasion to write to the Mufti,
a.skiiig his opinion on any important point, he ad-
dresses him in such terms as these : " Thou art the
wisest of tlie wise, instructed in all knowledge, the
most excellent of the excellent, abstaining from
things nnlawful, the spring of virtue and true science,
heir of the prophetic and apostolic doctrines, resolver
of tlie problems of faith, revealer of the orlhodox
articles, key of the treasures of truth, the light to
doubtful allegories, strengthened with the grace of
the Su[ireine Guide and Legislator of mankind. May
the most high God perpetuate thy virtue '
The office of Mufti is not restricted to religious
but extends also to civil matters. He is consulted
ill all important points by the Sultan and the govern-
ment. On such occasions the case is [iroposed to
Iiim in writing, and underneath he stales his decision
ill brief but explicit terms, accompanied with these
emphatic word.s, in which he repudiates all claims to
infallibility, " God knows better." In civil or crimi-
nal suits the judgment of the Cudi or judge is regu-
lated by the opinion which niay be given by the
Mufti.
In all matters of state the Sultan takes no step of
importance without consulting this supreme eccle-
siastical officer. No capital sentence can be pro-
nounced upon a dignitary ; neither war nor peace
can be proclaimed, without tlie Fetva (which see),
or sanction of the Mufti, who generally, before giving
his decision, consults the College of Ulenicis. Tliis
privilege possessed by the head of the Mohammedan
religion, or Sheikh-ul-Idani, as he is often called, has
on some occasions been abused for the pin-pose of
dethroning Sultans, and handing them over to the
rage of the Janissaries. It has sometimes been ne-
cessary for a despotic Sultan to deprive a Mufti of
his office, who happened by his obstinate and refrac-
tory conduct to obstruct the designs of government.
Nay, we read in history that Mourad IV. actually
beheaded one of these high ecclesiastical functiona-
ries who ventured to oppose his will. The decisions
of the Mufti are understood to be regulated by the
teaching of the Koran, but at the same time he is
considered as possessing a discretionary power to in-
terpret the Sacred Writings in a liberal sense, accom-
modated to peculiar circumstances and exigencies.
Such is the higli estimation in which the office of
these sacred dignitaries is held, that should one of
them fall into crime, he is degraded before being
punished. When guilty of treason he is brayed to
pieces in a mortar.
MUGGLETON'IAN.S, a sect which arose in Eng-
land about the year lt)57, deriving their name from
Ludovic Muggletoii,ajourneyman tailor, who, with his
associate Reeves, claimed to be possessed of the Spirit
of prophecy. These two men declared their nii.>^sion
to be wholly of a spiritual character, and that tliey
were the two last witnesses referred to in Rev. xi.
3 — 6, " And I will give power unto my two wit-
nesses, and they shall prophesy a thousand two hun-
dred and threescore days, clothed in sackcloth.
These are the two olive trees, and the two candle-
sticks standing before the God of the earth. And if
any man will hurt them, tire proceedeth out of their
mouth, and devoureth their enemies : and if any
man will hurt them, he must in this manner be
killed. These have power to .shut heaven, that it
rain not in the days of their prophecy : and have
power over waters to turn them to blood, and to
smite the earth with all plagues, as often as they
will." Reeves affirmed that the Lord Jesus from
the throne of his glory thus addressed him : " I have
given thee understanding of my mind in the Scrip-
tures above all men in the world ; 1 have cho.sen
thee, my last messenger, for a great work unto lliis
bloody niihelieving windd ; and I have given thee
Ludovic Muggleton to be thy mouth." Thus Reeves
professed to act tlie part of Moses, and Muggleton
that of Aaron; and they boldly .asserted that if any
man ventured to oppose them, tliey had received
power to destroy him by tire, that is, by curses proceed-
mm
m ©MIIEIF ©IF TIME Sffl ® M A iM ffl H ® A Rl H.AW,.
A Kijllrtrlur'i S- C" I.iii.don * liJmbtirKli .
MULCIBER— MUSIC (Sacred).
49»
Ing from their moutlis. Tliey denied tlie doctrine of
tlie Trinity, and alleged that God tlie Fatlier assmned
a Ininian form and snftered on tlie cross ; and that
Elijah was taken up bodily into heaven for tlie pur-
pose of retiiniiiig to earth as the representative of
tlie Father in bodily shape. After the death of
Reeves, his companion JVIiiggleton, who survived
him for many years, pretended that a double portion
of the Spirit now rested upon him. Among other
strange opinions, he taught that the devil became
incarnate in Eve, and filled her with a wickedness
producing what he termed ■' unclean reason," which
is the only devil we have now to fear. Within the
last thirty years a small remnant of the sect of Mng-
gletonians was still to be found in England, but no
trace of them occurs in the Report of the last Cen-
sus of 1851, so that in all probability tliey are quite
extinct.
MULCIBER, a surname of Vulcan, the Roman
god of tire. The euphemistic name of Mulciber is
frequently applied to him by the Latin poets.
MUMBO JUMBO, a mysterious personage, fright-
ful to the whole race of African matrons. Accord-
ing to the description of Mr. Wilson, " he is a strong,
athletic man, di.sguised in dry plantain leaves, and
bearing a rod in his hand, which he uses on jiroper
occasions with the most unsparing severity. Wlien
invoked by an injm-ed husband, he appears about the
outskirts of the village at dusk, and commences all
sorts of paulomimes. After supper he ventures to
the town hall, where he commences his antics, and
every grown person, male or female, must be pre-
sent, or subject themselves to the su.spicion of hav-
ing been kept away by a guilty conscience. The
performance is keiit up until midnight, when Mumbo
suddenly springs with the agility of the tiger upon
the offender, and chastises her most soundly, amidst
the shouts and laughter of the multitude, in which
the other women join more heartily than any body
else, with the view, no doubt, of raising themselves
above the suspicion of such intidehty."
MUNTRAS, mystic verses or incantations which
form the grand charm of the Hindu Brahuiaus.
They occupy a very prominent place in the Hindu
religion. The constant and universal belief is, that
when the Brahman repeats the Muntras, the deities
must come obedient to his call, agreeably to the fa-
vourite Sanskrit verse : — " The universe is under the
power of the deities, the deities are under the power
of the Muntras, the Muntras are under the power of
the Bralimans ; consequently, the Brahmans are
gods." The Muntras are the essence of the Vedas,
and the united power of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.
See G.-VY-^TRi.
MURTIA, a surname of VmunaX Rome, supposed
to be identical with Myrlea, because the' myrtle tree
was consecrated to this goddess.
MUSEIA, a festival with contests celebrated in
honour of the Muses every tiftli year at Thespi;e iu
Bcecrtia.
MUSERXl, an atheistical sect among the Mo-
hammedans, who endeavoured to conceal from all
except the initiated their gro.ss denial of the exist-
ence of a God. They attempted to account for the
existence and growth of all things by referring to
the inherent power of Nature.
MUSES, originally nymphs who presided over
song, and afterwards divinities, who were the patrons
of the arts and sciences, but more especially of the
art of poetry. They were generally regarded as the
daughters of Zeus and Ahiemosi/ne, though some af-
firm them to have been descended from Uraimsaiid Gc.
Their birth-place is said to have been Pieria, at the
foot of Mount Olympus. Some difference of opiiion
has existed as to the number of the Muses. Origi-
nally they are stiid to have been three, who were
worshipped on Mount Helicon in Ba-otia, namely,
Melete, Mneme, and Accde. At one period they
were reckoned to be four, at another seven, iuid at
another eight. At length, however, they came to
be recognized as nine. This is the lumiber men-
tioned by Homer and Hesiod, the latter poet being
the tirst who mentions their names, which are Clio,
Euterpe, Thalia, Melpomene, Terpsichore, Erato,
Pnli/hynmia, Uraniii, and Calliope. They were re-
garded by the earlier Greek poets as residing on
Mount Olympus, and as being themselves the source
of the inspiration of song among men. Hence the
frequent and earnest invocations to the Muses. In
many instances we find Ajiollo classed along with
the Nine, who like him are viewed as possessing pro-
phetic power. The original seat of the worship of
the Muses was Thessaly, particularly the immediate
neighbourhood of Mount Olympus, whence it pa.s.sed
into Bceotia. A solemn festival called MusKi.\
(which see), was celebrated on Mount Helicon by
the Thespians. Mount Parnassus was sacred to the
Muses, and also the Caslalian spring near which stood
a temple dedicated to their worship. In course of
time the Muses were wor.shipped throughout almost
every part of Greece, and temples were reared and
sacrifices offered to them at Athens, Sparta, and
Corinth. The libations offered to them consisted of
water or milk and of honey.
MUSIC (S.\rREu). The art of music may be
traced back to a very early period of the world's his-
tory ; it must have been known indeed to the Ante-
diluvians, as is plain from Gen. iv. 21, "And lii»
brotlier's name was Jubal: he was the father of all
such as handle the harp and organ." In all proba-
bility the most ancient mode of handing down the
memory of events wa.s by poetry and song, which
were admirably tilted to embalm interesting or im-
portant transactions in the minds and hearts of the
people. The ancient Hebrews held music to be «ii
essential jiart of their religious ceivmoiiies, festivals,
nujitial rejoicings, or mourning occasions. M e liiici
the Israelites having recourse to mu.'^ic. both voc«l and
instrumental, in the solemn service of thanksgi\ing
which Ibllowed their deliverance at the Red Sea.
500
MUSIC (Sacked).
For any degree of skill wliicli they possessed in the
mnsical art, they were chiefly indebted to the Egyp-
tians. On this point, Sir J. G-. Wilicinsoii makes
some valuable observations. " The Israelites," he
says, "not only considered it becoming to deliglit in
innsic and the dance, but persons of rank deemed
them a necessary part of tlieir education. Like the
Kgyptians, with whom tliey liad .so long resided, and
many of wliose customs they adopted, the Jews care-
fully distinguished sacred from profane music. They
introduced it at public and private rejoicings, at
funerals, and in religious services; but the character
of the airs, like the words of their songs, varied ac-
cording to the occasion ; and they had canticles of
mirth, of praise, of thank.sgiving, and of lamentation.
Some were epithalamia, or songs composed to cele-
brate marriages ; others to commemorate a victory,
or the accession of a prince; to return thanks to the
Deity, or to celebrate his praises ; to lament a gen-
eral calamity, or a private affliction ; and others
again were peculiar to their festive meetings. On
these occasions they introduced the harp, lute, ta-
bret, and various instruments, together with songs
and dancing, and the guests were entertained nearly
in the same marnier as at an Egyptian feast. In the
temple, and in the religious ceremonies, the Jews
had female as well as male performers, who were
generally daughters of the Levites, as the Pallaces
of Thebes were either of the royal family, or the
daughters of priests ; and these nmsicians were at-
tached exclusively to the service of religion, as I
believe them also to have been in Egypt, whether
men or women. David vvas not only reraarkai)le for
his taste and skill in music, but took a delight in
introducing it on every occasion. And seeing tliat
the Levites were ninnerous, and no longer employed
as formerly in carrying the boards, veils, and vessels
of the tabernacle, its aboile being fixed at Jerusalem,
he appointed a great part of them to sing and play
on instruments at the religious festivals.
" Solomon, again, at the dedication of the temple,
employed ' one lumdred and twenty priests to sound
with trumpets;' (2 Chron. v. 12;) and Josepluis
pretends that no le.ss than 200,000 musicians were
present at that ceremony, besides the same number
of singers who were Levites.
" The Jews regarded music as an indispensable
part of religion, and the harp held a conspicuous
rank in the consecrated band. (2 Sam. vi. 5.)
David was himself celebrated as the inventor of
musical instruments, as well as for his skill with the
harp ; he frequently played it during the most sol-
emn ceremonies; and we find that, in the earliest
times, the Israelites used the timbrel or tambom'ine,
in celebrating the praises of the Deity ; Miriam her-
self, 'a prophetess and sister of Aaron,' (Exod. xv.
20,) having used it while chatitiug the overthrow of
I'haraoh's host. With most nations it has been con-
sidered right to introduce music into the service of
religiou ; and if the Egyptian priesthood made it so
principal a part of their earnest inquiries, and incul-
cated the necessity of applying to its study, not as
an amusement, or in consequence of any feeling ex-
cited by the reminiscences accompanying a national
air, but from a sincere admiration of the science, and
of its effects upon the human mind, we can readily
believe that it was sanctioned and even deemed in-
dispensable in many of their religious rites. Hence
the sacred musicians were of the order of priests,
and appointed to this service, like the Levites among
the Jews; and the Egyptian sacred bands were pro-
bably divided and superintended in the same manner
as among that people. At Jerusalem Asaph, He-
man, and Jeduthun, were the three directors of the
music of the tabernacle under David, and of the
temple under Solomon. Asaph had four sons, Je-
duthun six, and Heman fourleen. These twenty
four Levites, sons of the three great masters of
sacred music, were at the head of twenty-four bands
of musicians who served the temple in turns. Their
number then was always great, especially at the
grand solemnities. They were ranged in order
about the altar of burnt sacrifices. Those of the
family of Kohath were in the middle, those of Merari
at the left, and those of Gershom on the right hand.
The whole business of their lite was to learn and
practise music; and, being provided with an ample
maintenance, nothing prevented their prosecuting
their studies, and arriving at perfection in the art.
Even in the temple, and in the ceremonies of reli-
gion, female nmsicians were admitted as well as men ;
and they were generally the daughters of Levites.
Heman had three daughters, who were proficients
in music ; and the 9th I'salm is addressed to Ben-
aiah, chief of the band of young women who sang
in the temple. Ezra, in his narrative of those he
brought back from the captivity, reckons two hun-
dred singing men and singing women ; and Zecha-
riah, Aziel, and Shemiramoth, are said to have pre-
sided over the seventh band of music, which was
that of the young women."
But while special arrangements were thus made
for the due performance of the musical part of the
Jewish service connected with the first temple, that
of the second temple was probably of a far inferior
description ; and if we may take the service of the
modern Jewish synagogue, as bearing some resem-
blance to the services of the latter days of the Hebrew
state, it gives no idea, at all events, of the music fur
which the psalms of David were composed, and by
which their solenm performance, as a part of pidjlic
worship, was accompanied.
Among the ancient Heathens music was looked
u|)on as a sacred exercise, Apollo being the tutelary
god of musicians, and the whole of the Nine Muses
being singers, who, by their sweet songs, delighted
the ears of the gods, while the Sirens charmed the
ears of men. The earliest si)ecimens of sacred nni-
sic were the Tlienrgic Hymns, or Songs of Incanta-
tion, which are supposed to have originated in Egypt
MUSIC (Saored).
501
Diodorus Siciiliis alleges, that the Esyiitians pro-
liibited the cultivation of music, but this is contra-
dicted by Plato, who studied and tatii^ht in Ej;ypt.
The Theui'gic Hymns were succeeded by popular or
heroic hymns sung in praise of some particular divi-
nity. Tliose sacred to Apollo and Mars were called
Pieans, those to Bacclius Dithijramhics. Tlie music
of the Romans was far inferior to that of the Greeks.
Among the early Cln-istians .sacred music formed
one of the principal parts of their relif,dous services.
It was with them a liabitual, a favourite employment,
the psalms of David, along with some sacred hymns,
being adapted to appropriate airs, which were sung
with the utmost enthusiasm. No specimens, how-
ever, exist of the melodies used by the Christians of
the early church. Some of them would probably be
borrowed from the Hebrew worship, others from the
Pagan temples. Sometimes the psalm was sung in
full swell by the whole assembly; at other times it was
distributed into parts, while the chorus was sung
oy the entire congregation. Isidore of Seville says
that the singing of the primitive Christians differed
little from reading. At the midm'ght meetings,
thirty, forty, and even fifty psalms were often
sung, the delightful exerci.se being protracted till the
morning dawn. In fulfilment of the exhortation of
the Apostle Paul, the primitive Christians sang
psahns and hymns and spiritual songs. And Pliny,
in his celebrated letter to the Emperor Trajan, re-
fers to the custom as prevailing among the Chris-
tians, of singing hymns to Clu'i.'^t as God. Nor
was the practice limited to the orthodox bretliren
in the early church ; heretics, also, recognizing the
power which sacred melody exercises over the heart,
availed themselves of church music as well calculat-
ed to serve the purpose of propagating their peculiar
tenets.
We have seen that, in the time of David, singers
were set apart in the Jewish church to conduct this
important part of the devotional service of the sanc-
tuary. These separate officers were continued in the
temple and synagogue worship ; and a similar class
of functionaries was chosen in the apostolic and pri-
mitive Christian churches. It is somewhat remark-
able, that the performance of the psalmody in public
worship was restricted by the council of Laodicea
to a distinct order in the church, styled by them
canonical singers ; but the p.salms or hymns, which
were to be sung, were regulated by the bishops or
presbyters.
The first rise of the singers, as an inferior order of
the clergy under the name of Psalmistw, or P.soi-
he, a name evidently of Greek origin, appears to
have been about the begiiming of the fourth century.
The design of their institution was to revive and
improve the ancient psalmody ; and for this purpose
the temporary arrangement was adopted by the
council of Laodicea, of forbidding all others to sing
in the church, except only the canonical singers,
who went up into the amho or reading-desk, and
sung out of a book. That such a mode of conduct-
ing public worship was only intended to be for a
time, is evident from the circumstance, that several
of the fathers of the church mention the practice as
existing in their lime, of the people singing all to-
gether. The order of Psaltcc, on their appoint-
ment to office, required no imposition of hands, or
solemn consecration, but simply received their office
fi'oni a presbyter, who used this form of words as
laid down by the council of Carthage : " See that
thou believe in thy heart what thou singest with thy
mouth, and approve in thy works what thou believ-
est in thy heart."
The service of the early chnrch usually commenced,
as among ourselves, with psalmody; but the author
of the Apostolical Constitutions prescribes first the
reading of the Old Testament, and then the Psalms.
The most ancient and general practice of the church
was for the whole assembly to unite with one heart
and voice in celebrating the praises of God. But
after a time alternate psalmody was introduced, when
the congregation, dividing themselves into two parts,
repeated the psalms by courses, verse for verse, one
in response to another, and not as formerly, all to-
gether. The mode of singing altogether was called
sijinphony, while the alternate mode was termed an-
tiphony, and in the West, rexpon.sorin, the singing by
responsals. This latter manner of conducting the
psalmody originated in the Eastern church, and pass-
ed into the AVestern in the time of Ambrose, bishop
of Milan. But in a short time antiphonal singing
became the general practice of the whole church ; and
Socrates informs us, that the Emjieror Tlicodosius
the younger, and his sisters, were accustomed to sing
alternate hymns together every morning in the royal
l)alace. Augustine was deeply atl'ected on hearing
the .\mbrosian chant at Milan, and describes his
feelings in these words : " The voices flowed in at
my ears ; truth was distilled into my heart ; and the
affection of piety overflowed in sweet tears of Joy."
Eusebius tells us that the first regular Christian
choir was established at Antioch in Syria, and that
Ambrose brought his famous melodies to Milan from
that city. The.se Ambrosian melodies, and tlie mode
of their performance by canonical singer.s, continued
in the Western church till the time of Gregory the
Great, who was devotedly zealous in the cultivation
of sacred music, having been the first to introduce
singing schools at Rome. Gregory separated the
chanters from the clerical order, and exchanged the
Ambrosian chant for a style of singing named after
himself the Gregorian Chant, besides introducing
musical notation by Roman letters. It seems to be
a point fully established, fliat antiphonal singing, and
as Sir John Hawkins considers it, the conunence-
ment of church music, originated in tlie churches of
the East, particulariy those of Antioch, Cesnrea,
and Constantinople. The Greek fathers. I5asil_ and
Chrysostom, were the original institutors of the
choral service in their respective churches. From the
.•)02
MUSIC (Sacred).
East Ambrose carried it to Milan, whence it was trans-
ferred to Rome, and afterwards passed into France,
Germany, and Britain. Pope Daniasus ordained
the alternate singing of the P.sahiis aiong with the
Gloria Patri and Hallehijah ; in A. n. 384, Siriciu.s
inti-oduced tlie Antliem ; in A. D. 507, Svmmachus
appointed the Gloria'in Excelsis to be snng ; and in
A. D. 690, the Gregorian Chant was brought into
u.se. When Gregory, in A. D. 620, sent his Chant
into Britain, such was the opposition manifested to
its introduction into the church, that 1,200 of the
clergy fell in the tumult which ensued, and it was not
until lifty years after, when Pope Vitalianus sent
Theodore the Greek to till the vacant see of Canter-
bury, that the British clergy were prevailed upon to
admit the cathedral service in accordance with the
Komish ritual.
Besides the psalms which h.ad been used from the
earliest times, and short doxologies and hymns, con-
sisting of verses from the Holy Scriptures, spiritual
songs, especially those by Ambrose of Milan, and
Hilary of Poictiers, came to be used in public wor-
ship in the Western church. The Te Deum, often
styled the Song of St. Ambrose, is generally supposed
to have been composed jointly by him and St. Au-
gustine early in the fourtli century, tliough Arch-
bishop Usher ascribes it to Nicetius, and supposes it
not to have been composed till about A. D. 500.
Considerable opposition, it is true, was manifested to
the introduction of such mere human compositions
into Divine worship, but the unobjectionable purity
of their sentiments led to their adoption by many
churches. The complaint, however, began to be
raised that church mu.sic had deviated from its an-
cient simplicity. Thus the Egyptian abbot, Pambo,
in the fourth century, inveighed against the intro-
duction of heatlien melodies into the psalmody of
the church. About this time church music began
to be cultivated more according to rule. In addi-
tion to the Pmltm and canonical singers, church
choristers were appointed, who .sang sometimes
alone, sometimes interchangeably with the choirs of
the congregation.
In the fourth century, tlie cnslom began to be in-
troduced into some churches, of having a single per-
Bon to lead the psalmody, who began the verse, and
the people joined with him in the close. This indi-
vidual was called the pJionasais or precentor, and he
is mentioned by Athanasius as existing in his time
in the church of Alexandria. The study of sacred
music received peculiar attention in the sixth cen-
tury, schools for instruction in this important art
having been established and patronized by Gregory
the Great, under whom they obtained great cele-
brity. Prom these schools originated the famous
Gregorian chant, which the choir and the people
sung in imison. Such schools rapidly increased in
number, and at length became common in various
parts of Europe, particidarly in France and Ger-
many. The prior or principal of these scliools was
held in high estimation, and possessed extensive in-
fluence.
In the eighth century Pope .\drian, in return for
the .services which he had rendered to Charlemagne
in making him Emperor of the West, stipulated for
the introduction of the Gregorian Cliant into the
Gallic Church, and the Emperor having paid a visit
to Rome, where he kept Easter with the Pope, re-
ceived from the hands of his Holiness the Roman
antiphonary, which he promised to introduce into
his dominions. About the end of this century, all
opposition to cathedral music ceased, and, for seven
centuries thereafter, church music underwent little or
no change in the Church of Rome. It is a remark-
al)Ie fact, however, that from the eighth till the mid-
dle of the thirteenth century, not only was it con-
sidered a necessary part of clerical education to
understand the principles of harmony and the rudi-
ments of singing, but the clergy were generally
proficients both in vocal and instrumental music.
In the Eastern Church, where sacred music, as we
have seen, had its origin, there arose in the eighth
century a remarkable man, Jolni of Damascus, who
was not only an eminent theologian, but a most
accomplished musician. On account of his great
skill in the art of vocal music, he was usually styled
Melodos. To this noted master of music, the East-
ern Church is indebted for those beautiful airs to
which the P.sahns of David are sung at this day.
The Greek word Pnallo is applied among the Greeks
of modern times exclusively to .sacred music, which
in the Eastern Church has never been any other than
vocal, instrumental music being unknown in that
church as it was in the primitive church. Sir John
Hawkins, following the Romish w^riters in his eru-
dite work on the History of Music, makes Pope
Vitalianus, in A. n. 660, the fir.st who introduced
organs into churches. But learned men are gener-
ally agreed that instrumental music was not used
in churches till a mucli later date. For Thomas
Aquinas, A. n. 12,50, has these remarkable words,
"Our church does not use musical instruments as
liarps and p.salteries to praise God withal, that she
may not seem to judaize." From this passage we
are surely warranted in concluding that there was no
ecclesiastical use of organs in the time of Aquinas.
It is alleged that Marinus Sanutns, who lived about
A. D. 1290, was the first that brought the use of
wind organs into churches, and hence he received the
naine of Torcellus. In the East the organ was in
use in the emperors' courts, probably from the time
of Julian, but never has either the organ or any
other instrument been emiiloyed in public worship
in Eastern chiu-ches; nor is mention of instnunental
music found in all their liturgies ancient or modern.
Towards the time of the Reformation, a general
partiality for sacred music ju-ev ailed throughout
ICuropc, owing, as is generally supposed, to the en-
couragement which Pope I..eo X. gave to the culti-
vation of the art. It is no doubt true that Leo was
MUSIMOES— MUSPELLHETM.
503
himself a skilful musician, and attached a high im-
portance to the art as lending interest, solemnity,
and effect to the devotional services of the Uomisli
cluu-ch. But to no single individual can be traced
tlie prevailing love for sacred music in the sixteenth
century, for besides Leo X., we Ibul Charles V. in
Germany, Francis I. in France, and Henry VIII. in
England, all of them countenancing sacred music,
and treating musicians at their couit with peculi:ir
favour.
At the Reformation the greater part of the ser-
vices of the Romish church was sung to music:il
notes, and on the occasion of great festivals the
choral service was performed with great pomp by a
numerous choir of men and boys. That abuses of
the most flagrant kind had found their way into this
department of Romish worship is beyond a doubt,
as tlie council of Trent found it necessary to issue a
decree on the subject, in which tliey plainly state,
that in the celebration of the mass, hymns, some of
a profane, and others of a lascivious natin-e, had
crept into the service, and given great scandal to
professors of the truth. By this decree, the council,
while it arranged the choral service on a proper
footing, freeing it froin all extraneous matter, gave it
also a .sanction which it had hitherto wanted. From
this time the Church of Rome began to display that
profound veneration for choral music which she has
continued to manifest down to the present dav.
Tlie Protestants at the Refonnation differed on
the subject of sacred music. The Lutherans in gi'eat
measure adopted the Romish ritual, retained tlie
choral service, and adhered to the use of the organ
and other instruments. Some of the Reformed
churches differed more widely from Rome tlian
others. Calvin introduced a plain metrical psalmody;
selecting for use in churches the Version of the
Psalms by JIarot, which he divided into small por-
tions and appointed to be sung in public worship.
This Psalter was bound up witli the Geneva Cate-
chism. When the Reformation was introduced into
England, Henry VIII., himself a musician of consi-
derable celebrity, showed his partiality for the choral
service by retaining it. The cathedral musical ser-
vice of the Reformed Church of England was framed
by John Marbeck of Windsor, in a form little differ-
ent from tliat which is at present in use. It is a
curious fact that the ancient foundations of conven-
tual, cathedral, and collegiate churches make no
provision for an organist, but simply for canons,
minor canons, and choristers.
The first Act of Uniformity, passed in the reign
of Edward VI., allowed the clergy either to adopt
the plain metrical psalmody of the Calvinists, or to
persevere in the use of the choral service. The mu-
sical part of Queen Elizabeth's Liturgy is said to
have been arranged by Parker, Archbishop of Can-
terbury. Tlie Puritans, however, objected strongly
to the cathedral rite.s, particularly " the tossing the
Psalms from one side to the other," as Cartwight sar-
castically describes the musical service, and which
was regarded as inconsistent with that beautiful sini
plicity which ought ever to characterize the ordi-
nances of Divine worship. The assaults made bv the
Puritans upon the musical, as well as other portions
of the catliedral service, were answered with great
ability and power by Richard Hooker, in his famous
work oil ' Ecclesiastical Polity,' the first four books
of wliich appeared in 1594, and the fifth in 1597.
Fi-om the appearance of this masterly defence of the
Polity of the Church of England, down to the pre-
sent day, no material change has taken place in the
musical service of that church. The Lutheran and
E]iiscopal churches, both in Europe and America,
have also a solemn music service, while the Re-
formed churches, including llie Presbyterian and In-
dependent, have a plain selection of melodies, to
which the metrical Psalms, Paraphrases, and Hvmns
are set, some churches with, but the greater number
without, instrumental music. There is almost uni-
versally a precentor or leader of the sacred mu-
sic in the congregation, and in some cases a select
choir or band of male and female voices, while the
whole congregation is expected to engage in this
solemn part of the devotional exercises of the sanc-
tuary. For a number of years past, while Roini.sh
churches in Europe and America have made a gor-
geous display of their musical service, which is per-
formed by regularly trained musicians, vocal and
instrumental, the Protestant churches have aroused
themselves to a more careful training of their whole
congregations in the art of sacred music, that this
interesting and impressive jiart of Divine worship
may be conducted both wirli melody of the voice and
of the heart unto the Lord.
ML'SIMOES, festivals celebrated in honour of the
dead among some of the native tribes of Central
Africa.
MUSORITES, a superstitious sect of Jews, who
are said to have reverenced rats aiid mice. The ori-
gin of this peculiarity is to be found in an event
which is naiT.ated in 1 Sam. vi. The Philistines had
taken awav the ark of the covenant, and detained
it in their country for seven months, during which
time the l^ord in anger had sent among them a
plague of mice, which destroyed the fruits of the
grotmd. Under the dread insjiired by this Divine
judgment upon their land they restored the ark, and,
by the advice of their priests and diviners, they pre-
pared as a Irespass-ofVering to the God of Israel five
golden emcrods and five golden mice. Perverting
this solemn incident of Old Testament history the
sect seems to have entertained a superstitious venera-
tion for mice and rats.
MUSPELLHEIM, the sj.hcre or abode of light
in the ancient Scandinavian cosmogony. It was in
the southern region, and was too luminous and glow-
ing to be entered by those who are not indigenous
there. It is guarded by Surtur, who sits on its
borders bearing a flaming falchion, and at the end of
J|
504
MUSSULMANS— MYSIA.
the world lie shall issue forth to combat, and shall
vanquish all the gods, and consume the universe
with tire.
MUSSULMANS, a term used, like Moslems, to
denote the whole body of the Faithful who believe
in the Koran.
MUTA. See Tacita.
MUTEVEL, tlie president or chief ruler of a
Mohammedan mosque in Turkey, into whose hands
the revenue is regularly paid.
MU-TSOO-PO, tlie tutelary goddess both of
women and sailors, worsliipped with great reverence
among the Chinese. Her worship was introduced
some centuries ago into the Celestial Empire ; and
she so strikingly resembles the Virgin Mary of tlie
Romanists, tliat the Chinese at Macao call her
Santa Maria di China, Holy Mother of China. The
sailors especially make her an object of adoration ;
and there are very few junks that have not an image
of her on board. She is also accompanied by very
dismal satellites, the executors of her behests.
MUTUNUS, a deity among the ancient Romans,
who averted evil from the city and commonwealth
of Rome. He was identical with the Phallus or Pria-
pits, who chiefly delivered from the power of demons.
Mutunus had a temple inside the walls of Rome,
which existed until the time of Augustus, when
it was removed outside.
MWETYI, a Great Spirit venerated by the She-
kani and Bakele people in Soutliern Gninea. The
following account of him is given by Mr. Wilson in
his 'Western Africa:' " He is supposed to dwell in
the bowels of the earth, but comes to the surface of
the ground at stated seasons, or when summoned on
any special business. A large, flat house, of pecu-
liar form, covered with dried plantain-leaves, is
erected in the middle of the village for the tempo-
rary sojouni of tliis spirit, and it is from this that he
gives forth his oracular answers. The house is
always kept perfectly dark, and no one is permitted
to enter it, except those who have been initiated into
all tlie mysteries of the order, which includes, how-
ever, almost the whole of the adult male population
of the village. Strange noises issue forth from this
dark den, not unlike the growling of a tiger, which
the knowing ones interpret to suit their own pur-
poses. The women and children are kept in a state
of constant trepidation by his presence; and, no
doubt, one of the chief ends of the ceremonies con-
nected with the vi.sits of this mysterious being is to
keep the women and children in a state of subordi-
nation. He is the great African Blw Beard whom
every woman and child in the country holds in the
utmost dread. ICveiy boy, from the age of fourteen
to eighteen years, is initiated into all the secrets per-
taining to this (ireat Sijirit. The term of disciple-
ship is continued for a year or more, during which
period they are subjected to a good deal of rough
treatment — such, undoubtedly, as make a lasting
impression both upon their physical and inontal na-
tures, and prevent them from divulging the secrets
of the order. At the time of matriculation a vow is
iin|iosed, such as refraining from a particular article
of food or drink, and is binding for life.
" When Mwetyi is about to retire from a village
where he has been discharging his manifold func-
tions, the women, children, and any strangers who
may be there at the time, are required to leave the
village. What ceremonies are performed at the
time of his dismissal is known, of course, only to the
initiated.
" When a covenant is about to be formed among
the diflerent tribes, Mn-etyi is always invoked as a
witness, and is connnissioned with the duty of visit-
ing vengeance upon the party who shall violate the
engagement. Without this their national treaties
would have little or no force. When a law is passed
which the people wish to be especially binding, they
invoke the vengeance of Mwetyi upon every trans-
gressor, and this, as a general thing, is ample guar-
antee for its observance. The Mpongwe people
sometimes call in the Shekanis to aid them, through
the agency of this Great Spirit, to give sanctity and
authority to their laws."
MYCALESSIA, a surname of the goddess Deme-
ter, derived from Mycalessus in Boeotia, where she
was worshipped.
MYESIS, a name sometimes applied to Baptism
in the early Christian church, becjuise it was the
ordinance by which men were admitted to all the
sacred rites and mysteries of the Christian religion.
MYIAGROS, a hero who was invoked at the fes-
tival of Athena, celebrated at Aliphera, as the pro-
tector against flies.
MYLITTA, a name which, according to Herodo-
tus, was given by the As.syrians to the goddess
Aphrodite, as the generative principle in nature.
MYRTLE, a tree very commonly found in Judca.
It was accounted an emblem of peace, and hence, in
the vision of Zechariah, the angel who was commit-
ted to deliver promises of the restoration of Jeru-
salem is placed among myrtle trees. Josephus
relates that at the feast of tabernacles the Jews car-
ried ill their hands branches of myrtle. Herodotus
states that among the Persians the individual who
was engaged in offering sacrifices wore a tiara en-
riched with myrtle. This tree was sacred to Venus
among the ancient Romans. That goddess, accord-
ingly, was represented with a garland of myrtle on
her head, and a branch of myrtle in her hand. In
the symbolic language of Pagan antiquity, the myr-
tle was an emblem of love, marriage, and immortality.
Among the ancient Greeks, accordingly, the young
maiden was crowned on her marriage day with
wreaths of myrtle leaves.
MYSIA, a surname of the ancient Grecian god-
dess Dcmcter, and also of the goddess Artinii.t, uniler
which she was worshipped near Sjiarta. The tenn
Mi/sia is also ap|ilicd to a festival celebrated by the
inhabitants of Pelleiie in honour of Demcter. This
MYST^— MYSTICS.
505
feast lasted for seven days. During tlie first two
days tl]t> solemnities were observed by both men and
women ; on the tliird day the women alone per-
formed certain mysterious rites throughout the
night ; and on the two last days the men returned to
the festival, and the remainder of the time was
passed in merriment and raillery.
MYSTjE, tliose who were initiated into the lesser
Eleusinian Mysteries (which see).
MYSTAGOGIA, communion in the sacred mys-
teries, a term applied by Chrysostom, Theodoret,
and others to the sacraments of baptism and the
Lord's Supper.
MYSTAGOGUS, the high-priest of the Eleusi-
nian goddess Ceres, who conducted the celebration
of her mysteries and the initiation of the Myshv.
See HiEROPii.^NTS.
MYSTERIES, mystic festivals among the ancient
Pagans, consisting of sacrifices and ceremonies which
were performed in secret, or during the night, and
to wliich only tlie initiated were admitted. In all
ages, and among all nations, certain religious rites
have been hidden from the multitude, and thus
clothed, in their estimation, with a secret grandeur.
Such observances may be traced back to a very re-
mote age of Grecian history, and were prol.iably
intended to keep up the remembrance of tlie religion
of a still more ancient period.
The most celebrated mysteries of the ancient
Greeks were the C'aheiria and tlie Eleusuua.
Other mysteries of an inferior description belonged
to different divinities, and were peculiar to certain
localities. Cases of profanation of the mysteries
were tried by a court consisting only of persons who
were tliemselves initiated. Such mysteries as were
found among the Greeks were unknown to the Ro-
mans ; and even those mystic rites which were con-
nected with certain festivals were plainly of foreign
origin. Tluis the Bacchanalia of the Romans were
drawn from the Dionysia of tlie Greeks.
From the sacredness attached to Pagan mysteries,
the early Christians threw a similar air of hidden
grandeur over certain holy rites, by concealing them
from the world generally. This remark particu-
larly applies to the solenm ordinances of baptism
and the Lord's Supper, to which the term myntcrie-i
was specially attached. Hence the introduction into
the primitive Christian church of the Aucani Dis-
CIPLINA (which see). In apostolic times, and those
immediately succeeding the age of the apostles, no
such practice seems to have existed as that of con-
cealing tlie sacred mysteries from the knowledge of
the Catec/iumenx. The first writer who mentions
this marked difi'erence between Calechumeiis and tlie
faithful is TertuUian. There is no aiipearance, as
Romish writers would allege, that tlie worship of
saints and images was included among the mysteries.
On the contrary, they seem to have been limited to
these specitic points: (1.) The mode of administer-
ing baptism ; (2.) The unction of chrism or coiitir-
niation; (3.) The ordination of priests; (4.) The
mode of celebrating the eucharist ; (5.) The liturgy
or divine service of the church ; (G.) And for some
time the mystery of the Trinity, tlie Creed, and the
Lord's Prayer. The Romish church regards the
eucharist as more especially a mystery in conse-
quence of the doctrine wliich they hold, that the
elements of bread and wine are transubstantiated into
the real body, blood, soul, and divinity of the Lord
Jesus Clirist.
MYSTERIES, theatrical representations made In-
the priests in the dark ages, of the events recorded in
Scripture, that they might be brought more clearly
and impressively before the minds of the unlearned
multitude. Two series of these mysteries have betii
lately published from old manuscripts, namely, the
Townley mysteries performed by the monks of
VVoodchurch near Wakefield ; and the Coventry
mysteries by the Grey Friars of that ancient city.
Both these series of mysteries begin with the crea-
tion and end with the general judgment.
MYSTICAL TABLE, a name applied by Chry-
sostom to the Communion Table (which see).
MYSTIC.A.L VEILS, an expression sometimes
used by early Christian writers to denote the haiiL'-
ings which separated the chancul from the rest of
the church.
MYSTICS, a class of men found in every age of the
world, who, whether philosophers or divines, have pro-
fessed not only to be initiated into hidden mysteries,
but to be the sulijects of a divine manifestation to
their intuition or self-consciousness. Almost in-
finitely varied are the forms of thought and modes of
action in which mysticism has been developed in dif-
ferent periods and among dift'erent nations. It has
appeared in the loftiest abstract speculation, and in
the grossest and most sensuous idolatry. It has min-
gled itself up with Theism, Atheism, and Pantheism.
Mr. Vauglian, in his 'Hours with the Mystics,' di-
vides this extravagant class of religionists into three
classes, the T/ieopat/iHic, T/ieosaphtc, and Tlieurgic.
Under the first class, or the Theopathctic, are in-
cluded all those who resign themselves in a passivity
more or less absolute to an imagined divine manifes-
tation. The Theosophisls again are those who form
a theory of God, or of the works of God, which has
not reason but an inspiration of their own for its
basis. And, linallv, the Tlieurgic class of mystics
includes all who claim supernatural powers generally
through converse with the world of spirits.
Minds predisposed to mysticism have been found
in every age and in every country. The earliest mys-
ticism, that of India, as exhibited in tlie Biiacavat-
GlTA (which seel, appears not in a rudimental and ini-
tial form, but full-developed and as complete as it has
ever manifested itself in modern Christendom. Tlif
Jewish mystics are to be found at an early period
among the ascetic Therapnikr, a sect similar to the
Essenes. "The soul of man," said they, '-is divine, and
his highest wisdom is to become as much as |i(]ssiblc a
2 u
506
MYSTICS.
stranger to the body with its embarrassing appetites.
God has breathed into man from heaven a portion of
liis own divinity. Tliat which is divine is indivisi-
ble. It may be extended, but it is incapable of se-
paration. Consider how vast is the range of our
thought over the past and the future, the heavens
and the earth. This alliance with an upper world,
of which we are conscious, would be impossible, were
not the soul of man an indivisible portion of that
divine and blessed Spirit. Contemplation of the
Divine Essence is the noblest exercise of man ; it is
the only means of attaining to the highest truth and
virtue, and therein to behold God is the consunnna-
tion of our happiness here."
Jewish mysticism, combined with the profound
philosophy of Plato, gave rise to the Xeo-Pla-
tonist school, which, as shown in the teaching of
Plotinus, its founder, was thoroughly mystical. The
mystic, according to this sect, contemplates the
divine perfections in himself; and in the ecstatic
state, individuality, memory, time, space, phenome-
nal contradictions and logical distinctions, all vanish.
In the sixth century. Mysticism was strongly de-
veloped in the writings of Dionysius the Areopagite,
who sought to accommodate to Christianity the
theosophy of the Neo-PIatonist school. The Greek
theory compels Dionysius virtually to deny the ex-
istence of evil. " All that exists," says Mr. Vaughan,
in describing the sentiments of Dionysius, "he re-
gards as a symbolical manifestation of the super-
existent. What we call creation is the divine alle-
gory. In nature, in Scripture, in tradition, God is
revealed only in figure. This sacred imagery should
be studied, but in such study we are still far from
any adequate cognizance of the Divine Nature. God
is above all negation and affirmation : in Him such
contraries are at once identified and transcended.
But by negation we approach most nearly to a true
apprehension of what He is.
" Negation and affirmation, accordingly, constitute
the two opposed and yet simultaneous methods he
lays down for the knowledge of the Infinite. These
two paths, the Via Ne/jotwa (or Apophatica) and
tfte Via Affirmativa (or Catajihatica) constitute the
foundation of his mysticism. They are distinguished
and elaborated in every part of his writings. The
positive is the descending process. In the path
downward from God, through inferior existences, the
Divine Biung may be said to have many names ; —
the negative method is one of ascent ; in that, God
if regarded as nameless, the inscrutable AnonyniDUs.
The symbolical or visible is thus opposed, in the
Platonist style, to the mystical or ideal. To assert
anything concerning a God who is above all affirma-
tion is to speak in figure — to veil him. The more
you deny concerning Him, the more of such veils do
you remove. He conjpares the negative method of
speaking concerning the Supreme to the operation of
the sculptor, who strikes otT fragment after fragment
of the marble, and progresses by diminution."
Romanism in the Middle Ages presents us with
several specimens of contemplative mystics, who, in
the seclusion of the monastery, speculated so boldly,
that they fell into the wildest extravagance. One o(
the most favourable examples of this mediaeval ten-
dency, is to be found in Bernard of Clairvaux, who
goes so far as to identify his own thoughts with the
mind of God. Pull of monastic prepossessions, he
spurns the flesh and seeks to rise by abstraction and
elevated meditation to the immediate vision of hea-
venly things. He denounces reason and the dialec-
tics of the schools ; but Bonaventura in the thir-
teenth, and Gerson in the fifteenth century, strove to
reconcile mystiei-sm with scholasticism.
In the fellowsliips and spiritual associations which
existed in the Netherlands and Gerjnany throughout
the thirteenth and part of the fourteenth centuries,
mysticism was a predominant element, chiefly in the
form of mystical pantheism. This, indeed, was the
common basis of the doctrine found among the
Bretlu-en of the Free Spirit. Then- fundamental
principle, that God is the being of all beings, the
only real existence, unavoidably led them to consider
all things without exception as comprised in him, and
even the meanest creature as participant of the divine
nature and bfe. God, however, is chiefly present
where there is mind, and consequently in man. In
the human soul there is an itncreated and eternal
princijile, namely, the intellect, in virtue of which he
resembles and is one with God. Such mystical doc-
trines were partially a revival of the tenets of the
Aiiialriciaiis and David of Dinanto. The most re-
markable of the pantheistic mystics of the media'val
period was Henry Eckart, who elaborated the doc-
trines of the Beghards into a regular speculative
system. The following brief epitome of his doctrines
is given by Dr. UUmann in his ' Reformers before
the Reformation :' " God is the Being, that is, the
solid, true, universal, and necessary being. He alone
exists, for he has the existence of all things in him-
self. All out of him is semblance, and exists only
in as far as it is in God, or is God. The nature of
God, exalted above every relation or mode [loeise),
and for that reason unutterable and nameless, is not,
however, tnere abstract being (according to the doc-
trine of Amalric), or dead substance ; but it is spirit,
the highest reason, thinking, knowing, and making
itself known. The property most peculiar to God
is thinking, and it is by exerting it upon himself that
he first becomes God; then the Godhead — the hid-
den darkness — the simple and silent basis of the
Divine Being actually is God. God proceeds out
of himself, and this is the eternal generation of the
Son, and is necessarily founded in the Divine essence.
In the Son, or creative word, however, God also gives
birth to all things, and as his operation, being iden-
tical with his thinking, is without time, so creation
takes place in an 'everlasting now.' God has no
existence without the world, and the world, being
his existence in another mode, is eternal with him.
MYSTICS.
607
Tlie creatures, altlioiigli tliey be in a maimer set out
of God, are yet not separated from liim ; for other-
wise God would be bounded by something external
to liimself. Much more tlie distinction in God is one
whicli is continually doing itself away. By the Son,
who is one with God, all things are in God, and that
which is in God i.s God himself. In this manner it
may be affirmed that • all things are God,' as truly as
that ' God is all things.' In this sense also, every
created object, as being in God, is good.
" According to this the whole creation is a mani-
festation of the Deity ; every creature bears upon it
a ' stamp of the Divine nature,' a reflection of the
eternal godhead ; indeed, every creature is ' full of
God.' All that is divine, however, when situate
forth from the Divine Being, necessarily strives to
return back to its source, seeks to lay aside its iini-
tude, and from a state of division to re enter into
unit)'. Hence all created things have a deep and
painful yearning after union with God, in untrouliled
rest. It is only when God, after having, by the
Son, passed out of himself into a dilVerent mode of
existence, returns by love, which is the Holy Spirit,
into himself once more, that the Divine Being is per-
fected in the Trinity, and he ' rests with himself and
with all the creatures.'"
To this Pantheistic Mysticism was opposed a less
noxious kind of mysticism which reared itself on the
basis of Christian Theism. The chief representative
of this theistical mysticism is Ruysbroek, by whose
etYorts the mystical tendency in the Netherlands and
Germany underwent a complete revolution. The sys-
tem of this able and excellent writer, in so far as it
alt'ects life, is thus sketched by Ulhnann : " Man, hav-
ing proceeded from God, is destined to return, and be-
come one with him again. This oneness, however,
is not to be understood as meaning that we become
wholly identiried with him, and lose our own being
as creatures, for that is an impossibility. What it is
to be understood as meaning is, that we are conscious
of being wholly in God, and at the same time also
wholly in ourselves ; that we are united with God,
and yet at the same time remain difierent from Him.
Man ought to be conformed to God and to bear his
likeness. But this he can do only in so far as it is
(iracticable, and it is practicable only in as far as he
does not cease to be himself and a creature. For
God remains always God, and never becomes a crea-
ture ; the creature always a creature, and never loses
its own being as such. Man. when giving himself
up with perfect love to God, is in union with him,
but he no sooner again acts, than he feels his distinct-
ness from God, and that he is another being. Thus
he flows into God, and flows back again into him-
self. The former state of oneness with, and the lat-
ter state of difference from, Him, are both enjoined
by God, and betwixt the two subsists that con-
tinual annihilation in love which constitutes our
felicity."
GerwD, himself a mystic, attempted to involve
Ruysbroek in the same charge of pantheistical mysti-
cism which attaches to Henry Eckart. Tl;e accu-
sation, however, is without foundation. The mysti
cism of Ruysbroek, wdiich had the doidjle advantage
of being at once contemplative and jiraclical, was
thoroughly theistical in its character ; and its in-
fluence was extensively felt. Through Gerhard
Groot tlie practical mysticism was propagated in the
Netherlands; through John Tauler the contemijla-
tive and spiritual in Germany. From this period,
that is from the middle of the fourteenth century,
we find in Germany a continuous chain of traditional
mysticism reaching down to the Reformation, and by
means of its most distinguished productions exerting
the greatest influence upon the mind of Luther.
One feature which is common to all the mediaeval
mystics, and which pervades the writings of Thomas
h. Kempis, is, that they look upon oneness with God,
attained by means of the amiihilation of self, as the
summit of all perfection. Henry Suso, whose mys-
ticism assumed a poetical character, gives utter-
ance to his sentiments in a single sentence : " A meek
man must be deformed from the creature, conformed
to Clirist, and transformed to Deity." John Tauler,
another devout mystic, and who, by his sermons, ex-
ercised a most remarkable influence upon the popu-
lar mind, unfolds his opinions in a few sentences.
" Man, as a creature originating directly from God,
wlio is one, longs to return, according to his capa-
city, back to the undivided unity. The efflux strives
again to become a reflux : and only when all things
in him have become wholly one in and with God,
does he find entire peace and perfect rest. The
means to this eiul, are to rise above sense and sen-
siudity, corporeal and natural powers, all desires,
figures and imagery, and thus freed from the crea-
tures, to seek God solely and directly, spirit with
spirit, and heart to heart. The divine perfect life
can become ours only when we die within, and cease
to be ourselves. But this cannot be eft'ectcd by the
power of nature. It must be done by grace, and
through the mediation of Christ. What belongs to
God by nature, man must acquire by grace. To
this end the pattern of Christ has been given to him.
As Jesus came from the Father, and returns to the
Father again, so is this the destination of every
man. As Christ died a bodily death, and rose again
from the dead, so must every man spiritually die
and revive, in order wholly to live in and with GJod.
The image of Christ, however, which must be en-
graved on the heart, is the likeness not of what is
created and visible, but of wliat is noble, divine, and
rational in the Son of (Jod, the God-man. lie who
has this image in his heart is never without God,
and, wherever God is at all, there he is wholly. Such
a man accjuiesces fully in the divine will, resigns
himself entirely to God, stands in bottomless pa-
tience, humility, and love, and herein enjoys jierfect
blessedness." The writings of John Tauler were
afterwards highly prized, not only by Luther and
508
MYSTICS.
Melanctlion, but also by some Romish divines of the
higliest celebi-ity.
Among the mystical writings which prepared the
way for the Kefonnation, a conspicuous place must
be assigned to a small anonymous treatise, which
appeared in the fourteenth century, under the name
of ' Deutsche Theologie,' or German Theology. To
this homely but admirable volume Luther lay under
tlie deepest obligations. " Next to the Bible and
St. Augustine," he says, " from no book with which
I liave met have I learned more of what God, Christ,
man, aud all things, are." The sound theology
which pervades the work, though clothed in a
somewhat mystical garb, conveyed much light to
the Reformer's mind. The fundamental tliought
which the book contains is thus described by Ull-
mann : " If the creature recognise itself in the im-
mutable Good, and as one therewith, and live and
act in this knowledge, then it is itself good and per-
fect. But if, on the contrary, the creature revolt
from that Good, it is then evil. All sin consists in
apostatizing from the supreme and perfect Good, in
making self an object, and in supposing that it is
sometliing, and that we derive from it any sort of
benefit, such as existence, or life, or knowledge, or
ability. This the devil did, and it was by this alone
he fell. His presuming that he too was something,
and that something was his, his 'I' aud his 'me,'
and his 'my' aud his 'mine,' were his apostacy and
fall. In the self-same way Adam also fell. Eating
the apple was not the cause of his fall, but his arro-
gating to self his ' /' aud ' me' and ' mine.' But for
this, even if he had eaten seven apples, he would not
liave fallen. Because of it, however, he must have
fallen, although lie had not tasted the one. So is it
with every man, in whom the same thing is repeated
a hundred times. But in what way may this apos-
tacy and general fall be repaired? The way is for
man to come out of self (isolation as a creature), and
enter into God. In order to this, two parties must con-
cur, God and man. Man cannot do it without God ;
and God coidd not do it without man. And, there-
fore, it beho\ed God to take upon him human na-
ture and to become man, in order that man might
become God. This once took place in the most
perfect way in Christ, and as every man should be-
come by grace what Christ was by nature, it ought
to be repeated in every man, and in myself among
the rest. Kor were Gcjd to be humanized in all other
men, and all others to be deilied in him, and were
this not to take place in me, my fall would not be
repaired. In that way ('Inist restores what was lost
by Adam. By .\dain came seltishness, and with it
disobedience, all evil, and corruption. By Christ, in
virtue of bis pure aud divine life transfusing itself
into men, come ihe annihilation of seltishness, obe-
dience, and union with God, and therein every good
thing, peace, heaven, and blessedness."
The 'Deutsche Theologie,' wliich thus unfolded
Protestant truth so clearly before the Reformation,
has since 1G21 been inscribed in the Romish index
of prohibited books ; while on the part of Protestant,
but especially Lutheran divines, it has always been
held in the higliest estimation. At the instigation
of Staupitz, Luther issued an edition of this popular
work, with a preface written by his own hand.
Staupitz was himself a mystic, but his mysticism
was of a more thoroughly practical character than
those writers of the same class who had preceded
him ; and among all the contemporaries of Luther
none had a more powerful influence in the spiritual
development of the great Reformer.
The mediaaval mysticism in its gradual progress
from a mere poetical sentiment to a speculative sys-
tem, and thence to a living, practical power, led men
steadily forward towards the Reformation. In the
view of Scholasticism, Cliristianity was an objective
phenomenon, but in the view of Mysticism it was an
inward life. The former pointed to the church as the
only jirocuring means of salvation, but the latter
pointed directly to God, aud aimed at being one with
him. The one concerned itself chiefly with a gor-
geous hierarchy, outward forms, and necessarily
efficacions sacraments ; the other was mainl}' occu-
pied with liaving Christ formed in the soul, the hope
of glory. Tlie Reformers therefore could not fail to
sympathize far more deeply with the teachings of tlie
Mystics than of the Schoolmen. Tliough an excep-
tional class, the Mystics possessed, with all their ex-
travagances, more of the truth of God tlian could be
found within the wide domains of the Roman church.
But while Luther and his brother Reformers learned
much from the Mystics, their theology went far be-
yond the doctrines of Mysticism. During the fif-
teenth century indeed, the Scripture element was
graduallj- supplanting the Mystical in the religion ot
the times. The Bible began to displace the School-
men at the universities. Both in Germany and the
Netherlands arose several able and orthodox divines,
with whom the Word of God was brought into
greater prominence than it had been for centuries as
the standard of their teaching.
Meanwhile Mysticism, which had been training
men in the West for a great religious revolution,
sprung up and spread rapidly also in the East. No
sooner had the doctrines of Isliim been proclaimed
by the great Arabian Prophet, than a class of Mys-
tics appeared who revolted against the letter of the
Koran in the name of the Sjiirit, and boldly urged
tlieir claims to u supernatural intercourse with the
Deity. For .several centuries Persia was the chief
seat of a body of Mohammedan Mystics, who are
known by Ihe name of Siijib- ; and the writings of
their poets during the tliirteenth and fourteenth cen-
turies are deservedly .tdmired by every student of
Oriental literature. These Eastern Mystics sought,
and ill some cases claimed, an immediate know-
ledge of God by the direct exercise of the intui-
tive faculty, whidi is a ray of Deity, and beholds
Essence. Hence the inditl'ereiice which they uni-
MYSTICS.
509
fomily exliibited to all the various I'onns of posi-
tive religion. Self-abaiidonmeut and self- annihila-
tion formed the highest ambition of the Snji. He is
bound wholly to lose sight of his individuality; by
mystical death he begins to live. The more extra-
vagant among these Persian mystics claimed identity
with God, and denied all distinction between good
and evil. They held the sins of the Siiji to be
dearer to God than the obedience of other men, and
his impiety more acceiitable than their faith. The
Siijism of the East lias contiiuied unmoditied in its
character down to the present day, and is actually at
this moment on the increase in Persia, notwithstand-
ing the inveterate hatred which the other Moham-
medans bear to its adherents. See Sufis.
In the West, Mysticism has undergone no small
muditication since the Reformation in the six-
teenth century. No sooner was the great Pro-
testant principle announced by Luther that the
Scriptures are the sufficient standard of Christian
truth, than Traditionalism and Jlysticism alike fell
before it. Oral tradition and individual intuition
were both of them rejected as infallible guides in an
inquiry after truth. But while such was the general
fate of mysticism among the Reformed, it broke forth
in the most extravagant forms among the Zwickau
prophets, and the various sects of Anabaptists who
appeared in the Low Countries and dilTerent parts
of Germany. Thus, as Mr. Vauglian has well said :
" By the mystic of the fourteenth century, the way
of the Reformation was in great part prepared ; by
the mystic of the sixteenth century it was hindered
and imperilled." The wild fanaticism of the Ana-
baptists (which see), was alleged to be a practical
refutation of the alleged right of every man to the
exercise of private judgment ; and though Luther,
Melancthon, Zwingli, and BuUinger exposed the fal-
lacy of such an objection, yet for a time the work of
reform was undoubtedly retarded thereby.
In the beginning of the seventeenth century, mys-
ticism took an entirely new direction. Hitherto its
great efforts had been put forth to reach union, and
even identity with God. Now, however, it began to
seek a supernatural acquaintance with the works of
God. The leader of this movement was Jacob Beli-
inen. It is true he had learned much from the
theiu'gi.sts wlio preceded him, particularly Cornelius
Agrippa and Paracelsus, but the graiul source of the
knowledge which he professed to communicate in
his mystical writings, was an inward illumination,
which he claimed to have received from the Spirit
of God, wherebv he became minutely acquainted
with the essences, properties, and uses of all the ob-
jects in nature. (See Behmknists.) Then followed
in the same track of mysticism the Rosicruciaiis and
Freemasons, and secret societies which abounded so
much in the eighteenth century.
Protestantism has had its mi/stic.i. and so also has
Romanism. In France, in the sixteenth century,
appeared St. Francis de Sales, and in Spain, St.
Theresa and St. John of the Cross ; all of them
making their mystical doctrines subservient to the
interests of Mother church. " Nowhere," says Mr.
Vaughan, " is the duty of implicit self-surrender to
the director or confessor more constantly inculcated
than in the writings of Theresa and John of the
Cross, and nowhere are the inadequacy aiul mischief
of the princi]>le more apparent. John warns the
mystic that his only safeguard against delusion lies
in perpetual and unreserved appeal to his director.
Theresa tells us that whenever our Lord cominiinded
her in prayer to do anything, and her confessor or-
dered the opposite, the Divine guide enjoined obe-
dience to the human; and would influence the mind
of the confessor afterwards, so tliat lie was moved to
counsel what he had before forbidden I Of course.
For who knows what might come of it if enthusiasts
were to have visions and revelations on their own
account? The director must draw after him these
fiery and dangerous natures, as the lion-leaders of
an Indian pageantry conduct their charge, holding a
chain and administering opiates. The question be-
tween the ortliodox and the heterodox mysticism of
the fourteenth century was really one of theological
doctrine. The same question in the sixteenth and
seventeenth was simply one of ecclesiastical in-
terests."
According to the mystical doctrine of St. Theresa,
there are four degrees of prayer : (1.) Simple Jlental
Prayer. (2.) The Prayer of Quiet, called also I'ure
Contemplation. (3.) The Prayer of Union, called
also Perfect Contemplation. (4.) The Prayer of
Rapture or Ecstasy. The raptures and visions of
this female saint of Romanism have gained for her a
high name. But the mysticism of John of the Cross
wore a ditTerent aspect. He delighted not in ecsta-
tic ])rayer like Theresa, but in intense sulVering. His
earnest pr.ayer was, that not a day might pass in
which he did not sutler something.
In the history of mystici.sm, the seventeenth cen-
tury was chiefly distinguished by the Quietist Contro-
versy. The most remarkable exhibition of Quietism
is to be found in the writings of Madame Guyon.
Thus when describing her experience she observes:
"The sold passing out of itself by dying to it.self
necessarily passes into its divine object. This is the
law of its transition. 'When it passes out of self,
which is limited, and therefore is not God, and con-
sequently is evil, it necessarily passes into the un-
limited and univer.sal, which is God, and therefore is
the true good. My own experience seemed to me
to be a verification of this. My spirit, disenthralled
from selfishness, became united with and lost m
God, its Sovereign, who attracted it more and more
to Himself. And this was so much the case, that I
could seem to see and know God oidy, and not my-
self. ... It was thu.« that my soul was lost in God,
who commimicatcd to it His qualities, having drawn
it out of all that it had of its own. . . . O h:ippy
poverty, happy loss, happy nothing, which gives no
510
MYSTICS.
less than God Himself in liis own immensity, — no
more circumscribed to the limited manner of the
creation, but always drawing it out of that to plunge
it wholly into his divine Essence. Then the soul
knows that all the states of self-pleasing visions, of
intellectual illuminations, of ecstasies and rapttn-es, of
whatever value they miglit once have been, are now
rather obstacles than advancements ; and that they
are not of service in the state of experience which is
far above them ; because the state which has props
or supports, which is the case with the merely illu-
minated and ecstatic state, rests in them in some
degree, and has pain to lose them. But the soul
camiot arrive at the state of which I am now speak-
ing, without the loss of all such supports and lielps.
. . . The soul is then so submissive, and perhaps
we may say so passive, — that is to say, is so disposed
equally to receive from the hand of God either good
or evil, — as is truly astonishing. It receives both
the one and the other without any selfish emotions,
letting them flow and be lost as they came."
This quotation contains the substance of the doc-
trine which pervades the mystical writings of Madame
Guyon. Tlie whole may be summed up in two
words, " disinterested love," which she regarded as
the perfection of holiness in tlie heart of man. A
similar, if not wholly identical doctrine, was incul-
cated at the same period by Molinos in Italy, in a
book entitled ' The Spiritual Guide.' Ouietist opi-
nions were now evidently on the advance in difl'erent
countries of Em-ope, and among their supporters
were some of the most illustrious men of the day,
of which it is sufficient to name Fenelon, archbishop
of Cambray. But the high character for piety and
worth of the leading Quietists made them all the
more obnoxious to the Jesuits. Nor was the hostile
spirit which was manifested towards the Quietists
limited to the Jesuits alone; the celebrated Bossuet
also was one of the most bitter persecutors of Madame
Guyon, and succeeded in procuring the public con-
demnation of her writings.
Fenelon was for a time conjoined with Bossuet in
0])posing Madame Guyon, but all the while he was
conscious that bis own opinions did not materially
differ from hers. At length, in 1697, he openly
avowed his .synijiathy with the sentiments of the
Mystics in a work which, under the name of the
' Maxims of the Saints,' was devoted to an inquiry
as to the teacliing of the church on the doctrines of
pure love, of mystical union, and of perfection. The
publication of this treatise gave rise to a lengthened
and angry controversy. Bossuet sought to invoke
the vengeance of the government upon his heretical
brother, and he had even hoped to call down ujion
him the fuhninations of the Bopc. In the first object
he was successful ; in the secoiul he was, for a time
at least, disajjpointed. A war of pamphlets and
treatises now riiged at Paris, the chief combatants
being Bossuet on the one side, and Fenelon on the
uiiier. The 'Maxiinij' were ceubured by the Sor-
bonne, and their author was persecuted by the King
of France, but Pope Innocent XII. declined for a
long time to pronounce a sentence of condemnation
upon Fenelon, of whom he had been accustomed to
say, that he had erred through excess of love to
God. At length, with the utmost reluctance, and
in measured terms, he sent forth the long-expected
anathema, and Fenelon submitted to the decision of
the Koiiian See. Madame Guyon, after a long life
of persecution, thirty-seven years of which were
spent in prison, died in 1717. .
Among the Quietists of the seventeenth century
may be mentioned Madame Boiirignon and her ac-
complished disciple Peter Poiret, (see Boukignon-
IST.S,) as well as the fascinating mystic Madame de
Kriidener. England had its mystical votaries in the
earnest followers of George Pox, with whom the
doctrine of the Inward Light was the central princi-
ple of the gospel scheme. But the most extra\agant
of all the mystics of modern times is beyond all
doubt Emanuel Swedenborg, the founder of the
Church of the New Jerusalem. (See SwEDiiNBOR-
tiiANS.) One of the leading principles of this mysti-
cal system is the doctrine of Correspondence, which
declares everj' thing visible to have its appropriate
spiritual reality. Another principle which lies at
the foundation of the Swedenborgian theory, is, that
the Word of God is holy in every syllable, and its
literal sense is the basis of its spiritual and celestial
meaning.
Of the more modern mystics, William Law may
be considered as the father. He was a clergyman
of the Church of England in the last century ; and
the doctrines which he and his followers held exhibit
so strong a tendency to mysticism, that it nuiy be
well to give an outline of his system : " Mr. Law
su]iposed that the material world was the region
which originally belonged to the fallen angels. At
length the light and Spirit of God entered into the
chaos, and turned the angels' ruined kingdom into a
paradise on earth. God then (created man, and
placed him there. He was made in the image of the
Triune God, (whom, like the Hutchinsonians, he
compares to 'fire, light, and spirit,') a living mirror
of the divine nature, formed to enjoy conuiuuiion
with Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, and to live on
earth as the angels do in heaven. He was endowed
with immortality, so that the elements of this out-
w.ard world could not have any power of acting on his
body : but by his fall he changed the light, life, and
spirit of God, for the light, life, and spirit of the
world. He died on the very day of his transgression
to all the infiuences and operations of the Sjjirit ot
God upon him, as we die to the influences of this
world when the soid leaves the body ; and all the
influences and operations of the elements of this life
were open to him, as they are in any animal, at his
birth into this world : he became an earthly creature
subject to the dominion of this outward world and
stood only in the highest rank of animals.
MYTH-MYTHOLOGV.
511
" But the goodness of God would not leave man in
tliis condition : redemption from it was immediately
granted ; and the bruiser of the serpent brought tlie
life, light, and spirit of heaven, once more into the
human nature. All men, in consequence of the re-
demption of Christ, have in them the first spark, oi
6eod, of the divine life, as a treasure hid in the cen-
tre of our souls, to bring forth, by degrees, a new
birth of that life which was lost in paradise. No son
of Adam can be lost, except by turning away from
the Saviour within him. The only rebgion which
can .save lis, must be that wliioli can raise tlie light,
life, and Spirit of God in our souls. Nothing can
enter into the vegetable kingdom till it have vegeta-
ble life in it, or be a member of the animal king-
dom till it have the animal life. Thus all nature
joins with the gospel in ailirming that no man can
enter into the kingdom of heaven till the heavenly
life is born in him. Nothing can be our rigliteousness
or recovery, but the divine nature of Jesus Christ
derived to our souls."
We are not altogether strangers to mysticism even
in our own days. Only a few years have elapsed
since we were asked to believe in the supernatin-al
revelations made to the followers of Edward Irving ;
and the Spiritualists of Nortli America profess to hold
converse with the spiritual existences of another
world. But passing from these we find a class of
mystics in the Intuitionists (which see), on both
sides of the Atlantic, who substitute the suljjective
revelation of consciousness for the objective revela-
tion of the written Word.
MYTH, a fiible or fictitious narrative, under which
are couched religious or moral principles. Facts
often constitute the basis of the myth, and with
these religious ideas are interwoven. A myth may
also be of a mixed natiu'e, partly true and partly
fictitious, but designed to convey important princi-
ples which are embodied in the event narrated.
MYTHOLOGY (Gr. muthos. a fable, and logon,
a discourse), a word used to denote the fabulous
stories which have been invented and pro|)agated by
tlie ancient nations concerning the origin and history
of their gods. The mythology of the ancient world
is one of the most interesting departments of human
inquiry. Man is naturally a religious being. He has
been endowed by his Creator with certain faculties
and powers which fit him for the investigation of spirit-
ual and heavenly things. But even from tlie earliest
period in the history of fallen man, we find a con-
stant tendency to make to himself a religion of fable
rather than of fact. He looked abroad upon the
world with all its infinitely varied objects and pheno-
mena, but instead of rising from nature up to nature's
God, he clothed creation with the character of the
Creatoi-, and converted it into a deity to be adored.
Polytheism and idolatry in the grossest forms were
the necessary results of such perverted views of na-
ture, and, accordingly, the religion of the primitive
ages was, in its full extent, a system of Pantheism.
The heavenly botiies were probably first of all the
objects of adoration; and next, the most conspicuous
and important objects on the earth. IJuilied mijrtals,
or a .system of hero-worship, probably followed next
in succession. The personification of abstract vir-
tues or of physical laws, deduced from the operations
of nature, belongs to a more advanced stage of so-
ciety. It may be a pleasing exercise of intellectual
power to trace in the religion of the ancient Kgyp-
tians a well-connected series of astronomical allego-
ries, or in that of the ancient Greeks and Romans a
series of profound aiul i)lausible myths. But the
question may well be started, whether in the earlier
ages of the world either priests or people maintained
a rehgion, which, if we are so to understand it, was no-
thing more than an allegoricjd myth, a philosophical
mystery. No such refined notions can be traced in
the simple theology of the Homeric age. All classes,
learned and illiterate, sacerdotal and lay, were, in plain
language, gross idolaters. But as we advance onward
in the course of history, we meet with a higher class
of minds, wdio, not contented with being religious,
seek to reason on the subject ; and in the davs of
Aristotle and Plato, the mind of man, more enlight-
ed, elevated, and refined, calls in the aid of allegory
to reconcile the popular mythology with its more ad-
vanced conceptions. In viewing the subject of my-
thology, however, it is important to keep in mind
the distinction between the primitive religions them-
selves, and the philosophic systems which have been
attempted to be reared on the basis of these reli-
gions. The Tuahaisni of the early Chaldeans afibrds
an example of the extreme simplicity which charac-
terized the first forms of idolatrous worship. The
sun, the moon, the heaveidy bodies in general, were
looked upon as gods, and as exercising an infiuence,
whether prosperous or adverse, ujion the interests of
mankiiid. In these circumstances the planetary
deities were adored, and men bowed before them
with solemn awe as the regulators of human destiny.
When we pass, however, from the simple and pri-
mitive Tsahaisiii of the Chaldeans, Phoenicians, and
other prinutive nations, and examine the more com-
plex and intricate mythology of ancient Egypt, we
cannot fail to be struck witli the variety of opinion
which exists among the learned as to its real nature.
Many writers have regarded it as of a purely sym-
bolic character, all its gods being deified personifica-
tions of nature; while Bryant, Fabcr, and many
others, have come to the conclusion that the gods of
the Egyptians, and indeed of all the heathen nations
of antiquity, were the souls of their forefathers, to
whom was assigned the control of the elements of
nature. On this subject considerable doubt cannot
fail to rest, from the circimistance'that two ditVerent
creeds existed among the ICgyptians, the one a popu-
lar, and the other a sacerdotal system of belief. The
priests were a separate class, who claimed to be the
sole depositaries both of science and religion. To
maintain their infiuence over the people, they seem
V^
Jj
512
MYTHOLOGY.
to liave constructed an elaborate metapliysical my-
thology wliicli was cjirefully concealed from tlie
knowledge of the vulgar. The Egyptian priest.s,
accordingly, are supposed to have been the first who
reduced mythology to a kind of .system, which they
unfolded only to a select class of the initiated. The
more etlectuallv to exclude the great mass of the
people from the knowledge of their mystic allegori-
cal theology, they conducted their religious ceremo-
nies in an unknown tongue. What views then must
the common people have entertained of tlie gods and
goddesses wliom tliey were taught to wor.sliip? Tliis
question it is dilScult to answer satisfactorily. In
all probability, liowever, tliey were satisfied with the
observance of idolatry in its grossest forms, whether
as apphed to the starry heavens, and the other visible
objects of nature, or to the souls of deilied mortals.
And as to the Egyptian sacerdotal creed, about which
the learned have speculated to so little purpose, it
is difficult to believe that at so early a period of the
world's history, a body of priests actually devised a
system of philosophical mvthology so complicated
and so profound as to elude the penetration of some
of the most learned and most ingenious men of mo-
dern times. Tlie truth is, that the primitive gods of
Egypt, as represented on the most ancient monu-
ments, were thirteen in number, and were in all
probability worshipped both by priests and people
as the spirits of their ancestors, whom they believed
to inhabit and to preside over the heavenly bodies.
The animals also which they worshipped may have
been regarded as living representatives of the gods
who inliabitpd their bodies, and through them re-
ceived the homage which was paid by men.
The constant intercourse, connnercial and other-
wise, between Egypt and the Canaanitish tribes,
must have led to the rapid propagation of idolatry ;
and as Canaan lay in the direct road between Baby-
lon and Egypt, it was naturally to be expected that
the gods of Babylon and Assyria would be readily
transferred to the land of tlie Pharaohs. That the
Tsabulsm of the early Chaldeans and Egyptians was
thus cjirried into Canaan, is plain from the fact that
Anlitorcth or Aslarte, the principal goddess of the
Canaanites, is universally believed to have repre-
sented the Moon, and Bel or Baal the Sun.
The mythology of Greece and Rome, in every aspect
of it, bears much more the appearance of a mythical
hero-wor.-ihip than do the religions of the earlier east-
ern nations. Its gods and goddesses are plainly men
and women, actuated by the same motives, impelled
by the .-ianie passions, characterized by the same
virtues and vices as mortals of tiesh and blood.
They love, they hate; they doubt, they fear; tliey
deliberate, they decide ; all indicating a human ori-
gin, and that they were frameil like ordinary men.
And not only were they capricious and uncertain in
their individual character, but they were believed to
be divided and subdivided into factions ranged in
hostile array against one another. The Iliad of
Homer abounds in allusions to and even detailed de-
scriptions of these unseemly dissensions among the
Olympic gods.
The entire Pantheon of Greece and Rome was one
immense graduated hierarchy, at the head of which
sat enthroned in awful majesty Z'l/s or Jupiter,
wielding the sceptre of universal empire. Next to
him in order, but immeasiu'ably inferior in authority
and power, were the celestial deities whose business
it was pre-eminently to rule in the afiairs of men.
Superior in number to these, but far beneath them iu
rank and power, were the terrestrial gods and goddesses
presiding over fields and cities, mountains, rivers, and
woods. Subordinate even to the terrestrial gods were
the Penates and Lares, the Demigods and Deified
Heroes, all claiming a share in the veneration, the
homage and respect of the human family. Every
nation, every town, nay, every family had its friends
and its foes in the council of Olympus, and so nu-
merous was the entire assemblage of Grecian and
Roman divinities, that it was said to be easier to find
a god than a man. Nor was this immense host ol
heavenly rulers idle or unemployed ; to each was
allotted his separate share in the government of the
universe. "On Mercury," says Mr. Gross, "de-
volved the duty to be the messenger of his divine
compeers ; Bacchus bore sway over the convivial
cup and its orgian rites ; and stern jMars foimd his
post wherever the cry of battle aiid the clash of arms
resounded in martial discord. Apollo presided over
the fine arts, medicine, music, poetry, and eloquence;
while Neptune stretched his pronged sceptre over
the green waters and mountain-waves of old ocean.
Ceres introduced the cereal grains among mankind,
and guided and fostered agrarian pursuits ; to be the
queen of love and the mistress of grace and soft
delights, became none so well as Venus; Flora be-
trayed her refined taste in the cultivation of flowers ;
and the elastic and sprightly Diana strung her bow
in the sports and fatigues of the chase."
The Greek mythology is justly believed to have
been of Cretan origin, and Crete having been the
primeval seat of Phoenician and Egyptian colon-
ists, it is fundamentally, like the earlier religions,
a strictly Tsabian system of idolatry, the recog-
nition and worship of the sun, moon, and stars
as divinities, being the basis on which the whole
comi>licated system is made to rest. Accord-
ingly there is ample ground for the theory of
Cretizer and other German writers, that the classical
mythology of the ancient heathens is of a strictly
allegorical and symbolic character. In the days of
Homer, the gods of Greece were only eight in num-
ber, but as time advanced the Grecian divinities
so rapidly midliplied, that the form in which it has
come down to us is that of a perfectly complete
mythic system, the exposition of which has engaged
the earnest and profound investigation of some of
the ablest and most erudite scholars of the age.
The mythology of the ancient Persians, as devel-
MYTHOLOGY.
513
oped in the Zend-AhcsUi, lias in it several peculiari-
ties wliicli distinguish it from the other religions of
antiquity. One of these is its dualistic character,
the two elementary principles, Orimtzd and Ahri-
man, constituting an original antagonism between
good and evil, which might seem at first contra-
dictory and self-destructive. But above and be-
yond these contending elements, was the Supreme
Being under the name of Zeruane Akerene. Fire
was regarded as the omnipotent organ of the Divine
energy, in the fonn of a twofold emanation, repre-
sented by Mithras the lire-god, and MItra tlie tire-
goddess. This fire-worship, whicli was simply a
form of Tsabaum, appears to have been almost
coeval with the human race. Under tlie name of
Agni, fire was worshipped in India in the Vaidic
age ; and from India and Persia, this species of wor-
ship was propagated among other nations. Tlie
Ethiopians revered the Persian tire-god as their old-
est lawgiver, and tlie founder of their religion. The
Egyi^tians also had their Heliopolis, or city of the
Sim, wliere obelisks were erected in honour of the
sun, the source of light and lieat. From Persia,
Mithras worship spread to Armenia, Cappadocia,
Pontus, Cilicia, Greece, Rome, and even Germany.
Humboldt discovered the same species of worsliip
in the halls and temples of the Montezumas.
It is remarkable Iiow far the mythologies of an-
cient times spread beyond the regions in whicli they
originated. The Persian iire-worship, I'or instance,
was introduced at Rome in the time of the Emperors,
and thence it was rapidly diffused over the whole
empire. " Troops of Egyptian priests," to use the
language of Mr. Osburn in his ' Religions of the
World, "made their appearance in many of the
cities of the Roman Empire, singing the praises and
setting forth the temporal advantages of the worship
of tlie gods of Egypt, especially of Isis, the wit'e or
female half of Osiris. They had assuredly great
success. This is evidenced by the number of
Egypto-Roman statues of the gods of Egypt to be
seen in all extensive collections of classical antiqui-
ties. The ruins of the temple of Isis Iiave likewise
been found at Pompeii, in South Italy. It was
in the wake of the conquering arms of Rome that
the Greek mythology travelled over the world.
Both systems were, however, in this their propa-
gation, associated with the very remarkable dogma
of Pantheism. This word meant, in its ancient
and true sense, that everything which ever liad been
worshipped by any race of mankind, was a god
really, and ought still to be worsliipped. It was
in obedience to this teaching that the Egyptian
priests were permitted to build temples to their gods
in Rome, Byzantium, Carthage, and other great
cities of the empire. It was in the same spirit that
the Roman legionaries placed the altars and temples
of their own gods in all the countries they had con-
quered. They were merely Roman names for the
gods whose worship they found established there.
It
All were gods alike. All were indeed the same
gods, and they merely worshipped them abroad un-
der the names they had been accustomed to apply to
them at home."
The varied forms of mythology which had thus
found their way into the Roman Empire, gradually
lost their power over the minds of the people, in
consequence of the progress of science and philoso-
phy, but more especially the introduction of Chris-
tianity, which rapidly extinguished the fiilse lights of
Pagan religions, substituting the full eti'ulgonce of
the Sun of Righteousness witli its ilhnninating and
refreshing influence on the hearts and consciences of
men.
The Scandinavian mythology holds a kind of in-
termediate place between the religions of antiquity
and those of modern heathendom. It seems to have
had its origin among the Teutonic tribes in the plains
of Upper Asia, between the Enxine and the Caspian
seas. Under the leadership of Odin, a portion of the
people inhabiting this locality set out on an expedi-
tion towards the north-west, subduing the countries
tlu-ough wliich they passed, and settled at length in
the country now called Jutland and the adjacent
islands. Here was erected the kingdom of Den-
mark, over which Odin appointed his son, Skiold, to
be the first king. The conquest of Sciindinavia by
Odin is calculated by the archajologists of the North
to have happened so recently as about forty years
before the birth of Christ, and the whole history of
the mythology of the Edda, from its origin to its tinal
disappearance, does not include a longer space of
time than 1,000 years. At the head of the Norse
deities is Odin, the sun-god, and next to him Fn'ijga,
his spouse, who represents the earth. Tlim; the son
of Odin, is the god of thiuider. Bnldur \s l\\a per-
sonification of all that is great and good, and Loki,
the principle of evil. TIio whole body of the Xortliern
gods, or ^l£sir, as they were called, in the opinion of
some writers, symljolizcd the laws and oper.alions of
physical nature ; but according to others, tlicy were
planetary gods. In this latter view Mr Gross tliiis
describes them : ■' Thor, the opener of the year, be-
gins his reign at the period of the vernal equinox, in
the sign of Aries; and as such he is symbolical
of time and terrestrial fecundity. Next comes Uller
in Taurus, when the earth begins to develop its la-
tent energies, and gives promise of future plenty ;
and therefore the horn of taurus, or the ox, is typical
of agrarian abundance : it is the horn of plenty, so
frequently quoted in the ornate efVusioiis of poets and
orators. Frey, the floral god, who is at once the lovely
and the loving, takes his turn in Gemini, and is now
in the bloom and vigour of his strength, of which his
sword is the omblein. .lime, or Cancer, claims the jiro-
senee of Odin, and the sun-god is now in the culinins-
tion of his divine might : his creative and maturing
planetary influence is complete. At this point of
the ecliptic the sun begins its recession tVom the
northern hemisphere,— Odin dies; retires to his ImII
2x
514
MYTnOLOGY.
Viilhalla, ill July ; and in Anjiist, lie alreaily occu-
pii's Gladsheim — glad-home, or the abode of bliss, as
the father of souls. Skadi succeeds in Libra, or
Seiiteniber; and Haldur, the good, takes his station
in Scorpion, or October, after the autumnal eqiiiuox.
As to Hcirndall, the preserver of the planetary
world, he demands Sagittarius, or November, for his
portion of zodiacal sway ; while Freyja, the delight,
is content with December, or Capricorn. Forsetti
takes possession of Aquarius, or January ; Njbrd of
Pisces, or February; and Vidar, without any defi-
nite abode, closes the cycle of the year, of the quiet,
silent departure of which he is the type. Hence
he is called the silent god."
It is somewhat remarkable, that from districts
closely adjacent to that part of Asia from which
Odin came, several other religious reformers issued
on expeditions of conquest several centuries before.
Thus Budlia journeyed south- eastward into India,
Confucius north-eastward into China, and Zoroaster
southward into Persia. The earliest mythology
which is known to have existed in India, is that of
the V($das, which was essentially symbolic of the
elements and energies of nature, one-half of the
hymns and prayers of the liig-Veda being ad-
dressed either to Indra, the god of light, or Arjin,
the god of fire. The next in prominence to these
is Varitna, the god of water. And although a mnl
titude of other gods are mentioned, they appear to
have been simply personifications of the powers
and processes of nature. " Perhaps," says Kit-
ter, ill his ' History of .\ncient Philosophy,' '' there
i.? nothing more instructive in Indian arclueology,
than, so to express ourselves, the transparency of
their mythology, whicli permits us to perceive how,
with a general sense of the divine, the co-existence
of a special recognition thereof in the separate
phenomena of nature was possible, and how, out of
the conception of the one God, a belief in the plura-
lity of gods could arise."
By what means the second phase of the mythology
of India, tliat of Brahmanism, was priiduced, it is
impossible even to conjecture. With the conquests
of the Aryans came an entire change in the religion
of the vanquished. For the worship of gods symbo-
lizing the elements and processes of nature, was sub-
stituted tlie worship of gods more completely re-
sembling men. But at the head of this humanized
pantheon is a m^re abstraction, which, under the
name of Di-nhm, sits enthroned in solitary majesty
the sole existing being in the universe, all else,
though seeming to exist, being Maya or illusion.
Subordinate to this supreme deity, is the Hindu
Trhnurtti, consisting of Brahma, the creator, Vinliim,
the preserver, and Shiva, the destroyer. The num-
berless gods of the Hindu pantheon are simply dif-
ferent names or attributes of these members of the
sacred Triad.
In process of time Brahmanism or Hinduism suc-
ceeded, displacing tlie simpler mythology of the Vai-
dic period ; but the complicated religion of tlie Ary-
ans at length began to lose its hold of the thinking
portion of the community, through the rise of cer-
tain philosophic schools, whose creed was that of
undisguised Atheism, under tlie imiiosing title of a
rational .system of belief; but still more through thu
promulgation of Budlii-sm in the seventh century
before the Christian era. The progress of this new
faith was slow but sure, and at length it succeeded
in overshadowing its rival for a thousand years, at
the end of which a terrible revulsion took place in
the feelings of the people : " The younger sister," to
use the language of Mr. Hardwick, " was violently
extruded by the elder from all parts of Hindustan,
if we except one scanty remnant at the foot of the
Himalaya. Yet meanwhile Buddhism had evinced a
property unknown to every other heathen system.
It was far more ca[jable of transplantation. It flour-
ished with peculiar freshness and luxuriance in
Tibet, and ultimately in the Tatar tribes of central
Asia. Above all, it kept jiossession of its ancient
fortress in the island of Ceylon ; and thither, in the
early centuries of our era, flocked a multitude of
foreign pilgrims, anxious by such visit to abridge
their term of penitential sufl'eriiig, to venerate the
relics of Gautama Buddha, or to kiss the print of his
gigantic foot."
Tlie religion of Budha can scarcely be considered
as having a mythology, since it not only disowns all
belief in the numberless gods of IIindui,>;in, but it is
essentially atheistic and nihilistic in its whole char-
acter. All nature is in Budhism nothing more than
an eternal and necessary chain of causes and effects ;
and in the case of the human family an infinite suc-
cession of births and new births. It teaches, accord-
ingly, that the grand aim of all religions is to deliver
us from this terrible necessity of repeated birlli.s,
When driven from Hindustan, Budhism found a
home in Thibet and Tartary, where it assumed the
form of Lamaism. with its doctrine of perpetual in-
carnations. In China, again, where it was introduced
shortly after the Christian era, it is known by the
name of Fo-ism. But tlie orthodox Budhists are
found chiefly in Ceylon. A remnant of the .system
still exists in India in the religion of the Jains (which
see). Giitzlati' tells us, that the only genuine Bud-
hists in China are the monks and mendicants. Tlu^
Budlilst mythology of Nepal exhibits a peculiarity
which is not found in any other country, that it re-
cognizes an Adi-Biiillia or a first Budha. in the char-
acter of a Supreme Creator — a doctrine which may
possibly have been borrowed from the adjacent Brah-
m.anism. In the numerous Foist temples of China,
the chief object of adoration is a perfect Budha nam-
ed O-iitc-lo, who is looked upon as the great source
of deliverance from all kinds of evil. One prayer of
faith addressed to this imaginary deity will, it is be-
lieved, secure a man's salvation. It is a remarkable
fact, that in the revolution which is at present going
forward in Cliina, the rebels manifest a special hatred
-r:^-
jrVTIIOLOGY.
515
to the Fo-ists, and so rapidly lias Biidhism in that
country iieeii declining for some years past, tliat as the
missionary Giilzlaff informs ns, "The Fo ist temples
are now mostly deserted and in a state of ruins ; the
votaries fewer and fewer, and ihe ofleriiigs veiy spar-
ing." To compensate this state of matters Bndhism
seems to fiom-ish vigorously in Burmah and Siain,
though the progress of British conqurst, in the for-
mer country, is likely to check its further advances.
Aljoiit the middle of the sixth century before Christ.
a remarkable sage, named Confucius, was born in
China, who gave rise to a system of philosophy which,
partaking partly of a political and partly of a religious
character, has established itself as one of the lea<rmg
forms of belief among the Chinese. The most ancient
creed of the ^fiddle Kingdom appears to have been a
kind of Tsabaism, or worship of the heavenly bodies,
combined with a worship of demons or spirits, who
were believed to preside over diti'erent realms of crea-
tion. Confucius niodilied the ancient mythology of the
Chinese, by adding to it a .system of hero-worship,
while to the sage himself was assigned a most con-
spicuous place in the already crowded pantheon.
Nor are the Chinese at this day strangers to this
system of apotheosis, men and even women having
temples erected in honour of them, and prayers said
before their images. The most prominent supersti-
tion, indeed, among this str.inge people at the pre-
sent moment, is the worship of the holy mother Ma-
tso-poo, which chiefly prevails among the sailors.
But throughout the whole Chinese Empire, creature-
worship is almo.st universally found in the form c>f
veneration paid to departed ancestors.
Half-a-century earlier than the birth of Confu-
cius, an ascetic philosopher, named Lao-tse, ap-
peared, who gave origin to a sect called the Tao-istx,
who worshipped their founder, and zealously adhered
to and propagated his doctrines as developed in
the Tao-te-ldng. This School of the Fixed Way,
as it is called, seems to have aimed at banishing
from the mythology of China those numberless
deities, demons, and heroes with which it was
encumbered, and to have set themselves to pro-
mulgate among their countrymen the ' Doctrine of
Reason,' as they termed it, which alleges the exi-st-
enee of a great nameless Unity in nature, of which
Lao-tse was believed to be an incarnation. For a
time this sect made little progress, but about n. C.
140, the then reigning Emperor having along with
his Empress embraced the system, it received a very
large accession to the numbers of its adherents.
The Tao-hts now began to claim supernatinal
powei-s, and I'rom this time they .gave themselves to
magic, fortune-telling, and supcr.stitious practices of
various kinds. Their chief men accordingly are
styled " heavenly doctors," and the head of the
whole sect is believed to be an incarnation of Tao,
and to exercise absolute dominion over unseen
spirits.
In both North and South America the most an-
cient forms of religion were, as in China, spirit-wor-
ship and element-worship, which may be considered
as primitive forms of heathenism. The spirits which
they venerate are some of them the manes of their
departed ancestors, and others the tenants of vari-
ous natural objects which are thus converted info
Fi-tlslies, such as are worshijiped in Greenland,
Western Africa, and Siberia.
The sun, moon, and stars are the chief objects of
the adoration of the American savage, believing
them, as he does, to be animated and even intelli-
gent. Amid the polytheism, however, which per-
vades his mythology, he believes in one Great
Spirit, who rules over and rc.gulates the universe,
but who is nevertheless merely one of a whole host
of deities, and in fact little more than a personitica-
tion of the powers of nature, the Sun-god, a.s he is
often termed. And while the .American Indian be-
lieves in an array of benevolent spirits headed b)'
the Sun, he puts equal faith in the existence of an
army of evil spirits hc.id(d by the Moon. To pro-
pitiate the favour of the one, and avert the anger
of the other, constitutes one of Ihe chief aims of his
religion.
Of a similar character was the mythology of the
ancient Mexicans. Originally ])artaking of the dis-
tinctive characteristic of a Nature-worship, it gra-
dually assumed the features of a species of Hero-
worship. The deifies came more nearly to resemble
human beings. It is generally believed, however, that
the Mexicans believed in a Supreme Being, whom
they termed Teo-tl. Their pantheon consisted of
thirteen chief divinities, at the head of which was
Ter.catUpoca, who appears to have been a Sun-god.
Another deity, who w.as the object of dread to the
JFexicans, was Mexitli or Ilintzilopoehtli, who may
be called the Xtars of Central America. To propi-
tiate this awful divinity, his altars were made con-
tinually to stream with the blood of human victims.
A third important member of the Aztec panlheou
was Qnrr.ah-iiatl, or the " Feathered Serjient."
The mythology of many nations of modern hea-
thendom consists of a series of fables in rei'ercnce to
demons or devils whom they worship. Of this char-
acter is the Shamanism of the Ugrian tribes of Sibe-
ria, Lapland, and other northern countries, and the
same mode of worship pre^■ails among the aboriginal
tribes of Hindustan, and the inhabitants of Polynesia
or the islands of the South I'acitic Ocean. Such, so
varied is the mythology of the nations of the world.
516
NAAMAH— NAXRA.
N
NAAMAH, tlie sister of Tiibal-cain, as we
from Gen.
Her name signities in Hebrew,
" tlie fair one," and tlie Arabian writers are gener-
ally agreed in rejiresenting her as a very beautiful
woman. She is one of the four females from whom
the Jewish Rabbis allege the angels to have sprung.
Some have supposed her to be identical with As!i-
taroih.
NAD.-VB, the ecclesiastical head of the Jloham-
medans in Persia. His ofiice corresponds to that of
tlie Mufll in Turkey, with this difference, however,
that the Nadah can divest himself of liis spii'itual
functions, which the Mvfti cannot do.
NADHAMIAXS, a heretical Mohammedan sect,
which maintained that God could do evil, but that
he never does it, lest he should appear an imperfect
and wicked Being.
N^ENIA, a funeral dirge, which was sung among
the ancient Greeks in praise of the deceased. A
goddess bearing this name was worshipped at Rome,
but being connected with the dead, her temple was
outside the city.
NAGAS, snake-gods, who, according to the sys-
tem of liudliism, have their residence under the
sacred mountain Meni, and in the waters of the
world of men. They have the shape of the specta-
cle-snake, with the extended hood ; but many actions
are attributed to them that can only be done by one
possessing tlie human form. They are demi-god.s,
who are usually considered as favourable to Budlia
and his adherents ; but wlien roused to anger they
are very formidable.
NAGAS, a class of Hindu mendicant monks who
travel about in a state of nudity, but armed with
warlike weapons, usually a matchlock, and sword,
and shield. They are not limited to one sect, there
being VaMnava and Saiva Nck/as, the latter of
whom smear tlieir bodies with ashes, allow their hair,
beards, and whiskers to grow, and wear the project-
ing braid of hair, called the .lata. The Sikh Ndf/as,
however, difl'er from those of the other sects by ab-
staining from the use of arms, and following a retired
and religious life.
NAHAT. See An.utis.
NAHIJNU'UI, the goddess of health among the
ancient Egyptians. She was the spouse of 'J'lioTii
(which see).
NAI.VDS, nymjihs who were considered among
I he ancient Greeks and Romans to preside over
'rivers, founlains, lakes, and streams.
NAINS, spirits in the Scandinavian mythology
who dwelt in caverns, and excelled in the art of
working metals. They only appeared during the
night, and if they allowed themselves to be overtaken
by the rays of the rising sun, they were straightway
changed into stones.
N.MCIB, the chief of the Emirs (which see)
among tlie Turki.sh Mohammedans, who is held in
great resjiect as being the head of the descendants of
the prophet. He has the power of life and death
over the other Emirs.
NAKIR, one of the two angels who, according to
the Mohammedans, preside at the examination of the
dead. See De.^d (ExAMiN.iTioN of the).
NAMANDA, a short ejaculatory prayer usually
addressed by the Japanese to their god Amidas
(which see). Tliis jirayer, which is either sung or
repeated to the tinkling of a little bell, consi.sts of
only three words, which signify, " Ever blessed Ami-
das, have mercy upon us." The frequent repetition
of the Namanda is considered by the Japanese as
conducive to tlie deliverance of their friends and rela-
tions from suffering in another world. Societies
also are formed to repeat this short prayer for the
comfort and relief of their own souls. Oriental scho-
lars allege that the words in which the Xanwnda is
expressed are pure Sanskrit.
NAMAZI, the live daily prayers which the Mo-
hammedans regularly repeat every twenty^ur hours.
According to a tradition, the prophet was commanded
by God to impose upon his disciples the daily obli-
gation of fifty prayers. By the advice of Moses he
solicited and obtained permission to reduce them to
five, which are indispensable. The five times of
prayer in the course of a day are, 1. Day-break ;
2. Noon ; 3. Afternoon ; 4. Evening ; and 5. The
first watch of the night. These prayers are of divine
obligation, 'i'lie introduction of the first is attributed
to Adam, of the second to Abraham, of the third tn
Jonah, of the fourth to Jesus, and of the iit'th to
Moses. On Friday, which is the Mohamincd.an Sab-
bath, a sixth prayer is added, and this additional
prayer is repeated between ilay-break and noon. If
the prayers are not repeated at the prescribed hours,
they arc accounted vain and useless. The arrival of
each of the hours of prayer is publicly announced by
the proclamation of a Muezzin (which see).
NANA, the mother of the Phrygian god A/i/s,
and the great goddess of the Armenians.
NANAK SHAHIS. See Sikhs.
NANEA, an ancient Persian goddess, whose tem-
ple and priests are mentioned in 2 Mac. i. 13. The
NAP.E.E— NATURAL RELIGION.
517
name is supposed to be derived IVom the Persian
word vahf'dtf, a ripe \ ire^iii.
NANTES (Edict of). See Fi!.\nce (Puotes-
TANT CnURCH OF).
NAOS. See Nave.
NAPjE^E, nymphs among tlie ancient Greeks
wlio presided over groves and forests, and wlio
were beheved sometimes to frigliten sohtary travel-
lers.
NARAD A, a Hindu deify, tlie otJspring of Bmh-
ma and SarasiiMiti. He was believed to be the in-
ventor of the ^Eolian harp, and to jireside over the
sacred music of heaven and earth, of nature and hu-
manity.
NARAKAS, the principal places of suffering in
the system of the Budhists. These are reckoned
eight in number, each of them 10,000 yojanas in
length, breadth, and height. The walls are nine
yojanas in thickness, and of so dazzling a brightness,
that they burst the eyes of those who look at them,
even from the distance of a hundred yojanas. Each
hell is so enclosed that there is no jiossibility of
escape from it. There are in all l.SG Narakas, and
the whole are situated in the interior of the eartli.
NAR.4.YANA, a surname given in the laws of
Manu to Brahma as resting on an aquatic plant, the
lotus Hower, in tlie midst of the great abyss of wa-
ters. There he reclines on the serpent Ananta or
eternity, with closed eyes, and reposes in mysterious
slumber.
NARTHEX, the name given by the early Chris-
tians to that portion of a church which formed its
outer division within the walls. It was an oblong
section of the building, extending across and occupy-
ing the front part of the interior of the house. It was
entered by tin-ee doors leading from the outer porch.
From the narlhex there were also three entrances, the
main entrance being in the middle, directly opposite
the altar, and opening immediately into the nave.
Two smaller doors upon each side appear to have open-
ed into the side aisles, from which the nave was en-
tered by doors on the north and the south. The
doors consisted of two folding leaves, and the difler-
ent classes of worshippers entered the nave at dif-
ferent doors, which were appropriated to them. The
vessel or font of water for puritication, which stood
at one time outside the church, was afterwards in-
troduced into the narthcr. In this part of the ehm-ch
the penitents and cateclunnens stood dtu-ing divine
service to hear tlie psalms and scriptures read, and
the sermon preached, after which they were dismissed
without any prayers or solemn benediction. In the
luirthex also Jews, heathens, heretics, and schisma-
tics were sometimes allowed to take their place.
The term narthex seems to ha%'e been applied to the
ante-temple of a church, because it was of an oblong
figure. Some churches had three or four nortliex-es,
but these were without the walls, not like the ordi-
nary narthex inside the church.
NASAIRIYAH. See Ansarians.
NASCIO, a Roman goddess wlio was believed to
preside over the birth of children.
NASI, the name given by the Jews to the presi-
dent of the great Sanhedrim, who was held in high
respect by the court, who received him standing
when he entered the place of meeting. Till the
Captivity the sovereign or chief ruler acted as Nasi.
Moses is said by the R'abbis to have been the first
[iresident of the Sanhedrim, but after the Captivity
tlie two offices became i]uite distinct. According to
the Rabbis it was the prerogative of the descendants
of Hille! to execute ilie duties of this higli office.
NASIB, the Mohammedan destiny or Fate
(which see).
NASR, one of the five gods of the ancient Ara-
bians mentioned in the Koran. He was the supreme
deity of the Arabs of Yemen, and as the name signi-
fies an eagle, he may have been the sun-god.
NASTROND, the shore of the dead, one of the
two places of punishment among the ancient Scan-
dinavians. In this place, which was to endure
for ever, the Edda declares, ■• there is a vast and
direful structure with doors that face the north. It
is formed entirely of the backs of serpents, wattled
together like wicker work. But the serpents' heads
are turned towards the inside of the hall, and conti-
nually vomit forth Hoods of venom, in which all those
wade who commit murder, or who forswear them-
selves."
NATALES EFISCOPATUS, the birth-days of
bishops or their ordination, being at first anniver-
.saries of their ordination, which they themselves
kept in their lil'etime, and which were continued in
memory of them after their death. By this means
these festivals came to be inserted in I he Martyrolo-
gies as standing festivals in remembrance of their
ordination or nativity to the episcopal office. These
anniversaries were celebrated with reading, p.salniody,
preaching, praying, and receiving the eucharist.
NATALITTA. See Anniversaries, Birth
Day.
NATIGAY. See Itooay.
NATIONAL COVENANT OF SCOTLAND.
See Covenant (The First National, of Scot-
land).
NATIVIT.VRIANS, a name given by Dana^us to
a heretical sect of the fourth century, who maintained
that the Second Person in the Holy Trinity was
eternal as God, but not as the Son of God, that is,
they denied his eternal generation.
NATIVITY OF CHRIST. See Christmas.
NATIVITY OF JOHN THE BAPTIST. Sec
John (St.) Baptist's Day.
NATIVITY OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN
M.\RY, a festival observed by the Church of Rome
annuallv on the 8tli of September.
NA'irRALISTS. See Rationalists.
NATURAL RELIGION, an expression used (o
denote those religious truths which are derived from
the teaching of the light of nature, or the exerci.'ic ol
518
NATURAL RELIGION.
the unassisted powei's of luiniHii reason. Tliese pri-
inary tnitlis of religion are few in number, including
simply the Being and Perfections of God ; the dif-
ferent relations in whicli we stand to this Great IJe-
ing, and the duties arising tlierefroin; the Divine gov-
ernraeut of tlie world ; the innnurtality of the soul,
and the future state of rewards and punisliments.
These are tlie great articles of Natural Religion ;
but tliougli said to be derived from the simple un-
aided efforts of liuman reason, mankind are far fiom
being unanimous in their admission of these articles.
Some have even gone so far as to deny that luunan
reason can possibly discover for itself religious trutlis
of any kind. But without utterly rejecting Natural
Religion, we may remark that there is no point which
it is of greater importance to keep constantly in
view, in all our inipiiries into matters of religion,
than the precise line of distinction which separates
the proviiiee of reason from that of revelation. The
two are constantly in danger of being confounded,
more especially by those who have been educated in a
professedly Christian country, and under the in-
fluence, perhaps imperceptible, which a knowledge
of divine truth, however superficial, exercises over all
our opinions and judgments. So liable, indeed, are
we to be modified in our sentiments by the peculiar
circumstances amid wliich we are placed, that it is
often difficult, if not impossible, to state from what
precise source any particular opinion has been de-
rived. Hence it not unfrequently liappens, that we
attribute to the pure native operations of reason, sen-
timents wliieh we have acquired only in consequence
of our acquaintance with the truths of revealed reli-
gion ; and conversely also we sometimes imagine
that tlie perverse deductions of our own unassisted
reason are sanctioned by, or perliaps originate in,
the dictates of inspiration. Of these two classes of
errors, though the latter is attended witli the worst
practical consequences, the former is the more sub-
tile and imperceptible in its influence. We have
formed many of our religious opinions directly from
our knowledge of revealed truth, and yet so familiar
have we become with them, and so deeply convinced
of their reality, that we are in danger of confound-
ing them with the ]ilaiuest and simplest deductions
of human reason. They bear upon our minds with
the force of independent axioms, until at length we
conclude them to have reached us in consequence of
the primary operations of our own minds. It is more
difficult than is often imagined to separate between
the conviction arising from our belief in the doctrines
of Scriptm-e ami the conviction arising from the sim-
ple exerci^e of our minds upon the evidence in favour
of that truth of which we are become convinced. Thus,
the doctrine of the immortality of the soul is taught
clearly in the pages of revelation, but it is also alleged
to be ascertiiinable by the exorci.se of unassisted rea-
son. Now, in reference to all those wlio have been
familiar from infancy with the statements of the
Bible, the dirtictdty is to calculate what amount of
conviction, as to the soul's immortality, tliey have
drawn from the one source, and what from the otlier.
Do they believe the doctrine because nature has
taught them to believe it, or is it not rather because
the Bible has taught them? The proofs which
have passed before the minds of the heathen unen-
lightened by the Gospel, have, with at least equal
force, pressed themselves upon the attention of those
who are blessed with the light of revelation ; they
have learned much upon tiie subject, no doubt, from
the dictates of nature, but how nnich more have
they learned from the lessons of Scripture ! The
danger lies in their confounding the teaching of the
one with the teaching of the other; in attributing to
reason what they have receixed solely from revela-
tion ; and, on the other haiul, in endeavouring to
make revelation responsible for wliat are purely and
entirely the perverse judgments of unaided reason.
In a sound condition of oin- intellectual and moral
powers, reason and revelation must always be at one ;
but we are too prone to exalt the former at the ex-
pense of the latter. To keep the province of the
one separate and distinct from the province of the
other, is in fact one of the most difficult, but never-
theless one of the most imi>ortant lessons which the
theological student is called upon to learn. It is
to ignorance and recklessness on this one point, that
we would be inclined to attribute the greater part
of the heresies which have distracted the Christian
Church.
We have been endowed by our Creator with rea-
son for the most valuable and necessary ends; but
these ends in reference to theology, are too little
regarded. The Socinian entertains the most vague
and extravagant views as to the illimitable extent to
wliich reason can go, while the enthusiast, on the
other hand, restricts it within too narrow bounds;
and one of the most nece.ssary points, we conceive,
in the logical training of the speculative inquirer in
theology, is to enable him to ascertain the precise
and definite limits wliich bound the province witliin
which the e.xercise of human reason must be
strictly confined. As long as we investigate the
evidence on which the truth of revelation rests,
reason is employed within her own sphere; and
even after liaving ascertained that there is suffi-
cient evidence to prove that the alleged revelation
has indeed come from God, reason may legitimately
impiire what is the precipe mcam'ng of its contents,
aiul the relative bearing of its parts upon eacli other,
or, in other words, what is usually termed the ana-
logy of faith. Here, however, we have reached the
l)oint at which reason must pause, and revelation
assume the sole and undivided supremacy. The
truth of the individual doctrines is founded not on
their reasonableness, though that nuvy be admitted
as an additional evidence in their favour, but solely
on the authority of Him from whom we have ascer-
tained the revelation to have come. It is not neces-
sary, as the Socinian would argue, that what the
NATURAL RELIGION.
51»
Biblu te;i,clies should be proved to be consistent with
reason ; tliis were to malie tlie reason of man, feeble
thougli it be, the arbiter and judge in matters whieli,
from their very nature, must be regarded as be^■ond
the limits of human investigation. Revelation pre-
supposes man to be ignorant of those truths which it
unfolds, and shall he notwithstanding dare to exalt
reason so extravagantly as to imagine it, in jioint of
fact, superior in authority to the dictates of inspira-
tion ? No, by no means. It is in condescension to
the feebleness and inadequacy of human reason, that
a revelation has been imparted at all, and ever re-
collecting that what we do not understand is far
from being, on that account, necessarily untrue, let
us bow implicitly to the simple statements of that
Being whose '' under,standing is infinite."
No little injury has been done to the cause of
Christianity by the extravagant adidators of human
reason. Under the delusive idea, that by depriving
the religion of the Bible of all that was peculiar,
and by enileavouring to reduce it to a perfect consis-
tency and harmony with what are imagined to be
the necessary truths taught by nature, they have
furnished the inlidel with powerfid, and we fear too
effective, weapons, wherewith to destroy the whole
Christian system. The restdt, accordingly, has been
such as might have been anticipated. Bolingbroke,
Tindal, Collins, and many others of the same school,
have directed their whole efl'orts to show that there
is nothing in Christianity which was not previously'
revealed to us in the religion of nature; and if any
mysteries are recorded, they are merely resolvable
into the figurative phraseology in which the author
wrote, or into subsequent corruptions and interpo-
lations of the I'ecord itself. Thus it is, that under
the guise of friendship the deadliest blows have
been struck at all that is vital in the Christianity of
the Bible ; and that, too, arising from no other cause
tlian the injudicious conduct of its real friends. It
is not in Germany alone that this spirit of rational-
ism lias been diii'using its withering influence ; in
Britain, also, has such a spirit been gradually gain-
ing ground. The consistency of revelation with
reason is, no doubt, when properly conducted, a
powerful argument in its favour ; but there is a point
in (he argument bej-ond which we dare not go, and
tlie exact position of which, it is ab.'iolutely necessary
for us previously to ascertain. It was an investigation
of this kind that gave rise to one of the most valuable
works on mental science that has ever appeared —
the immortal essay of Locke on the Human Under-
standing. " Were it fair to trouble thee witli the
history of this essay," says the author in his Epistle
to the reader, " I should tell thee, that five or six
friends meeting at my cliambcr, and discoursing on a
subject very remote from this, found themselves
(juickly at a stand, by the difficulties th.at rose on
every side. After we had a while puzzled ourselves,
without coming any nearer a resolution of those
doubts which perplexed us, it came into my
thoughts that we took a wrong course, and thai
before we set ourselves upon iiuiuiries of that na-
ture, it was necessary to examine our own abilities,
and see what object our understandings were or
were not fitted to deal with." It were well for the
cause of Christianity, and well for the cause of
science in general, that the example of Locke were
more fre(|uenlly followed, and the fact rendered
familiar to our minds, that there is a pohit where
reason ends, and implicit faith in revelation must
begin. The human mind has not previously dis-
covered all that the Bible tmfolds to us, otherwise
what necessity for the Bible at all ? If, then, there
be truths peculiar to the Christian system, there is
no necessity for the slightest anxiety on the part of
the defenders of Christianity to reconcile any oj)-
parent inconsistency between these peculiar Christian
truths and the princi])les of reason. A strong pre-
sumptive argument, it is true, may be founded on
the fact which, in most instances, can be shown by
analogy, that what is peculiar to Christianity is not
contrary to reason. Such an argument, however,
can never amount to more than a presumption in its
favour; and thongh it may be powerful enough to
silence the cavils of objectors, it adds little to the
direct force of the Christian evidence.
The essential and primary elements of all religious
truth may be learned by the pure efforts of reason
unaided by revelation, and all revealed religion, in
fact, proceeds on the existence of th.at class of truths
which is included under the term Natural Religion
But to assert this, is just tantamount to the assertion
that the Scriptures arc accommodated to the nature
of the beings to whom they are addressed. This is
not all, however, that may be said in reference to their
value. They state, no doubt, what is addressed to
our reason, and what proceeds on tlie su])])osition
that there are some truths which unassisted reason
has discovered ; but they do more, for they slate,
and in this their peculiar excellence consists, many
truths which the reason of man hath not discovered,
and by its most strenuous and sustained exertions
never could discover. And the danger is. that in
deference to a certain class of .sceptics and unbeliev-
ers, thuse peculiarities of the Christian system should
either be entirely overlooked, or attempted to be so
modified as to suit the caprice of those who, while they
profess an adherence to the doctrines of revelation, are
all the while still more devoted admirers of human
reason. All human systems of religion, even the
most degi-ading, are founded to some extent on natural
religion, or, in other words, on those religious scnli-
menta and feelings which are inherent in the constitu-
tion of every mind. Bui from these human religions,
Christianity stands separate and apart ; and llic ex-
hibition of iti peculiarities, as contradislinguislied
from every other system of religious doctrine, forms
a most important branch of the Christian cvideiucs.
This argument .skilfully conduct*d would tend lo
destroy the force of the infidel maxim wliieli is loo
5-20
NAULEM— XAZARITE.
)ften assmiiud as tliu shibboleth of a self-styled
Hberal pai-ty — that all religions are alike. The coun-
terfeit, we admit, may resemble the true coin in one
point — ^that they are botli of them coins, but in every
other point they are diametrically opposed. Be-
tween truth and falsehood in the eyes of God there
is and must ever be a great gulf tixed ; and though
man may impiously dare to approximate the two,
and even to mistake the one for the other, the eye
of Omniscience discerns between them an inconceiv-
able, an infinite distance.
N.\TURIvWORSHir. See Fetish-Worship,
MVTlIOLOCiY.
NAULEM, tlie fare which Charon, according to
the belief of tlie ancient Greeks and Romans, de-
manded from those whom he ferried over the rivers
Styx and Acheron in the Infernal regions. To en-
able the dead to .satisfy this demand, it was custom-
ary to put a small piece of money in the mouth of a
corpse before burial.
NAVE, tlie name given in ancient times to the
main body of a Christian church, where the people
met for religious worship. It was also called the
place of assembly, and the quadrangle, from its quad-
rangular form, in contrast with the circular or ellip-
ticail form of the chancel. In a central position in
the nave stood tlie ainho or reading-desk, elevated
on a platform above tlie level of the surrounding
seats. The chori-'-teis and professional singers were
provided with seats near the de.sk. The seats in
front, and on either side of it, were occupied by the
believers or Cliristian communicants. At a very
early period the nai^e was divided into separate parts,
and specific seats assigned to the several classes of
which the audience consisted. As the rules of the
primitive church required the separation of the
sexes, the male and female portion of the audi-
ence were separated from one another by a veil or
lattice. In the Eastern churches the women and
catechumens occujiied the galleries above, while the
men sat below. In some churches a separate apart-
ment was allotted to widows and virgins. The ordi-
nary place for the catechumens was next to the
believers, and arranged in the order of their several
classes. Behind the catechumens sat those penitents,
who had been restored to a place in the church.
The 7iave was separated from the narthex by wooden
rails, in which were gates, called by the modern
rituals and Greek writers, the beautiful and royal
gates, where kings and emperors were wont to lay
aside their crowns before entering the body of the
church.
NA/.MiEXE.S, a term of reproach applied to tlie
early Christians by the Jews, by whom they were
sometimes styled the sect of the Nazarenes, as we
find in Acts xxiv. 5. A particular sect, however,
arose in the second century, which Jerome and Epi-
phanius mention as called by this name, and who
taught tliat the Jewish law, and especially circum-
cision, was obligatory on Jewish Christians, and
moreover, they believed Jesus to be the sou of the
Virgin Mary, but a mere man. The Jews, we are
told by early Cliristian writers, were wont to curse
and anathematize this sect of Nazarenes, three times
a-day, morning, noon, and night, using this impreca-
tion in their prayers in the .synagogue, " Send thy
curse, 0 God, upon the Nazarenes." Jerome men-
tions a Hebrew gospel which he had received from
the Nazarenes near the close of the fourth century.
They then dwelt at Beroea in Syria. Their views of
Christ, as exhibited in the gospel which bears their
name, are thus detailed by Neander : " He is de-
scribed by them as the one towards whom the pro-
gressive movement of the theocracy tended from the
beginning; as the end and aim of all the earlier
divine revelations. In him, the Holy Spirit, from
whom, down to this time, onl}' isolated revelations
and excitations had proceeded, first found an abiding
place of rest, a permanent abode. Inasmuch as the
Holy Spirit was the productive principle of his en-
tire nature, and it was first from him that the effi-
ciency of the Spirit, in shaping the entire life of
humanity, and forming other organs of action, could
proceed, he is called the first-born of the Holy
Spirit; — as the Holy Spirit is also denominated his
mother. Where this gospel describes how the whole
fountain of the Holy Spirit descended on Clirist at
his baptism and abode permanently with him, the
following words of salutation are ascribed to the
former : ' My Son, in all the prophets I expected
thee, that thou shouldest come, and I might find in
thee a place of rest ; for thou art my resting place,
thou art my first-born Son, who reignest for ever.' "
The Nazarenes are often conlbunded with the Ebion-
ifes, with whom to a certain extent they agreed in
opinion.
NAZARITE, one consecrated to God under the
Jewish law by a peculiar vow, which is fully ex-
plained in Num. vi. 13 — 21. Samson was dedicated
to the Lord even before his birth under the vow of
a Nazarite. Tlie same also was done in the case of
Samuel, whose mother Hamiah, we are informed in
1st Sainuel i. 11, "vowed a vow, and said, O Lord
of hosts, if thou wilt indeed look on the affliction of
thine handmaid, and remember me, and not forget
thine handmaid, but wilt give unto thine handmaid
a man-child, then I will give him unto the Lord all
the davs of his life, and there shall no razor come
upon his head." Michaelis alleges that Nazaritism
was not instituted by Moses, but was of more an-
cient, probably of Egyptian origin. The vow of
the Nazarite was the only rite of an ascetic charac-
ter in use among the Israelites. It was called the
Great Vow, and those who observed it were ac-
counted of equal sanolity with the high-priest. The
vow was citlier for life, or only for a short time,
which the Jews say was at least thirty days. From
Acts xxii. 2G, however, it appears that the duration
of the vow might last no longer than a week. Women,
if they wished, might become Nazarites as well as
NDA— NECESSARIANS.
521
men, provided tliey were at tlieir own disposal, and
not under the autliority of parents or husbands who
miglit cancel their vow. One part of the obligations
under which a Nazarite came, was to abstain altoge-
ther from wine, and other intoxicating liquors, that
he might be the better fitted to study the law, and
devote himself to religious exercises. He was also
bound to let his hair grow nntil the time of his vow
was ended. That he might be always ready to en-
gage in divine .service, he was prohibited from touch-
ing a dead body, or even accompanying a funeral
procession, lest he should contract ceremonial detile-
ment. During his separation, a Nnzarite was usually
dressed in a garment of hair, called by the Hebrews
Addereth. At the exjiiry of hi.s vow the Nazarite
was obliged to ofler a lamb of the first year without
blemish for a burnt-oft'eriiig ; a ewe lamb of the first
year without blemish for a sin-offering, and a ram
without blemish for a peace-ofiering. He was now
allowed to shave his head, and was obliged to ciirry
his hair into tlie room of the Nazarites, which, in the
second temple, was situated in the north-east corner
of the court of the women, and there to commit it to
the flames. This was done as a token that he had
performed his vow.
NDA, a secret association ainoiig the people of
Southern Guinea in West Africa. It is confined to
the adult male population, and is thus described by
Mr. Wilson, who, from his long residence in the
country, acquired an intimate acquaintance with its
peculiar customs. Speaking of this association, he
says, " It is headed by a spirit of this name, who
dwells in the woods, and ajppears only when .sum-
moned by some unusual event, at the death of a
person connected with the order — at the birdi of
twins, or at the inauguration of some one into office.
His voice is never heard except at night, and alter
the people have retired to rest. He enters the vil-
lage from the woodside, and is so bundled up in dried
plantain leaves that no one would suspect him of be-
longing to the human species. He is always accom-
panied by a train of young men, and the party dance
to a peculiar and somewhat plaintive air on a flute-
like instrument as they parade the streets. As soon
as it is known that he has entered the village, the
women and children hurry away to their rooms to
hide themselves. If they should have the misfor-
tune to see Nda, or should be discovered peeping at
him through the cracks of the houses, they would be
thrashed almost to death. Perhaps no woman has
ever had the temerity to cast eyes upon this my.ste-
rious being. NdS frequently stops in front of the
dwelling of a man who is known to have rum in his
po.ssession, and exacts a bottle, in default of which
liis property would be injured. The leading men of
the village show the utmost deference to his autho-
rity, and no doubt for the purpose of nuiking a
stronger impression upon the minds of the women
and ciiildren. If a distinguished person dies, Nd.a
;\flects great rage, and comes the following night with
a large posse of men to seize the i)roperty of the vil-
lagers without discrimination. He is sure to lav
hands on as many slice]) and goats as are necessary
to make a grand feast, and no man has any right to
complain. jMany take the precaution to lock up
their sheep and other live stock in tlieir dwelling-
houses the night before, and in this v.-ay alone can
they escape the ravages of this monster of the woods,
who is sure to commit depredations somewhat in
proportion to the importance and rank of the man
who has died. The institution of Nda, like that ol
Mwetyi, is intended to keep the women, children,
and slaves in subjection. I once heard a man who
belonged to the order acknowledge that there was no
such spirit ; ■ but how,' said he, ' shall we govern oui
women and our slaves if we do away with the im-
pression that there is such a being.'"
NDENGEI, the highest deity worshipped by ilic
inhabitants of the Feejee Islands. They believe that
this god manifests himself in a variety of forms from
age to age, but he is actually worshipped in the form
of a huge serpent. The word Kdewjei is supposed
by some to be a corruption of the first part of the
name Tanga-roa, or great Tanga, the chief divinity
of Polj'nesia; but whether this idea be well foiuided
or not, great veneration is entertained for Ndenrjei,
as they beheve that to this deity the spirit goes im-
mediately after death, either to be purified or to
receive sentence. All spirits, however, are not per-
mitted to reach the judgment-seat of Ndenr/ei, I'oi
the road is obstructed by an enormous giant, wield-
ing a large axe, with which he attacks all who pass
him, and those who are wounded dare not present
themselves to Ndtiir/ei, and are obliged to wander
about in the mountains. "At Rewa," says Captain
Wilkes of tlie American Exiiloring Expedition, " it
is believed that the spirits first rejiair to the resi-
dence of Ndengei, who allots some of them lo the
devils for food, and sends the rest away to Mukalon,
a small island off Kewa, where they remain until an
appointed day, after which they are all doomed to
annihilation. The judgments thus passed by Ndeii-
ijei seem to be ascribed rather to his caprice than to
any desert of the departed soul."
NEBO, a god of the ancient Babylonians, men-
tioned in Isa. xlvi. 1. in connexion with BtiurBaal,
with which deity Calmet supposes it to have been
identical. This god was worshipped also by the
Moabites. It presided over the planet Mercury.
The estimation in which Nebo was held is evident
from the circumstance, that it furms a part of the
names of various princes, as Nebuchadnezzar, Na-
bonassar, Nabopolassar, and others.
NECESSARIANS, or Necessitarians, a name
applied to those who believe in the doctrine of ne-
cessity, whether natural or moral, philosophical or
theological. This profound subject has engaged the
attention, and exercised the ingenuity of miuiy
thoughtful men in every age. The question may be
considered either in a wider sense, including uU ob-
522
NECESSAUIANS.
jects, wliether material, mental, or moral ; or it may
be viewed in a more restricted sense, as applied to
mere human ajjency. In either case it is necessary
to bear in mind the important distinction which ex-
ists between natural and moral necessity. The for-
mer may be defined as that necessity which is of
mere iiatm-e, without anything of choice ; the latter
as that necessity which is connected with the exer-
cise of choice, and, therefore, arises from strictly
moral causes. Matter being, in its very nature, inert,
passive, and unconscious, the assertion of necessity,
as applied to material objects alone, is tantamount to
the assertion of the eternity of matter, and that loo
not only in its substance or essence, but in all its
forms. If material things cannot but be what they
are, then they must have been such from all eternity.
Such is accordingly the doctrine of the Natural-
ists or Rationalists (which see). Such was the
theory of the Epicureans and tlie Mate.rtaViKt.i of an-
cient times, and such is still the opinion of the Poi-
tmitU in our own day.
The term Necessitarians, liov,'ever, is generally
used to denote those who maintain the doctrine of
moral necessity as bearing upon human will and hu-
man agency. This, it is obvious, may be as abso-
Itite as natural necessity. " That is," to use the
words of President Edwards, " the effect may be as
perfectly connected with its moral cause, as a natural
necessary efiect is with its natural cause. Whether
the will in every case is necessarily determined by
the strongest motive, or whether the will ever makes
any resistance to such a motive, or can ever oppose
the strongest present inclination, or not . if that mat-
ter should be controverted, yet I suppose none will
deny, but that, in some cases, a previous bias and in-
clination, or the motive presented, may be so power-
ful, that the act of the will m;iy be certainly and
indissolubly connected therewith. When motives
or previous bias are ver}' strong, all will allow that
there is some dilKculty in going against them. And
if they were yet stronger, the difficulty would be still
greater. And tlierefore, if more were still added to
their strength, to a certain degree, it would make the
difficulty so great, that it would be wholly impossi-
ble to surmount it ; for this plain reason, because
whatever power men may be supposed to have to
surmount difficulties, yet that power is not inlniite ;
and so goes not beyond certain limits. ]f a man
can surmount ten degrees of dilficulty of this kind
with twenty degrees of strength, because the degrees
of strength are beyond the degrees of difficulty : yet
if the dilficulty be increased to thirty, or an hundred,
or a thousand degrees, and his strength not also in-
creased, his strength will be wholly insutficient to sin"-
momit the difficulty. As, therefore, it must be
allowed, tliat there m.ay be such a thing as a sure and
perfect connexion between moral causes and etl'ecls ;
80 this only is what I call by the name of moral ne-
cessity."
Dr. Priestley, in perfect consistency with his ma-
terialistic views which resolved mind into a nuie
property of matter, was a keen supporter of the doc-
trine of necessity, not, however, of moral, but philo-
sophical, or rather mechanical necessity. He held
that in the same state of mind, and ui the same view
of things, man would make always the same choice,
since motives act upon the mind as weights do upon
the scale, by a mechanical necessity. Were this
the true state of matters in regard to human agencv,
man would be nothing more than a mere passive
machine, and responsibility for his actions would, of
course, be excluded. But with the exception of
writers of the materialist school, Xeccssitarians uni-
formly regard motives as governing the will not bv
a nieuhauical but a moral influence, the two modes
of influence being essentially distinct from each
other, and not as Priestley and others allege, capable
of being blended into one.
Leibnitz, the eminent German philosopher of the
17th century, was a keen advocate for the doctrine
of necessity, founding it on bis system of Optimism.
The perfection of the imiverse was with him a fun-
damental principle, and this perfection required the
best Older of combination, which w,is accomplished
by the evolutiims of each monad being adapted to
the evolutions of all the others. To fulfil the Divine
decrees in the attainment of tlie greatest possible
perfection, Leibnitz considered the doctrine of ne-
cessity to be essential in a twofold a.spect ; mechani-
cal necessity in the motions of material and inani-
mate objects, but moral and spiritual necessity in
the voluntary determinations of intelligent beings.
All events that happen, whetlier for good or evil,
form part of the Divine plan predetermined from all
eternity, and, therefore, necessarily nuist come to
pass. Things could not possibly on this scheme be
different from what they are. They are tnider the
power of a mechanical necessity in the case of mate-
rial things, and a moral necessity in the ca.se of hu-
man beings, wliich bring them into harmony wiih
the entire plan of tlie universe.
The most strenuous and powerful supporter of the
doctrine of necessity, however, is President Edwards,
in his very able treatise on the Freedom of the Will,
in which he contends strongly for moral necessity,
or, in other words, that the will is, in every case,
necessarily determined by the strongest motives.
He argues most conclusively against the Arminian no-
tion of liberty, as implying a self-determining power
in the will, and defines liberty or free-will to be the
power which any one possesses of doing what he plea-
ses. This freedom of the will Mr. Edwards shows with
the most convincing clearness to be completely con-
sistent with moral necessifj' ; arguing the matter in
various ways. Thus he jiroNes that every eli'ect has
a necessary connexion with its cause, or with that
which is the true ground and reason of its existence ;
that every act of will has a necessary connexion with
ihe dictates of the understanding; that every act of
will is excited by a motive, which is, therefore, the
NECOUSIA— NECROMANCY.
523
cause ut'tlie act of tlie will; and tinallv, tliat God's
certain foreknowledge of the volitions of moral
agents is utterl)- inconsistent with such a contin-
gency of those volitions as excludes all necessity.
But it has often been maintained in opposition to
the doctrine of neces-^ity. that if the whole series of
events, material, mental, and moral, be necessary,
then human liberty is impossible. The reply which
Dr. Dick gives to this oljjection, in his ' Lectures on
Theology,' though brief, is conclusive : " Those ac-
tions," says he, " are iVee wliich are the eti'ect of voli-
tion, lu whatever manner tlie state of mind which
gave rise to the volition has been produced, tlie liberty
of the agent is neither greater nor less. It is his will
alone which is to be considered, and not the means
by which it has been determined. If God fore-
ordained certain actions, and placed men in such cir-
cumstances that the actions would certainly take
place agreeably to the laws of the mind, men are
nevertheless moral agents, because they act volun-
tarily, and are responsible for the actions which con-
sent has made their own. Liberty does not consi-st
in the power of acting or not acting, but in acting
from choice. The choice is determined by some-
thing in the mind itself, or by something external
influencing the mind ; but, whatever is the cause,
the choice makes the action free, and the agent ac-
countable." Thus tlie freedom of the will may be
reconciled with absolute decrees involving irresisti-
ble necessity. And if the will be free, moral re-
sponsibility becomes quite possible.
Lord Karnes, in his Essays on the Principles of
Morality, declares himself a Necessitarian, but on
grounds altogether different from those on which
President Edwards rests his scheme. There is no-
thing in the whole universe, his Lordship argues,
which can properly be called contingent ; but every
motion in the material, and every deterniination and
action in the moral world, are directed by immutable
laws, so that while those laws remain in force, not the
smallest link in the chain of causes and efi'ects can
be broken, nor any one thing be otherwise tlmn it is.
In this condition man, though goaded on bj' stern ne-
cessity which by no efl'ort on his part he can possibly
overcome, is provided, according to the hypothesis
of Lord Kames, with a delusive sense of liberty
which fits him for discharging his duties in this
world with greater efficiency than if he had the full
consciousness of being the victim of an insuperable
necessity which exempted him alike from cither praise
or blame, reward or punishment. In vindication of
this deception alleged to be practised on man by his
Creator, his lordship refers to various illusions to
which the senses of man are liable. His eyes, for
example are neither microscopic on the one hand,
nor telescopic on the other, but limited in power
of vision to a certain narrow range. The ob-
jects, accordingly, on which he looks assume a very
dift'eivnt aspect from that in which they appear to
creatures whose eyes are ditl'erently con.slructcd.
Such an argument, however, a.s apiilied to the
freedom of the will, is altogether irrelevant and
without force. It is unnecessary even to suppose
such a deception, seeing no such necessity exists as
is inconsistent with perfect freedom of will. Both
necessity and freedom exist, and both exist in har-
mony. But the bond which connects the two toge-
ther is hid from human vision, and belongs to the
region of humble faith.
NECOUSl.A. ofi'erings among the ancient Greeks
and Romans on the anniversary of the day of the
death of a relative. According to some, the iVe-
cousia were the same with the Gi;NKsr.\ (which see).
NECRODEIPNON (Gr. neems, dead, and deip-
non, a supper), a feast among the ancient heathens,
commonly held after a funeral. It took place at the
house of the nearest relative of the deceased, and
was usually attended by tlie whole friends and rela-
tions, it being regarded as a sacred duty to be pre-
sent on the mournful occaiiioii.
NECROMANCER (Gr. necros, Ri\i viaiileia, divi-
nation), one who consults the dead, imagining them
to have the power of revealing secrets and fore-
telling future events. From a very remote anti-
quity such persons existed. Thus we find them
mentioned in Deut. xviii. 11, and an instance is set
before us in the witch of Eiidor, who pretended to
possess the jiower of summoning the dead to return
to earth. Maimonides describes a necromancer as
one who, having afflicted himself with fasting, goes
to the buryiiig-place and there lies down and falls
asleep, and then the dead appear to him and give
him the information he requires. In the early Chris-
ti;ui church the severest ecclesiastical censures were
inflicted upon all who practised necromancy or simi-
lar arts of divination.
NECROMANCY, the art of evoking the dead,
and questioning them as to the secrets of the future.
In ancient Greece, Orpheus was believed to have
been the inventor of this magical art. Thessaly was
regarded as the chief residi-nce of all who excelled in
divination. Ulysses hi the Odyssey of Homer
evokes the manes of the dead. One of the most
famous of the oracles of antiquity was that of Tro-
phonius, in which the dead were believed to answer
from the bowels of the earth. The Scandinavians
ascribed the origin of nen-omcincij to Odin. In sev-
eral heathen nations, but particulaHy among the
negro tribes in Westeni Africa, the art of consulting
the spirits of the dead is constantly practised. Na-
tive priests pretend to hold converse with them, and
act as a medium of intercourse between the living
and the dead. In the United Slates of North Amer-
ica, even in this enlightened age, a class of people
has arisen, usually called Sjtiriliuilisls, who pretend
by table-tuniing, siiirit-raiiping, and dilferent kinds
of incantation, to put themselves in relation with the
tenants of the worid of spirits, and to converse with
them freely on all subjects which concern the jmst
the present, or the future.
524
NECROTHAPT^— NEMESIS.
NECKOTMAPT^K (Gr. nea-os, dead, and thapto,
to biirv\ a name given by the ancient Greeks to
undertakers at funerals. Among tlie Romans tliey
were called Libitinarii, from the goddess Libitina
(whicli »ee).
NECTAR, tlie drink of the immortal gods, ac-
cording to the early Greek poets, wliieh was served
round to them by the hands of Ilihe or Gumjmede.
It is confounded by some of the ancient writers with
ambrosia, the food of the gods.
NEDUSIA, a surname of AtJieiia, derived from
the river Nedon, on the banks of which she was
worsliipped.
NEFASTI (DrEs\ unlawful days among the an-
cient Romans. Neitlier courts of justice nor assem-
blies of the people could be held on these days ; and
afterwai'ds they were dedicated chiefly to the wor-
ship of the gods. Numa Pompilius is said to have
been the originator of the dies nefusti.
NEGES. See Canusis.
NEGOMBO, a priest and prophet among the in-
habitants of Congo in West Africa. He jiretends to
foretell future events, and to heal all kinds of dis-
ease.
NEGORES, a religious sect in Japan, wliich de-
rives its origin from Cambodoxi, a disciple of Xaai..
This sect consists of three classes. The iirst, which
is less numerous than the others, devote theinselves
to the worship of the gods, and the performance of
religious ceremonies; the second employ themselves
in military affairs, and the third in the preparation of
weapons of war. The Negores, as a body, are so
numerous and influential, that the Emperor finds it
necessary to secure their favour. They are scrupu-
lously carefid about the life of inferior animals, but
their quarrels with one another often end in blood-
shed.
NEGOSCI, the title of a priest among the natives
of Congo. lie must have eleven wives, and as is
usual among African tribes, he acts the part of a
magician. When any native meditates revenge
upon an enemy, be applies to a Negosci, who cuts
off some locks of his hair, and binding them together
throws them into the fire, uttering all the while
various imprecations upon the enemy and all that
belongs to him.
NEH.ALENNIA, a Pagan goddess, the origin of
whose name it is difficult to trace. An image of
this female deity was first discovered in 164G in
Zealand, among some ruins which had long been
covered by the sea. Montfaucon in his Antiquities
gives seven pictures of tlie goddess. Slie is repre-
sented carrying a ba.sket of fruit, and with a dog at
her siile.
NKIU'SHTAN, a name given by Hezekiah to
tlio brazen serpent wliicli Moses had set up in the
wilderness, and wliicli hiid ever since that time been
carefully preserved by tlie Israelites. The good king
finding that bis people bad actually converted the
serpent into an idol, and were burning incense before
it, resolved to put an end to this form of idolatry
We are told accordingly in 2 Kings iviii. 4, " He
removed the high places, and brake the images, and
cut down the groves, and brake in pieces the brasen
serpent that Moses had made : for unto those days
the children of Israel did bum incense to it: and he
called it Nehushtan." It is diflicult to ascertain
when this brazen serpent began to be worshijiped.
Rabbi Kimchi supposes that the people had burnt
incense to it from the time when the kings of Isiael
corrupted themselves ; and that this species of ido-
latry escaped the notice of A.sa and Jehoshaiihat
when they reformed the church. For a long period,
in all probability, the serpent of brass had been
piously preserved like the pot of manna, or Aaron's
rod, as a memorial of God's miraculous goodness to
his people. In process of time, however, the ser]ient
was wor.^hipped as a god. Ilezekiah in his indigna-
tion called it Nehushtan, whicli Bishop Patrick in-
terprets to mean " foul-fiend, the old Dragon or
Satan," and he broke it in pieces ; that is, as the
Talmudists explain it, he ground it to powder, and
scattered it in the air, that no relic of it might re-
main to be wor.shipped by a super.stitioiis people.
See Serpk.nt- Worship.
NEITII, the goddess of wisdom among the an-
cient Egvptians, identified with Athiini of the
Greeks. She was chiefly worshipped in the Delta,
where a city was built bearing her name.
NEME.\N GAMES, one of the four great festi-
vals of ancient Greece, deriving its name from Nemea,
where it was celebrated, as Pindar tells us in honour
of Zeun. The games consisted of horse- racing,
chariot-racing, running, wrestling, bosing, throwing
the spear, shooting with the bow, and other warlike
exercises. The victors were crowned with a chaplet
of olive, and afterwards of green parsley. The Ne-
mean games were regularly celebrated twice in the
course of every Olympiad. They appear to have
been discontinued soon after the reign of the Roman
Emperor Hadrian. See Gamiss.
NEMEIUS, a surname of Zeun, under which he
was worshipped at Nemea, where games were cele-
brated in his honour. See preceding article.
NEMESIACI, the officers of the goddess A''ct)(«/.5,
who presided over good fortune, and was the dis-
penser of fate. See next article.
NEMESIS, the goddess among the ancient Greeks
who was believed to regulate human alVairs, dis-
pensing at pleasure happiness or uiihap]iiiiess, the
goods or the ills of life. She was looked upon also
as an avenging deity, who punished the proud.
There is a tradition that Zeus begot by Nemesis an
egg. which Leda found, and from which Helena and
tlie Dioscuri sprung. Rongeniont, in his ' Le Pcuple
Primitif,' regards Nemesis as a goddess, .symbolizing
the separation of the elements in the act of creation.
She was represented at Smyrna with wings, and
Hesiod calls her the daughter of Night, or of the
darkness wliich enveloped the waters of chaos.
NEOXOMIANS.
525
NEOCORl, officers attaclierl to tlie Pagnn tem-
ples in ancient Greece, whose office it was to sweep
the temple, and perform otlier menial offices con-
nected witli it. In course of time these duties were
intrusted to slaves, and the Neocori camo to occupy
a liigher position, superintending the temples, guard-
ing the treasures, and regulating the sacred rites.
In some towns tliere was a regular college of Xcomri;
and the office having considerable honour attached
to it, was sought by persons even of high rank. In
the time of the Emperors, nations and cities eagerly
sotight the title Seocori, and counted it a special
privilege to have the charge of a temple. Tluis in
the Acts of the Apostles, we learn, that the city of
Ephesus was Neocara of the great goddess Diana.
NEOMENIA. See New Moon.
NEONOillANS (Gr. neos, new, and nomvs, law),
a word used to describe those who believe the gospel
to be a new law, which no longer exacts a perfect, uni-
form, universal obedience, but accepts of faith and a
sincere though imperfect obedience, as the passport
to eternal life. This doctrine has been a favourite
hypothesis with Arminian writers from the time of
the Synod of Dort in 1618, when it was fully can-
vassed and explicitly condemned. Towards the end
of the seventeenth century, a controversy arose
among the English Dissenters on this subject, the
B.iXTEUlANS (which see), being branded as Neoiio-
mkins. It must be borne in mind, however, that
Mr. Baxter, followed by Dr. Daniel Williams, was
called upon to contend against the Crispih.i, who
were avowed Antinomiam, and it is not wonderful
that in his anxiety to uphold the claims of the law
of God as eternally binding upon all his creatures,
this ardent controversialist should have expressed
himself in language which laid him open to the
charge of taking a legal view of the gospel. The
HopKiNSl.iNS (which see) in America have also
exposed their teaching to the same objection. Not
only do they fearlessly set forth the extent, spiritual-
ity, and unflinching demands of the law ; they think
it necessary also to urge upon sinners the Irijal dispen-
sation, if we may so speak, of the gospel. Now that
such a view of the gospel is in one sen.se consistent
with truth, we readily admit. The law, no doubt,
extends its wide and all-comprehensive requiren.€nts
over the wliole range of human duty, and ii de-
nounces with unmitigated and umnitigable severity
its awful threatenings against all ungodiuiess and
unrighteousness of men. Viewing man, tlierefore,
as simply umler the law, whhout any reference, in
the mean time, to his having either kepi or broken
the law, it is the bounden duty of eve»v human be-
ing instantly to " repent and believe tlie gospel."
In this sense "God commandelh all men everi/ioliefe
to repent." They are subject to that innnutable and
e\erlasting law which binds in holy and harmonious
subjection the whole intelligent creation to its God ;
and it is at his peril if any one shall neglect to per-
form, in all its purity, and in all its perfection, this
or any other branch of moral duty. The connnauds
to believe, to repent, ami to obey, are equally obli-
gatory upon every man as a subject of God's moral
government. The law of God was originally fornu'd
with the express design of being applicable to man,
not in one situation merely, but in all the possible
circumstances in which he nnght be placed. And
hence it is, that in this abstract view of the subject,
man being considered as simply under tlie law, the
divine statutes extend their claims of obedience even
to the faith and repentance of the gospel. So that
tliere is in fact a liyal (/ixjieiisation of the gospel; tor
if Christ liath been therein set forth, and even if in
the Mosaic law he was, liowevcr obscurely, exhibited
as the sole ground of justitication, we are bound by
the commands of that moral or natural law, which is
imnnitable and eternal in its obligations, to accept of
the blessings held out to us in the gospel. And in-
deed it is expressly declared in Sacred Scripture,
that " he who believeth shall be saved ; and he that
believeth not is condemned alrcnd;/." He is con-
demned by the terms of that very law to which, in
rejecting the gospel, lie professes to adhere ; he is
condemned, because, instead of yielding obedience
to the express injunction of the law, "Thou shalt
love the Lord thy God with all thy heart," he dares
to disbelieve "the record which God hath given of
his Son."
We may remark, however, still further, in illustra-
tion of the coani/elicul hni; that it is binding ujion
the saint equally with the sinner. If the moral law,
which it must be observed has not been and never
can be abrogated, takes cognizance of every man's
acceptance or nou-acceptauce of the gospel, it is
evident that the same law must take cogin'zance also
of the Christian's actings, whether of faith, repent-
ance, or true obedience, posterior as well as anterior
to the period of his reception of "the truth as it is
in .Tesus." It demands with equal tirnniess that he
sliall exercise faith and repeiitance, and tliat he shall
exercise them sincerely, habitually, ami without ini-
perlcction. And accordingly every believer knows
that if his salvation depended upon his iierformaiice
of these or any other duties in a legal sense, he must
be certainly and irremediably lost. And yet it is
indubitably true that the same law wliich declares
"Thou shalt not steal,"' commands us, under still
severer penalties, to " repent and believe the go.spel ;"
to "live by the faith of tlie Son of God," and to
" adorn the doctrine of our Saviour by a conversation
becoming the gospel."
All this we readily admit is abstractly true, in
reference to man viewed simply as a moral agent,
placed "muhr the law ;" but tins is scarcely the alti-
tude which the gospel assumes in addressing num as
a fallen being, a hrcalcr of the lav. It regards liini
as ruined, ami, in .so far as the law is concerned,
irretrievably rinned. And as the most melancholy
proof of his undone condition is his utter insensi-
bility to his true character in the .Mght of God, the
52S
NEOPHYTES— NEREIDS.
first step towarils his recovery mubt obviously be to
arouse liim from this state of moral torpor and deatli.
The mode of accomplishing this in an humble de-
pendence upon the blessing of the Spirit, we allege
to be, in the first instance, a faithful and energetic
proclamation o{ the orn/inul Imo, in all its spirituality
of extent and inflexibility of demand ; and chiefly
witli the view of convincing the careless sinner that
by the law of God lie is a guilty, condemned, help-
less criminal; that in his present condition, wherever
he goes, and in whatever circumstances he is placed,
he is under the cnrse, and every moment liable to
inidergo the wratli, of the Almighty. And accord-
ingly in tlius making a legitimate, a sanctioned use
of the law, we have reason to expect that the sinner
will be compelled anxiously and eagerly to exclaim
" what shall I do to be saved?"
But the species of Neniiomitaiism to which we
have now been adverting, is very diflerent from that
which is held by many Anniuian divines, both in
Britain and on the Continent. According to their
view of the matter, the 7iciv law of the gospel is sub-
stituted for the old law of the ancient economy,
which is abrogated and annulled. Christ by his
vicarious sufferings hath purchased, they allege, the
relaxation of God's law, and the consequent accep-
tance of an imperfect, if only sincere obedience. But
inflexible justice, which is a necessary part of moral
perfection, forbids any such demonstration of leni-
ency on the part of Jehovah. Justice unflinchingly
demands a fnltilment of all the obligations under
wliich as creatures we have coine, and even were it
possible for the mercy of God to incline towards a
depression of the standard of morality, holiness and
righteousness and truth must alike oppose it. If
the law of God be relaxed, wliere is the security of
the Divine government, where the inmiutableness of
the Divine cliaracter? But it were altogether incon-
sistent with the purity of the Almighty to connive
at imperfection in any of his creatures. Neither
can faith under the gospel be accepted as ecpiivalent
to perfect obedience under the law. And in proof
of this, we remark, that faith is either perfect, or it
is imperfect. Now it cannot be perfect, seeing it is
the act of a sinfid creature; and if it be imperfect,
God can neither regard it as perfect, nor ground any
act of judicial acquittal on the performance of an act
which is admitted to be imperfect. Hence the ne-
cessity of the rigliteousness of Christ, since by the
deeds of no law, whether new or old, can a man be
justified before (lod, but we are justifled freely by
God's grace, through the imputed rigliteousness of
the Lord Jesus.
NlCOl'IIYTES (Gr. neon. nevf,n\\A phiionnii. folic
horn), new-!)orn or regenerated, a term sometimes
a))|ilied in ancient times to those who were newly
baptized, or to new converts to Cliristianity. It has
also been often used to denote tho.se who had re-
cently joined a religious order.
NEPAUL (Ri:i,ioiON of). See Blijiiists.
NEPENTHE, a magic potion mentioned both by
Greek and Koinan poets, which was supposed to
make persons forget their sorrows and misfortunes.
It was the jince or infusion of a plant now unknown.
Homer says that it grew in Egypt.
NEPHALIA (Gr. ne^nhaUos, sober), festivals and
sacrifices of the ancient Greeks, but more especially
of the Athenians, which received their name from
the circumstance that no wine was ofl'ered, but only
milk, mead, and other simple liquors. The vine, the
figtree, and the mulberry were prohibited from being
used in the Nephalia, because they were looked upon
as .symbols of drimkenness.
NEPHILIM, demons of gigantic stature in the
mythology of ancient Egypt, which attended <m
Ti/pJio7i, the god of evil. The NepliiKin or giants
mentioned in Gen. vi. 4, and Num. xiii. 3.3, have
been sometimes regarded as men noted for deeds of
violence and oppression, rather than remarkable for
height of stature.
NEPHTHYS, the sister and the wife of Typhon,
the evil god of the ancient Egyptians. To Osiris
she bore Amibis, who is represented with the liead
of a dog. Nephthys belongs to the third order ot
the deities, as classified by Sir J. G. Wilkinson in
his Materia Ilieroglyphica.
NEPINDI, a priest among the natives of Congo
in Western Africa, who styles himself the master of
the elements, and pretends to control the thunder,
lightning, storms, and tempests. To display his
power in this respect he raises large lieajis of earth,
out of which, after he has performed various sacri-
fices and magical incantations, creeps a little animal,
which raises itself slowly, and at length takes its
flight towards heaven. Then thick clouds darken
the .skies, and thunder, lightning, and rain imme-
diately come on.
NEPTUNALIA, a festival anciently celebrated
at Home in honour of Nki'TUNE (which see), on the
2.3d of July. Little information can be got as to
the manner in which this festival was kept, but it
would ajipear that huts were wont to be erected with
the branches and foliage of trees, where the people
probably feasted and amused themselves in various
ways.
NEPTUNE, the chief god of the sea among the
ancient Ivonians. A temple was erected to this deity
in the Camjius Martins, and before a na\al expedi-
tion was undertaken, it was customary for the com-
mander of the fleet to otVer a sacrifice to Npptune,
which he threw into the sea. The Ncptiaic of the
Komaus is ideiilical with the Poncklon of the Greeks.
NEQUITI, a secret association among the natives
of Congo, who celebrate their mysteries in dark and
sequestered places, where none Ijut the initiated are
.allowed to enter.
NIOUEIDS, nymphs of the sea among the ancient
Greeks. They were fifty in number, and daughteis
of iVVrcw,'.-, the old man of the sea. They are gener-
ally represented as having been very beautiful, and
Ni:UElTS— NESTORIANS.
621
paiticnlai'Iy favoiu-iible to sailors. Tliey were wor-
shipped ill several parts of Greece, but more esjie-
cially ill seaport towns.
NEREUS.a marine god among tlie ancient Greek.<i,
who was believed to dwell at the bottom of the sea
with his lovely danghters, the IVereids. He ruled
principally over the -Egean sea, and was believed
occasionally to appear to men in dift'orent shapes,
predicting what should belall them in future. Xereus
yielded his place, and gave his daughter Ainjihitrile
to Poseidon.
NER6AL, an idol of the Cutheans, mentioned in
2 Kings xvii. 30. The Kabbis allege that this deity
was in the form of a cock ; but this has been supposed
to be a calumny, arising from their hatred against
the Samaritans, who were descended from the Cuth-
eans sent by Shalmaneser to occupy the place of
those belonging to the kingdom of Israel who had
been carried into -Assyria.
NEKIO, the spouse of Mart.; who was the god
of war among the ancient Komans. Little or no-
tiling is known concerning her.
NESSA, an intercalary month introduced by the
ancient Arabians, to bring the lunar, every third
year, into conformity with the solar year. The use
of this month was forbidden by ^Mohanimed in the
Koran.
NESSUS, the god uf a river in Thrace, which bore
the .same name.
NESTORI.AXS, a sect which arose in the fifth
century, deriving its name from Nestorius, a Syrian
monk, remarkable for the austerity of his habits, and
his eloquence as a preacher. According to the his-
torian Socrates, who has written his life, he was
born at Germanicia in the northern parts of Syria.
After an education somewhat imjierfect, he was or-
dained presbyter at Antioch, where, by the popu-
larity of his pulpit gifts, he attracted large and atten-
tive audiences. He became quite a favourite with
the people, and great was the satisfaction felt through-
out the Christian community in the East, when, in
A. D. 428, he was consecrated patriarch of Constan-
tinople. No sooner was he promoted to this elevat-
ed and responsible position than he began to display
an intemperate zeal, which partook more of the
bigotry of the monk than the gentle tolerant spirit
which was becoming his character and position as a
minister of Christ. His first efforts were directed
towards the extirpation of heretics, inluding Ariaiis
and iVoro (/««■■■, Qnortodecinians and Muceiloninns,
wdio, at that time, abounded in the capital of the East
and its subordinate dioceses. Accordingly, in his
inaugural discourse, addressing the Emperor Theo
dosius the Younger, he gave utterance to these vio-
lent expressions : " Give me a country inirgcd of all
heretics, and in exchange for it, I will give you hea-
ven. Help me to subdue the heretics, and I will
help you to conqner the I'ersians.'' Nor did his
fury against heretics tind vent only in words; he
proceeded to deeds of persecution, which, by excit-
ing tiiinults among the people, led to the elViisioii nf
blood.
AVhile thus busily engaged in persecuting others,
Nestorius raised uji, even among the orthodox parly
in the church, a numerous host of enemies, who were
not long in accusing him also of heresy. Having been
trained in the strict Antiochiau doctrine as to tlie
clear distinction between the divine and luiinan na-
tures of Christ, he and his friend Anastasius, whom
he had brought with him from Antioch, could not
fail to disapprove of some expressions then current
in the church, which evidently proceeded upon con-
fused notions in respect to the two nature-s of Christ.
One expression, in particular, the title Theotokos,
or Mother of God, applied to the Virgin Mary, more
especially taken in connexion with the excessive ven-
eration of the Virgin, which had begun to prevail,
called forth the strongest reprobation on the part of
Nestorius. Along with Anastasius, he took occa-
sion, ill his public di-scomses, to state, in the mo.st
emphatic manner, his objections to the term
Tlieotokos, and dwelt much upon the doctrine of the
union of the two natures of Christ, as laid down by
Theodore of Mopsueslia. A coiitrover.sy now en-
sued, in which the enemies of Nestorius, not compre-
hending the danger which he saw to be involved in
the use of the word Theotokos, charged him most
unjustly with holding the l^iotbdan and Siimosate-
nian views, which asserted that Jesus was born of
Mary as a mere man ; or, in other words, they ac-
cused him of denying the Divinity of Christ. The
question was now keenly agitated, both among the
clergy and laity, whether Mary was entitled to be
called the Mother of God. In this di.spute Nesto-
rius took an active part, adhering tirnily to the doc-
trine of the school of Antioch. He was opposed
in public even by some of his own clergy, and, ac-
cordingly, enraged at the contempt shown to hi.s
authority as patriarch, he hesitated not to issue or-
ders that the most refractory should be seized, an<l
forthwith beaten and imprisoned. One of tliese,
Proohis by name, who liad at a former period ajiplied
in vain for the patriarchate of Constantinople, ren-
dered himself peculiarly conspicuous by tlie liiiter
hostility which he evinced to the opinions of Nes-
torius. This man having, on one occasion, been
called to preach in the presence of his patriarcli, took
occasion, in the course of his sermon, to extol the
Virgin Mary as the Mother of (Jod, and charged all
who refused to acknowledge her as such, with being
believers in a deilicd man. The sermon wius re-
ceived with loud .xiiplause, and Nestorius found it
neces.sary to defend his own doctrine against the
misrepresentations of the [ireacher.
Veneration for Mary had at this time begun to
prevail extensively in the church, and in these tir-
cumstances, as might have been expected, the tide
of public opinion ran strongly against Ne.-.toriiis,
who, to disarm hostility without compromising
principle, employed the term as applied to Mary,
528
NESTOUIAXS.
Mother of Christ, inasmuch as the name Cluist be-
longed to tlie whole person, uniting the divine and
human natures. The adoption of this middle course,
however, failed to conciliate the enthusiastic adniir-
ei"s of the Virgin, who were fast rushing towards
open and avowed Mariolatnj. At Constantinople
matters were now assuming a very critical aspect,
and a schism of the church seemed to be not far dis-
tant. A considerable party, indeed, both of the
clergy and monks, refused to recognize Nestorius as
their ecclesiiistical superior, and even renounced all
church fellowship with him. The patriarch, accord-
ingly, convened a synod at Constantinople, which
deposed some of the most violent of the clergy as
favourers of Manichean doctrines, by denying the
reality of Christ's humanity.
In a short time the Nestorian controversy, which
liad raged so violently in the church and patriarchate
of Consfantinojile, extended far beyond these narrow
limits. Cyril, bishop of Alexandria, who had pre-
viously exliibited a violent persecuting spirit against
Pagans, Jews, and heretics, took an active share in
the dispute, contending at first gently, but latterly
with the utmost vehemence, against the opinions
which Xestorius held, representing them as at va-
riance with the very essence of Christianity. To
aid him in assailing the patriarch the more effectually,
he prevailed upon Pope Coelestine I. to join him in
the attack. Soon after tlie commencement of the con-
troversy at Constantinople, Cyril pidilishcd two let-
ters addressed to the Egyptian monks, in which he
assailed the opinions of Nestorius, without, however,
alluding to, or once mentioning his name. The ap-
pearance of these writings excited no slight sensa-
tion in the East, and gave great offence to Nestorius,
against whom they were so plainly levelled. An
epistolary altercation now took place between the
two patriarchs, which continued for some time with
considerable bitterness on both sides. At length, to
rouse the Pope against Nestorius, Cyril caused the
sermon,s of that patriarch to be translated and sent
to Rome, and at the same time urged his holiness
to take summary measiu'es for the vindication of
pure doctrine. Coelestine, accordingly, summoned a
synod to meet at Rome, and with their sanction de-
cided that the clergy excommunicated by Xestorius
should be restored to the I'ellowship of the church :
and further, that if within ten days after receiving
the sentence pronounced at Rome, Nestorius should
not give a written recantation of his errors, he should
be forthwith deposed from his office as patriarch, and
expelled from the conmunjicjn of the church. C3'ril,
glad of the opjiorlunity of humbling his rival, took
upon him to execute the sentence of the Roman sy-
nod. Summoning, accordingly, a synod of Egypti.tu
bishops at Alexandria, he despatched a letter, A. D.
4.TO, in the name of that synod, to Nestorius, in which,
conformably to the sentence pronounced at Rome,
he cjilled upon him to recant, and concluded with
twelve anatheinas against his presiuned errors, thus
formally setting forward the Egyptian creed in oppo-
sition to the Antiochian system, as expressed by
Theodore of Mopsuestia.
The controversy now completely altered its aspect,
being converted from a personal into a doctrinal dis-
pute. By orders of John, patriarch of Antioch, a
refutation of the Egyptian anathemas was published
by Tlieodoret, bishop of Cyrus, a town on the Eu-
phrates ; and this refutation, which was written with
great severity, called forth an equally violent reply
from the pen of Cyril. Nestorius on his part treated
the deputies sent from Coelestine and Cyril with the
utmost contempt, and answered the anathemas of
Cyril by sending twelve other anathemas. It was
now thought to be absolutely necessary to summon a
general council, and, therefore, the Emperor Theo-
dosius II. issued a proclamation to all the metropo-
litans of his empire to meet in council at Ephesus,
about Pentecost in the following year. Cyril and
Nestorius arrived at Ephesus at the appointed time,
the former authorized temporarily to represent Pope
Coelestine, and accoinpaided by a great number of
Egyptian bishops ready to act as his devoted tools.
The bishop of the city in which the council was as-
sembled, was the friend of Cyril, and such w,is the
extent of influence arrayed against Nestorius, that he
found it necessary to solicit from the imperial com-
missioner, a guard, who surrounded the house in
which he resided. A number of the Syrian bishops
were prevented from reacliing Ephesus in time for
the opening of the council, and having waited six-
teen days beyond the day appointed by the emperor,
Cyril insisted on commencing proceedings, and ac-
cordingly, on the 22d June 431, he opened the synod
with 200 bishops. Nestorius refused to attend imfil
all the bishops should be assembled, and having been
formally invited three several tiiries to apiiear and
answer to the various charges, oral and written, laid
.ag.-iinst him, his refusal to obey the siunmons of the
synod was construed as an admission, on his own
part, of his guilt, and the synod, after many tears as
they declared, constrained by the laws of the church,
and by the letter of the Roman bishop, Cu'lesline,
pronounced sentence in the following terms : " Our
Lord Jesus Clu-ist, by Nestorius blasphemed, has
ordained by this most holy .synod, that the Nestorius
above-named should be excluded from the ei>iscopal
dignity, and from the whole college of [U'lests." This
sentence was no sooner passed, than by orders of
Cyril it was publicly proclaimed by heralds through
the whole city. It was also I'ormally announced to
the emperor.
Meanwhile, John, bi.shop of Antioch, with about
thirty Syrian bishops, arrived at Ephesus a few days
after the council headed by Cyril had met and de-
posed Nestorius, and on learning what had been
done, they declared the proceedings of that council
nidi and void, and proceeded to form a new council,
which considered itself to be the only regular one.
This council in turn deposed Cyril and Memnon
NESTORIANS.
529
bishop of Epliesus, and excommunicated tlie other
memliei-s wlio had taken part in tlie proceedings of
tlie Cyriliian council, until they should manifest peni-
tence, and condemn the anathemas of Cyril. The
sentence aijainst the two bisliops was made known
tlirough tlie city, and formally reported to the em-
]ieror. In the midst of this conflict of councils, the
deputies of the Roman bishop appeared at Ephesus,
and according to their instructions gave their formal
sanction to all the proceedings of Cyril and his
council. The emperor, however, on hearing the
report of his commissioner, lost no time in de-
spatching a letter to Ephesus, by the hands of an
imperial officer, conveying his royal pleasure, that
the disputed question should be carefully considered,
not by any party in the assembly, but by the whole
council in common, and until this was done, no one
of the bishops could be permitted to return home to
his diocese, or to visit the court. Cyril and his
party seeing the evident leaning of the emperor in
favour of Nestorius, resorted to various expedients
for the purpose of attracting the influence of the
court towards themselves, and at length they succeed-
ed in prevailing upon the feeble and vacillating em-
peror to confirm the deposition of Nestorius, although
he had agreed to withdraw his objection to the word
Tlieotokos, Mother of God. Thus forsaken by the
court, which had so long protected him against las
numerous and powerful enemies, Nestorius saw him-
.self deserted also by many of the bishops of his
party, and though Johnof Antiocli, and a number of
the Eastern bisliops, stood firm for a time, John and
Cyril were ultimately brought to an agreement, and
both retained their sees.
The compromise of principle with which Jolin of
Antioch was thus cliargeable, roused against him a
large party in his own diocese, and many of the Sy-
rian bishops withdrew from all fellowship with him.
A schism followed in various parts of the Eastern
church. The successor of Nestorius in the patriarch-
ate of Constantinople died in A. D. 433 ; a large
party in the city demanded the restoration of Nes-
torius, threatening, if their wish was refused, to set
fire to the patriarchal church, but so strong was the
influence exercised by the opponents of the deposed
patriarch, that the vacant dignity was ctuiferred up-
on his early adversary, Proclus. Nestorius was
confined in a cloister in the suburbs of Antioch,
where he had resided before his election to the pa-
triarchate. Here he continued for four years to
enjoy undisturbed repose free from the persecution
to which he had so long been subjected. But by the
inrtuenoe of his enemies an imperial edict was pro-
cured A. D. 435, condemning him to perpetual ban-
ishment in the Greater Oasis in Upper Egypt. In this
remote place of exile he wrote several theological
works. After a time, however, the district in which
he dwelt was laid waste by hordes of Libyan bar-
barians, known by the name of the Blemmyes, and
he himself was carried off; but in a short time he
rr.
was released and returned to tlie Thebaid, where,
amid the sufi'erings of his exile, he wrote a liistory of
his controversy, in which he sought to vindicate
himself against the reproaches of both friends and
foes. Various accounts are given of the circum-
stances which led to his death, but in one tiling all
are agreed, that his last years were embittered by
many acts of harsh and cruel persecution. The
precise time of his death ha.s not been ascertained,
but he seems to have died somewhere about A. D.
450.
The death of Nestorius had no cfTect in suppress-
ing the Nestorian controversy. Other teachers arose
who taught the same doctrines, and the sect conti-
nued to extend after its separation from the domi-
nant church. It was patronised and encouraged by
some of the Persian kings, and the Mohammedan
conquests in the seventh century gave an additional
impulse to its wider propagation. Under the desig-
nation of Chaldean Christians which they assumed,
they still exist, particularly in the mountains of Kur-
distan and the valley of Oroomiah intermedi.ate be-
tween Persia and Turkey. The numbers of the sect
are estimated by the American missionaries at about
140,000 souls. They dislike the name of Xe-storians,
alleging their doctrines to have been far more ancient,
having been derived from the teaching of the Apostle
James, and that they were tirst called Nestorians by
an enemy, Uioscorus of Alexandria. The people
usually call themselves Si/n'titis, and occasionally
Niizarenes. The great body of the Nestorian Chris-
tians fled in consequence of the persecution to which
they were subjected under the Emperor Justinian,
and took refuge in the dominions of the king of Per-
sia, where at one lime they exerted a great influence.
Once and again, however, a time (if persecution
came, more especially after the Mohammedan con-
quests, which compelled them to quit their original
residence, and take shelter in the mountains of Kur-
di.slan.
According to tlie general adniLssioii of travellers
in the East, the religious belief and practices of the
Nestorian Christians are more simple and spiritnal
than those of the other Oriental churches. They
reject image worship, auricular confession, tlic doc-
trine of purgatory, and many other corrupt doctrines
of the Roman and Greek churches. They cherish
the highest reverence for the Holy Scriptures, and
exalt them fiir above all tradition. .Mr. Perkins, the
father of the American mission in their couiilry, goes
so far in his admiration of this ancient body of
Christians, that he says, " they may with great pro-
priety be denominated the Protestants of Asia."
The ecclesiastical government of the NestoriimB
is thoroughly episcopal in its constitution. It is
thus described by Dr. Wilson in his ' Lands of tlic
Bible:' "The Nestorians have nine ecclesiastical
orders among their clergy ; but two or three of them
are at present little more than iKiminal. They are
those of sub-deacon, reader, deacon, priest, arcli-
2 Y
530
NESTORIANS.
deacon, bislioji, iiiefropolitHii, catliolicos, and patri-
arch. All below a bishop are permitted at any time
to many, according to their pleasure. The word
Bishop does not occur in the Syriac Testament,
KushUlw, elder, being employed where it is used in
the English translation ; but Episcoj>a, transferred
from the Greek, is the ecclesiastical title in common
use. The wish of the people is generally understood
and consulted in the appointment of a bishop; but
his consecration depends on the patriarch. A can-
didate for the office, according to a strange custom,
must abstain from the use of animal food, except
lish, eggs, and the productions of tlie dair)' ; and
his motlier must observe the same abstinence
wliile she nurse.? him at the breast. Tlie pa-
triarch officially has oidy spiritual power, but, in
point of fact, he exercises a great deal of secular in-
fluence among his people." The higher orders of
the clergy are bound by the Canons of tlie church to
adhere to celibacy, but the lower orders are allowed
to marry. jSlonasteries and convents are unknown
among the Nestorians. They have no relics, such
as are common in the Church of Rome, yet they
believ e the remains of tlie martyrs and saints to be
endowed with supernatural virtues, and they invoke
the Virgin Mary and the saints, asking for their
prayers to Christ. They have no pictures, nor
images in their churches, and the only symbol used
among them is a plain Greek cross, which they
venerate very highly. The sign of the cross is used
in baptism and in prayer ; a cross is engraved over
the low entrances of their churches, and kissed by
those who enter. Tlie priests also carry with them
a small silver cross, wliicli is often kissed by the
people.
Since the year 1834, an interesting and most effi-
cient mission has been established among the Nes-
torians by the American Board of Foreign Missions.
Tlie remarkable wisdom and prudence which have
cliaracterized the proceedings of the mission since
its commencement, entitle it to the highest commen-
dation. The following remarks of the Rev. .T. Per-
kins exhibit the missionaries in a very favourable
liglit : " From the commencement of the mission
there has been reason to hope that pure religion
might be revived in the small Nestorian community
without seriously disturbing the existing ecclesiasti-
cal constitution. The missionaries have not sought
to form a new Christian community, but to bring
individuals, both among the ecclesiastics and the
common people, to a full and saving knowledge of
the truth, hoping that such a change might be
brought about by the grace of God as should cause
tlie forsaking of false doctrines, so far as such were
held, the laying aside of whatever was superstitious
or unscriptural, ,ind the establishing of a pure church
upon existing fouiulations. It seemed at least best
to make the experimont, and to leave the question
as to the necessity or propriety of forming new
churches to be decided by I'me and providential cir-
cumstances. There has been the more reason, and
the more encouragement, for pursuing such a course,
from the fact that many of the leading ecclesiastics, so
far from setting themselves in opposition to the mis-
sionaries and to their instructions, as has been done so
generally among the Armenians and the Greeks, have
been decidedly friendly, and in not a few instances
have earnestly co-operated in every effort to elevate
and evangelize the people. The four bishops on the
plain, Mar Yohannan, Mar Elias, Mar Joseph, and
Mar Gabriel, exhibited friendliness, and a disposition
to favour the objects of the mission from the first,
and the missionaries early made it an object of spe-
cial attention to instruct and benefit these and other
ecclesiastics. The four bishops named were placed
in the relation of boarding pupils to the mission,
and for several years the three first received daily
instruction in a theological or Bible class, forming,
with some priests and other promising young men,
tlie first class in the seminary. They were also soon
employed as native helpers to the mission, and as
early as 1841 Mr. Perkins speaks of some of the
ecclesiastics as ' enlightened, and we trust really
pious.' ' They not only allow us to preach in their
churches, but urge us to do so ; and are forward
themselves in every good word and work. It is an
important fact that through the schools which liave
been established, almost the entire education of ec-
clesiastics is now in the hands of tlie nil.ssionaries.' "
The remarkable success which has attended the
labours of the American missionaries among this in-
teresting people is deeply gratifying. Schools ha.\e
been estabhshed. Bibles and tracts, both in ancient
and modem Syriac, have been extensively circulated,
the gospel has been faithfully preached, and the re-
sult has been of the most favourable description.
The missionaries, however, have met with obstacles
as well as with encouragements. Jesuits and other
emissaries of the Romish church have laboured long,
but with little success, to persuade the Nestorians to
submit to the authority of the Pope. Finding that
their own exertions, both among the Nestorians and
Armenians, were almost fruitless, they strove ear-
nestly to procure the banishment of the American
missionaries from the Persian dominions. Their
efforts in this direction happily failed, and in 1851
an edict of toleration was promulgated by the Per-
sian government, granting equal protection to all
Christian subjects, and permitting them to change
their religion or denomination at their pleasure.
The mountain Nestorians have not received from
the Turkish government that protection to which
they are entitled; and hence they have been exposed
to frequent assaults from the predatory Kurdish
tribes. A violent storm burst upon them from this
quarter in 1843, which proved most disastrous in its
results. Thousands of the Nestorians, men, women,
and children, were mas.^iacred, often with horrible tor-
tures; others were dragged oft' to a terrible capti-
vity, and others lied. Their villages were utterly
N ETH I NI M— XE W-BORN.
531
ilestruyed, and wliiU remained of tlie jieople in Gen-
ual Kurdistan were entirely subdued and reduced to
a state of deeper poverty and wretchedness than
tliey had known before.
A few years ago, Dr. Grant, an American mis-
sionary, who resided among the Nestorians for a
considerable time, and had studied their manners
and customs with the greatest minuteness and care,
publislied a treatise with the view of proving that
tills interesting class of people are the descendants
of the lost ten tribes of Israel. The argument is
conducted with great ingenuity and skill, but its
conclusiveness may well be doubted. His theory
rests on the Jewish physiognomy of tlie Nestorians,
the prevalence among them of Old Testament names,
the peculiarities of their customs, which in several
instances partake more of a Jewish than a Christian
character. Of these last, he adduces in particular
a commemoration for the dead, which is observed
once a-year, in tlie montli of October. Ofterings of
lambs and bread are prepared by each family some
days before the time at which the festival is ob-
served ; and when prepared they are carried into the
cliurcliyard. The Lord's Supper is first dispensed,
after which the officiating priest cuts several locks of
wool from tlie fleeces of the lambs, and throws them
into a censer, which he hands to a deacon, by whom
it is waved backwards and forwards in the presence
of the people. While this ceremony is going for-
ward, the priest recites an anthem, and otlers prayers
for the living and the dead. At the close of the ser-
vice the lambs and bread are distributed among the
people. Another ceremony, which Dr. Grant sup-
poses to be of Jewish origin, is a sacrifice of thank-
oftering which the Nestorians occasionally observe.
Having slain a lamb at the door of the church, they
sprinkle the blood upon the lintels, and, as in the
case of burnt-ofl'erings under the Law of Moses, the
right shoulder and breast, along with the skin, are
assigned to the priest. It ought to be noticed that
such ceremonies may not have been derived imme-
diately from tlie Jews, being found also occasionally
practised by the Mohammedans of Turkey.
It is remarkable at what an early period the Nes-
torians rose into influence in the East, and diffused
their principles throughout various and even remote
countries. In A. D. 498, a Nestorian was raised to
the Iiigli dignify of archbishop of Seleucia and Ctesi-
phon, assuming the title of patriarch of the East.
During the fifth and two following centuries, Nesto-
rianism spread through Persia, Clialdasa, and Syria,
and penetrated even to India, Tarfary, and China.
A Nestorian church of considerable extent was found
by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century on the
coast of Malabar, in the south of India. These
Christians, who held a tradition that their church
was founded by the Apostle Thomas, called them-
selves by the name of Christians of St. Thomas.
(See Thomas (St.), CnitisTiAxs of.) The Chal-
dean Catholic Church (which see) originated in
a schism which took place towards the middle of
the sixteenth century, among the Nestorians, a
party having consented to subject themselves to the
autliority of the See of Rome.
NETHERLANDS CHURCH. See Dutch Ri:-
FORMED Church.
NETHINIM, inferior officers employed in the
service of the ancient Jewish tabernacle and temple.
They were employed chiefly in culling wood and
drawing water, to be used in the sacrifices. They
were not originally of Helirew descent, but are gen-
erally supposed to have been the posterity of the
(Jibeonites, who, in the time of Joshua, were doomed
by God to perform menial offices. In tlie faithful
discharge oftlie.se humble duties, they continued till
the time of Nehemiah, who mentions that great
numbers of them returned from Babylon to rebuild
Jerusalem and the temjile. Ezra brought 2"20 of
them into Judea. Those who followed Zerubbabel
made up .'592. This number seems not to have been
suflicient for the discharge of the duties required of
them, and hence .Josephus .speaks of a solemnity
called Xijlophoria, in which the people generally car-
ried wood to the temple, to keep up the fire on the
altar of burnt-sacrifices. AVhen the Net/n'iiim were on
duty at the temple, they lodged in the tower of
0[ hel, or in a street adjacent, that they might be
near the east gate of the temple, which was the usual
entrance. They were not allowed to lodge within
the courts of the temple, because they were not of
the tribe of Levi. When their week of ministra-
tion was ended, they returned to the cities and vil-
lages assigned to them as their places of residence.
NETON. Macrobius, in his Saturnalia, mentions
that the Accitani, an Iberian tribe, worshipped, under
the name of Nelon, a statue of Mars adorned with
ravs of light.
NETOVTSCHINS, a sect of Russian Dissenters,
who are described by Dr. Pinkerton, in his account
of the Greek church in Russia, as very ignorant and
much divided in oiiinion. Tlicy go under the gen-
eral name of Spasova Sogla-'ia, or the Union for
Salvation. They believe that Antichrist has come,
and has put an end to everything holy in the
elnu'ch.
NETPE, the mother of Tiiphon, the god of evil
among the ancient Egyptians. According to a
myth, she was repre.sented as seated on the tree of
life, and sprinkling healthful water upon the souls of
men .
NEW-BORN, a sect which arose in tlie United
States of North America in the early part of
the last century. It was originated by Matthias
Bowman, a German emigrant, who embarked for
America in 1710, and settled in what is now Berks
County, I'eiiu.sylvania. During the few years which
he passed in his adopted country — he died in 17"27
— Bowman succeeded in drawing around him a small
sect, who called themselves Ncw-Borii, pretending
to have received the new birth through mediate iu-
632
NEW MOON (Festival of the)— NEW YEAR (Festival of the).
spiratioii, iippaiitioiis, ilreanis. and the like. Any
one wlio liad tints been regenerated wa.s alleged to
be like God and Christ, and to be incai)able of any
longer committing sin. They denied the Bible to
be necessary as a means of salvation, and scofl'ed at
the holy .sacraments. The privilege of impecca-
bility they believed to be the portion of all who
truly belonged to Christ. The New Birth they held
to be that new stone which none knoweth but he
tliat receiveth it. The sect appears to have sur-
vived the death of their founder little more than
twentv Years.
NEW JERUSALENr CHURCH. See Swe-
DENBORGIANS.
NEW MOON (Festival of the). From veiy
early times, months being computed by the moon,
the first appearance of the new moon was regarded
as a festival. Thus in the Law of Moses, the Jews
were commanded, in addition to the daily sacrifices,
to offer on the new moons, two bullocks, a ram,
and seven sheep of a year old, together with a
meal -offering and a libation. These constituted
the burnt -offering, and a goat the sin-offering.
These numerous victims were probably divided be-
tween the morning and evening sacrifices. The
first appearance of the new moon was announced by
the sounding of silver trumpets. The new moon of
the seventh month, or Tisri, being the commence-
ment of the civil year, was observed as a festival
under the name of the feoM of trumpeta. Tlie Jew-
ish Rabbis maintain that the commencement and
length of each montli were determined from time to
time by the decision of the Sanhedrim. Several
parties were dispatched to elevated places with in-
structions to watch the first appearance of the moon,
and the Sanhedrim appointed a committee of three
to receive their depositions. If they returned on the
thirtieth day of the month, declaring that they had
seen the moon, and if their testimony on this point
agreed, then the thirtieth was consecrated and ob-
served as the day of New Moon. If, however, the
moon was not seen till the thirty-first day of the
montli. that day was appointed to be kept. The deci-
sion of the Sanhedrim was announced to the people
by lighted beacons on the hills in time of peace, and
by me.ssengers sent in all directions in time of war.
Those, however, who were very far distant from Jeru-
salem kept both days. The modern Jews observe
tlie feast of the new moon on both the first and
second days of the month, during which, though the
men are allowed to engage in their ordinary employ-
ments, the women are forbidden to do any servile
work. The time is spent in feasting, in the recita-
tion of several psalms and other portions of Scrip-
ture, and the repetition of some additional prayers.
"On the first Saturday evening in the month," as
we learn from Mr. Allen in his ' Modern Judaism,'
"if the moon is then visible, or on the first evening
after, when the sky is bright enough to have a clear
view of her, the Jews assemble in the open air, for
what is called 'the consecration of the new-moon:'
when some grave rabbi pronounces the following
benediction, in which he is joined by all the com-
pany— ' Blessed art thou, O Lord, our God, king of
the universe ! who with his word created the hea-
vens, and all tlieir ho.st with the breath of his mouth.
A decree and appointed time he gave them, that they
should not deviate from their charge : they rejoice
and are glad when performing the will of tlieir Crea-
tor. Their Maker is true and his works are true. He
also ordained tliat the moon should monthly renew
her crown of glory ; for those who have been ten-
derly carried from the womb are also hereafter to
be renewed like her, to glorify their Creator for the
glorious name of his kingdom. Blessed art thou, 0
Lord, who renewest the months.' Then, addressing
the moon, they say three times — ' Blessed be thy
Former I Blessed be thy Maker ! Blessed be thy
Possessor! Blessed be thy Creator!' Then they
raise themselves up, or jump, three times, and say —
' As I attempt to leap towards thee, but cannot touch
thee, so may those who attempt to injure me be
unable to reach me.' Then they say three times —
' May fear and dread fall upon them ; by the gi'eat-
ness of thine arm may fliey be still as a stone. Still
as a stone may they be, by the greatness of thine
arm ; may fear and dread tall on them. David king
of Israel liveth and existetli.' Then eacli says to
the company — ' Peace be to you.' They mutually
answer — ' Unto you bo peace.' "
The practice of calculating the new moon from
tlie time of observing it, has been discontinued since
the dispersion of the Jews, except by the Caraites
(which see), who still adhere to the ancient custom.
The festival of the new moon seems to have been j
observed for some time after the introduction of i
Christianity. Chrysostom has a whole discourfe
di.ssuading Christians from observing it. A testival
called Neomcnia was observed by the ancient Greeks
at the beginning of every lunar month in honour of
all the gods, but especially of AjmUo, or the sun.
Among the Phceiiicians it was customary at tlie New
Moon to feast in honour of Antarte, and more espe-
cially on that occasion they sacrificed children to
Moloch. The Chinese consecrate both the new and
the full moon to the memory of their ancestors.
NEW PLATONISTS. See Alexandhian
School.
NEW TESTAMENT. See liiiiLr..
NEW VE.\R (Festival of the). The obser-
vance of the first day of the year as a sacred festi-
val is of very ancient origin. Tisri, the seventh
montli of the sacred and first of the civil year, is said
by the Clialdcc Paraphrast to have begun the year
long anterior to tlie existence of the Hebrew nation.
The following command is given in the law of
Mose.s, Numb. xxix. 1, 2. "And in the seventh
month, on the first day of the month, ye shall have
an holy convocation ; ye shall do no servile work :
it is a day of blowing the trumpets unto you And
NEW YEAR (Festival of the).
533
ye sliall otter a burnt-offering for a sweet savour unto
tlie Lord ; one young bullock, one nun, and seven
lambs of tlie first year without blemish." On this
festival, wliieh received, and still bears among the
Jews the name of the Feast of Trumpets, the people
assembled from all parts of Palestine at Jerusalem ;
sacrifices were offered up ; silver trumpets were
blown from morning till night ; the Levites read
passages of the law, and gave instructions to the
people. This season was reckoned peculiarly fa-
vourable for the commencement of any undertaking.
Among the modern Jews, the first and second days
of Tisri are still celebrated by a cessation from
all unnecessary labour, and the observance of pro-
tracted services iu the synagogue. It is a Rabbini-
cal notion that the world was created on this day ;
and that God sits iu judgment on mankind on this
first day of the year. The special services of the sy-
nagogue are thus described by Mr. Allen : " In the
morning service, after the lessons from the law and
the projihets, they blow a trumpet or cornet, which is
required to be made of ram's horn, in memory of the
ram which was substituted for Isaac on Mount Mo-
riah. The prayers make frequent allusions to that
transaction, which the rabbies aftirm to have hap-
pened on this day. The blowing of the cornet is
preceded by a grace ; and as soon as it has been
sounded the reader proclaims, ' Happy is the people
who know the joyful sound : O Lord ! in the h'glit
of thy countenance they shall walk.' The shouphar
or cornet is sounded many times in the course of
this festival. Among otlier reasons for it, the
following is assigned in one of the prayers : ' Thy
people are assembled to supplicate thee ; they blow
and sound tlie shouphar, as it is said in thy law, to
confound the accuser, Satan, that he may not be
able to accuse them before thee.'
" Between the morning and afternoon services, on
the second day, it is their custom to go to some river,
or to the sea side, and shake their garments over the
water. By some, this ceremony is represented as a
casting away of their sins and an accomplishment of
the prophetical declaration : ' Thou wilt cast all
their sins into the depths of the sea.' And others
say, 'It is customary to go to the river where there
are fish, to put us in mind that we are taken away sud-
denlv, as a fish caught in a net ; we tlierefore ought
to repent while it is in our power, and not leave that
for to-morrow which may as well be done to-day.'"
The old Roman year began in March, and on the
first day of that month the festival Axcyi.ia (which
see), was celebrated, when the Snlii or priests of
Mars, carried the sacred sliield in procession through
the city, and the people spent the day in feasting
and rejoicing. The Romans counted it lucky to be-
gin any new enterprize, or to enter upon any new
office, oivNew Year's day. The same sacredness was
attached to the first day of the year after tlic change
took place in the Roman c.ilendar. which made Jan-
uary the commencing month instead of March; and
Pliny tells us, that on the 1st of January, people
wished each other health and prosperity, and sent
presents to each other. It was accounted a public
holiday, aiul games were celebrated in the Campus
Martins. The people gave themselves up to riotous
excess and various kinds of heathen superstition.
•' It was only," remarks Neander, " to ojipose a coun-
ter infiueuce to the pagan celebration, that Christian ,
assemblies were thially held on the first day of Jan-
uary ; and they were designed to protect Christians
against tlie contagious influence of pagan debauch-
ery and superstition. Thus when Augustin had
assembled his church, on one of these occasions, he
first caused to be sung the words, ' Save ns, 0 Lord
our God ! and gather us from among the heathen !'
Psalm cvi. 47 ; and hence he took occasion to re-
mind his flock of thoir duty, especially on this day,
to show, that a.s they had, in truth, been gathered
from among the heathen : to exhibit in their life
the contrast between the Christian and the heathen
temper ; to substitute alms for New-Year's gifts,
(the Strense,) edification from scripture for merry
songs, and fasts for riotous feasting. This principle
was gradually adopted in the practice of the West-
ern church, and three days of penitence and fasting
opposed to the pagan celebration of January, until
the time being designated, the festival of Christ's
circumcision was transferred to this season ; when a
Jewish rite was opposed to the pagan observance.s,
and its reference to the circmncision of the heart by
repentance, to heathen revelry."
The Hindus call the first day of the year Prnja-
patr/a, the day of the Lord of creation. It is sacred
to Ga»e-^a, the god of wisdom, to whom they sacri-
fice male kids and wild deer, and celebrate the
festival with illuminations and general rejoicings.
Among the mountain tribes it is customary to sac-
rifice a bull'alo every New Year's day, in the pre-
sence of a multitude assembled to witness the solemn
ceremonv. The Chinese begin their year about the
vernal equinox, and the festival observed on the oc-
casion is one of the most splendid of their religious
feasts. All classes, including the emperor, mingle
together in free and unrestrained intercourse, and
unite in thanksgiving for mercies received, as well
as in prayer for a genial season, and an abundant
crop. In Japan the day is spent in visiting and
feasting. The Tsabians held a grand festival on the
dav that the sun enters Aries, which was the first
day of their year, when the priests and people
marched in procession to the temples, where they
sacrificed to their planetary gods. Among the an-
cient Persians prisoners were liberated and ofl'enders
forgiven on this day ; and, in short, the Persian New
Year's day resembled the Sabbatical year of the
Jews. A curious Oriental custom peculiar to this
dav may be mentioned. It is called by the Arabs
and Persians the Game of the Beardless River, and
consists in a deformed man, whose hair has been
shaved and his face ludicrously painted with varie-
534
NEYELAII— NICOLAITANS.
gated colours, riding along tlie streets on an ass, and
behaving in the most whimsical and extravagant
manner, to the great delight of the multitudes tluit
follow him. Thus eriuipped he proceeds from door
to door soliciting small jiieces of money. A simi-
lar custom is still found in various parts of Scotland
under the name of " guizarding."
On the 10th of March, or commencement of the
vear among the Druids, was performed the famous
ceremony of cutting the mistletoe. Beneath the oak
where it grew were made preparations for a banquet
and sacrifices; and for the fir.-^t time two white bulls
were tied by the horns. Then one of the Druids,
clothed in white, mounted the tree, and cut ofl" the
mistletoe with a golden sickle, receiving it into a
white sagum or cloak laid over his hand. The sac-
rifices were next commenced, and prayers were
offered to God to send a blessing upon his own gift,
whilst the plant was supposed to bestow fertility on
man and beast, and to be a specific against all sorls
of poisons.
On the first day of the year, as Humboldt informs
us, the Mexicans carefully adorned their temples
and houses, and employed themselves in vai-ious re-
ligious ceremonies. One, which was at first perhaps
peculiar to this season, though subsequently it be-
came of more frequent occurrence, was the oft'ering
up to the gods of a human sacrifice. The wretched
victim, after having been flayed alive, was carried up
to the pyramidal summit of the sacred edifice, which
was the scene of these barbarities, and after his heart
had been torn out by a priest, in the presence of as-
sembled thousands, his body was consumed to ashes,
by being placed on a blazing funeral pile.
The Muyscas, or native inhabitants of New Gren-
ada, celebrate the same occasion with peaceful and
utdjloody rites. They assemble, as usual, in their
temples, and their priests distribute to each wor-
shijiper a figure formed of the flour of maize, which
IS eaten in the full belief that it will secure the indi-
vidual from clanger and adversity. The first lunation
of the Muysca year is denuuiinated ''the montli of
the ears of maize."
Prom the various facts thus adduced, it is plain
tliat the rites connected with New Year's day may
be traced back to the remotest ages, that they have
been universally celebrated in all ages and nations,
and that though of a festive and cheerful, they have
been uniformlv of an essentially religious character.
NEW ZEALAND (Rki.igion of). See Poly-
nesians (Religion of the).
NEYEL.\n, a deity worshipped by the ancient
Arabians before the days of Mohammed.
NIBIIAZ, a god referred to in 2 Kings xvii. .SI,
as worshipped by tlie Avites. The Jewish commen-
tator, Abarbanel, derives the name from the Hebrew
word niiharh, to bark, and asserts the idol to have been
made in tlie form of a dog. Selden considers this
deity to be the same vvith Tarlak, which is mention-
ed along with it in Scripture. It is more probable,
however, that Nibliaz corresponds to the dog-headed
Anuhi< of the ancient Egyptians.
NICENE CREED, a formulary of the faith of the
Christian church, drawn up in opposition to the
Arian heresy, by the first general council, which was
convened at Nice in Bithynia, A. D. 325. In its ori-
ginal form the creed ran thus : " We believe in one
God, the Father, almighty, the maker of all things
visible and invisible : and in one Lord, Jesus Clu'ist,
the Son of God, begotten of the Father, only-begot-
ten (that is), of the substance of the Father, God of
God, Light of Light, very God of very God ; be-
gotten, not made ; of the same substance with the
Father ; by whom all things were made that are in
heaven and that are in earth ; who for us men, and
for our salvation, descended, and was incarnate, and
became man ; suffered and rose again the third day,
ascended into the heavens; and will come to judge
the living and the dead ; and in the Holy Spirit. But
those who say that there was a time when he was
not, and that he was not before he was begotten, and
that he was made out of nothing, or affirm that he is
of any other substance or essence, or that the Son of
God is created, and mutable or changeable, the Ca-
tholic church doth pronounce accursed."
The creed, however, wdiich is used in the Romish,
Lutheran, and English churches, under the name ol
the Nicene Creed, is in a more eiilarged form, being
in reality the creed set forth by the second general
council, which was held at Constantinople A. D. 381.
In its present form, therefore, tlie creed may be
termed the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed; the
addition to the original Nicene Creed having been in-
troduced to meet the heresy of Macedonius in regard
to the divinity of the Holy Spirit. The words Filiu-
que, "and from the Son," were not inserted earlier than
the fifth century, when they seem to have been in-
troduced by the Spanish churches, and from them
they passed to the other churches of the West. Tlie
clause FiUoqiie is rejected by tlie Greek church, and
lias long been the subject of a bitter controversy be-
tween the Eastern and Western churches.
NICOLAITANS, a Christian sect said to have
existed in the second century. Irenanis, who men-
tions it, traces its origin to Nicolas, a deacon .spoken
of in the Acts of the Apostles ; and he supposes the
same sect to be referred to in the second chapter of
the Book of Revelation. It is doubtful, however,
whether John means anything more by the Nicolai-
tans in the Apocalypse than a class of people who
endeavoured to seduce the Clu-istians to participate
in the sacrificial feasts of the heathen, and may have
been the s.ame with those who are .said, Rev. ii. 14,
to have held the doctrine of Balaam. The Nicolai-
tans, who may jjrobably have falsely claimed Nicolas
as their founder, ajipcar to have been lax both in
principle and practice. They held the Epicurean
maxim, that pleasure and the gratification of the
bodily ajipetites formed the true end and haiipincss
of man, and without the slightest scruple they eat
NICOLAS'S (St.) DAY— NIHILISTS.
;;i5
of all meats oflered to idols. It is impossible to
speak with certainty as to the true opinions of the
Nioolaitans. Some suppose that there were two
sects bearing tlie name of Nicolaitans, one referred
to by the Apostle John, and another founded in the
second century by one called Nicolaiis. Eusebins
says, that the sect of Nicolaitans existed but a sliort
time.
NICOLAS'S (St.) DAY, a festival ob.^erved in
botli tlie Romish and Greek churches, in honour of
Nicolas, a sort of patron saint of mariners. It is
celebrated on the 6th of December.
NIDDUI, the lowest degree of excommunication
among the ancient Jews. It consisted of a suspen-
sion of the oti'ender from the synagogue and society
of his bretlireu for thirty days. If he did not repent
in the course of that time, the period of suspension
was extended to sixty days ; and if he still continued
obstinate, it was prolonged to ninety days. If be-
yond that time he persisted in impenitence, he was
subjected to the Chicrem (which see).
NIDHOGG, the huge mundane snake of the an-
cient Scandina^^an cosmogony. It is represented as
gnawing at the root of the ash YyifdrasiU, or the
mundane tree. In its ethical import, as Mi-. Gross
alleges, Nidhogg, composed of Nid, which is syno-
nymous with the German tieid, or envy, and hoggr,
to hew, or gnaw, sigiiitying the envious gnawer,
involves the idea of all moral evil, typified as the
destroyer of the root of the tree of life.
NIFLHEIM, in the old Scandinavian cosmogony,
place consisting of nine worlds, reserved for those
that died of disease or old age. Hela or Death
there exercised her despotic power. In the middle
of Nitlheim, according to the Edda, lies the .spring
called Hvergehnir, from which How twelve rivers.
NIGHT. The Hebrews were always accustomed,
even from the earliest times, to consider the night as
preceding the day. Hence we read Gen. i. 5, " The
evening and the morning were the first day." Be-
fore the Babylonish captivity the night was divided
into three watches; the first continuing till mid-
night ; the second from njidnight till cock-crowing ;
and the third, which was called the morning watch,
continued till the rising of the sun. The Romans
divided the night into four watches, a mode of cal-
culating which was in use among the Jews in the
time of our Lord. The watches consisted each of
three hours, the first extending from six till nine ;
the second from nine till twelve or midnight ; the
third from twelve till three, and the fourth from
three till six.
NIGHT-HAWK, a species of owl, enumerated
among the unclean birds mentioned in Leviticus.
It was called Tachmas among the Hebrews. It was
reckoned a sacred bird among the ancient Egyptians,
and in proof of this statement, we may adduce the
testimony of Sir John G. Wilkinson : " The hawk
was particularly known as the type of the sun, and
worshipped at Ileliopolis as the sacred bird, and
representative of tlie deity of the place. It was also
peculiarly revered at the island of Phihe, where this
sacred bird was kept in a cage and fed with a care
worthy the representative of the deity of whom it
was the eniblem. It was said to be consecrated to
Osiris, who was buried at Phite ; and in the sculp-
tures of the temples there the hawk frequently oc-
curs, sometimes seated amidst lotus plants. But
this refers to Horus, the son of Osiris, not to that
god himself, as the hieroglypliics show, whenever
the name occurs over it.
"A hawk with a human head was the emblem of
the human soul, the baieth of Horapollo. The god-
dess Athor was sometimes figured under this form,
with the globe and horns of her usual head-dress.
Hawks were also represented with the head of a
ram. Several sjjecies of hawks are natives of
Egypt, and it is difficult to decide which was really
the sacred bird. But it appears the same kind was
chosen as the emblem of all the ditferent gods, the
only one introduced besides the sacred hawk being
the small sparrow-hawk, or Fako tenunculoides,
which occurs in certain mysterious subjects con-
nected with the dead in the tombs of the khigs.
The sacred hawk had a particular mark under the
eye, which, by their conventional mode of repre-
senting it, is much more strongly expressed in the
sculptures than in nature ; and I have met with one
species in Egj-jit, which possesses this peculiarity in
so remarkable a degree, as to leave no doubt re-
specting the actual bird called sacred in the country.
I have therefore ventured to give it the name of
Falco aroma. Numerous hawk niunmiies have been
found at Thebes and other places. And such was
the care taken by the Egv-ptians to preserve this
useful and sacred bird, that even those whidi died in
foreign countries, where their armies happened to be,
were embalmed and brought to Egypt to be buried
in consecrated tombs."
NIHILISTS, a sect of German mystics in the
fourteenth centiu-y, who, according to Ruysbroek,
held that neither God nor themselves, heaven nor
hell, action nor rest, good nor evil, have any real
existence. They denied God and the work of Christ,
Scripture, sacraments — everything. God was no-
thing; they were nothing; the universe was no-
thing. " Some hold doctrines such as these in secret,"
adds Ruysbroek, "and conform outwardly tor fear.
Others make them the pretext for every kind of vice
and insolent insubordination." The hcresyof Nihilian-
ism seems to have existed at an earlier period than
the fourteenth century, for we find Peter Lombard
charged with it in the twelfth century, because he
maintained that the Son of God had not become any-
thing by the assumption of our nature, seeing no
change can take jilace in the divine nature. The prin-
cipal author of this accusation against Lombard was
^Valter of St. Victor. But it can sauccly be ad-
mitted to be just, proceeding as it does upon the
idea that the denial of existence in a certain indivi-
536
NIKE -NIRM ALAS.
dual form is an absolute denial. Sometimes the
term Nihilists is used to denote Annihilationists
(which see).
NIKE, the goddess of victory, who had a famou.s
temple on the acropohs of Athens, which is still ex-
tant. The word is also found used as a surname of
Athena, under wliich she was worshipped at Megara.
NIKEFHORUS (Gr. bringing victory), a sur-
name of several divinities among the ancient Greeks,
such as Aphrodite.
NILOA, an anniversary festival among the an-
cient Egyptians, in honour of the tutelar deity of
the Nile. Heliodorus alleges it to have been one of
the principal festivals of the Egyptians. Sir J. G.
Wilkinson thus describes the Niloa : " It took place
about the summer solstice, wjien the river began to
rise ; and the anxiety with which tbey looked for-
ward to a plentiful inundation, induced tliem to cele-
brate it with more than usual honour. Libanius
asserts that these rites were deemed of so mucli im-
portance by tlie Egyptians, tliat unless they were
performed at tlie proper season, and in a becoming
manrier, by the persons appointed to this duty, they
felt persuaded that the Nile would refuse to rise and
inundate the land. Tlieir full belief in tlie efficacy
of the ceremony secured its annual performance on
a grand scale. Men and women assembled from all
parts of the country in the towns of tlieir respective
nomes, grand festivities were proclaimed, and all the
enjoyments of the table were united witli the solem-
nity of a holy festival. Music, the dance, and appro-
priate liyinns, marked the respect they felt for the
deity, and a wooden statue of the river god was car-
ried by the priests through the villages in solemn
procession, tliat all miglit appear to be honoured by
his presence and aid, while invoking the blessings lie
was about to confer." Even at the present day the
rise of the Nile is hailed by all classes with excessive
Joy-
NILUS, the great river of Egypt, which even in
the most ancient times received divine lioiiours from
the inhal)itants of that country. This deity was more
especially worshipped at Nilopolis, wliere he had a
temple. Herodotus mentions the priests of the Nile.
Lucian says that its water was a common divinity to
all of the Egyptians. From the monuments it ap-
pears that even the kings paid divine honours to the
Nile. Champollion refers to a painting of the time
of tlie reign of Rameses II., whicli exhibits this king
offering wine to the god of the Nile, who, in the
hieroglyphic inscription, is called Hapi Moon, the life-
giving fatlier of all existences. The passage which
contains the praise of the god of the Nile represents
him at the same time as the heavenly Nile, the primi-
tive water, the great Nihis whom Cicero, in his De
Natura Deorum, declares to be the father of the liigh-
est deities, even of Amnion. Tlie sacredness which
attached to tlio Nile among the ancient Egyiitians is
still preserved among the Arabs who have settled in
Egypt, and who are accustomed to speak of the river
as most holy. Mr. Bruce, in his travels in Abyssi-
nia, mentions that it is called by the Agows, Gzeir,
Geesa, or Seir ; the first of which terms signities a
god. It is also called Ab, fatlier, and has many
other names, all implying the most profound venera-
tion. This idolatrous worship may have led to the
question which the prophet Jereniiali asks, " What
hast thou to do in Egypt to drink of tlie waters ol
Seir?" or the waters profaned by idolatrous rites.
NIMETULAHITES, an order of Moliammedan
monks in Turkey, which originated in the 777th year
of the Hegira. Tliey assemble once every week to
praise God in sacred hymns and songs. Candidates
for admission into this order are obliged to pass
forty days in a secret chamber, with no more than
four ounces of meat a-day, and during the time the)
are confined in this solitary apartment, they are be-
lieved to be contemplating the face of God, and
meditating upon heaven, as well as praising the
Creator of the universe. At the end of tlie allotted
period they are led forth by the frateniity and en-
gage together in a sacred dance, until they fall down
in a state of ecstasy, in which they see visions, and
are favoured with extraordinary revelations from hea-
ven.
NINE-DAYS-DEVOTION. See Novena.
NINTH-HOUR SERVICE. In the early Chris-
tian church this service took place, according to our
reckoning, at three o'clock in the afternoon, at which
time our Saviour expired upon the cross. At this
hour Cornelius was praying when he was visited by
an angel ; and we are told also, that Peter and John
went up into the temple " at the ninth hour, being
the hour of prayer," and the usual time of the Jew-
ish evening sacrifice. The custom of celebrating
divine service at this hour seems to have been con-
tinued in the Christian church. Thus the council of
Laodicea expressly mentions the ninth hour of pray-
er, and orders that the same service should be used
as was appointed for evening prayer. And as Chry-
sostom speaks of tliree hours of public prayer in the
day, he includes, in all probability, the ninth as one
of them.
NIOBITES, a party of tlie Monopiiysitrs (which
see), founded by Stephanus, surnanied Niobes, iui
Alexandrian rhetorician or sophist.
NIREUPAN, the word used by the Siamese to
denote the Nirwana (which see) of the Budhists.
NIRMALAS, one of the divisions of the Siicns
(which see), who profess to dedicate themselves ex-
clusively to a religious life. They lead a life of celi-
bacy, and disregard their personal appearance, often
going nearly naked. They do not assemble togetlier
in colleges, nor do they observe any particular form
of Divine service, but confine their devotion to spe-
culative meditation on the perusal of the writings of
N.'inak, Kabir, and other unitarian teachers. They
are always solit.-iry, sujiported by their (lisci|iles, or
wealthy persons who may happen to favour the sect.
The Nirmalas are known as able expounders of the
NIinVAXA— NITII 1 XG.
537
Vedanti philosophy, in which l^raliinaiis do not dis-
dain to accept of their instructions. They are not a
very numerous bod_v on the w)iole ; but a few are
almost always to be found at the principal seats of
Hindu wealth, and particularly at Benares.
NIUWANA, extinction, the highest possible feli-
city in the system of Budhism (which see). It has
been frequently disputed whether the expression
means anything more than eternal rest, or unbroken
sleep, but those who have fully studied the literature
of Budhism, consider it as amounting to absolute
annihilation, or the destruction of all elements which
con.stitute existence. There are four paths, an en-
trance into any "f which secures either immediately,
or more remotely, the attainment of Nimxnia. They
are (1.) Sowdn, which is divided into twenty-four
sections, and after it has been entered there can be
only seven more births between that period and the
attaiinnent of Nirii'aiia, which may be in any world
but the four hells. (2.) Sakraddijdmi, into which lie
who cjiters will receive one more birth. He may
enter this path in the world of men, and afterwards
be born in dewa-h'ika ; or he may enter it in a dcwa-
loka, and afterwards be born in the world of men. It
is divided into twelve sections. (3.) Amigdmi, into
which he who enters will not again be born in a
Jcdma-loka ; he may, by the apparitional birth, enter
into a hrahma-loka, and from that world attain Nir-
wana. This path is divided into forty-eight sec-
tions. (4.) Ari/a or Anjahat, into which he who en-
ters has overcome or destroyed all evil desire. It is
divided into twelve sections.
Those who have entered into any of the paths can
discern the thouglits of all in the same, or preced-
ing paths. Each path is divided into two grades :
l.The perception of the path. 2. Its fruition or
enjoyment. The mode in which Xirwana, or the
destruction of all the elements of existence, may
be reached, is thus pointed out by Mr. Spence
Hardy, in his ' Kastern Monachisni :' " The un-
wise being who has not yet arrived at a state of
purity, or wlio is subject to future birth, overcome
by the excess of evil desire, rejoices in the organs
of sense, ,<yatana, and their relative objects, and
commends them. The .ayatanas therefore become
to him like a rajiid stream to ean-y him onward
toward the sea of repeated existence ; they are
not released from old age, decay, death, sorrow, i^c.
But the being who is purified, perceiving the evils
arising from the sensual organs and their relative
objects, does not rejoice therein, nor does he com-
mend them, or allow himself to be swallowed up by
them. By the destruction of the 108 modes of evil
desire he has released himself from birth, as from the
jaws of an alligator ; he has overcome all attachment
to outward objects ; he does not regard the unautho-
rized precepts, nor is he a sceptic ; and he knows that
there is no ego, no self. By overcoming these four
eiTors, he has released himself from the cleaving to
existing objects. By the destruction of the cleaving
[I
to existing objects he is released from birth, wlielher
as a brahma, man, or any other being. By the de-
struction of birth he is released from old age, decav,
death, sorrow, &c. All the afflictions connected
witli the repetition of existence are overcome. Thus
all the principles of existence are annihilated, and
that annihilation is nirw.'ina."
In the Budhist system Xirwana is the end or com-
pletion of religion ; its entire accomplishment. All
sentient beings will not attain it. But if any one
attain the knowledge that is proper to be required ;
if he learn the universality of sorrow ; if he over-
come that which is the cause of sorrow ; and if he prac-
tise that which is proper to be observed ; by him the
possession of Si'nrdna will be secured ; and Xir-
w;tna, being a non-entity, the being who enters this
state must become non-existent.
X'^IS.VX, the seventh month of the civil year
among the Hebrews, and after the exodus from
Egypt the first month of the ecclesia.stical year. It
was originally called Ami! (which see), but received
the name of yisan in the time of Ezra, after the re-
tin"n from the captivity of Babylon.
NISUOCH, an Assyrian deity wcir.shippcd by Sen-
nacherib, who appears to have been a pontitVas well
as a king, and who was murdered by his own sons
while engaged in the temple of Nismch, in the per-
formance of religious rites. This deity was probably
identical with Asliiir. the principal deity of Nineveh.
There is a ciu'ious Rabbinical fancy concerning this
Assyrian idol, that it was a plank of Noah's ark.
Some think that Jupiter Belus was worshipped in
Assyria by the name of Nisroch, and under the
figure of an eagle. Stanley, in his History of Orien-
tal Philosophy, alleges tliat Nisroch, as well as the
other Assyrian gods, had a reference to the heavenly
budies.
NITHING, infamous, a most insidting epithet,
anciently used in Denmark and throughout the
whole of the North of Europe. There was a pecu-
liar way of ajiplying it, however, which gicatly ag-
gravated its virulence, and gave the aggrieved party
the right to seek redress by an action at law. This
was by setting np what was called a Xithing-post
or Xithing-sfake, which is thus described by Mr.
Blackwell in his valuable edition of Mallet's North-
ern Antiquities : "A mere hazel twig stuck in the
ground by a pei-son who at the same time made use
of some opprobrious ei>ithet, either against an indivi-
dual or a community, was quite sufficient to come
under the legal definition of a Xithing-post. Sev-
eral superstitious practices were, however, commonly
observed on the occa.-^ion which were supposed to
impart to the Xithing-post the power of working
evil on the party it was directed against, and more
especially to make any injuries done to the person
erecting it recoil on those by whom they had been
perpetrated. A pole with a horse's head, recently
cut ofT. stuck on it, was considered to form a Nitli-
ing-post of peculiar elficacy. Thus when Eigil, s
2z
538
XITO— XOACHIC PRPXEPTS.
celebrated Icclaiulic skald ot' the ninth century, was
banished from Xorwa_v, we aiv told tliat lie took a
stake, tixed a horse's liead on it, and as he drove it
in the ground said, ' I liere set up a Nithing-sfake,
and tin-ii this my banishment against King Eirek and
Queen GnnhiUla.' He then turned tlie liorse's liead
towards the land, saying, 'I turn this my banish-
ment against the protecting deities of this country,
in order that they may, all of them, roam wildly
about and never lind a resting-place until they have
driven out King Eirek aiid Queen Gunhilda.' He
then set sail for Iceland, with the firm persuasion
that the injuries lie had received by liis banisluneut,
woidd by the eflicacy of his channed Nitliing-post
recoil on the royal couple they had, in his opinion,
proceeded from.
" Mention is frequently made in the Sagas and the
Icelandic laws of this singular custom. We are told
for instance, in the Vatsndsia Sagii, that Jokul and
Thorstein having accepted a challenge from Finbogi
and Bjorg, went to the place of meeting on the day
and hour ai>pointed. Their opponents, however, re-
mained quietly at home, deeming that a violent
storm, which happened to be raging, would be a suf-
ficient excuse for their non-appearance. JiJkul, after
waiting for some time on the ground, thought tliat
he would be justified in setting up a Nithuig-post
against Finbogi, or as would now be said, in posting
him for a coward. He accordingly fashioned out a
block of wood into the rude figure of a human head,
and fixed it on a post in which he cnt magical runes.
He then killed a mare, opened her breast, and stuck
the post in it with the carved head tiinied towards
Finbogi's dwelling."
NITO, an evil spirit recognized by the pagan na-
tives of the Molucca Islands. Every town formerly
had its peculiar Nito, who was consulted in every
ati'air of any importance. Twenty or thirty persons
assemble for this purpose. They summon the Kito
by the sound of a little consecrated drum, whilst
some of the company light up several wax tapers,
and pronounce several mystical words with the view
of conjuring up the demon. One of the company
now pretends to speak and act as if he were the
demon himself. Besides these public ceremonies,
there are others that are private. In some corner
of the house tbey light up wax tapers in honour of
the Nito, and set something to eat before him. The
master of each family always attaches great value to
anything which has been consecrated to their JVito.
NIXI DII, a name applied among the ancient
Romans to those deities who assisted women in
childbirth. Three statues were erected on the Capi-
tol bearing this name.
NJEMHE, a female association among the na-
tives of Sontheni Guinea, corresponding to NuA
("whicli see) among the males. The proceedings of
this institution are all secret. The women consider
it an honour to belong to thi' order, and put ihein-
selves to great expense to be admilted. "During
the process of initiation," as we learn from Mr. Wil
son, "all the women belonging to the order paint
their bodies in the most fantastic colours. The
face, arms, breast, and legs, ai'e covered over with
red and white spots, sometimes arranged in circles,
and at other times in straight lines. They march in
regular lile from the village to the woods, where all
their ceremonies are iierformed, accompanied by
music on a crescent-formed drum. The party spend
whole nights in the woods, and sometimes exposed
to the heaviest showers of rain. A sort of vestal-
tire is used in celebration of these ceremonies, and it
is never allowed to go out until they are all over.
" The Njembe make great pretensions, and, as a
body, are really feared by the men. They pretend
to detect thieves, to find out the secrets of their ene-
mies, and in various ways they are useful to the
community in winch they live, or are, at least, so
regai'ded by the people. The object of the institu-
tion originally, no doubt, was to protect the females
from harsh treatment on the part of their husbands;
and as their performances are always veiled in mys-
tery, and they have acquired the reputation of per-
forming wonders, the men are, no doubt, very nuicli
restrained by the fear and respect which they have
for them as a body."
NJORD, a god among the ancient Scandinavians,
who reigned over the sea and winds. The Edda
exhorts men to worship him with great devotion.
He was particularly invoked by seafaring men and
fishermen. He dwelt in the heavenly region called
Nodtiui, and by his wife Skadi he became the lather
of the god Frcy, and the goddess Freyja.
NKAZYA, a small shrub, whose root is employed
iji Northeni Guinea in the detection of witchcraft.
Half a pint of the decoction of the root is the usual
doze, and if it acts freely as a diuretic, the party is
considered to be innocent ; but if it acts as a narco-
tic, and produces vertigo or giddiness, it is a sure
sign of guilt. " Small sticks," says Mr. Wilson,
" are laid down at the distance of eighteen inches or
two feet apart, and the suspected person, after he
has swallowed the draught, is required to walk over
them. If he has no vertigo, he steps over them
easily and naturally; but, on the other hand, if his
brain is affected, he imagines they rise up before
him like great logs, and in Ids awkward cflbvt to
step over them, is very apt to reel and fall to the
ground. In some cases this draught is taken by
proxy; and if a man is found guilty, he is eiilier put
to death or heavily fined and banished from the
country."
NOACHIAN DELUGE. See Dki.igi: (Tha-
DITIO.N.S OF TIIK).
NOACHIC PRECEPTS, Jewish writers allege
that seven precepts were given by God to the sons
of Noah. They are as follows : " 1. Not to commit
idolatry. II. Not to blas|)heme the name of God.
III. To constitute upright judges for the mainte-
nance of justice and its impartial adniiiiislratiMii tc
NOCCA— NOMIXALIST.S.
all persons. IV. Not to commit incest. V. Not to
commit murder. VI. Not to rob or steal. VII.
Not to eat a member of any living creature. ' Every
one tliat observes these seven commandments,' ac-
cording to a Jewish writer, ' is entiiled to happi-
ness.' Bnt to observe them merely from a .sense
of their propriety, ig deemed by Maimonides in-
suilicient to constitute a pions Gentile, or to con-
fer a title to happiness in the world to come : it is
■■pqiiisite that they be observed because they arc
divine commands."
NUCCA, a god worsliipped among tlie ancient
Goths and Get», as presiding over the sea.
NOCTURNS. See Antelucan Seuvick.
NODIIAMIANS, a heretical Mohammedan sect,
who, to avoid falling into the error of making God
tlie author of evil, asserted that neither directly nor
indirectly, permissively nor authoritatively, had God
any connection whatever with evil. This sect de-
nied also tlie miraculous cliaracter of the Koran.
NODOTUS, said to liave been a deity among tlie
ancient Romans who presided over knots in the
stem of plants producing grain. It lias been sup-
posed also to liave been a surname of Saturn.
NOETIANS, a Christian sect which arose in the
early part of the tliird centiu-y, deriving its name
from its founder Noetus, who denied a plurality of
persons in the Godhead. lie acknowledged no otlier
Person but the Father only. He admitted with the
orthodo.K tliat there were two natures united in one
Person in Christ, but he lield that tlie divine Person
which was united with the human nature could be no
other than the Person of tlie Father. If this view
were coifect, it would be the Father wlio sutlered
on the cross. Hence the sect received the name of
PATRirASSIANS.
NOL.E. See Bells.
NOMINALISTS (from Lat. nomen, a name), a
class of thinkers who made their tirst appearance iu
the tenth century, alleging that general ideas, or, as
they were usually termed at that time, miiversals,
have no existence in reality, but are mere wcji'ds or
names. An opposing party asserted that univer.sals
were real existences, and lieuce received the ap-
pellation of Realists. Tlie coiitro\ersy which now
eonimeuced between these two parties, coiiiimied
througliout several centuries, and was agitated with
the utmost keenness on both sides. The subject of
dispute in tliis cise was apjiarently one of a strictly
abstract and philosophical character, but it soon rose
into additional interest and importance, in conse-
quence of both parties applying their respective
theories to the explanation of rehgioiis doctrines.
And indeed the origin of the contest has sometimes
been traced back to the controversy with Berenga-
rius respecting the Lord's Supper.
The founder of tlie sect of tlie Noiidnaliitx as a
distinct and separate body was Roscelin, in the
eleventh century, followed by his eminent disciple
Abelard. Through the influence of these two dis-
tinguished men, tlieir opinions spread rajiidly lor a
time, bnt afterwards the knotty point which formed
tlie ground of dispute fell into neglect, until in the
fourteenth century .\<jmiiiali.<!iu received fresh spirit
and life from Occam the disciple of Scotus. Tlien
the dispute about universals was revived with the
fiercest animosity in the schools of Britain, Fnuice,
and Germany. Nor did this war of philosophical
opinion abate in intensity until the Reformation put
an end to the quarrels of the schoolmen. All the
intiuence of the Cliurch of Rome was for a long time
exerted in favour of the Realists, and against the
Nominalists. Accordingly, in 1339, the university
of Paris issued an edict condemning and proliibilin^
the pliilosophy of Occam, but contrary to all expi-r
tatiun, the opposition of this learned body had the
ertect of leading a still greater number to adopt
Nominalist opinions. Both in France and Germany
the contest became so violent, that no longer limit-
ing itself to abstract argimient, it had recourse to
penal laws and the force of arms. In the til'teemli
century, the \otniiialish, or 2Wmi?usts, as they were
also called, were held in higli authority in the uni-
versity of Paris, as long as John Gerson and his
immediate disciples lived; but after their deatli
Louis XL, the king of France, issued a royal edict
prohibiting tlie doctrine of the Nominalists from
being taught, and tlieir books from being read. This
edict, liowever, remained in force only a few years,
and in 1481 the sect was restored to its former pri-
vileges and honours in the univeivity of Paris. Lu-
tlier in his time declared it to be the most powerlid
of all sects, particularly at Paris.
In England, after the revival of letters, Mr. Ilobbts
adopted the opinion of the Noiin'iiallsln, and the same
course was followed by Bishop Berkeley and Jlr.
Hume. Dugald Stewart also observes : "It is with
the doctrine of the Nominalists that my own opinion
coincides;" and afterwards he continues, '•It may
frequently happen, from the association of idea.^
that a general word may recall soine one individual
to which it is api)licable ; but this is so far from being
necessary to the accuracy of our reasoning, that ex-
cepting in some cases in wliich it may be useful to
check us in the abuse of general terms, it always has
a tendency, more or less, to mislead us iVoni the truth.
As the decision of a judge must necessarily be im-
partial when he is only acquainted with the relations
ill which the parties stand to each other, and when
their names are siqiplied by letters of the alphabet,
or by the fictitious names of Titus, Cains, and Sem-
pronius ; so in c\ ery process of reasoning, tlie con-
clusion we form is most likely to be logically just,
wlien the attention is contineil solely to signs ; and
when the imagination does not present to it those
individual objects which may warp the judgment
by casual associations."
The Xomiiinlkis have often been charged with
holding doctrines which, from their very nature, lea<l
to scepticism. Thus it is argued, that it', as tlie^-
540
NOMIXATION— NOON-DAY SERVICE.
allege, iiidivicliials are the only realities, tlien it fol-
lows, as a natural consequenoe, that the senses which
perceive individual existence must be the only
Bources of knowledi,'e ; and it also follows, that there
can be no absolute affirmation concerning things,
since all absolute afliruiation proceeds on the reality
of general or universal notions. In this way it is
evident that points of the highest importance depend
upon the solution of tlie question which divided the
schoolmen throughout tlie Middle Ages into tlie two
great parties of yominaliits and Eealists. Thus, at
the very time when Nominalism was first developed,
Roscelin attempted to show that without this system
the doctrine of the Trinity and of the incarnation of
the Son of God. could not be rightly presented.
Considering as lie did every universal to be a mere
abstraction, and particulars as alone having realitj',
he argued that if only the essence of God in the
Trinity was called one thing, and the Three Persons
not three things, the latter could not be considered as
anything real. Only the one God would be the
real ; all besides a mere nominal distinction to which
nothing real coiTesponded ; and so, therefore, witli
the Son, would the Father and the Holy Ghost also
have become mau. It was, accordingly, necessary
to designate the Three Persons as three real beijigs,
the same in respect of will and power. Hence at a
council which met at Soissons in lOO.S, Roscelin's
doctrine was condemned as Tritheism, and such was
his fear of being treated as a heretic, that he was in-
duced to recant.
NO:\riNATION, the offering of a clerk to the
person who has the right of presentation, that he
may present him to the ordinaiy. The nommator is
bound to appoint his clerk within six months after
the avoidance.
NOMIUS, a surname of those gods among the
ancient heathens who presided over pastures and
shepherds, such as Pan, Apollo, and Hermes.
NOMOC.\NON, a name given by the Canonists
to a collection of ecclesiastical laws, along with the
civil laws to which they refer. The first Nomoninnn
was made A. D. 554, by Jo.annes Aiitiochenus, pa-
triarch of Constantinople. It was under fifty heads
or titles. Photius, patriarch of Con.stantinople, made
another Nonmcanon about A. D. 88.3, arranging it
under fourteen titles. In A. D. 1255. Arsenius, a
monk of Atlios, compiled a new Nomocanon, to
which he added notes, .showing the confonnity of the
imperial laws with the patriarchal constitutions.
Still another Xoniomnon was prepared by IMatthaiUS
Blastares, a Basilican monk.
NOMOPIIYL.VX (Gr. nnmos, a law, and phjlcuc,
a keeper'', an officer of the modem Greek Church,
whose office it is to lojep the canon laws.
NOMOS, a personification of law among the an-
cient Greeks, and described as exercising authority
over gods and men.
NONA, one of the Fates (which see) among the
ancient Romans.
NON-CONFORMISTS, the name originally ap-
plied to tho.se persons in England who refused to
conform to the Liturgy or Common Prayer-Book in
the reign of Charles II. It is now used, however,
to denote generally all who decline to conform to
the doctrine, worship, and government of the Churcli
of England. The word is now synonymous in Eng-
land with DlssENTEiiS (which see).
NON-CONFORMITY (Era of), an expression
used to denote the 24th of August 1C62, when, in
con.sequence of the Act of Uniformity coming uito
operation, nearly two thousand ministers of the
Church of England were thrown into the ranks of
the Non- Conformists.
NONES. See Ninth-Hour Service.
NON-INTRUSIONISTS, a name applied to a
party in the Church of Scotland, who held that it
was, and had been ever since the Reformation, a fixed
principle in the law of tlie church that no minister
shall be introduced into any pastoral charge con-
trary to the will of the congregation. The attempt
to carry out this principle led to the formation in
184,3 of tlie Fre£ Church of Scotland. See Scotland
(Free Church of).
NONJURORS, an appellation given to those
Scottish Episcopalians who, at the Revolution of
1G88, adhered to the banished family of the Stuarts,
and refused to take the Oath of Allegiance to Wil-
liam and Mary. At the death of Prince Ch.-irles
Edward Stuart, the last of the Stuart family, in
1788, this body transferred their loyalty from the
House of Stuart to that of Hanover, and thus ceased
to be Nonjurors. Soon afterwards, in 1792, an act
was passed relieving them from the penalties im-
posed upon them by the various acts of (Juecn Amie,
George I. and George II.
NONN.E. See Nuns.
NON-RESIDENCE. In the ancient Cliristian
Church several laws existed enforcing upon both the
bishops and all the other clergy strict residence, in
order to bind them to constant attendance upon their
duty. Thus the council of Sardica prohibits a bishop
from leaving his church for a longer period than
three weeks, luiless on some very weighty and ur-
gent occasion. The council of Agde decreed, in
reference to the French churches, that a presbyter or
deacon, who was absent from his church for three
weeks, should be suspended from the comminiion for
three years. Justinian, in his Novels, lays down a
ride that no bishop shall bo absent from his church
above a whole year without the express authority of
the emperor.
NOON-DAY SERVICE, one of the customary
offices of the early Christian Church. It took place
at the sixth hour, which answers to our twelve o'clock
or noon. At this service, according to the account
which Basil gives of it, they used the 91st Psalm,
praying for protection against the noon-day devil, as
the Septuagint translates (he 5th and fith verses,
■■ Thou shall not be afraid for the terror by night
NORNS— NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS (Religion of the).
■.41
nor for the aiTow tliat Hietli by day ; nor for tlie pesti-
lence that walketli in darkness, nor for the sickness,
nor file devil that destroyeth at noon-dav." This
service was held at noon in commemoration of the
sacrifice offered upon the cross.
NORNS, the name given in the Edda to the Des-
tinies (which see) of the ancient Scandinavians.
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS (RELiciioN of
the). The Indian tribes of North America are tlie
remnants of once populous and powcrftd nations.
Some of them are found in the western part of the
State of New York, some in Michigan, but the larirer
portion of them live in the territory west of the -Mis-
sissippi river, known as the Indian reservation, a
fen-itory lying west of the States of Arkansas .-md
Missouri, between Red River on the south, and Platte
River on the north, being about 5U0 miles from
north to south, and about 300 miles in breadth from
east to west. The religion of tlie numerous tribes
which inhabit this e.tfeusive territory is composed of
a combination of spirit worship and fetish-worship.
The spirits are supposed to inhabit the objects which
are adopted as fetishes ; and even tlie most sublime ob-
jects of external nature, for example, the sun, the moon,
and the planets, are not worshipped as material
and inanimate objects, but as the abodes of Divinity.
Amid the manifest polytlieism which such a system
of worship involves, there is found in many, if not
most, of the rude tribes inhabiting the vast American
continent, the sublime conception of one Great
Spirit, the Creator of the universe. This Being,
liowever, great and good though he is, they do not
regard as in any way connected with the fortunes of
men, or the government of the world.
Subordinate to the Great Spirit whom the Indians
of the New World worship, are two separate series
of minor deities, the one series being good deities
under the Sun as their chief, and the other being
evil deities under tlie Moon. But the most promi-
nent characteristic of the worship of these wild
tenants of the forests has always been its depreca-
tory character. It is essentially a religion of fear,
the idea being ever present to the mind, that there
are numberless malevolent spirits, demons, spectres,
and fiends unceasingly employed in increasing the
burden of human wietchedncss. Hence the use of
amulets, charms, and exorcisms to avert the anger
of these hostile spirits ; and hence also the extraor-
dinary inHuence which seers and witches, doctors and
medicine-men have ever been able to exercise over
the mind of tlie Indian. "But we seldom see the
darker traits of his religion," says Mr. Ilardwick, " so
distinctly, as when brought together in the doctrine
of Maniloes, which con.stitutes, it has been thought,
the nearest approximation he has ever made to
some originality of conception. The word Manito,
or Manedo, itself appears to signify 'a siiirit:'
hence the foremost member in the series of good
divinities, the Great Spirit of the old American,
is called in various tribes, Kitchi or Gezha Ma-
nito; the name of the evil-minded spirit being
Matchi Manito. But, when employed without such
epithets, this title is restricted to a minor emanation
from the Great Spirit, which revealing itself in
dreams to the excited fancy of the youthful Indian,
and inviting him to seek its efficacy in some well-
known bird or beast, or other object, is selected by
him for his guardian deity, his friend in coiuicil,
and his champion in the hour of peril. He be-
lieves, however, tliat other JIanitoes may prove far
iniglitier and more terrible than his own, and con-
sequently he is always full of apprehensions lest
the iuHuence granted preternaturally to his neigh-
bour should issue in his own confusion. Add to
this the prevalent idea, that Manitoes intrinsically
evil are ever exercised in counterworking the bene-
ficent, and that the actual administration of tho
world, abandoned to these gi-eat antagonistic powers,
is file result of their interminable conflicts, and we
cease to wonder at the moral perturbations which
mark the character of the wild man. Tlie fever of
intense anxiety is never sufl'ered to die out; until
at length he either passes lo another world, the
simple reproduction of the present, or migi'ales info
viler forms of animal existence, or, as in the case of
the most highly favoured, is emancijiatcd altogether
from an eartlily prison-house, and rescued from the
malice of his demoniacal oppressors."
The North American Indians endeavour to propi-
tiate the Great Spirit, by ofl'ering solemn sacrifices
to him, for which they prepare themselves by vomit-
ing, fa.sting, and drinking decoctions from certain
prescribed plants ; and all this in order to expel the
evil which is in them, and that they may with a pure
conscience attend to the sacred performance. Nor
is the object of these sacrifices always the same;
they have sacrifices of prayer, and sacrifices of
thanksgiving. After a successful war they never
fail to ofier up a sacrifice to the Great Being as an
expression of gratitude for the \iclory.
A curious example of the superstitions prevalent
among the Indians is found in the practice of the
initiation of boys, by which they ]iretend that the
boy receives instruction from cirlain spirits as to his
conduct in life, his future destination, and the won-
ders he is yet to perform. The following account of
this strange process is given by the Rev. John
Heckewelder in his Historical Account of the Indian
Nations: "When a boy is to bo thus initkited, he is
put under an alternate course of physic and fasting,
either taking no food whatever, or swallowing the
most powerful and nauseous medicines, and occii-
sionally he is made to dniik decoctions of an intoxi-
cating nature, until his mind becomes sufficiently be-
wildered, so that he sees or fancies that he sees
visions, and has extraordinary dreams, for wliich, oi
course, he has been prepared before liand. He will
fancy liimself flying through the air, walking under
ground, stepping from one ridge or hill to the other
across the valley beneath, figliting and conquering
542
NOinVAV (CiiarxH of).
giants anrl monsters, and del'eatiiig wliolo hosts by
his single anr.. Then he lias interviews witli tlie
Mannitto or with spirits, wlio inform him of wliat lie
was before he was born and what he will be after
liis death. His fate in this life is laid entirely open
before him, the spirit tells him what is to be his
future employment, whether he will be a valiant
warrior, a mighty luuiter, a doctor, a conjuror, or a
prophet. There are even those who learn or pretend
to learn in this way the time and manner of tlieir
death.
" When a boy has been thus initiated, a name is
given to him analogous to the visions tliat he has
seen, and to the destiny that is supposed to be pre-
pared for liim. The boy, imagining all that hap-
pened to him while under pretnrbation, to have been
real, sets out in the world with lofty notions of him-
self, and animated with courage for the most desper-
ate undertakings."
The Indians believe that they were created within
the bosom of the^arth, where they dwelt for a long
time before they came to live on its surface. Some
assert that they lived in the bowels of the earth in
human shape, while others maintain that they ex-
isted in the form of certain animals, such as a rabbit,
or a tortoise. Mr. Heckewelder tells us, that tliey
paid great respect to the rattle-snake, whom they
called their grandfatlier, and would on no account
destroy him. Different tribes claim relationship
with ditVerent animals, and accordingly assume their
names as distinctive badges, such as the Tortoise
tribe, the Turtle tribe, and so forth.
NOIITIA, an ancient Etruscan goddess.
NORWAY (Cliuitcii OF). The first introduc-
tion of Chri.stianity into Norway has generally been
ascribed to Hacon, a prince of the country, before
the middle of the tenth century. This person had
received a Christian education at the court of Athel-
stan, king of England. On returning to his own
land, he found his coimtrymen zealously devoted to
the worship of Odin ; and having himself embraced
Christianity, he was under the necessity of worship-
ping in secret. At length, having gained over some
of his most intimate friends to the .side of Christian-
ity, he resolved, as he had become master of the
kingdom, to establish Christianity as the religion of
the country. Accordingly, he proposed, A. D. 945,
before an assembly of the people, that the whole na-
tion should renounce idolatry and worship the only
true God and Jesus Christ his Son. He suggested
also that tlie Sabbath should be devoted to religious
exercises, and Friday observed as a fast-day. These
royal propositions were indignantly rejected both by
nobles and people; and the king, to conciliate his
enraged subjects, yielded so far as to take part in
some of the ancient sacred riles and customs. In
particular, at the celebration of the Yule festival, he
consented to eat part of the liver of a horse, and to
drain all the cups drunk to its honour. In con-
seijueiice of this sinful paiticiiiation in niaiiifcst
idolatry, he was soon after seized with the most
painful remorse, and having been mortally wounded
in battle, his last hours were embittered by tlie
weight of guilt resting upon his conscience, and he
died deeply penitent for the scandal he liad brought
upon the Christian jirofession.
The Danish king, Ilarald, efiected the conquest of
Norway in 967, and no sooner had he obtained pos-
session of the country, tlian he sought by force to
destroy paganism, and introduce Cln-istianity. The
violent measures, liowe\er, to wliicli he had recourse
for this purpose, were wholly misuccessful, and led
only to a stronger reaction in favour of the rehgion
of Odin. In a sliort time the way was opened
for the more eft'ectual admission of the Christian
religion by the elevation to the tlirone of Olof
Trvggwesen, a Norwegian general, who was favour-
able to Christianity. " Tliis Olof,'' to quote from
Neander, '• had travelled extensively in foreign lands;
in Russia, Greece, England, and the neighbouring
ports of Northern Germany. By intercourse with
Christian nations, in his predatory excursions, lie
had obtained some knowledge of Christianity, and
had been led, by various circumstances, to see a
divine power in it. In some German port lie had
become acquainted, among others, with a certain
ecclesiastic from Bremen, Thangbrand by name, a
soldier priest, whose temper and mode of life were
but little suited to the spiritual profession. This
person carried about with him a large sliield, having
on it a figure of Christ on the cross, embossed in
gold. The shield attracted Olofs particular notice.
He inquired about the meaning of tlie symbol, which
gave the priest an opportunity of telling tlie story of
Christ and Cln-istianity, as well as he knew liow.
Observing how greatly Olof was taken with the
shield, Thangbrand made him a present of it ; for
which tlie Norman chieftain richly repaid him in
gold and silver. He moreover promised to stand by
him, if he should ever need his assistance and pro-
tection, in the future. In various dangers, by sea
and on the land, wliich Olof afterwards cncoimtered,
he believed tliat he owed liis life and safety to this
sliield ; and his faith in the divine power of the cru-
cified one thus became stronger and stronger. At
the Scilly Isles, on the south-west coast of England,
he received baptism ; upon which he returned to
Norway, liis country, fully resolved to destroy pagan-
ism. In England, lie again met with the priest
Thangbrand, who had been compelled to leave his
country, for liaving slain in single combat a man of
superior rank. Olof took him along to Norway, in
tlie capacity of a court clergyman. No good could
be expected to result from his coiineelion with a
person of this cliaracter. Inclined of his own accord
to employ violent measures for the destruction of
paganism and the spread of Christianity, he would
only be confirmed in this mistaken plan by Tliang-
braud's influence."
On reaching Norway, and taking possession of the
NORWAY (Church of).
643
government, he directed liis chief efforts towards tlie
introduction of Olirislianity as the religion of the
conntry. He everywliere destroyed tlie licatlien
temples, and invited all classes of the people to sub-
mit to baptism. Wliere kindness failed in gaining
converts, he had recourse to cruelty. His plans,
however, for the Christianization of liis subjects,
were cut short in the year 1000 by his death, which
took place in a war against the united powers of
Denmark and Sweden. Norway now passed into
the hands of foreign rulers, who, tliough favourable
to Christi,inity, took no active measures for planting
the Christian church in their newly acqtdred terri-
tory, and the pagan party once more restored the
ancient rites. But this state of matters was of short
eontiiuiance. Olof the Thick, wlio delivered Norway
from her foreign rulers, came into the counti'y in
1017, when already a decided Clu'istian, with bishops
and priests wliom lie had brought with liim from
England. He resolved to force Chriftianity upon
the people, and accordingly the ob.stinate and re-
fractory were threatened with confiscation of their
goods, and in some cases with death itself. Many
professed to yield through fear, and submitted to be
baptized, but their conversion being pretended, not
real, they continued secretly to practise their pagan
ceremonies with as mucli zeal and earnestness as
ever. In the province of Dalen, the idolaters were
headed by a powerful man named Gudbrand, wlio
assembled the people and persuaded them that if
the)' woidd only bring out a colossal statue of their
great god Thm; Olof and liis whole force would
melt away like wax. It was agreed to on both
sides, that each party should try the power of its
own god. The night preceding the meeting was
spent by Olof in secret prayer. Next day the colos-
sal image of Tlior, adorned profusely witli gold and
silver, was drawn into the public place, where crowds
of pagans gathered round the image. The king
stationed beside himself Colbein, one of his guard, a
man of gigantic stature and gi-eat bodily strengtli.
Gudbrand commenced the proceedings ])y challeng-
ing tlie Cliristians to produce evidence of the power
of their God, and pointing them to the colossal
image of the miglity Tlior. To this boastful address
Olof replied, taunting the jiagans with worshipping
a blind and deaf god, and calling upon them to lift
their eyes to heaven and behold the Cliristian's God,
as he revealed himself in the radiant light. At tlie
utterance of these words, the sun burst forth with
the brightest efi'ulgcnce, and at (he same moment
Colbein demolished tlie idol with a single blow of a
heavy mallet which he carried in his hand. Tlie
monster fell, crumbled into fragments, from which
crept a great multitude of mice, snakes, and lizards.
The scene produced a powerful efiect upon the
pagans, many of whom were from that moment con-
vinced of the utter futility of their idols.
The severity, however, with which Olof had con-
diictcd his goyeriiment, prepared the way for the
conquest of the country by Canute, king of Denmark
and England. The banished Olof returned, and
raising an army composed wholly of Christians,
made arrangements for a new struggle. He fell
mortally wounded in battle on the 29ili of July 1033,
a day which was universally observed as a festival
by the people of tlie North in honour of Olof. whom
they hesitated not to style a Christian martyr. This
monarch, whose memory was long held in tlie highest
estimation, had laboured zealously for tlie spread of
Christianity not only in Norway, but also in the
islands peopled by Norwegian colonies, such as Ice-
land, the Orcades, and the Faroe Islands. His short
reign was, in fact, wholly devoted to the propaga-
tion of the new faith, by means the most revolting
to humanity. His general practice was to enter a
district at the head of a powerful army, summon a
council or Thing, as it was called, and give the peo-
ple the alternative of fighting with him, or of being
baptized. Jlost of them prefeiTed baptism to the
risk of fighting with an enemy so well prepai'ed for
the combat, and thus a large number made a nomi-
nal profession of Christianity.
Ever since the light of Christianity had dawned
on Scandinavia, a general desire prevailed among the
people to visit the Holy Land. Several of the Nor-
wegian kings and princes h;id made a pilgrimage to
the Holy Sepulchre, and during the reign of Mag-
nus Barfoed, a chieftain named Skopte equipped a
squadron of five vessels, and set sail, accompanied
by his three sons, for Palestine, but died at Rome,
where he had stopped to perform his devotions. The
expedition was continued by his sons, none of whom,
however, survived the journey. The fame of tliis
exploit and the marvellous tales of other pilgrim.s,
led Sigurd, king of Norway, to undertake a pilgrim-
age to .leru.salein. Fired with a love of wild adven-
ture, and an avaricious desire of plunder, the royal
pilgrim set out with a fleet of sixty vessels, sur-
mounted with the sacred banner of the cross, and
manned with several thousand followers. After win-
tering in England, wliere they were hospitably treat-
ed by Henry I., the Norwegian crusaders proceeded
on their voyage, and after encountering pirates,
plundering various places, and barbarously nuirder-
ing tribes of people who refused to become Chris-
tiiins, they paid the accustomed visit to Jerusalem and
the other holy pl.aces. Sigurd, on his return home,
was solicited l)y the king of Denniiuk to join him
in an attack upon the inhabitants of Smaland, who,
after being nominally converted to Christianity, had
relapsed into idolatry, and put to death the Christian
missionaries. The king of Norway responded to the
invitation, and passing into the Baltic punislied the
revolted pagans, and relurned to his country laden
with booty. After a reign of twenty-seven years
Sigurd died in 1130.
From this period Norway became for more than a
century a prey to barbarous and destructive ci\il
wars. In the midst of these internal commotionii
544
NORWAY (Church of).
Cardinal Albauo, an Eiiylislunaii by birlli, and after-
wards known as Pope Adrian IV., arrived in Nor-
way as legate from tlie Romish see. Tlie chief
object of his mi,ssion was to render the kingdom
ecclesiastically independent of the authority of tlie
archbishop of Lund — an arrangement which was
earnestly desired by tlie Norwegian kings. An
archiepiscopal see was accordingly erected at Trond-
heim, and endowed with authority, not only over
Norway, but also over the Norwegian colonies. Re-
joicing in their spiritual independence, the people
readily consented to pay the accustomed tribute of
Peter's pence to Rome, but they strenuously resisted
the attempt made by the Pope's legate to insist up-
on the celibacy of the clergy. " In various other
things," says Snorre, " the papal legate reformed the
manners and customs of the nations during his stay,
so that there never came to this land a stranger
who was more honoured and beloved both by princes
and people."
The church of Norway had now accepted a me-
tropolitan at the hands of the Pope of Rome, and
this acknowledgment of subjection to the Romish
see was soon followed by other concessions which
seriously compromised the liberties of the country.
The ambitious prelate, who now occupied the see of
Trondlieim, was desirous of adopting every expe-
dient to add to the influence and authority of the
primacy. Witli this view he succeeded in bringing
it about that the realm was hereafter to be held as a
fief of St. Olof, the superior lord being represented
by the archbisliops of Trondheim, whose consent was
made indispensable to the fiUuig of the vacant throne.
On the demise of the reigning king the crown was
to be religiously oft'ered to St. Olof, in the cathedral
where his relics were deposited, by the bishops, ab-
bots, and twelve chieftains from each diocese, who
were to nominate the successor with the advice and
consent of their primate. Thus taking advantage of
the incessant contentions for the sovereignty by
which the country was agitated and disturbed, the
Romish primate secured for tlie see of Trondlieim a
perpetual control over the future choice of the Nor-
wegian monarchs. The crown was now declared an
ecclesiastical fief, and the government almost con-
verted into a liierarcby.
A young adventurer named Sverre seized on tlie
crown of Norway, and his title wa.s ratified by the
sword as well as by tlie general acquiescence of the
nation. The primate, however, refused to perform
the usual ceremony of coronation, and fearing the roy-
al displeasure, tied to Denmark. Thence he trans-
mitted an appeal to Rome, in consequence of which
the Pope launched the thunders of the Vatican against
Sverre, threatening him witli excommunication un-
less he instantly desisted from his hostile measures
against tlie i>riniate. The sovereign having been edu-
cated for the priesthood, was well skilled both in camm
law and ecclesiastical, and he found no difficulty,
therefore, in showing both from Scripture and the
decrees of councils, that tlie Pope had no right to
interfere in such disputes between kings and their
subjects. Anxious for peace, however, Sverre ap-
plied for a papal legate to perform the ceremony oi
his coronation, but was refused. The king was in-
dignant at this proceeding on the part of Rome, and
reproaching the Romish ambassador with duplicity,
ordered him forthwith to leave hi.'-; dominions. As
a last resource the enraged monarcli summoned to-
gether the prelates, and caused himself to be crowned
by Bishop Nicholas, wdio had been elected through
his influence ; but the proceeding was condemned
by Pope Alexander III., who excommunicated both
tlie royal and the clerical offender. Deputies were
soon after despatched to Rome, who succeeded in
obtaining a papal absolution for the king ; but on
their return they were detained in Denmark, where
they suddenly died, having previously pledged the
papal bull to raise money for the payment of tlieir
expenses. The important document thus found its
way into the hands of Sverre, who read it publicly
in the cathedral of Trondlieim, alleging that the de-
puties had been poisoned by his enemies.
Tlie wliole transaction seemed not a little suspi-
cious; the Norwegian king was diarged by the
Pope with having forged the bull, and procured the
death of the messengers ; and on the ground of this
accusation the kingdom was laid under an interdict,
the churches were ordered to be sliut, and the sacra-
ments forbidden to be dispensed. Bishop Nicholas
now abandoned the king, whose cause he had so
warmly espoused, fled to the primate in Denmark,
and there raising a considerable army invaded Nor-
way, but Sverre, aided by a body of troops sent from
England by King John, succeeded in defeating the
rebels. The king did not long survive this victory,
but worn out by the harassing contests to which for
a quarter of a century he had been subjected, he was
cut oft' at the age of tiftyone.
It had for a long time been the evident tendency
of the government of Norway to ivssume the form of
a .sacerdotal and feudal aristocracy. This tendency,
however, was arrested to some extent by the iirst
lirinces of the house of Sverre, who asserted tlie
rights of the monarch against the encroachments of
the clergy and tlie nobles. But it was more difficult
to contend wilh the Romish see, whicli has often been
able to accomplish more by secret machinations
than in open warfare. Wliile alVecting to renounce
the right with which the archbishop of Trondheim
had been invested of controlling the choice of the
monarch on every vacancy, the papal church induced
the crown to coniirm the spirilual jurisdiction of the
prelates wilh all the ecclesiastical endowments, even
to the exclusion of lay founders from their rights
of patronage. The prelates were allowed to coin
money, and maintain a regular body-gnard of one
hundred armed men for the archbishop, and forty for
each bishop. One concession was followed by an-
other, and the ardibisliop of Trondheim, taking
NORWAY (Church of).
54E
advantage of the yoiitli and inexperience of Erik,
son of Magnus Hakonson, who aseended the tlirone
at the age of tliirteen, extovted from liim at his
coronation an oath, tliat he would render tlie cluu'cli
independent of tlie secular authority. Having gained
tliis point, the artful primate proceeded to act u|joii
it by publisliing an edict imposing new tines for
otVences against tlie canons of the church. Tlie
king's advisers refused to sanction this bold step
taken by the primate ; and to vindicate his spiritual
authority, he excommunicated the royal counseUnrs.
The king in turn banished the primate, who forth-
with set out for Rome to lay his case before the
Pope. When on his way home again he died in
Sweden, and his successor having acknowledged
himself the vassal of Erik, the contest was termi-
nated, and the pretensions of the clergy reduced
within more reasonable limits.
In the commencement of the fifteenth century the
three kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden
were united under one sovereign, and this union of
Calmar, as it was called, existed nominally at least
from 1397 to 1523. during which long period there was
an incessant struggle for superiority between the
crown and the clergy. So harassing were the re-
peated encroachments of the Romish hierarchy, that
the Reformation was gladly welcomed as likely to
weaken the power and abridge the prerogatives of
the Popes. Many of the Norwegian youth had
studied at Wittemberg and other German univer-
sities, where they had imbibed the doctrines and
principles of the Reformers, and on their return
home they found both rulers and people ready to
embrace the reformed faith. But what tended
chiefly to facilitate the progress of the Reformation
in Norway was the election of Christian III. to the
throne by the lay aristocracy of the kingdom. Hav-
ing himself been educated in the Protestant faith,
his accession was violently opposed by the arch-
bishop of Trondheim and the other Romish prelates.
The zeal of the monarch, however, was only quick-
ened the more by the opposition of the clergy, and
he resolved to introduce the reformed worship as the
religion of the state. " A recess was accordingly
passed and signed by more than four hundred nobles,
with the deputies of the commons, providing, 1.
That the temporal and spiritual power of the bisliops
should be for ever taken away, and the adminislra-
tion of their dioceses confided to learned men of the
reformed faith, under the title of superintendents.
2. That the castles, manors, and other lands belong-
ing to the prelates and monasteries, should be an-
nexed to the crown. 3. That their religious houses
should be reformed ; the regular clergy who might
not choose to be secularized, to be allowed to remain
in their respective cloistei-s, upon condition that
they should hear the word of God, lead edifying
lives, and that their surplus revenues should be de-
voted to the support of liospitals and other eleemo-
synary establishments. 4. That the rights of lay
patronage should be preserved ; the clergv to exact
from the peasants only their regular tithe, one-third
of which should be appropriated to the support of
the curate, one-third to the proprietor of the church,
and the remainder to the king, for the use of the uni-
versity and schools of learning. The king consulted
Luther upon the manner of carrying this recess into
ert'ect, and by his advice, instead of .secularizing the
church-property, he reserved a certain portion fi>r
the maintenance of the I'rote.stant worship, and tlie
jiurposes of education and charity; but a large part
of the ecclesiastical lauds ultimately came into the
possession of the nobility, by successive grants from
the crown. Thus fell the Romish hierarchy in Den-
mark and Norway; and its destructinn marked the
epoch of the complete triumph of the lay aristocracy
over the other orders of the state, which they con-
tinued to enjoy until the revolution of IfiliO."
The cause of the Reformation met with little op-
position in Norway, but from the reign of Christian
III. it continued to hold its ground, and to ditVnse
itself among all classes of the people with the mo.st
gratifying rapidity. The church was strictlv Lu-
theran, and though nominally epi.scopal, the bishops
were vested only with the power of superintendents.
Matters went on smootliK- without the occurrence of
any peculiar event to disturb the ordinary course of
tilings. But towards the end of last century, a re-
markable person arose, who has earned for himself
the honourable appellation of the Norwegian Re-
former. Hans Nielson Hauge, the person to whom
we refer, was the son of a peasant, and born near
Frederickstadt in the year 1771. From his boyhood
he manifested a serious disposition, often singing,
while engaged in the labours of the field, portions of
the p.salms and hymns of the authorized Danish ver-
sion, which are in current use in the Church of Nor
way. One day in the year 1795, while he was work-
ing in the field, and singing from the Danish psalm
book the hymn beginning. "Jesus, thy sweet com-
munion to taste," he felt himself all at once undergo
a complete internal change, his heart and soul were
lifted up to the Lord, he was without consciousne.ss,
and to use his own strong language, he was " beside
himself." From this moment he formed the resolu-
tion to engage publicly in the Lord's service. He
heard as it were a voice saying to liim, " Thou slialt
make known my name before men. Exhort tliem
that they may be converted, and seek mc while I
am to be found." He felt that this inward call was
from the Lord. Throwing aside therefore the spade
and the plough, he entered upon the work of an
evangelist, iireaching the gospel from one end o(
Norway to the other. Everywhere he was gladly
welcomed and eagerly listened to. Through his
eloquent and powerful appeals many were aroused
from a state of spiritual torpor, and led with the
most earnest anxiety to seek after the way of eter-
nal life.
Wliile Hauge was thus labouring zealously in (lie
546
NORWAY (Church of).
cause of Clirist, a spirit of opposition arose which
exposed liim to much fuinoyaiice ami trouble. Sev-
er.-d times he was rudely seized when preaching, aiid
eommilted to jjrison, bat was always sjieedily liber-
ated. And in addition to occasional persecution
from wiiliout, he was also liable to frequent fits of
mental depression and discouragement. Slill he
continued to preach the gospel both in season and
out of season. Nor did he limit his labours to
preaching; he wTote al.<o luimerous treatises on re-
ligious subjects, which became exceedingly popular,
and were well fitted from the simplieily of their lan-
guage, and the devotional spirit by which they were
pervaded, not only to enlighten the minds, but to
affect the hearts of his followers. While thus un-
wearied in preaching and writing for the good of
fiouls, he earned a subsistence for himself by follow-
ing the occupation of a merchant or storekeeper in
Bergen, and by diligence, prudence, and economy,
he realized a tolerable income.
An intelligent writer, who himself travelled in
Norway in 1829, gives the following description of
Hange's career as a reformer: " Hauge was not a
dissenter from the established Lutheran church of
Norway. Neither in his preaching nor his writings
did he teach any diflerence of doctrine. He enforced
purer views of Christian morality, while he taught at
the same time the doctrines of the church. He
called for no change of opinion or of establi.slied
faith, but for better lives and more Cliristian prac-
tice among both clergy and laity. And he taught
m^ly the doctrines of the church, casting out the
fables and wicked imaginings of men — lifting up his
voice against the coldness, the .selfishness, the world-
liness, and the scepticism of the clergy — for even
into Norway neology had made its way, though it
has never had such a hold upon the whole church
as in the sister country, Denmark. His followers
called themselves Upiijodde — awakened, and es-
teemed themselves members of the Congregation
of Saints. Hut they never called themselves, nor
were esteemed, dissenters; they professed the doc-
trines of the cliurch — from the sinful slumbers and
negligence of which they had come out and separ-
ated themselves. They met, it is true, to hear their
favourite preacher, and occasionally by themselves
for religious pm-poses in the open air, or in private
dwellings, but they did not on that account with-
draw themselves from the communion of the chiu'ch.
They were, and are in fact, a kind of Methodists,
such as the Methodists were before they constituted
themselves a separate body, with separate places of
worship. At the .same time, it is probable that had
circumstances been favourable, they might have
become a regular dissenting body. Had the laws
and circumstances of Norway been such as those
of England and Scotland when Wesley and Krskine
laid the foundation of the two leading sects in these
eounlries, the Hangoaner — for by this n.ame they
are generally distinguished in Norway — had proba-
bly long ago separated from the church. But the
law forbids the establishment of conventicles, and
though it did not, the Norwegians are loo poor to
support any dissenting clergy.
" But though the law expressly forbids the disse-
mination of strange opinions, yet the paternal gov-
crrnnent of Denmark showed mucli lenity towards
the reformer and his followers. Though much &\)o-
ken again.st, yet to those who could see through the
Tuists of prejitdice, it was evident he was doing much
good — at once awakening the people and arousing
the clergy. But eiuhusiasm is not suited to every
mind, and where sound discretion is wanting, none
but evil consequences can follow its manifesta-
tion. Hauge had stin-ed up many men, and while
he had awakened zeal, he had failed in impart-
ing knowledge enough to direct it. His follow-
ers broke out into most ridiculous and sinful ex-
cesses, and the blame of all was naturally thrown
upon him. In 1804 he visited a meeting of the
bretliren at Christiansfeldt, and he found there that
he could not .stop the stone he had set in motion
— he could still impart to it new velocity, but he
could not restrain its aberrations. The extravagance
to which he was there a witness, and the reports
which reached him from other quarters, probably
contributed more to chasten his own enthusiasm, and
to lead him to the adoption of more prudent and
less exciting means of reformation, than the legal
ineasures which were speedily instituted against
him.
" Among the more extraordinary proceedings of
his followers, were the methods they adopted for
driving out the devil, the residts of wliich were occa-
sionally wounding, maiming, and death. Such ex-
travagancies cannot appear incredible to those who
have heard of the proceedings of the higher classes
of Methodists no farther back than five-and-twenty
or thirty years. Tlie driving out of the devil was a
familiar operation among them. It w'as t e same in
manner and kind with the delusion in Norway ; it
difi'ered only in degree.
" But such outrages could not be permitted ; the
conservation of the public peace, and of the lives of
the people, called upon the government to interfere.
Inquiries were instituted, and Hauge was arrested.
This event took place in October 1804. The aH'air
was delegated to an e.s))ecial commission in Chris-
tiana. The reformer coidd not be accused of any
direct accession to the outrages of his followers ; but
the prejudice was strong against him, and he was
aiTaigned upon two charges : first, for holding as-
semblies for divine worship, without lawful appoint-
ment ; and, second, for teaching eiTor, and comempt
of the establislied instructors. Nine years had elap-
sed since he began his career, during which he had
sufi'ered much, and undergom- much persecution. The
matter was now tried and decided, and lie was con-
demned to hard labour in the fortresses for two
years, and to pay all the expenses- This sentence
NORWAY (Church of).
547
was afterwards coniimited in tlie sii|iremc court to a
fine of a tlioLi.saiid dollars.
" With this decision ended the judilic life of Haiige.
All perseciitiun ceased, and his mind hecame cahner ;
his continual anxiety, his itinerancies, and his jireach-
ings ceased. He lived peaceable, pious, and re-
spected by all ; — a man of blameless life and unini-
peaoliable integrity. Thougli he no longer went
about preaching, he still kept up a close communi-
cation with his followers; and he probably did as
nuicli veal good during his retirement as during the
years of his more active life. He confirmed b)' ad-
vice and example the lessons he had formerly taught ;
and the great moral influence which his strenuous
preacliing exercised upon tlie clergy did not cease
even with his death. He lived nearly twenty years
after tlie period of his trial, and died so late as the
24th of March 1824."
The effect of his labours as a Christian reformer
is still felt in Norway. His followers, called after
his name Haugeaner, are found in every part of the
country, and form a body of men held in high esteem
for their peaceable di.sposiHons and tlieir pious lives.
Remaining still in communioii witli the church, the
influence of their example is extensively felt, and
the efiect upon the religious character of the people
at large is everywhere acknowledged to be of a most
beneficial description.
The political coiniexion which, ever since the
union of Calmar, had subsisted between Norway and
Denmark, was brought to a close in 1814, Berna-
dotte, king of Sweden, havhig received Norway in
compensation for the loss of Finland. The Norwe-
gians complained loudly again-st this compulsory
transference ; yet it was no small advantage which
accrued from this change of political relations, that
they regained the free constitution of which Den-
mark had deprived them. The Norwegians are a
noble people. In hospitality, benevolence, and in-
corruptible integrity they are unrivalled. Their
love of country is strong; their simplicity patri-
archal. Tlie established religion is the Lutheran ;
and the form of church government episcopal. Jews
are altogether prohibited from settling in Norway.
" The church establishment comprises, according
to Tliaarnp, 5 bishops, 49 deans, and about 417 pas-
tors of churches and chapels. The seats of the
episcopal sees are Christiania, Cliristiansand, Ber-
gen, Trondheim, and Norrland or Alstahoug ; the
latter was erected about the beginning of the pre-
sent century, and is only remarkable as being the
most northernly bishopric in Europe. There are
336 prestegilds or parishes, many of them of large
extent, containing froin 5,000 to 10,000 inhabitants,
and requiring four or five separate churches or cha-
pels. The incomes of the bishops may be reckoned
about 4,000 dollars (£850), and of tlie rural clergy
from 800 to 1,000 (£170 to £340). The sources
from which they are derived are, a small assessment
of grain in lieu of tithe from each farm, — Easter and
Cli 'istnias offerings, — and dues for marriages, chris-
tenings, and funerals, which are pretty high. There
are fiar-prices as in Scotland, by which payments in
grain may be converted into money. In every pres-
tegild there are several farms, besides the glebe,
which belong to the li'ing, and are let for a share of
the produce, or at a small yearly rent, and a fine at
each renewal. One of these is appropriated to the
minister's widow, as a kind of life-annuity. The
Norwegian clergy are a well-infornied body of men,
possessing much influence over their flocks, con-
scientious in the discharge of their duties, and dili-
gent in superintending the interests of education."
Since the separation of Norway from Denmark and
its annexation to Sweden, the Norwegian Church lias
continued to adhere to the eunstitntion of the Danish
Lutheran Church as settled by Christian V. in 1G83,
and also to the Danish ritual as laid down in 1685.
But efforts have been put forth from time to time to
get .some alterations brought about. So recently as
1857 there was a propo.-ial made in the Storthing for
the establishment of a parish council, consisting of
the clergyman of the parish and a certain number of
laymen chosen from the communicants or members
of the church. Hitherto the whole management of
ecclesiastical matters belonged to the government,
and ill certain cases to the bishop or to the 2»'obst.
The proposed alteration was only rejected by a small
majority ; and will, in all probability, yet become the
law of the land, thus admitting the lay element into
the government of the church. The election of
clergymen is vested, in the first instance, in the
ecclesiastical minister of state, who, with the advice
of the bishop, selects three candidates, from whom
the king appoints one to the vacant parish. A
bishop is elected by the probsts in the vacant bishop-
ric, and the choice made must receive the royal
sanction. The clergy consist of three orders, bishops,
probsts, and priests, diifering from each other not in
rank, but in official duty. The priest is required to
preach, to administer the sacraments, to dispense con-
firmation, and to preside at the board which in every
parish manages the poor-fund. The probst, who is
also a priest or clergyman of a parish, is bound, in
addition to the discharge of his ordinary clerical du-
ties, to make an annual visitation and inspection of
the different parishes within his circuit, to examine
the children in the different schools, and also the
candidates for confirmation, to inspect the church
records, and all the ecclesiastical affairs of the par-
ish. Of all the.se things the probst must render a
regular report every year to the bishop. The bish-
ops, of whom there are five in Norway, are required
to visit their bishoprics with the utmost regularity,
but from the large number of parishes under the
superintendence of each bishop, he can only visit
the whole in the course of three years. At the
visitation of the bishop all the children attending
school assemble in church to be examined along
with the candidates for confirmation, and those
548
NOTARICON.
young people who have been confirmed since the last
visitation.
Tlie ceremony of confirmation is performed in the
Norwegian church by the minister of the pariali,
once or twice a-year. The ordination of a clergy-
man belongs exclusively to the bishop, but it is not
considered as communicating any special gifts or
graces. The induction of the priest or clergyman is
performed by the probst. Students of theology,
after attending a university for a certain time, are
allowed to preach, although they may not have
completed their studies. The church of Norway
combines with the holy ordinance of the Lord's
Supper the practice of absolution. The power to
absolve is not considered to belong to the clergyman
as an individual, but to be vested in the church in
whose name the forgiveness of .sins is pronounced.
Absolution then, according to this view, is not a
power given to the clergy, but to the church or body
of believers which is represented by the clergy.
Before tlie act of absolution a sermon is preached,
the object of which is to prevent any other than
true penitents from applying for absolution. The
rite itself is thus performed. The penitents knee!
before the altar, and the clergyman laying his hands
on their heads, utters these words, "I promise you
the precious forgiveness of all your sins, in the name
of God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy
Ghost." Having received the absolution, the peni-
tents retire to their seats, and a hymn is sung, at the
close of wliich the clergyman chants the words of
the institution of the Holy Supper, the congregation
again kneeling before the altar, and now the ele-
ments are distributed.
The inner life of the Church of Norway has been
not a little atlected by the founding of the univer-
sity at Christiania in 1811, and the separation of
the country from Denmark in 1814. Before these
two noted events, the clergy were uniformly edu-
cated at the university of Copenhagen, where Ger-
man rationalism prevailed to a melancholy extent.
Danes were frequently appointed to tlie pastoral
charge of parishes, to the great annoyance of the
people, who were most unwilling to receive their
ministrations. But from the time that the Norwe-
gian students of theology had the privilege of attend-
ing their own national university, a new life seemed
to be infused into them, and from tliat era may be
dated the dawn of a true spiritual light in the church
of Norway. Two excellent men, Hcr.slub and Sto-
nersen, disciples of the celebrated Danish theologian
Grundtvig, exercised a very favourable influence
over the theological students. Hauge also, both by
his sermons and his printed treatises, had done much
to revive true religion among the people ; and the
Haugcancr being allowed perfect freedom of worship,
have spread themselves over a great part of the
country, and are recognized, wherever they are
lound, as a quiet, inolVensive, pious people.
It is an hnportaut feature in the Norwegian clun-ch
at the present time, that a large ntunber of bot'i the
clergy and laity are disciples of the Danish theolo-
gian Grundtvig, and hence receive the name ol
Gnindtv/'gians. Not that they are dissenters from
the Lutheran chm-ch, but tliey entertain peculiar
opiTiions on several points of doctrine, somewhat
analosous to those of the High Churchmen in the
Church of England. They hold, for example, that
the act of ordination conveys peculiar gifts and
graces, and hence niaint.ain very strong views as to
the .=acrednpss of the clergy as distinguished from
the laity. They hold high opinions as to the value
of tradition, and attach a very great importance to
the Apostles' Creed, which they regard as inspired.
In regard to many portions of Scripture, they are
doubtful as to their inspiration, but they have no
doubt as to the inspiration of the Creed, and that it
contains enough for our salvation. Accordingly,
they are accustomed to address to the people such
words as these, "Believe in the words in which you
are baptized ; if you do, your soul is saved." They
con.sider tlie Bible a useful, and even a necessary
book for the clergy ; but a dangerous book for lay-
men. They hold a very singular opinion as to the
importance of " the living words," and maintain that
the word preached has quite a different eft'ect from
the word read. They even go so far as to declare
that faith cannot possibly come by reading, and must
come by hearing, referring in proof of their state-
ment to Rom. X. 14. Even in the schools which
happen to be in charge of Grundtvigians, we find this
principle carried into operation, everything what-
ever being taught by the living voice of a school-
master, and not by a written book. Grundtvig, the
founder of this class of theologians, is still alive, re-
siding at Copenhagen, and officiating as preacher in
an hospital for old women. He is the head of a
large body of disciples, not only in Norway, but to a
still greater extent in Denmark. Many of tlie most
learned clergymen in both countries belong to this
school, though not all of them carrying their opinions
so far as the old poet and enthusiast Grundtvig
himself. The veteran theologian, now upwards of
seventy years of age, is still in the full vigour of his
intellectual powers, and edits with great freshness
.and energy a weekly paper, in which he advocates
his peculiar opinions with the most remarkable suc-
cess. Grundtvig, along with the excellent liishop
Monster of Copenhagen, has done great service to
the cause of truth by his able assaults upon the Ra-
tionalism of Germany.
, NOTARICON, one of the three [irincipal liraiiches
of the literal C.\nBAL.\ (which see). It is a term
borrowed from the Romans, among whom the nota-
rii, notaries, or .short-hand writers, were accustomed
to use single letters to signify whole words. Nota-
ricon, among the Cabbalistic Jews, is twofold:
sometimes one word is formed from the initial or
final letters of two or more words; and sometimes
the letters of one word are taken as the initials of nc
NOTARY— NOVITIOLI.
54!i
many other words, and the words so collected are
deemed faithful expositions of some of tlie meanings
of a particular text. Thus in Dent. xxx. 12, Moses
asks, " Wlio shall go up for us to heaven?" Tlie
initial letters of the original words form the Hebrew
word for circumcision, and the final letters conipo-se
tlie word Jehovah. Hence it is inferred that God
gave circumcision as the way to heaven.
NOTARY, the term u.<ed in the ancient Christian
church to denote the scribe or secretary of a deli-
berative assembly, or the clerk of a court. It was
particularly his duty to record the protocols of sy-
nods, and the doings of councils. He was also re-
quired to write tlie memoirs of such as suffered
martyrdom. The Notary frequently acted the part
of a modern secretary of legation, and was often
employed by bisliops and patriarchs in exercising
supervision over remote parts of their dioceses.
Notaries were sometimes engaged to write down the
discourses of some of the most eloquent and famous
preachers. In this way many of the sermons of St.
Chrysostom were pre-'^erved. The term Notary was
used in the ninth century to denote special officers
among the Paulicians (which see), who seem to
have been employed in transcribing those original
documents which served as sources of knowledge to
the sect. " It was a principle," Neander tells us,
" with the PauUckin.'s, that all might be enabled,
under tlie immediate illumination of the Divine
Spirit, to draw knowledge from the pure fountain of
Christ's own doctrine ; and the interpretation of
Scripture was probably one of tlie duties of these
Notaries or writers."
NOTUS. See Auster.
NOVATIANS, a Chrisiian sect which arose in
tile third century, deriving its name from Novatian,
a presbyter in the church at Rome, who held strong
views on the subject of church discipline. This
man, who had acquired celebrity as a theological
writer, maintained that such as had fallen into the
more heinous sins, and especially those who had
denied Chnst during the Decian persecution, ought
never to be admitted again into the I'ellowship of the
church. The prevailing opinion, however, which
was shared by Cornelius, a man of great infiuence.
was in favour of a more lenient course. Accord-
ingly, in A. D. 250, when it was proposed to elect
Cornelius bishop of Rome, it was strenuously op-
posed by Novatian. Cornelius, however, was cho-
sen, and Novatian withdrew from communion with
liim. In the following year a council was lield at
Rome, when Novatian was exconimiuiicated along
with all who adhered to him. This led to a schism,
and through the active infiuence of Novatus, a jires-
byter of Carthage, who had fled to Rome during the
heat of this controversy, Novatian was compelled by
his party to accept the office of bishop in opposition
to Cornelius.
A controversy was now carried on with great
keenness, and both parties, as was usual in sucli
cases of dispute, sought to .secure on their side the
verdict of the great metropolitan cluirclies at Alex-
andria, Antioch, and Carthage, and both sent dele-
gates to these comniunilies. The Novatian schism
was founded on two points, the first relating to the
lawfulness or unlawfulness of readmilting heinous
transgressors, even thougli professedly penitent, to
church fellowship ; and the second relating to the
question, What constitutes the idea and essence of a
true church ? On the first point the Novaiians held,
that the church has no right to grant absolution to
any one who by mortal sin has trifled away the par-
don obtained for him by Christ, and appropriated to
him by baptism. AVith regard to the second point,
the Novatiaiis maintained that one of the essential
marks of a true church being purity and holiness,
every church which tolerated in its bosom, or read-
mitted within its communion heinous transgressors,
had, by that vei-y act, forteited the name and tlie
privileges of a true Christian church. Hence the
Novatians, regarding tlieinsclve.= as the only pure
church, called themselves Catharistx or Cnt/iari, pure.
In accordance with their peculiar views they insisted
on baptizing anew those Christians who joined their
communion. The milder view of church discipline
obtained the ascendency, and the Novatians, though
they continued to flourish for a long time in ditier-
ent parts of Christeiidum, disappeared in the sixth
century.
NOVENA, a term used in the Church of Rome to
denote nine days sieni in devotional exercises on
any special occasion.
NOVKNDIALE ^Lat. iitnrin, nine, and f/iis, a
day), a festival lasting for nine days, celebrated
among the ancient Hoinans, when stones fell from
heaven. It was first inslitute.d by Tulhis Iloslilius.
The word was also a|)plied to the sacrifice which was
ofi'ered among the Romans at the clo.«e of the nine
days devoted to mourning and the solemnities con-
nected with the dead. The heathen practice now
refeiTed to, with the exceiition of the sacrifices,
seems to have been continued long after the intro-
duction of Christianity. Augu.stine speaks of .some
in his time who observed a novemliale in relation to
their dead, which he thinks ought to be tbrbidden as
being merely a heathen custom.
NOVKNSILKS DKl, nine gods alleged to have
belonged to the ancient Ktruscans, and to have been
allowed by Jupiter to hurl his thunder. The name
seems to have been afterwards employed among the
Romans to denote those gods who were introduced
at Rome from any place which had been conquered.
NOVlCPj, one who has entered a religious house,
but not yet taken the vow.
NOVITIATE, the time spent in a monastery or
nunnery by way of trial before taking the vow.
NOVITIOU. a name ajiplied by Tertullian to
CATi.ciili.viKNS (which see), because they were just
entering iijion that state which made them candi-
dates for eternal life.
550
NOVOJ ENTZI— NUN.
NOVOJEXTZl, a sect of dissentei-s from the
Russo-Gkeek Ciiuuch (which s^ee), who are stronjj-
ly in favour of maniH:^e in opposition to those wlio
prefer a life of cehbacv.
NOX. See Xyx. "
NUDIPEDALIA (Lat. nmhu, bare, and pes,
pedis, a foot), a procession and ceremonies observed
I at Rome in case of drought, in whicli the worsliijipers
walked with bare feet in token of mourning and hu-
I milialion before the gods. This practice was fol-
lowed at Roine in the worship of Cijhele., and seems
also to have been adopted in the worship o( Isis.
' NULLATENRXSICS (Lat. niilltiteuu-i, nowhere),
an epithet applied to bishops, .according to some ec-
I clesiastical writers, who were ordained over no par-
I ticular charge, but with a general authority to preach
! the gospel whenever they had it in their jiower.
^ Such bishops were very rare in t!ie primitive church.
I NUMERIA, a goddess among the ancient Ro-
j mans who was wont to be invoked by women in
childbirth.
! NUN, a female secluded r'rom the world in a nun-
nery under a vow of perpetual chastity. The age
at which novices may make their profession differs
in ditf'erent coimtries, but the rule laid down by the
council of Trent only requires that the party sliould
be of the age of sixteen, and that no females should
take the veil without previous examination by tlie
bi.shop. The following description of the cercnuj-
nial of a novice taking the vows is from the pen of
an eye-witness of the scene as it took place in
Rome: " Ry p.irticular favour we had been fur-
nished with billets for the best seats, and, after
waiting about half an hour, two footmen in rich
liveries made way for the young countess, who en-
tered the crowded church in full dress, her dark hair
blazing with diamonds. Supported by her mother
she advanced to the altar. The officiating priest was
the Cardinal Vicario, a tine-looking old man ; the
discourse from the pulpit was pronounced by a Do-
minican monk, wlio addressed her as the affianced
spouse of Christ, — a saint on earth, one who had
renounced the vanities of the world for a foretaste of
the joys of heaven.
" The sermon ended, the lovely victim herself,
kneeling before the altar at the feet of the Cardinal,
solemnly abjured that world whose pleasures and
afi'ections she seemed so well calculated to enjoy,
and pronounced those vows which severed her irom
them for ever.
" As her voice, in soft recitative, chauntcd the.se
fatal words, I believe there was scarcely an eye in
the whole of that vast church unmoistened by tears.
"The diamonds that sparkled in her dark liair
were taken oft", and her long and beautifid tre.sses
fell luxuriantly down her shoulders.
■' The grate that was lo entomb her was opened.
The abbess and her black train of nuns appeared.
Their choral voices chaimted a strain of welcome. It
said, or seemed to say — ' Sister spirit, come away !'
She renounced her name and title, adopted a new
aiipellation, received the solemn benediction of the
Cardinal, and the last embraces of her weeping
friends, and passed into that bounie from whence
she was never to return.
" A panuel behind the high altar now opened, and
slie appeared at the grate again. Here she was de-
spoiled of her ornaments and her splendid attire, her
beautiful hair was mercilessly severed from her head
by tlie fatiil shears of the sisters, and they hastened
to invest her with the sober robes of the nun — the
white coif and the noviciate veil.
" Throughout the whole ceremony she showed
great calmness and tirmness ; and it was not till all
was over that her eyes were moistened with tears of
natural emotion. She afterwards appeared at the lit-
tle postern-gate of the convent, to receive the sym-
pathy, and praise, and congratulations of all her
friends and acquaintances, nay, even of strangers,
all of whom are expected to pay their compliments
to the new spouse of heaven."
The description now given refers to the first pro-
fession of a nun on the taking of the white veil, a
step which forms the commencement of the novi-
ciate or year of trial, and is not irrevocable. But
the ]»-qfessw)i properly so called, or the taking of
the black veil, is the conclusion of the noviciate, „nd
the commencement of the regular life of the pro
fessed nun. When once tliis ceremony has been
gone througli, the step, both in the ej-e of the Ko-_
mish church and in the eye of the civil law in Roman
Catholic countries, is beyond recall. Tlie individual
who has taken the black veil is a recluse for life,
and can only be releised from her vow by death The
ceremony which thus seals the nun's doom for life is
attended, of course, with peculiar solemnity and in-
terest. We give a graphic account of it from the
pen of the Rev. Hobart Se3-mour as contained in his
' Pilgrimage to Rome : ' " There was mass celebrated
on the occasion for a small congregation ; the three
priests were robed in cloth of gold; their vestments
were singularly rich, there being nothing visible but
gold. Beyond this, there was nothing remarkable
but the age of the officiating priest. His two assist-
ants were inen of about thirty-tive years of age,
while he himself was not more than twenty-Hve.
He was a tine young man, aiul seemed deeply im-
pressed with the awful mysteries in which he was
engaged. If the destined nun had been the dear and
cherished idol of his heart of hearts from his lirst
love till this moment, he coidd not have shown
deeper or more devotional feelings ; and I coidd not
but feel prepossessed by his manner; though I
thought it strange, that one so young in years should
have been selected on so public an occasion for the
chaplaincy of a ininnery.
" The mass ended ; the priests retired ; the car-
dinal arrived. The moment he was announced ag
at the doors of the chapel, the novice, who was
about to assume the black veil, appeared as by a
NUN.
551
miracle over tl\e altar. To understand tliis it is
necessary to observe, tliat tlie picture over the altar
was removed, and there appeared a grating behind
it ; it proved an opening to an inner chapel within
the inferior of the monastery. This, I confess, did
startle me a little, it showed tliat those sacred pic-
tures are sontetimes secret doors, the very last
tilings that should be desired in a nunnery ; it sug-
gested strange thoughts. At tliis grating, however,
there knelt a living novice, a j'ouiig female of about
eighteen ; she was dressed as a novice ; the white
veil was thrown back ; her face was open to view ;
she held a lighted candle in one hand ; she had a
black crucilix with a white figure on lier other arm ;
her eyes were iixed inuuoveably on this crucifix.
And as she knelt in that elevated place above the
altar, visible to every eye, a living nun in all the
reality of flesli and blood, in the fulness of youth,
instead of tlie mere pictured representation usually
presented there — as slie then knelt with her veil,
her caudle, her crucifix, and all the perspective of an
iinier chapel behind her, with its groined roof, and
its adorned and crimson liangings in the distance —
as she there knelt to take the great and tiual step,
which nothing but death could ever retrace, she be-
came the object of universal sympathy, ar.d the cen-
tre on which every eye was turned.
" The cardinal entered — passed to the altar — made
Iiis private devotions, and, taking no more notice of
the novice kneeling over tlie altar, than if she were the
mere picture usually there, he seated liimself, while
his attendants stripped him of his cardinal's robe
of scarlet, as is usual, and proceeded in the presence
of the congregation to robe him in his episcopal
vestments. He soon appeared with the mitre upon
his brow, his shepherd's crook in his hand, and his
whole person enveloped in silver tissue set otT by
trimmings and friiigings of gold. He sat with his
back to the altar.
"After the Cardinal had thus completed his toilet
in the presence of the congregation, the confessor of
the monastery ap|iro.ached him — kissed his liand —
took a chair, and seating himself, addressed the
novice on the step she was about to take. He told
her it was meritorious — that by it she was about to
be wedded to her most loved and loving husband
whom she had chosen, even to Jesus Christ — that
in taking this step she was preserving her virgin
state, making herself like the angels of heaven — and
that wlien she died .slie would be worthy of Para-
dise. The whole address seemed that of a kindly-
natured man, very nuich like the amiable, warm-
hearted father of a family; but going throughout on
the assumption that the interior of a nunnery was the
only spot in our creation where female innocence
and purity coidd be preserved ! He was apparently
a man of quiet mlud, and full of good nature and
good humour. He seemed under forty years of age,
and considering he was younger than myself, and
withal an unmarried man, I thought him rather too
young to be the confessor of a nunnery. St. I'aiil
recommends us to ' provide things honest in the sigiit
of all men.'
" After (his address, the Cardinal knelt and prayed.
The novice rose from her kuces and disappeared
The choir executed some fine music and singing.
The Cardinal chanted some petitions. The choir
chanted some responses. The Cardinal then again
knelt and offered a long prayer.
" As he was uttering the concluding words of his
prayer, there mingled with Ills voice tlie tones of
distant music. It came from the depths of the mo-
nastery, where the sisterhood commenced some
chant that at first was softened and sweetened by
distance, and then slowly grew loud and more loud
as the nuns moved through the interior chapel.
From the position where I stood, I cuiild see all the
upper but not the lower part of this chapel. I was
able also to see the crucifix and other decorations
over Its altar, but not being able to see llie lower
part of the cliapel I could not look on the nuns, but
was obliged to content myself by listening to their
voices as they sung some litany, and slowly ap-
proached us. The effect of tliis was very pleasing,
perliaps the more so from the voices being the
voices of the unseen and unknown, over whose story
there hangs and will hang a veil of mystery for ever.
They approached the back of the altar of the chapel
where we were assembled. Immediately the novice
appeared again over the altar, her white veil or shawl
flung back and drooping on her shoulders, her Ictt
arm supporting a crucifix, her right baud grasping a
lighted candle. She knelt as before, as still and
motimdess as if she were no more than the [licture,
whose place she occupied. Beside her stood two
nuns, one on each side, concealed or ratlier intended
to be concealed from view. They wore tlie black
veil. She then chanted a few words. The bishop
rose, and he and the novice then chanted some ques-
tions and answers which I could not understand.
She then disappeared, and again appeared at a side-
door, where the Cardinal approached, spoke to lier,
touched her, .sprinkled holy water and returned to
his place. The priests and officials crowded around
the Cardinal and novice, so that it was impossible to
see, and all was uttered in a tone so low thai it was
impossible to hear. The whole time did not exceed
two or three minutes, when she again presented her-
self on her knees at the grating over the allar, no
longer a novice in the white veil, but a nun in the
black veil — a recluse and prisoner for life !
" After kneeling for a moment she uttered a lew
words in a low tone, so that I could not catch their
import. The Cardinal immediately rose and chanted
certain short orisons or petitioiLs, which were re-
sponded to by the nuns. He chanted in the nutcr
and they in the inner chapel. This was succeeded
by some music; during the continuance of whicli,
the Cardinal knelt before the altar, and the nun
above it. At its conclusion the Canlinal rose and
552
NUN.
read aii address or exliortation, aiui iinmediatoly tlie
scene was clianged. Tlie two lums, wlio liad con-
cealed themselves till now, presented themj^elves
suddenly, standing one on each side of the kneeling
nun. It was one of those scenes that lay hold of
the imagination, and it had a striking ert'ect. The
two nuns, veiled so closely that their own mothers, if
present, could not have recognised them, placed a
crowii of gold upon the head of their new and kneel-
ing companion. She, though wearing the bLick veil,
had it thrown back, or rather so arranged as to leave
her face open to view, falling from her head grace-
fully upon her shoulders. Over this they placed the
croivii. It was composed of sprigs and wreaths of
gold ; it was light and elegant. They spoke not a
word, but they placed the crown on her head with
con.'siderable care, sparing neither time nor trouble
to make it sit well and becomingly. It was done,
as these two niuis stood veiled, silent and motionless
— as the new recluse remained kneeUng, holding a
candle in one hand, having a crucifix resting on the
other, her black veil parted so as to reveal her face,
her crown of gold upon her head — as these three
figures appeared at the grating, elevated above the
altar so that every eye could see them, and as the
fatal reality pressed on the mind that from that mo-
ment they were hopelessly immured for life, they
presented a scene that will be remembered for ever
by all who witnessed it.
"The service continued for a few moments longer.
I'he Cardinal sprudcled .«ome holy water towards the
nun, offered a prayer and pronounced the benedic-
tion. The two nuns wiihdrew their new sister ijito
tlie recesses of the monastery, and the congregation
dispersed."
Nuns have been found in connection with other
religicjns besides Romanism. In the commencement
of Biidhism there was an order of female recluses.
The first Budliist female aihnitted to profes.^^ion was
the foster-mother of Gotama Budha. It is probable,
however, in the opinion of Mr. Hardy, that this part
of the Budhist system wjvs at length discontinued.
There are at present no female recluses in Ceylon.
The priestesses or ntnis in Burniah are called Thi-
laslien ; they are far less numerous than the priests.
They shave their heads, and weai' a garment of a
particular form, generally of a white coloiu". They
live in humble dwellings close to the monasteries,
and may quit their profession whenever they please.
The nuns in Slam are less numerous than In Burmah.
The nuns in Arracan are said to be eijual in mmiber
to the priests, have similar dresses, and are subjected
to the same rules of discipline. In China the nuns
have their heads entirely shaven, and their pi'incipal
garment is a hjose flowing robe. The .lapanese nuns
are called Biki'ni (which see). They wear no parti-
cular dress, but shave their heads, and cover them
wilh caps or hoods of black silk. They comnionly
have a shepherd's rod or cro<jk in tlieir haiuls.
Nuns are foiuid in some of the ancient religions.
Among the followers of Pythagoras, there was an
order of females, the charge of whom was committed
to his daughter. The Druids admitted females into
their sacred order. (See Dkuidesses.) The priest-
esses of the Saxon goddess Friyga, who were usually
kings' daughters, devoted themselves to perpetiuil
virginity.
At an eai'ly period in the history of the Christian
church, virginity came to be unduly exalted, and
from the writings of some of the fathers, it would
appear that there were virgins who made an open
profession of virginity before monasteries were
erected for theii- reception, which was only in the
fom'tli centui'y. We find '• canonical virgins," and
" virgins of the church," recognized by Tertullian
and Cyprian. The ecclesiastical \'irgins were com-
monly enrolled in the cnnon or ruatriciila of the
churcli, aiul they were distinguished from monastic
virgins after monasteries came to be erected, by hv-
ing privately in the houses of their parents, while
the others lived in communities and upon their own
laboiu'. Hence it is evident that the nonme or nuns
of the first ages were not confined to a cloi.ster as in
after times. At first they do not appear to have
been bound by any special vow, but in the fom'tli
and fifth centuries the censures of the chiu'ch were
passed with great severity jigainst such professed
virgins as afterwards married. No attempt, however,
was made to deny the validity of such marriages, the
nmi being simply excommunicated and subjected to
penance, witli the view of being restored to the com-
munion of the church. The imperial laws forbade
a virgin to be consecrated before the mature age of
forty, and even if she married after her consecration
at that age, the marriage was considered as valid.
The consecration of a virgin in the ancient Chris-
tian church was performed by the bishop publicly
in the church, by putting upon her the accustomed
dress of sacred virguis. This seems to have con-
sisted partly of a veil of a peculiar description,
diti'erent from the common veil.
Optatus mentions a golden fillet or mitre as hav-
ing been woni upon the head. It is also referred to
by Eusebius under the name of a coronet. Vai'ious
customs have since been introduced in coimection
with nuns in the Romish church, which were un-
kimwn in the case of virgins in the ancient Christian
church, such as the tonsure, and the ceremony of a
ring and a bracelet at their consecration. The
persons of holy virgins were anciently accounted
sacred ; and severe laws were made against any that
should jiresume to ofi'er violence to them ; banish-
ment and proscri]ition and death were the ordinary
puni.shmcuts of such ofVeiKiers. Constantine main-
taincil the sacred virgins and widows at the public
expense; and his mother Helena counted it an
honour to wait upon them at her own table. The
church assigned them also a share of the ecclesias-
tical revenues, and set apart a particular place for
them in the house of God
XUXC DIMITTLS— XYX.
553
XUXC DIMITTIS (Lat. Kow lettest tliou depart),
a name given to tlie song of Simeon from tlie first
wonls of it in Latin, " Lord, now lettest thou tliy
servant depart in peace according to tliy word, for
mine eyes liave seen thy salvation." It appears to
have been nsed in public worship, in very ancient
times, as it is found in the Apostolical Coiistitutiun-'-:
It is appointed to be used in the Rubric of the
Church of England after the second lesson at even-
song.
NUNCIO, an ambassador from the Pope to some
Roman Catholic prince or state. Sometimes he is
deputed to appear as the Pope's representative at a
congress or diplomatic assembly. In France he
appears simpl}' as an andiassador, but in otlier Roni-
isli countries he has a jurisdiction and may appoint
judges. See Legate.
XUNDINA, an ancient Roman goddess, who took
her name from the ninth day after children were born.
NUNDINjE, public fairs or marlcets held among
the ancient Romans every ninth day. At first tliey
were reckoned among the Feki.e (which see), but
subsequently they were ranked by law among the
Dies Fasti, for the convenience of country people,
that they might be enabled both to vend their wares
in tlie public market, and to have their disputes set-
tled by the Praetor.
NUNXERY, a building appropriated to female
recluses. Pacliomius w-as the first who, in the be-
ginning of the fourth century, founded cloisters of
nuns in Egypt, on the same footing as the confrater-
nities of monks, which he founded at the same
period. Before the death of this reputed originator
of the monastic system, no fewer than 27,000 females
in Egyi.t alone had adopted the monastic life. The
first nunnerv was established on the island of Ta-
benna in the Xile, about A. D. .340. Such institu-
tions abound in Roman Catholic countries, and
peculiar sacredness is considered as attaching to the
iimiate.'. See Nun.
NUPTIAL DEITIES, those gods among the
ancient heathen nations which presided over mar-
riage ceremonies. These incluiled some of the most
eminent as well as of the inferior divinities. Jupiter,
Juno, Venus, Diana, were reckoned so indispensable
to the celebration of all marriages, that none could
be solemnized without them. Besides these, several
inferior gods and goddesses were worshipped on such
occasions. Jtitjalwim joined the bride and bride-
groom together in the yoke of matrimony ; Domi-
diicim conducted the bride to the house of the bride-
groom; Virtplaca reconciled husbands to their
wives ; Mantimm was invoked that the wife might
never leave her husband, but abide with him on all
occasions, whether in prosperity or adversity.
NUPTIALIS, a surname of the goddess Juno as
presiding over nianiage solemnities.
NUP'HAL RITES. See MARRiAfiE.
NU-VA, an ancient goddess among the Chinese,
woi"shipped before the time of Cunfiichtn. She pre-
sided over the war of the natural elements, .stilling
the violence of storms, and establishing the anthoritv
of law. She caused the world to s])ring from the
primitive chaos, and out of elemental confLision
brought natural order.
NYAY.V (The), a system of iihllosophy among
the Hindus, which, as its name imports, is essen-
tially a system of Reasoning, though it is divided
into two parts, the first treating of Phy.sics, and the
second of Metaphysics. The jihysical portion claims
Kaiiada as its author, and teaches the doctrine of
atoms or units of matter, conceived to be wiihout
extent. The metapln'sical portion, which is of a
strictly dialectic character, is alleged to have been
written by Gotama Bud/ia. Tlie text is a collection
of aphorisms or sutras, divided into five books, con-
taining an acute discussion of the principles which
constitute proof; all that relates to the objects of
proof; and what may be called the organization of
proofs. Thus in this Hindu system of reasoning,
we find a classification of the principal objects of
philosophical investigation, and an exposition of the
methods and processes of investigation, embracing
the two terms of human knowledge, the objective
and the subjective, or the objects of cognition, and
the laws of the cognitive subject.
NYCTELIA (Gr. iv/x, night), a name sometimes
applied to the Dionysia (which see), as being cele-
brated during the night.
NYMPHjE, a large class of inferior emale divi-
nities among the ancient Greeks and Romans.
They were the daugliters of Zeus, and inhabited
grottos, mountains, groves, rivers, and streams, over
which they were believed to preside, 'i'hese deities
received names in accordance with the department of
nature which they rejiresented. Thus the nymphs
of the ocean were called Ocetinic/is, those of tie
trees Dnjailes, and so forth. The Xymjilis were
generally worshipped by the sacrifice of .goats, lambs,
milk, and oil.
XYMPIL'EUM. See Caktiiauus.
NY.MPIIAGOGUS, the attendant of the bride-
groom among the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans.
It was his duty to accompany the parties to the
marriage ; to act as sponsor for tlicm in their vows ;
to assist in the marriage ceremonies ; to accompany
the parties to the house of the bridegroom ; and to
preside over and direct the festivities of the occa-
sion. See Marriage.
NYS^EUS, a surname of DiONYSDS (whicli see).
NY'X, the goddess of night among the ancient
Greeks, and termed Nox among the ancient Romans,
She had her residence in Hades, was the daughter
of Chaos, and the sister of Erebus
3a
654
OAK-WORSHIP— OATHS.
0
OAK- WORSHIP. The oak li.is in all ages been
looked upon as the most important of the tree.s of
the forest. Grove.s of oak-trees were even in early
times reckoned peculiarly appropriate places for the
celebration of religious worship, and as we learn from
Ezek. vi. 13, they were likewise the scene of idola-
trous practices. Among the ancient Greeks, the
oak, as tlie noblest of trees, was sacred to Zeus,
and among the Romans to Jnju'ter. Oak-worship,
however, was one of the most remarkable pecu-
liarities of the religion of the northern nations.
The inhabitants of tlie holy city of Kiew in Russia
olfered their sacrifices under a sacred oak, in their
annual voyages to the Black Sea in the month of
June. The oak was considered by the Hessians as
the symbol ar.d the abode of the gods. Winifred,
the apostle of the Germans, cut down an enormous
oak which was sacred to T/ior, and such was the
horror which the sacrilegious deed excited, that
judgments were expected to fall from heaven upon
the head of the impious missionary. "The gods of
the ancient Prussians," says Mr. Gross, " showed
a decided predilection both for the oak and the lin-
den. The ground upon which the}' stood was holy
ground, and called Romowe. Under their ample
shade the priricipal gods of the Prussians were wor-
shipped. The most celebrated oak was at Romowe,
in the country of the Natanges. Its trunk was of
an extraordinary size, aiul its branches so dense and
diffusive, that neither rain nor snow could penetrate
through them. It is affirmed that its foliage en-
joyed an amaranthine green, and that it aflbrded
amulets to both man and beast, under the tirm be-
lief of the former, at least, that tlius employed, it
would prove a sure preventive against every species
of evil. The Romans, too, were great admirers of
this way of worship, and therefore had their Ltici in
most parts of the city." "As Jupiter," to quote
from the same intelligent writer, "gave oracles by
means of the oak, so the oaken crown was deemed a
fit ornament to deck the majestic brow of the god,
contemplated as Pollens, the king of the city. The
origin of the oaken crown, as a syndjol of Jupiter, is
attributed by Plutarch to the admirable c|ualities of
the oak. 'It is the oak,' says he, ' which, among
the wild trees, bears the finest fruit, and whicli,
among those that are cultivatcil, is the strongest.
Its fruit lias been used as food, and the honey-<lew
of its leaves drimk as mead. This sweet secretion
of the oak was iier.sonificd under the name of a
liymph, denominated Melissa. Ab>at, too, is indi-
rectly furnished, in supplying nourishment to rumi-
nant and other (piadrupcds suitable for diet, and in
yielding birdUme, with which the feathered tribes are
secured. The esculent properties of the fruit of
some trees ; as, the giiercus esculus, and the many
useful qualities of their timber, may well entitle
them to the rank of trees of life, and to the distinc-
tion and veneration of suppliers of the first food for
the simple wants of man. Hence, on account of its
valuable frugif'erous productions, recognized as the
mast, the beech is generically known as the fagus,
a term which is derived from pliaf/ehi, to eat.
There was a period in the history of mankind, when
the fruit of the oak, the neatly incased acorn, con-
stituted the chief means of subsistence ; and the
Chaonian oaks of the Pelasgic age, have been justly
immortalized on account of their alimentary virtues.
It was then, according to Greek authors, t' at the
noble oak was cherished and celebrated as the mo-
ther and nurse of man. For these reasons, Jupi-
ter, the munificent source of so great a blessing, was
adored as the benignant foster-father of the I'elasgic
race, and denoininatcd Phegoniius. In the blissful
and hallowed oak-tree, according to the puerile no-
tions of those illiterate people, dwelt the food-dis-
pensing god. The ominous rustling of its leaves,
the mysterious notes of the feathered songsters
among its branches, announced the presence of the
divinity to his astonished and admiring votaries, and
gave hints and encouragement to those whose inter-
est or curiosity prompted them to consult the ora-
cle. For this reason odoriferous fumes of incense
were offered to the oracling god, under the Dodo-
najan oak : a species of devotion most zealously
observed by the Druids in the oak-groves and forests
of the ancient Gauls and Britons."
The Druids esteemed the oak the most sacred ob-
ject in nature, and they believed the inislefoe also
which grew upon it to jiartake of its sacred char-
acter. Hence originated the famous ceremony of
cutting the misletoc, which took place at the com-
mencement of the year. The Supreme Being, whom
tliey termed Haisus or Mighty, was worshipped ini-
dcr the form of an oak. (See DuuiDS).
OANNKS. See Daoon.
OATHS, formal ajipeals to the Divine Being to
attest the truth of what wc aflirm, or the fultilment of
what we promise. The Airms of oaths, like other
religious ceremonies, have been dillcrent in different
ages of the world, consisting, however, generally of
some bodily action and a prescribed form of words.
OATHS.
Tlie must ancient mofle of making oatli was by lift-
ing up tlie liand to lieaven. Tlius Abraliani saj-s to
the king of Sodom, Gen. xiv. 22, " I liave lift up
my liand unto the Lord tlie Most High God, the
possessor of lieaven and earth." At an early period
we find another foiTn of swearing practised. Thus
Eliezer, the servant of Abraliam, when taking an
oatli of fidelity, put his han<l under his master's
thigh. Sometimes an oath was accompanied with
an imprec;ition, but at other times God was called to
witness, or the statement was made, "as surely as
God liveth."
At an early period of their histoiy the Jews held
an oath in great veneration, but in later times the
prophets charge them frequently with the crime of
perjury. After the Babylonish captivity regard for
an oath revived among them, but it speedily gave
way to a mere use of forms, without attaching to
thera the meaning which the forms were intended
convey. In the days of oiu' Lord, the Scribes in-
troduced a distinction, for which tliere is no warrant
in the Word of God, alleging that oaths are to be
considered, some of a serious and some of a lighter
description. In the view of a Scribe, an oath be-
came serious, solemn and sacred by the direct use of
tlie name of God or Jehovah ; but however fre-
quently, needlessly and irreverently a man might
swear even in common conversation, it was regarded
as a matter of little or no importance, provided he
could succeed in avoiding tlie use of the name of
the Divine Being. By thus substituting fur the holy
word of the living God a vain tradition of the elders,
the Scribes destroyed among the Jewish people all
reverence for an oath, and rendered the custom of
profane swearing fearfully prevalent among all classes
of society.
In this state of matters Jesus Iiolds forth the Di-
vine commandment as not only prohibiting the use
of the name of God in support of false statements,
but all irreverent, profane and needless oaths of
every description whatever. Matth. v. 34, 35, 36,
" But I say unto you, swear not at all : neither by hea-
ven ; for it is God's throne : nor by the earth ; for
it is his footstool : neither by Jerusalem ; for it is
the city of the great King : neither shalt thou swear
by thy head ; because thou canst not make one hair
white or black." Tliese words have sometimes been
regarded as absolutely prohibiting the use of oaths
even on the most solemn occasions or in courts of
law. And on the ground of this single passage, some
sects, both in ancient and modern times, have denied
the lawfulness of an oath, and have regarded it as
sinful to swear upon any occasion. But it is quite
plain from the illustrations which our Lord here
uses, that he is referring to profane swearing in ordi-
nary conversation, and not to oaths for solemn and
important purposes. Besides, He Himself lent the
force of His example in favour of the lawfulness of
oaths in courts of law. Thus, when the High Priest
put Him upon oath, using the solemn form, " I ad-
jure thee by the living God that tliou tell us wlietlier
thou be the Clirist the Son of God ;" thougli He had
hitherto remained silent. He now acknowledges the
power of the appeal, and instantly replies, " Thou
hast said." There are many examples of oaths both
in the Old and in tlie New Testament, and more espe-
cially the prophet Jeremiah, iv. 2, lays down the in-
ward animating principles by which we ought to be
regulated in taking an oath on solemn and important
occasions. '■ And thou slialt swear, the Lord livetli,
in truth, in judgment, and in righteousness; and the
nations shall bless themselves in Him, and in Him
shall fliey glory."
Our Lord must not therefore be understood in
using the apparently general command, " Swear not
at all," as declaring it to be sinful on all occasions to
resort to an oath, but He is obviouslv pointing out
to the Jews that the Third Commandment, which
liad hitherto been limited by the Scribes to false
swearing by the name Jehovali, extended to all pro-
fane, needless, irreverent appeals to God, whether
directly or indirectly. This command, as if He had
said, reaches not only to the judicial crime of per-
juiy, of which even human laws can take cogniz.ince,
but to the sin of profane swearing of which human
laws take no cognizance at all. Ye say, " Tliou
shalt not forswear thyself, but slialt perform unto the
Lord thine oaths." But I say, Swear not at all,
even by those oaths which are so current among
you, and which, because the name of God is not
directly included in them, you regard as compara-
tively innocent. Such a plea cannot be for a mo-
ment sustained. If }'0u swear at all, whether you
mention the name of God or not, you can onl}' be
understood as appealing for the truth of your state-
ment to the great Searcher of Hearts, who alone can
attest the truth and sinceiit\' of what you affirm.
" Swear not at all," then, says Jehovah-Jesus, if
you would not profane the name of the Host High ;
neither by heaven, for though you may think you
are avoiding the use of tlie name of God, you are
swearing by the throne of God, and, therefore, if
your appeal has any meaning whatever, it is ad-
dressed to Him that sitteth upon the throne ; neither
by the earth, for though you may think it has no
relation to the name of God, it is Jehovah's footstool,
and as an oath can only be an appeal to an intelli-
gent being, you are sw^earing by Him whose foot-
stool the earth is ; neither by Jerusalem, for far
from such an oath being unconnected with God,
that is the city of the Great King, and the place
which He hath chosen to put his name there ; nei-
ther shalt thou swear by thy head, for so especially
does Jehovah claim it as His own that He numbers
the very hairs, and so little is the power which thou
hast over it, that thou canst not make one hair white
or black. In short, the doctrine which Jesus teaches
by the use of those various illustrations, drawn from
the customary forms of swearing among the Jews,
is so extensively applicable, that it is imposfible for
556
OB— OCEAXUS.
any man to discover, in all God's wide creation, a
single object on which he can found an oath, that
will not be in reality, and in the eye of God's holy
law, an appeal to the Creator Himself. If we swear
at all, then, we can swear by no other than the liv-
ing God, for He alone can attest the sincerity of our
hearts, and He alone, therefore, can be appealed to,
as the witness to the trnth of that wliich we are seek-
ing to confirm by an oath. The distinction of the
Scribes, between the more serious and lighter oaths,
is thus shown to be utterly unfounded. All oatlis
arc serious, all are an appeal to God, and to use
them on an_v other than tlie most solemn and im-
portant occasions, is to incur the guilt of one of the
most daring, unprovoked, and heinous transgressions
of the law of God.
"We lind earlv mention among the ancient Greek
writer.s, of oaths being taken on important public
occasions, such as alliances and treaties, and in such
cases peculiar sanctity was attached to the oath.
Peijury was viewed as a crime which was visited with
aggravated punishment after death in the infernal
regions, as well as with heavy calamities in the pre-
sent world. Oaths, in many instances, were accom-
panied with sacrifices and libations, the hands of the
party swearing being laid upon the victim or tlie
altar. As each separate province of Greece had its
peculiar gods, the inhabitants were accustomed to
swear by these in preference to other deities. Men
swore by their favourite gods, and women by their
favourite goddesses. Among the ancient Romans all
magistrates were obliged, within five days from the
dale of their appointment to oflice, to swear an oath
of fidelity to the laws. Soldiers also were bound to
take the military oath. In the case of treaties with
foreign nations, the oath was ratified by striking the
sacrificial victim with a Hint-stone, and calling upon
Jupiter to strike down the Roman people if they
should violate their oath.
OB, a word used among the ancient Jews to de-
note a species of necromancy, the true nature of
which has given rise to much dispute among the
learned. The word signifies, in the Hebrew language,
a bottle, a cask, or very deep vessel, and such a ves-
sel being used in necromancy, the term came to be
applied to the art of evoking the dead. Psellus, in
describing this art, says, (hat it was performed by
throwing a piece of gold into the vessel, and pouring
water upon it. Certain sacrifices were then offered,
and invocations to the demons, when suddenly a sort
of gi-nmbling or groaning noise was heard in the
bottom of the vessel, and the demon made his ap-
pearance in a visible shape, uttering his words with
a low voice. The witch of Endor is called literally,
in 1 Sam. xxviii. 7, the mistress of o6, or the mistress
of the bottle. See CoNsui.TEU with F.\j!ii,i.\r
Spirits.
OBEDIENCK (Holy), that perfect, unqualified,
unshrinking obedience to the will of a superior and
cont'esaor, which is reckoned a most meritorious act
on the part of a votary of the Church of Rome. It
is inculcated as a solemn obligation arising out of the
high position which the priest occupies as at once
tlie exponent and the representative of the will of
Heaven.
OBERKIRCHENRATH (Ger. Superior Eccle-
siastical Council), the highest ecclesiastical tribunal
of the Evangelical Church in Prussia. It was found-
ed by the king in 1850, with the view of giving to
the church more independence.
OBI, a secret species of witchcraft practised by
the Negroes in the West Indies.
OBIT, a funeral celebration or oflice for the dead.
OBLATjE, a term used in the Romish church to
denote bread made without leaven, and not conse-
crated, yet bles.sed upon the altar. It was anciently
placed upon the breasts of the dead.
OBLATI, lay brothers in monasteries who oflered
their services to the church.
OBLATION. See Offering.
OBL.VnONARIUM, the name given in the Ordo
Romanus to the side-table in ancient churches, on
which were placed the otlerings of the people, out of
which were taken the bread and wine to be used as
elements in the Lord's Supper.
OBL.\TIONS. At the administration of the
Lord's Supper in the primitive Christian churches,
the communicants were required to bring presents
called oblations, from which the sacramental ele-
ments were taken. The bread and wine were wrap-
ped in a white linen cloth, the wine being contained
in a vessel called amula. After the deacon had
said, " Let us pray," the communicants advanced
towards the altar, carrying their gifts or oblations,
and presented them to a deacon, who delivered them
to the bishop, by whom they were either laid upon
the altar, or on a separate table. The custom of
ofiering oblations was discontinued during tlie twelfth
and thirteenth centuries. In very early times, that
is in the first and second centuries, tlie Christian
Church had no revenues except the oblations or vo-
luntary contributions of the people, which were
divided among the bishop, the presbyters, the dea-
cons, and tlie poor of the church. These voluntary-
oblations were received in place of tithes ; but as the
number of Christians increased, a fixed maintenance
became necessary for the clergy, but still oblations
continued to be made by the people through zeal for
the cause of Clirist and the maintenance of iiis gos-
pel.
OBLIGATIONS (Tut: Ti;n). See Das.v-Sil.
OBSEQUIES. See Fcnerai, Rites.
OCCAM ITES. See Nominai.ksts.
OCEANIDES, nymphs or inferior female divi-
nities, who were considered by the ancient Greeks
and Romans as presiding over the ocean. They
were regarded as the daugliters of Ocmniis.
OCE.VNL'S, the god of the river Oceanus, whii;h
the ancient Greeks supposed to surround the whole
earth. According to Homer he was a mighty god
OCTAVE— ODIN.
557
inferior only to Zeiis. Hesiod describes hira as the
son of Uranus and Ge.
OCTAVE, the eiglith day after any of the princi-
pal festivals. It was anciently observed with miioh
devotion, including the whole period also from the
festival to the octave.
OCTOBER-HORSE (The), a horse anciently
sacrificed in the month of October to Mars in the
Campus Martins at Rome. The blood which drop-
ped from the tail of this animal when sacrificed was
carefully preserved by the vestal virgins in the tem-
ple of Vesta, for the purpose of being burnt at the
festival of the Palilia (which see), in order to pro-
duce a public puritication by tire and smoke.
OCTCECHOS, a service-book nsed in the Greek
Church. It consists of two volumes folio, and con-
tains the particular hymns and services for e eiy
day of the week, some portion of the daily service
being appropriated to some saint or festival, besides
those marked in the calendar. Thus Sunday is de-
dicated to the resurrection ; Monday to tlie angels ;
Tuesday to St. John the Baptist ; Wednesday to tlie
Virgin and the cross ; Thursday to the apostles ;
Friday to tlie Saviour's passion ; and Saturday to
the saints and martyrs. The prayers being intoned
in the Greek Church, the Octcechus enjoins which
of the eight tones ordinarily in use is to be employed
on different occasions and for difierent services.
ODIN, the supreme god among the Teutonic na-
tions. The legends of the North confound this deify
with a celebrated chieftain who had migrated to
Scandinavia, from a country on the shores of the
Caspian Sea, where he ruled over a district, the
principal city of which was called Asgard. If we
may credit the Heimskringia or Chronicles of the
Kings of Norway, the historical Odin invaded Scan-
dinavia about B. c. 40. But the mythological being
who went by the name of Odin appears to have un-
dergone considerable modification in course of time.
From the Supreme God who rules over all, he came
to be restricted to one particular department, being
regarded as the god of war, to whom warriors made
a vow when they went out to battle, that they would
send him so many souls. These souls were Odin's
right, and he conveyed them to Valhalla, his own
special abode, where he rewarded all such as died
sword in hand. This terrible deity was at the same
time, according to the Icelandic mythology, the
father and creator of man. Traces of the worship of
Odin are found at this day in the name given by the
northern nations to the fourth day of the week,
which was consecrated to Odin or Woden, under the
name of Wodensday or Wednesday.
The Danes seem to have paid the highest honours
to Odin. The wife of this god, who received the
name of Frigga, was the principal goddess among
the ancient Scandinavians, who accompanied her
hu.sband to the field of battle, and shared with him
the souls of tlie slain. A festival in honour of Odin
was celebrated at the beginning of the spring to wel-
come in that genial season of the year. It seems to
have been customary among the northern nations
not only to .sacrifice animals, but human beings also,
to Odin, as the god of war, who, it was believed, could
only be propitiated by the shedding of blood. " The
appointed time for these sacrifices," says Mallet, in
liis ' Northern Anticpiities,' " was always determined
by another superstitious opinion which made the
northern nations regard the number three as sacred
and particularly dear to the gods. Thus in every
ninth month they renewed this bloody ceremony,
which was to last nine days, and every day they
offered up nine living victims, whether men or ani-
mals. But tlie most solemn sacrifices were those
which were ofl'ered at Upsal in Sweden every ninth
year. Then the king and all the citizens of any dis-
tinction were obliged to appear in person, and to
bring ofi'erings, which were placed in the great
temple. Those who could not come themselves
sent their presents by others, or paid the value in
money to those whose business it was to receive
the offerings. Strangers flocked there in crowds
from all parts ; and none were excluded except
those whose honour had suffered some stain, and
especially such as had been accused of cowardice.
Then they chose among the captives in time of war,
and among the slaves in time of peace, nine persons
to be sacrificed. The choice was partly regulated
by the opinion of the bystanders, and partly by lot.
But they did not always sacrifice such mean persons.
In great calamities, in a pressing famine for exam-
ple, if the people thought they had some pretext to
impute the cause of it to their king, they even sacri-
ficed him without hesitation, as the highest price
with which they could purchase the Divine favour.
In this manner the first king of Vermaland was burnt
in honour of Odin to put an end to a great dearfli ;
as we read in the history of Norway. The kings, in
their turn, did not spare the blood of their subjects ;
and many of them even shed that of their children.
Earl Hakon of Norway offered his son in sacrifice,
to obtain of Odin the victory over the Jomsburg
pirates. Ann, king of Sweden, devoted to Odin the
blood of his nine sons, to prevail on that god to pro-
long his life. The ancient history of the north
abounds in similar examples. These abominable
sacrifices were accompanied with various ceremonies.
When the victim was chosen, they conducted him
towards the altar where the sacred fire was kept
burning night and day ; it was surrounded with all
sorts of iron and brazen vessels. Among them one
was distinguished from the rest by its superior size ;
ill this they received the blood of the victims. When
they ofiered up animals, they speedily killed them at
the foot of the altar; then they opened their entrails
to draw auguries from them, as among the Romans;
afterwards they dressed the flesh to be served up
ill a feast prepared for the assemlily. Even horse-
flesh was not rejected, and the chiefs often eat of
it as well as the people. But when they were dis-
558
(ECONOMISTS— OFFICIUM DIVIXUM.
posed to sacrifice men, tliose whom they pitched
upon were laid upon a gi-eat stone, where they
were instantly either stran;jled or knocked on the
head. The bodies were afterwai'ds burnt, or sus-
pended in a sacred grove near the temple. Part
of the blood was sprinkled upon the people, part of
it upon the .sacred gi'ove ; with the same they also
bedewed the images of the gods, the ahar.s, the
benches and walls of the temple, both williin ajid
withouL" See Scandinavians (Religion of the
Ancient).
CECONOMISTS, the name given to the members
of a secret a.^sociation which existed in France in the
latter pai-t of the eighteentli centun-. lis object is
understood to have been to subvert Cliristianlty by
disseminating among the people the writings of Vol-
taire, Rousseau, and other infidels. Selecting pas-
sages from these authors, they circulated them
througliout the kingdom by hawkers at a very cheap
rate, thus undeniiining the religious principles of the
peasantry. The most active members of tliis infidel
society were D'Alembert, Turgot, Condorcet, Dide-
rot, and La Harpe.
QECONOMUS, a special officer appointed in the
middle of the fifth century, to conduct tlie adniinl.s-
tration of church property under the supemiteudenco
of the bishop, and with provision that the bishop
should not appoint his own (Ecoitomus, who was to
be chosen to his office by the whole pre.sbytery.
This law, which originated with the council of Chal-
cedon, was afterwards confimied by the Emperor
Justinian, and was repeated by subsequent coimcils.
nie CEconomus rose in the middle ages to great in-
fluence, and became in a good degi'ee independent of
the bishop. The (Eamomi were quite distinct from
the stewards of cloisters and other similar e.'^tablish-
ments. They were always chosen from among tlic
clergv.
(ECUMENICAL BISHOP, a title first assumed
by John the Faster, patriarch of Cunstautino)ile, in
the end of the sixth century. The assmniition of
so lofty a title by the Constantinopolitan patriarchs
was strongly remonstrated against Ijy theii' rival
bisliops of Rome, particularly by Gregory the Great,
who maijitained the title to be profane, antichristiaii,
and infernal, In A. D. GOG, however, the Roman
pontiff Boniface III. obtained this very title from
Phocas, the Greek Emperor; and from that period
down to the present day, the Pope of Rome claims
to be (Ecumenical or Univer.sal Bi.shop, having au-
thority over the wliole church of Christ upon the
earth. All other churches except the Roman Catho-
lic Church repudiate such a claim as alike un-
foundi'd, an I i christian, and blasphemous.
(ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. See Councii..s
(Genehai, or (E(i;.menical).
(ECUMENICAL DIVINES, a title given by the
Greek Church to St. Basil the Great, St. Gregory
the Divine, ami St. John Chrysostom. A festival
in honour of these three Holy (Ecumenical Divines,
as they ai'e tenned, is held on the 30ih of January
e\er}- year.
Q'^NISTERLA., liliatiuns of wine poured out tc
Hercules by the youth of Alliens on reaching the
age of manhood.
(ENOATIS, a surname of .l)*»i/.9, luider which
she was worshipped at (Enoe in Argolis.
CEN(3MANCY (Gr. oiims, wine, and manteia,
divination), a species of divination practised by tlie
ancient Greeks, in which they drew conjectures
from the colour, motion, and other circumstances
connected with the wine used in libations to the
god.''.
(ETOSYRUS, the nam* of a di\inity worshipped
by the ancient Scytliians, and identified with Apollc
by Herodotus.
OPARRI, an indulgence-box. a sort of charm pur-
chased from the Japanese priests by the pilgrims
who go to Is.TE (which see).
OFFERINGS, a term often used as synonymous
with saci'lfices, but properly speaking, they cannot
be considered as wholly identical. Thus every sa-
crifice is an oblation or ofl'ering, but every ofl'ering is
not a sacrifice. Tithes, first-fruits, and every thing
consecrated to God, must be regarded as offerings,
but none of them as sacrifices. A .s.acrifice involves
in its very nature the shedding of blood, but this is
not necessiu'ily the case with an ofi'ering, which may
be simply of an eucharistical character, without hav-
ing relation to an atonement. See Sacrifices.
OFFERTORY, the verses of Scripture in the
Common Prayer Book of the Church of England,
which are found near the beginning of the Connnu-
nion Service, and are appointed to be read while the
alms and offerings of the people are in course of
being collected.
OFFICES, the forms of prayer used in Romish
and Episcopal churches. Before the Reformation
the offices of the church consisted in missals, bre-
viaries, psalteries, graduals, and pontificals.
OFFICIAL, a term used in the Church of Eng-
liuid to denote the person to whom cognizance of
causes is committed by those who have an ecclesias-
tical jin-isdietion. These officers were inlroduced in
the course of the twelftli century to check the arbi-
trary proceedings of the archdeacons. But in a
sliort time the officials themselves were complained
of, as being instruments in the haiul of the bishops
for making heavier exactions from the people than
had ever been made by the archdeacons; bo that
Peter of Blois, in the close of the twelfth century,
called tliem by no better name than bishops' blood-
suckers.
OFFICIUM DIVINUM (Lat. a Divine office),
an expression which came to be used in the ninth
century to denote a religious ceremony; and as pub-
lic rites had at that period become very numerous,
various treatises in exi)lanation of them began to he
publislied for the instruction of the common people.
Accordingly treatise.^, L>(^ Divims OJIMis, on Di\ine
OGOA— OLYMPIC GAMES.
559
Offices, appeared from tlie pens of some able writers
of tlie time, particularly Amalarius, John Scotus,
Walafrid Strabo, and otliers.
OCtOA, a name applied to Zeius by the Carians at
Mysala, in wliose temple a sea-wave was occasion-
ally seen. Tlie Athenians alleged the same thing in
regard to their own citadel.
OIL (Anointinc). See Anointing Oil.
OIL (Holy). See Chkism.
OIL OP PRAYER. See Eochf.i.aion.
OIOT, a great god among the Indians of Cali-
fornia.
OKKI, the Great Spirit worshipped by the Huron
Indians of North America.
OLD DISSENTERS. See Rioformed Phes-
BYTERIAN ChURCH.
OLD AND NEW LIGHT CONTROVERSY.
See Associate (General) Antihur&hei; Synod,
Associate (Burgher) Synod.
OLD LIGHT ANTIBURGHERS. See Origi-
nal Antiburgher Synod.
OLD LIGHT BURGHERS. See Original
Burgher Sy'nod.
OLIVE-TREE (The), a very common tree in the
countries around tlie Mediterranean Sea. It is
termed by botanists the Ole^i Europea. From the
abundance of olive-trees in all parts of Palestine, we
find very frequent references to this tree in the
Sacred Scriptures. There appear to have been
figures of olive-trees in the Jewisli temple, to which
there is an allusion in Zecli. iv. 3 ; and the door-
posts as well as the images of the cherubim were
made of olive-wood. Olive-branches were carrieil
by the Jews at the feast of tabernacles. The dove
which was sent forth from tlie ark by Noah returned
with an olive-branch in its mouth, thus announc-
ing to the patriarch that the war of elements bad
ceased, and that the waters of the deluge had abated.
Hence the olive became the symbol of peace. In
the ancient heathen mytliology, Minerva, the goddess
of war, of victory, and of peace, was represented as
bearing in her hands a branch of the olive-tree. In
order to appease the Eumenides or Furies who in-
Iiabited the infernal regions, it was necessary before
invoking them to lay upon the ground, three times,
nine branches of an olive-tree. If this tree occurs
rarely in ancient myths, it served at least as an em-
blem of peace, not only among the Romans, but
among the Carthaginians, among the barbarous in-
habitants of the Alps in the time of Hannibal, and
even in the Antilles in the time of Christopher
Columbus.
OLI VETANS (The), a Romish order of religious,
Bometimes called the Congregation of St. Mary of
the Mount of Olives. It was founded as a congre-
gation of Benedictines, in a wilderness near Siena,
by John Tolomei, in commemoration of the recovery
of his sight. The order was confirmed by Pope
Jolin XXII. in A. D. 1.319.
OLYMPIC GAMES, the greatest of the national
festivals of the ancient Greek.s, which received its
name either from the town of Olyiiipia in Elis, where
it was celebrated, or from Jupiter Olynipius, to
whom it was dedicated. The learned differ in opin
ion as to the precise period when this festival was
first instituted, but mythic history ascribes its ori-
gin to Heracles, and refers the date of its introduc-
tion into Greece to B.C. 1200. After a time the
Olympic games seem to have fallen into neglect, but
tliey were revived, as we learn from Pausaiiias, by
Ilihitus king of Elis, with the assistance of Lycur-
giis the Spartan lawgiver. Once more they came lo
be discontinued, but for the last time were revived by
Coroebus, B.C. 77G. From this time, the interval of
four j-ears between each celebration of the festival,
a period which was termed an Olympiad, came to be
accounted a chronological era.
The festival, which lasted five days, began and
ended with a sacrifice to Olympian Jove. The in
terval was filled up with gymnastic exercises, horse
and chariot races, recitations of poetry, displays of
eloquence, and exhibitions of the fine arts. The
gymnastic exercises consisted in running, leaping,
wrestling, boxing, and throwing the discus or quoit.
The following account of the contests in this cele-
brated festival is given by Air. Gross : " The candi-
dates, having undergone an examination, and proved
to the satisfaction of the judges that they were free-
men, that they were Grecians by birth, and that they
were clear from all infamous immoral stains, were
led to the statue of Jupiter within the senate-house.
This image, says Pansanias, was better calculated
than any other to strike terror into wicked men, for
he was represented with thunder in both hands ;
and, as if that were not a sufficient intimation of the
wrath of the deity against those who should for-
swear themselves, at his feet there was a plate of
brass containing terrible denunciations against the
perjured. Before this statue the candidates, their
relations, and instructors, swore on the bleeding
limbs of the victims, that they were duly qualified
to engage, solemnly vowing not to employ any un-
fair means, but to observe all the laws relating to
the Olympic games. After this they returned to the
stadium, and took their stations by lot, when the
herald demanded — ' Can any one rejiroach these
athletae, wiih having been in bonds, or with leading
an irregular life?' A profound silence generally
followed this interrogatory, and the combatants be-
came exalted in the estimation of the assembly, not
only by this universal testimony of their nioiid
character, but by the consideration that they were
the free unsullied champions of the respective States
to which they belonged ; not engaged in any vulgar j
struggle for interested or ordinary objects, but in- '
cited to competition by a noble love of fame, and a
desire to uphold the renown of their native cities in
the presence of assembled Greece. Such being the
qualities required before they could enter the lists,
their friends, filled with anxiety, gathered round
^^■
560
OLYMPIUS— OMER (Festival of the Thirty-Third of).
tlirtin, stimulating their exeitions, or afibrdiiig tliem
advice, until tlie niomeiit arriveil wlien tlie trumpet
sounded. At tliis signal tlie rinnuTs started ort'aniid
the cries and clamour of the excited nudtitude, whose
vociferations did not cease until the herald procured
silence by his trumpet, and proclaimed the name and
abode of the winner.
" 'On the last day of the festival, the conquerors,
being summoned by proclamation to the tribunal
witliin the sacred grove, received the honour of
public coronation, a ceremony preceded by pompous
sacrifices. Encircled with the olive wreath, gathered
from the sacred tree behind the temple of Jupiter,
the victors, dressed in ricli habits, bearing palm-
branches in tlieir hands and almost intoxicated with
joy, proceeded in grand procession to the theatre,
marching to the sound of flutes, and surrounded by
an immense multitude who made the air ring with
their acclamations. The winners in the horse and
chariot-races formed a part of the pomp, their stately
coursers bedecked with flowers, seeming, as they
paced proudly along, to be conscious participators
of the triumph. When tliey reached the tlieatre, the
choruses saluted them with the ancient hymn, com-
posed by the poet Archilochus, to exalt the glory of
the victors, the surrounding midtitude Joining their
voices to those of the musicians. Tliis being con-
cluded, the trumpet sounded, the herald proclaimed
the name and country of the victor, as well as the
nature of his prize, the acclamations of the people
within and without the building were redoubled,
and flowers and garlands were showered from all
sides upon the happy conqueror, who at this moment
was thouglit to have attained the loftiest pinnacle
of human glory and felicity.' Though the only
guerdon that the victor received was an olive-crown,
yet this trifling mark of distinction powerfully sti-
mulated the acquisition of virtue, while it facilitated
the cultivation of tlie mind, and, to souls animated
by a nolile ambition, it possessed an incomparably
higher value, and was coveted with far more inten-
sity, than the most unbounded treasures."
The statues of the conquerors in the Olympic
games were erected at Olympia, in the .sacred grove
of Jupiter. The celebrity of the festival drew toge-
ther people from all parts of Greece, as well as from
the neighbouring islands and continents, and tl^e
Olympiad served as a common bond of alliance and
point of reunion to the whole Hellenic race. These
games were celebrated for nearly a thousand years
from their first institution. Under the Roman em-
perors they were conducted witli great splendour,
and high privileges cimferred iqioii the victors. They
were finally abolished in A. n. 394, in the sixteenth
vear of the reign of Tlieodosius.
OLYMPIC GOD.S. See Cklkstial Df.itif.s.
OLYMPIUS, a surname of Znis, and also of
Herrtrlen, as well a« of all the Olympic or Cf.lf.s-
Tl.\L Dkitiks (wliich see).
OLYMPUS, a mountain in Thessaly, which was
accounted in ancient times the holy mountain of
Greece, and distinguished pre-eminently as the choice
abode of the gods. Zem held his august com't upon
its summit, and it was the residence during the day
of the principal divinities of Greece. Olympus is
(),000 feet in heiglit, and Homer describes it as
towering above the clouds, and crowned with snow.
Hepluestus is said to have built a palace upon its
summit, which was the residence of Zeus and the
rest of the Olympic gods.
OM. See AuM.
OMADIUS, a surname of Dionysus, as the flesh-
eater, human sacrifices being offered to this deity in
the islands of Chios and Tenedos.
OMBIASSES, priests and soothsayers among the
inhabitants of Sladagascar, who compound charms
whicli they sell to the people. See Madagascar
(Religion of).
OMBRIUS, a surname of 2^)(S, as the rain-giver,
under which title he was worshipped on Mount
Hymettii-s in Attica.
OMBWnil, a class of good and gentle spirits,
who are believed by the natives of Southern
Guinea to take part in the government of the world.
Almost every man has his own Ombwiri as a tute-
lary and guardian spirit, for which he provides a
small house near his own. " All the harm that is
escaped in this world," as Mr. Wilson informs us,
" and all the good secured, are ascribed to the kindly
offices of this guardian spirit. Ombwiri is also re-
garded as the author of every thing in the world
which is marvellous or mysterious. Any remarkable
feature in the physical aspect of the country, any
notable phenomenon in the heavens, or extraordinary
events in the affairs of men, are ascribed to Omb-
wiri. His favourite places of abode are the suniniits
of high mountains, deep ciiverns, large rocks, and
the base of very large forest trees. And while the
people attach no malignitj- to his character, they
carefully guard against all unnecessary familiarity in
their intercourse with him, and never pass a place
where he is supposed to dwell except in silence. He
is the only one of all the spirits recognized by the
people that has no priesthood, his intercourse with
men being direct and immediate."
OMEN, a word used by the ancient Greeks and
Romans to denote a supposed sign or indication of a
future event. See Auspices.
OMER (Festival of the Tuiuty-Tiiii-.d of).
Tne sixteenth of the month Ni.san was the day
among the ancient Jews for oflering an omer or
sheaf, the first-fruits of the barley harvest. That,
and the succeeding forty-nine days, are called " days
of the omer;" of wliidi the first thirty-two days are
considered as a season of sadness. The thirty-third
of the omer, or the eighteenth of the month IJi'r, is
celelirated as a kind of festival, the occasion of which
is believed to have been a great mortality that raged
among the disciples of Rjibbi Akiba, and ceased as
on this day.
0-ME TO— OMNIPRESENT.
501
0-ME-TO, a perfect Budha among tlie Chinese,
and pcrliaps the most revered of all the objects wor-
shipped in the Fo-ist temples. He is supposed like
the previous Budhm to have passed throngli a suc-
cession of new births into the loftiest sphere of the
invisible regions. The Tsing-t'u (which see), or
paradise of 0-me-to, is a scene of unrivalled beauty
and magnificence, in tlie midst of which sits en-
throned the great Budha 0-me-to, a peacock and a
lion forming the supporters of his throne. Accord-
ing to a Chinese legend, he swore, that if any being
in all the ten worlds, should, after repeating his
name, fail to attain life in his kingdom, he would
cease to be a god. Accordingly, among the Cliinese
Fo-isls tliere is a prevailing belief, that the amount
of merit wliieh they acquire depends on the fre-
quency with which they repeat the name O-me-to-fuh,
and that wlien any one lias repeated it three hundred
thousand times, he may begin to hope for a personal
vision of the god. The influence of such notions
upon the Fo-ifU in Chhia is thus described by Mr.
Simpson Culbertson, an American missionary, in a
recent account which he has published of the Reli-
gious Notions and Popular Superstitions in North
China : " In the temples, the priests sometimes allow
themselves to be shut up for months together, doing
nothing but repeating over and over, day and night,
the name of Buddha. In a temple at T'ien-t'ai,
fifty miles south of Ningpo, there have been as many
as ten or twelve priests thus voluntarily imprisoned
at the same time. During the day they all keep up
a constant repetiticm of the name 0-mi-t6-ftih, and
at night, they keep it up by taking turns, some con-
tinuing their monotonous song while the others
sleep. They never leave their cell for an}- purpose
until the appointed period is fulfilled. No wonder
thev all have a vacant idiotic look, as though but a
slight glimmering of intellect remained to them !
"It is not the priests only who thus devote them-
selves to laying up, as they suppose, treasure in hea-
ven. Some among the people also, are very diligent
in the work. See that old man. His head is hoary
with age. A flowing white beard rests upon his
bosom. With tottering steps, and leaning upon his
staff, he enters the small room used as a chapel, by
one who preaches of Jesus and the resurrection.
Perhaps there may be something in this religion
that will help to give peace of conscience, and hope
of happiness after death. He listens with deep at-
tention during the sermon, but his fingers are all the
while busy counting tlie beads he holds in his hand,
and his lips continually pnmounce, in a low whisper,
the name 0-mi-t&-fi3h. And now the service is
closed, and tlie congregation is dismissed. But the
old man is not yet satisfied, and he approaches the
missionary to ask for further information. He ad-
dre.sses him — ' Your doctrine, sir, is most excellent
— 0-mi-t?i-fuIi. I am anxious to learn more about
it- 0-mit6-fuh. How must I worship Jesus? 0 mi-
tbfiih.'
II.
"■Ah ! my venerable elder brother, if you would
worship Jesus aright, you must forsake every .sin,
and must not worship any other god, for all others
are false gods.'
'"Yes, I know I must forsake sin — O-mi-tb-fiih.
This I have done long ago — O-mi-to-fiih. 1 do not
sin now — 0-mi-t6-(Uh. I am now too old to .sin
— 0-mi-t6-fuh. I am old, and must soon die —
— 0-mi-t6-f\ih. I wish to be a disciple of Jesus —
0-mi-t6-fuh, and to-morrow I must go to my home
far away in the country — 0-mi-t6-fiih. What must
I do ? — 0-mi-to-fiih.'
" Explanations are given, and now (he old m.in
must depart. But suddenly he drops upon his knees
and bows his head to the earth. Being restrained,
he rises and takes his leave, expressing his grati-
tude. ' Many thanks to you, sir, for your kind in-
struction— O-mi-to-fuh, O-mito-fijh. May we meet
again — 0-mit&-fuh.'
" This is no fiction, but an actual occurrence.
There are many such old men in China, and old wo-
men too, seeking for some means of securing happi-
ness after death. Not unfrequcntly we may meet
these old people, conscious that their end is at hand,
walking in the street, and as we pass we hear them
muttering — O-mi-to-fiili. Alas ! how many of them
have gone down to the grave with the name 0-mi-
tij-fiih on their lips !"
OMISH CHURCH (The), a society <,i Mennon-
ites in the United States, who derived their name of
Amish or Ornish from Jacob Amen, a native of
Amenthal in Switzerland, and a rigid Mennonite
preacher of the seventeenth century. In many parts
of Germany and Switzerland, where they still exist in
considerable numbers, they are known by the name of
Hooler Hfennonites, on account of their wearing
hooks on their clothes ; another party being, for
similar reasons, called Button l\Ienriomtes. The Orn-
ish Church in North Anierica rigidly adheres to the
Confession of Faith wliich was adopted at Dort in
Holland in A. D. 1632 by a General Assembly of
ministers of the religious denominations who were at
that time, and in that place, called Mennonites.
They hold the fundamental Protestant principle,
that the Scriptures are the only ride of faith and
obedience. They have regular ministers and dea-
cons, who, however, are not allowed to receive fixed
salaries ; and in their religious assemblies every one
has the privilege of exhorting and of expounding the
Word of God. Adult baptism alone is practised,
and the ordinance is administered by pouring water
upon the head. Oath.f, even in a court of justice,
are regarded as unlawful, and war in all its forms is
considered to be alike unchristian and unjust. Char-
ity is with them a religious duty, and none of their
members is permitted to become a burden upon the
public funds. See Mennonites.
OMNIPOTENT. See Almighty.
OMNIPRESENT, an attribute of the Divine Be-
ing, which denotes that he is present in every place.
3b
56-2
OMNISCIENT— ONYAMBE.
His intiiiitv involves the veiy iJca of liis ubiquity,
not as being identical with tlie universe as the Pan-
theist wonUl teacli, but illling tlie universe with his
presence, tlmiigli quite distinct from it. This doc-
trine, while it is plainly declared in many passages
of Scripture, is very fully developed in Vs. cxxxix.
OMNISCIENT, that attribute of God, in virtue
of which he knows all things — past, present, and fu-
ture. This, like his omnipresence, is incommunica-
ble to any creature, and the two attributes, indeed,
are inseparably connected. If God be ever3'where,
he cannot fail to see and to know everything abso-
lutely as it is in itself, as well as in all the circum-
stances belonging to it.
OMOPHAGIA, a custom which was anciently
followed at the celebration of the Dionysia (which
see), in the island of Chios, the Bacchae being ob-
liged to eat the raw pieces of flesh of the victim
which were distributed among them. From this act
Z)2b«2/<i« received the name of Omadius (which see).
OMOMUS, an herb which Plutarch says tlie an-
cient Persians used to pound in a mortar while they
invoked Ahriman, the evil principle. Then they
mixed the blood of a wolf recently killed with the
herb omoimis, and carrying out the mixture, they
threw it into a place where the rays of the sun never
came.
OMOPHORION, a bishop's vestment in the
Greek Church, answering to the Palliwn of the
Romish Church. It is worn on the shoulders. Ori-
ginally it was fabricated of sheep's wool, and is de-
signed to be an emblem of the lost sheep in the gos-
pels, which the good shepherd found and brought
Iiome rejoicing; while the foiu- crosses worked on it
indicate the Saviour's snti'erings and the duty of the
bishop to follow in his Master's steps.
OMPHALOPSYCHI. See Hesyciiasts.
ONCA, a surname of Athena, under which she was
worshipped at Onca> in Boeotia.
ONC^EUS, a surjianie of Apollo, from Onceinm
in Arcadia, where he had a temple.
ONEinOCKITlCA (Gr. oneiro«, a dream, and
kriru), to discern), the art of interpreting dreams,
which, among the ancient Egj-ptians, was the duty
of the holy scribes or H ieror/rammafeis.
ONEIROMANCY (Gr. onciros, a dream, and man-
teia, divination). In eastern countries, from very
early times, nuicli importance was attached to
dreams, and the greatest anxiety was often mani-
fested to ascertain their true meaning and interpre-
tation. We have a remarkable instance of this in
the case of Pharaoh, king of Egypt, as well as of his
butler and baker. The Egyptian monarch is repre-
sented as considting two ditVerent classes of persons
BS to the inferprclalion of liis dream, the Chtirelum-
mim, or magicians, and tlie Ilnkainiiii, or wise men.
The former are, in all prohaliility, to be identified
with the Hicror/ramnmtcis, or holy scribes, who are
mentioned as a distinct order of the Egyptian priest-
hood by Joscphus, and several other authors. It is
not unlikely that both Joseph and Moses were raised
to this order, for Joseph asks his brethren, " Wot
ye not that such a man as I can certainly divine?"
and Moses is described as " learned in all the wisdom
of the Egyptians." The account of Nebuchadnez-
zar's dreams, as given in the book of Daniel, atl'ords
an additional illustration of dreams as a mode of Di-
vine communication. In Deut. xiii. 1 — 3, we find
the Israelites prohibited from giving heed to dreams,
or the interpretation of tliem, wherever their evident
tendency was to promote idolatry. In those cases,
however, where the prophets of the Lord were con-
sulted, or the priests enquired of the Lord by the
use of the ephod, attention to dreanis was allowed
by the Divine Lawgiver. It was because the Lord
would not answer Saul by dreams nor by prophets
before the battle of Gilboa, that he had recourse to ft
woman with a familiar spirit.
Oneiromancy seems to have been held in high es-
timation among the Greeks in the Homeric age, for
dreams were said to be from Zeus. Not only the
Greeks and Romans, however, but all nations, both
ancient and modern, ha\'e been found to make pre-
tensions to skill in the interpretation of dreams. Nor
has the liglit of Christianity and the advancement of
civilization altogether abolished such superstitious
practices. On the contrary, while the priests ot
modern heatheridom are generally sorcerers, who
practise oneiromanqi, as well as otlier modes of divi-
nation, there are not wanting persons, even in pro-
fessedly Christian countries, who deceive the credu-
lous, by pretending to interpret dreams, and to un-
fold the impenetrable secrets of the future.
ONEIROS, the personitication of dreams among
the ancient Greeks. Hesiod calls them children of
night, and Ovid children of sleep, while Homer as-
signs them a residence on the dark shores of the
western ocean.
ONION-WORSHIP. Pliny aSirnis that the ol-
linm sathmm and the allium cepa were both ranked
by the Egyptians among gods, in taking an oath.
Juvenal mocks them for tlie veneration in which
they held these vegetable deities. Sir J. G. Wil-
kinson, however, declares that " there is no direct
evidence from the monuments of their having been
sacred ; and they were admitted as common otVer-
ings on every altar. Onions and other vegetables
were not forbidden to the generality of the people
to whom they were a principal article of food ; for
whatever religious feeling prohibited their use on
certain occasions, this was confined to the initiated,
who were required to keep themselves more espe-
cially pure for the service of the gods."
ONKELOS (Taiigum of). See Taijcu.ms.
ONUPHIS, one of the sacred bulls of the ancient
Egyptians. It was of a black colour, had shaggy,
recurved hair; and is snjiposcd to have been the
emblem of the retroceding sun.
0N^'AM1!E, a wicked spirit much dreaded by
the natives of Southern Guinea. The people seldom
ONYCHOMANCY— OPHITES.
5G3
speak of liim, mid ahvuys inanirest uneasiness wlien
his name is mentioned in their presence. They do
not .seem to regard tliis spirit as having mucli influ-
ence over tlie atiairs of men.
ONYCHOMANCY, a species of divinalion an-
ciently practised by examining the nails of a boy.
For this purpose they were covered witli oil and
soot, and turned to the sun. The images represented
by the reflection of the light upon the nails gave the
answer required.
OOSCOPIA (Gr. oon, an egg, and scope/), to ob-
serve), a metliod of divination by the examination of
eggs-
OPALTA, a festival celebrated by the ancient
Romans, in honoiu- of Op.5, the wife of Salnrn, on
the 19th of December, being the third day of the
Saturnalia. The vows made on this occasion were
oftered in a sitting posture, the devotee touching
tlie ground, because Ops represented the earth.
OPHIOMANCY (Gr. ophis, a serpent, and man-
leia, divination), a species of divination practised in
ancient times by means of serpents.
OPHITES, a Gnostic sect which arose in the
second centuiy, and which, in opposing Judaism, in-
clined towards Paganism. To the Demiurge the
Ophitic system ga\-e the name of laldahaoth, making
liim a limited being, and opposed to the higher order
of the universe with which he conflicts, striving to
render himself an independent sovereign. All the
while he is unconsciously working out the plans of
Sophia or Wi-sdom, and bringing about his own de-
struction. The doctrines maintained by this sect in
regard to the origin and destination of man are thus
described by Neander : " The empire of laldabaotb
is the starry world. The stars are the representa-
tives and organs of the cosmical principle, which
seeks to hold man's spirit in bondage and servitude,
and to environ it with all manner of delusions. lal-
dabaotb and tlie six angels begotten by him, are the
.spirits of the seven planets, the Sun, the Moon,
Mars, Venus, Jupiter, Mercuiy, and Satuni. It is
the endeavour of laldabaotb to assert himself as
self-subsistent Lord and Creator, to keep his six
angels from deserting tlieir subjection, and, lest they
should look up and observe the higher world of light,
to fix their attention upon some object in another
quarter. To this end, he calls upon the six angels
to create man, after their own common image, as tlie
crowning seal of their independent creative power.
Man is created ; and being in their own image, is a
huge corporeal mass, but without a soul. He creeps
on the earth, and has not power to lift himself erect.
They therefore bring the helpless creature to their
Fatlier, that he may animate it with a soul. lalda-
baotb breathed into it a living spirit, and thus lui-
perceived by himself, the spiritual seed passed from
his own being into the nature of man, whereby he
was deprived himself of this higher principle of hfe.
Tims had the Sophia ordained it. In man (i. e. those
men who had received some portion of this spiritual
seed) was concentrated the light, tlie soul, the rea-
son of the whole creation. laldabaotb is now seized
with amazement and wrath, wlien he beholds a being
created by himself, and within the bouiid.= of bis own
kingdom, rising both above himself and his kingdom.
He strives therefore to prevent man from becoming
conscious of his higlier nature, and of that higher
order of world to which he is now become related^
to keep him in a state of blind unconsciousness, and
thus of slavisli submission. It was the jealousy of
the contracted laldabaotb which issued th.at com-
mand to the fust man ; but the mundane sold em-
ployed the serpent as an instrument to defeat the
purpose of laldabaotli, by tempting the first man to
disobedience. According to anotlier view, the serpent
was itself a symbol or disguised appearance of the
mundane soul ; — and in the strict sense, it is that
paj't of the sect only that adopted this view, which
rightly received the name of Ophites, for they ac-
tually worshipped the serpent as a holy symbol ; —
to wliich they may have been led by an analogous
idea in the Egyptian religion, the serpent in the
latter being looked upon as a symbol of Kiieph, who
resembled the Sophia of the Ophites. At all events,
it was through the mundane soul, directly or indi-
rectly, that the eyes of the first man were opened.
The fall of man, — and this presents a characteristic
feature of the Ophitic sy.stem, though even in this
respect it was perhaps not altogether independent of
the prior Valentinian theory, — the fall of man was
the transition point from a state of unconscious
limitation to one of conscious freedom. Man now
became wise, and renounced bis allegiance to lalda-
baotb. The latter, angry at this disobedience, thrusts
him from the upper region of the air, where until
now be bad dwelt in an ethereal body, down to the
dark earth, and banished him into a dark body.
Man finds himself now placed in a situation, where,
on the one band, the seven planetary spirits seek to
hold him under their thrall, and to suppress the
higher consciousness in his soul ; while, on the other
hand, the wicled and purely material spirits try to
tempt him into sin and idolatry, which would expose
him to the vengeance of the severe laldabaotb. Yet
' Wisdom' never ceases to impart new strength to
man's kindi-ed nature, by fresh supplies of the higher
spiritual influence ; and from Setli, whom the Gnos-
tics generally regarded as a representative of the
contemplative natures, she is able to preser\e
through every age, a race peculiarly her own, in
which the seeds of the spiritual nature are saved
from destruction."
The Ophites, in common with the Basilideans and
the Valentinians. maintained that the heavenly
Christ first became united with Jesus at his baptism,
and forsook him again at his passion, and in proof of
this, they pointed to the fact that Jcsns wrought no
miracle either before bis baptism or after his resur-
rection. Tliey held that laldabaotb brought about
the crucifixion of Christ. After his resurrection
5ii4
OPS— OQUAMIRTS.
Jesns remained eigliteeii months on the eartli, during
wliicli time lie received from tlie Sopliia a clearer
knowledi^e of the higher truth, which he iiiijiarted to
a few of his disciples. He was then raised to heaven
by the celestial Christ, and sits at the riglit hand of
laldabaotli, unobserved by him, but gradually receiv-
ing to himself every spiritual being that has been
emancipated and puritied by the redemption. In
proportion as this process of attraction goes on, lal-
dabaotli is deprived of his higher virtues. Thus
through Jesus spiritual life flows back to the mun-
d.uie soul, its original source.
The doctrines of the Oidiites were far from being
favourable to purity of morals. Origen indeed
goes so far as to exclude them from the Christian
church, and declares that they admitted none to
their assemblies who did not curse Chri-st. The
same author names as the founder of this sect, a
certain Eucrates, who ma)' have lived before the
birth of Christ. The Ophit(s, who were called in
Latin Serpentwians, received from the Asiatics the
name of Nahassians or Naamans. Irenaius, Tlicodo-
ret. Epipbanius, and Augustine, regard them as
Christian heretics. Origen gives a minute account
of the Diagram of the Ophites, which appears to
have been a sort of tablet on which they depicted
their doctrines in all sorts of figures, with words an-
nexed. As their name imports, the Ophites seem to
have been serpent-worshippers, keeping a living ser-
pent, which on the occasion of celebrating the Lord's
Supper, they let out upon the dish to crawl over and
around the bread. The officiating priest now broke
the bread and distributed it among the communi-
cants. When each had partaken of the sacramentJil
bread, and kissed the serpent, it was afterwards
confined. At the close of this ceremony, which the
Ophites termed tlieir perfect sacrifice, a hymn of
praise was sung to the Supreme God, whom the
serpent in paradise had made known to men. These
rites, which were probably symbolic, were limited to
a few only of the Chri-stian Ophites.
OPS, a goddess worshipped by the ancient Ro-
mans as presiding over agriculture and giving fruit-
fulne.ss to the earth. She was regarded as the wife
of Saturn, and her votaries were wont, while adoring
lier, to touch the ground. Her worship was con-
nected with that of her husband Saturn, and a festi-
val, named Op.\i,i.\ (which see), was celebrated in
honour of her.
OPTIMATKS, a name given by Augustine to the
preshylrrs or elders of the ancient Christian Church.
OPTION', a term used in England to denote the
choice which an archbishop has of any one dignity or
benefice, in the gift of every bishop consecrated or
confirmed by biin, which he may confer on his own
cha|ilain, or anv other person, at his pleasure.
OPUS OPEPATIJM (Lat. a work wrought), an
expression used to denote a doctrine held by the
Church of Home, that efl'ectual grace is necessarily
connected with, and inseparable from, the outward
administration of the sacraments. This doctrine
involves, of course, B.\n'is.MAL Regeneration
(which see), and also destroys all distinction between
worthy and unworthy communicants in the case of
the Lord's Supper. The Council of Trent, however,
explicitly declares this to be a doctrine of the Church
of Rome. " Whoever," the decree runs, " shall af-
firm that gi-ace is not conferred by these sacraments
of the new law, by tlieir own power [ex opere apier-
iito) ; but tliat faith in the divine promise is all that
is necessary to obtain grace : let him be accursed."
This tenet originated with the schoolmen, particu-
larly with Thomas Aquinas, who taught that, in con-
sequence of the death of Christ, the .sacraments in-
stituted in the New Testament have obtained an in-
strumental or etficient virtue which those of the Old
Testament did not possess. The distinction at
length came to be established, that the sacraments
of the Old Testament had produced effects e,r opere
operantis, from the power of the administrator, those
of the New Testament ex opere operato. from the ad-
ministration itself. In opposition to the doctrine
laid down by Thomas Aquinas, which received the
sanction of the Church of Rome, Duns Scotus de-
nied that the el^ective power of grace was contained
in the sacraments themselves. The forerunners of
the Reformation, for instance Wessel and AVvcliffe,
combated still more decidedly the doctrine of Aqui-
nas. The Reformers taught plainlv that the sacra-
ments have no efficacy in themselves, nor do they
derive any efficacy from the administrator, but de-
rive all their efficacy from the working of the Spirit
of Christ in the true believer who receives them.
The Protestant churches, accordingly, unite in denv-
ing the doctrine of the ojms operatum held by the
Romish Church.
OQUAMIRTS, sacrifices oft'ered by the Mingre-
lians in the Caucasus, which partake partly of a
Jewish, partly of a Pagan character: "Their prin-
cipal sacrifice," as we learn from Picart, " is that at
which the priest, after he has pronounced sonic parti-
cular prayers over the ox, or such other animal as is
appointed and set apart for tliat solemn purpose,
singes the victim in five several places to the skin
with a lighted taper ; then leads it in procession
round the devotee for who.se particular service it is
to be slaughtered, and at last, having sacrificed it,
orders it to be drest, and brought to table. The
whole family thereupon .stand all round about it,
each of them with a wax-taper in his hand. He
for whom tlie sacrifice is peculiarly intended, kneels
down before the table, having a candle or wax-taper
in his hand, whilst the priest reads some prayers that
are suitable to the solemn occasion. When he lias
done, not only he who kneels, hut his relations,
friends, and acquaint.ince throw frankincense into
the fire, which is jilaced near the victim. The priest
then cuts off a piece of the victim, waves it over the
head of him at whose request it is oftered up. and
gives it him to eat ; after which the whole company
ORACLE— ORACLES.
5C5
drawing near to him, wave their wax-tapers over liis
head in like manner, and throw tliem afterwards into
tlie same fire, where tliey had but just before east their
frankincense. Every person that is present at this
solemn act of devotion has tlie liberty to eat as mnch
as he thinks proper ; but is enjoined to carry no part
of it away ; the remainder belongs to the sacritica-
tor. They have another Oquamiri, which is cele-
brated in honour of their dead. There is nothing,
however, very particular or remarkable in it but the
ceremony of sacriticing some bloody victims, upon
which they pour oil and wine mingled together.
They make their olilations of wine likewise to the
saints after divers forms ; a particular detail whereof
would be tedious and insipid, and of little or no im-
portance. I shall only observe, therefore, that be-
sides the wine, they offer np a pig, and a cock to
St. Michael, and tliat the Oquamiri, which is de\oted
to the service of St. George, when their vintage is
ripe, consists in consecratuig a barrel of wine to him,
which contains about twenty flaggons ; though it
must not be broached till after Whitsuntide, on the
festival of St. Peter: at which time the master of
each family carries a small quantity of it to St.
George's church, where he pays his devotions to the
saint ; after wliich he returns home and takes all his
family with him into the cellar. There they range
themselves in order round the barrel, the head where-
of is plentifully furnished with bread and clieese and
a parcel of chibbols, or little onions, by the master of
the house, wlio, before any thing is touched, repeats
a prayer. At last, he either kills a hog, or a kid,
and sprinkles part of the blood all round the vessel.
The ceremony concludes with eating and drinking."
ORACLE, the Holy of Holies, or the most holy
place in the temple of Solomon, which occupied the
third part of the enclosure of the temple towards
the we."t. It was ten cubits square. None but the
high-priest was permitted to enter it, and that only
once a-year, on the great day of atonement. See
Temple.
ORACLES, dark answers supposed to be given
by demons in ancient times to those who consulted
them. Cicero calls them the language of the gods.
The term oracle was also used to denote the place
where these revelations were made. Herodotus
attributes the origin of oracles to the Egyptians.
"The two oracles," says he. " of Egyptian Thebes
and of Dodona, have entire resemblance to each
other. The art of divination, as now practised in
our temples, is thus derived from Egypt ; at least
the Egyptians were the first who introduced the
sacred festivals, processions, and supplications,
and from them the Greeks were instructed." The
principal oracles in Egypt were those of the The-
ban Jupiier, of Hercules, Apollo, Minerva, Diana,
Mars, and above all, of Latona, in the city of Buto,
which the Egj'ptians held in the highest ven-
eration ; but tlie mode of divining was different in
each of them, and the power of giving oracular an-
swers was confined to certain deities. According to
Herodotus, the first oracle in Greece was founded at
Dodona, by a priestess of tlie Theban Jupiter, who
had been carried off by Phoenician pirates, and sold
into that country.
The res[ion.'es of oracles were given in several dif-
ferent ways. At Delplii, the priestess of Apollo de-
livei'ed her answers in hexameter verse, while at
Dodona they were uttered from beneatli the shade of
a venerable oak. In several places the oracles were
given by letters sealed up, and in not a kvi by lot.
The lot.s were a kind of dice, on which were engraven
certain characters or words, wliose explanations
were to be sought on tables made for the purpose.
In some temples the person consulting the oracle
threw the dice himself; in others they were dropped
from a box ; but in either case the use of the dice
was preceded by sacrifices and other customary cere-
monies. The belief in oracles rapidly pervaded every
provhice, and came to exert a degree of influence
which was fitted to control every department, both
secular and sacred. " The oracles," says Politz, in
his ' Weltgeschichte,' or World-History, " which ex-
ercised so important an influence in Greece, espe-
cially during the first periods of civilization, not
unfrequently guided public opinion and the spirit of
national enterprise, with distinguished wisdom. Pre-
eminent among the rest, the oracle at Delphi en-
joyed a world-wide renown ; and there it was that
the wealth and the treasures of more than one con-
tinent, were concentrated. Its respon.ses revealed
many a tyrant, and foretold Ids fate. Many an un-
happy being was saved through its means, or directed
by its counsel. It encouraged useful institutions,
and communicated the discoveries in art or science
under the sanction of a divine authority. And
lastly, by its doctrines and exami)le it caused the
moral law to be kept holy, and civil rights to be re-
spected."
The most famous oracles of ancient Greece were
those wliich belonged to Apollo and to Zeus, while
other deities, such as Demeter, Hermes, and Pluto,
and even heroes, for example Amphiaraus and Tro-
phonius, gave forth their oracles to the credulous
inquirers who flocked to learn the dark secrets of
tlie future. And the answers, instead of being clear
and satisfactory, were uniformly couched in such
ambiguous terms, that they were capable of quite
opposite and contradictory interpretations. Gib-
bon the historian charges the ancient oracles with
intentional fraud, and states, with evident delight,
that Constantine the Great doomed them to silence.
Several writers, however, have alleged that the cre-
dit of oracles was destroyed at a much earlier per od
than the reign of Constantine. Lucan, in his ' Fhar-
salia,' which was written in the time of Nero,
scarcely tliirty years after the crucifixion of our
Lord, laments it as one of the greatest calamities of
that age, that the Delphian oracle had become silent.
Lucian also declares, that wlien he was at Delphi,
5G6
ORAL LAW— ORDEAL.
the oracle gave fortli no reply. And the imporlant
statement is made by Porphyry, in a passage cited
by Eusebiiis, that " since Jesus began to be wor-
shipped, no man had received any public help or
benefit from the gods."
The oracles of heathen antiquity were limited to
Greece, never having been adopted by the Romans,
who had many other means of discovering the will
of the gods, such as the Sibylline books, augury,
omens, and such like. The only Italian oracles, in-
deed, were those of Faunus and of Fortuna. The
ancient Scandinavians had also their oracles, like
those of Greece, and held in equal veneration. It
was generally believed in all the northern nations,
that the male and female divinities, or more gener-
ally, tliat the T/irce Destinies gave forth these ora-
cles. The people sometimes persuaded themselves
that the statues of their gods gave responses by a
gesture, or a slight inclination of the head.
ORAL LAW. The Jews believe that two laws
were delivered to Moses on Mount Sinai, the one
committed to writing in the text of the Pentateuch,
and the other handed down by oral tradition from
generation to generation. The latter is the Oral
Laii; and consists of an explaiuition of the text or
Written Law. From the time of Moses to the days
of the Rabbi Judah, no part of the Oral Law had
been connr.itted to writing for public use. In every
generation the president of the Sanliedrim, or the
prophet of his age, wrote notes for his own private
use, of the traditions which he had leai-ned from his
teachers. These were collected, arranged, and me-
thodized by Rabbi Judah the Holy, thus forming
the MlsnN.4 (which see), a book regarded by the
Jews with the highest veneration.
OR.\RION, a vestment worn by a deacon in the
Greek Church, which, though precisely resembling
the Romish .sto/e in form, is less like it in appearance,
because, instead of being worn in the fashion of a
scarf, it is thrown oidy over the left shoulder.
OR.\RIUM. SeeSTOLE.
ORATORIES. See Proseucii.t..
ORATORIO, a sacred drama set to cluirch mu-
sic. The most noted of these pieces are Handel's
Messiah and Haydn's Creation. The name Ora-
torio is believed to have arisen from the circum-
stance that sacred musical dramas originated with
the congregation of the Oratori/, and having been
adopted by all the societies of tlie same foundation,
speedily rose into great popularity. At first the
Oratorio seems to have been little more than a sim-
ple cantiita, but in a .short time it assumed a drama-
tic form somewhat resembling the Miis/m/ of the
Middle Ages, and is now highly esteemed among
the lovers of sacred music, both in Britain and on
the Continent. Sec Music (Sa(iu;i)).
OR.\T()RY (Lat. nrare, to pray), a name an-
ciently given to places of public wor.sliip in general
as bemg houses of prayer. The name was in later
times given to sipaller or domestic chapels. Oratory
is used among the Romanists to denote a closet oi
little apartment near a bed-chamber, fiunished with
a little altar, crucifix, and other furniture suited in
their view to a place for private devotion.
ORATORY (Fathers of the), a Romish order
of religious founded in Italy by Philip Neri,
and publicly approved by Gregory XIII. in 1577.
The congregation derived its name from the chapel
or oratory which Neri built for himself at Florence,
and occupied for many years. To this order belong-
ed Baronius, Raynald, aiul Laderchi, the disthi-
guisbed authors of the Annals of the Church.
ORATORY OF THE HOLY JESUS (Fathers
OF the), a Romish order of religious instituted in
1G1.3 by Peter de Berulle, a man of talents and
learning, who afterwards rose to the rank of a car-
dinal. The fathers of this French order have not,
like the fathers of the Italian order, distinguished
themselves by their researches in ecclesiastical his-
tory, but have devoted themselves to all branches of
learning, both secular and sacred. They are not
monks, but belong to the secular clergy, nor do they
chant any canonical hours. They are called fathers
of the oratory, because they have no churches in
which the sacraments are administered, but only
chapels or oratories in which they read prayers and
preach .
ORBONA, a goddess among the ancient Romans
worshipped at Rome, more especially by parents
who had been deprived of their children, or were
afraid of losing them in dangerous illness.
ORCUS. See Hades, Hell.
ORDEAL, an appeal to the judgment of God,
which was often resorted to by the Saxons and Nor-
mans in criminal cases, where, in consequence of the
insufiiciency of the evidence, it was ditficult to ascer-
tain whether the accused was innocent or guilty.
In such cases of uncertainty recourse was had to
various modes of trial or ordeal. Thus the accused
was not unfrequently re(iuired to swear upon a
copy of the New Testament, and on the relics of the
holy martyrs, or on their tombs, that he was iimo-
cent of the crime imputed to him. He was also
obliged to find eleven persons of good reputation
who should upon oath attest his innocence. These
twelve oaths were required, — eleven and his own, —
to acquit a person of the wound of a noble whicli
drew blood, or laid bare the bone, or broke a lind).
Sometimes, however, thirty compurgators, as they
were called, appeared on each side. Another mode
of ordeal frequently resorted to in the Norman
courts of this kingdom has been alread)' described
under the article Battle (Tkial by).
The most ancient form of ordeal, .and the soon-
est laid aside, was probably the trial by the cross,
which Charlemagne charged his sons to use when-
ever dispiUes should arise among them. It is ihu.'
described by Dr. Mackay, in his 'Memoirs of Ex-
traordinary Popular Delusions:' "When a person
accused of any crime had declared his innocence up
ORDEAL.
507
on oath, and appealed to the cross for its jndgment
in liis favour, lie was brought into the church, be-
fore the altar. The priests previously prepared two
sticks exactly like one another, upon one of which
was carved a figure of the cross. They were both
wrapped up with great care and many ceremonies,
in a quantity of fine wool, and laid upon the altar,
or on the relics of the saints. A solemn prayer was
then offered up to God, that he would be plea.sed to
discover, by the judgment of his holy cross, whether
the accused person were ninocent or guilty. A
priest then approached the altar, and took up one of
the sticks, and the assistants unswiithed it reverently.
If it was marked with the cross, the accused person
was innocent; if unmarked, he was guilty. It would
be unjust to assert, that the judgments thus deli-
vered were, in all cases, erroneous ; and it would be
absurd to believe that they were left altogether to
chance. Many true judgments were doubtless given,
and, in all probaljility, most conscientiously ; for
we cannot but believe that the priests endeavoured
beforehand to convince themselves by secret inquiry
and a strict examination of the circumstances, whe-
ther the appellant were innocent or guilty, and that
they took up the crossed or uncrossed stick accord-
ingly. Although, to all other observers, the sticks,
as enfolded in the wool, might appear exactly simi-
lar, those who enwrapped them could, without any
diflicidty, distinguish the one from the other." This
species of ordeal was abolished by the Emperor
Louis the Devout, about .4.D. 820. The trial by
CoRSNKD (which see), or the morsel of execration,
has been already noticed.
The otlier kinds of ordeal are thus sketched by
Mr. Thomson in his ' Illustrations of the History of
Great Britain:' "The fire ordeal was extremely an-
cient, since to ' handle hot iron, and walk over fire,'
as a proof of innocence, is mentioned in the Antigone
of Sophocles. It was ordained for free men, and
consisted in taking up in the hand, unhurt, a piece
of red-hot iron, weighing from one to three pounds ;
or else by walking unhurt and barefoot, over nine
red-hot ploughshares, laid at unequal distances ; in
whicli manner Queen Emma, the mother of Edward
the Confessor, cleared her.«elf from suspicion of
familiarity with Alwyn, Bishop of Winchester. The
ordeal of cold water, was for ceorls, and was some-
times performed by throwing the accused person
into a river or pond; when, if he floated therein
without any action of swimming, it was received as
an evidence of his guilt, but if he sunk, he was ac-
quitted. The trial of hot water, was plunging the
bare hand or arm up to the elbow in boiling water,
and taking out therefrom a stone weighing from one
to three pounds, carrying it the space of nine of the
accused person's feet. The iron ordeal was simihir
to this last, as well as to that of fire ; since the hot
iron was to be carried the same distance, and in both
cases the hand was ininiediately to be bound up and
sealed, and, after remaining so for three days, if the
flesh did not .appear foul, the accused person was not
considered guilty. The performance of these trials
was attended with considerable ceremony ; and
Athelstan ordered that those appealing to them
should go three nights before to the priest who was
to conduct it, and live only on bread and salt, water
and herbs. He was to be present at all the ma.sses
during the interval, and on the morning of the day
of trial was to make his offerings and receive the
sacrament ; swearing, that ' in the Lord with full
folcright, he was innocent both in word and deed, of
that charge of which he had been accused.' The i
dread of magical artifices, which was so prevalent
with the Anglo-Saxons, was probably the reason
why most of their corporal trials were performed
fasting, and by sun rise ; but ordeals were prohibited
both on fasts and festivals. The fire was lighted
within the cliurch, into which no person was to enter
excepting the priest and accused person, imtil the
space were measured out, and the water were boiling
furiously, in a vessel of iron, copper, lead, or clay.
When all was prepared, two men were to enter of
each side, and to agree that the water was boiling
furiously ; after which an equal number of persons
was called in from both parts, not exceeding twelve,
all fasting, who were placed along the church with
the orde.al between them. The priest then .sprinkled
them with holy water, of which they were also to
taste, kiss the Gospels, and be signed with the cross.
During these rites, the fire was not to be mended
any more ; and if the ordeal were by iron, it re-
mained on the coals until the last collect was finished,
when it was removed to the staples which were to
sustain it. The extent of the trial appears to have
been decided by the accusation since the ordeal was
sometimes called anfeald, or single, when the stone
or iron was probably only three pounds in weight,
and when the defendant dipped only his hand and
wrist in the wafer ; but in other cases the ordeal was
entitled threefold, when the whole arm was plunged
into the cauldron, and the iron was to be of three
pounds weight. Whilst the accused was taking out
the stone or bearing the iron, nothing was to be
uttered but a prayer to the Deity to discover tlie
truth ; after which, it was to be left for three days
undecided. The ordeal might be compounded for,
and it has been supposed that there were many means
even for performing it unhurt ; as collusion with the
priest, the length of ceremony and distance of the
few spectators, and preparations for hardening the
skin, aided by the short distance which the suspected
person had to bear the iron.
'• In all these cases, if the accused party escaped
unhurt, he was of course adjudged innocent ; but if
it happened otherwise, he was condemned as guilty.
A thief found criminal by the ordeal, was to be put
to death, unless his relations would pay his legal
valuation, the amount of the goods, and give security
for his good behaviour. As these trials were origi-
nally invented to preserve innocence from false
568
ORDEAL.
BCCusRtion, uiiiier the notion that heaven woiiUi
always, miraculously, interpose to protect tlie guilt-
less, they were called 'the judgment of God;' and
the word ordeal itself, is derived from a Celtic origin,
signifying judgment. It was also entitled the ' com-
mon purgation,' to distinguish it from the canonical
one, wliich was by oath ; but both in England and
in Sweden, the clergy presided at the trial, and it
was also performed upon sacred ground. The canon
law at a very early period, however, declared the
ordeal to be against that divine command, ' Tliou
slialt not tempt the Lord thy God;' but in King
Jolin's time, there were grants to the bishops and
clergy to use the judgment by fire, water, and iron ;
and it was not until about 1218, that it was abolished
under Henry IIL"
In modern heathen nations we find the ordeal not
unfrequently in use. Tlius, among the Hindus, the
fire-ordeal is known and practised, as appears from
the following brief extract from Forbes's ' Oriental
Memoirs:' " When a man, accused of a capital crime,
chooses to undergo the ordeal trial, he is closely
confined for several days ; his right hand and arm
are covered with thick wax-cloth, tied up and sealed,
in the presence of proper officers, to prevent deceit.
In the English districts the covering was always
sealed with the Company's arms, and the prisoner
placed under an European guard. At the time fixed
for the ordeal, a cauldron of oil is placed over a fire ;
when it boils, a piece of money is dropped into the
Tessel ; the prisoner's arm is unsealed and washed in
tlie presence of his judges and accusers. During
this part of the ceremony the attendant Brahmins
supplicate the Deity. On receiving their benedic-
tion, the accused plunges his hand into the boiling
fluid, and takes out the coin. The arm is afterwards
again sealed up until the time appointed for a re-
examination. The seal is then broken : if no
blemish appears, the prisoner is declared innocent ;
if the contrary, be suffers the punishment due to his
crime."
Among the natives of Northern Guinea a species
of ordeal is in use for the detection of witchcraft.
It goes by the name of the red-water ordeal, the
red water emjdoyod for this purpose being a decoc-
tion made from the inner bark of a large forest tree
of the mimosa family. The mode in which tliis or-
deal is practised is thus described by Mr. Wilson:
" A good deal of ceremony is used in connection
with the administration of the ordeal. The people
who as.senible to see it administered form tlieniselvcs
into a circle, and the pots containing the licpiid are
placed in the centre of the inclosed space. The ac-
cused then comes forward, having the scantiest
apparel, but with a cord of palm-leaves bound round
his waist, and seats himself in the centre of the cir-
cle. After his accusation is announced, he makes a
formal acknowledgment of all the evil deeds of bis
past life, then invokes the name of (Jod three times,
and imprecates his wralli in case he is guilty of the
particular crime laid to his charge. He then steps
forsvard and drinks freely of the 'red-water.' If it
nauseates and causes him to vomit freely, he suffers
no serious injury, and is at once pronounced inno-
cent. If, on the other hand, it causes vertigo and
he loses his self-control, it is regarded as evidence of
guilt, and then all sorts of indignities and cruelties
are practised upon him. A general howl of indigna-
tion rises from the surrounding spectators. Children
and others are encouraged to boot at him, pelt him
with stones, spit upon him, and in many instances
be is seized by the heels and dragged through the
bushes and over rocky places until his body is shame-
fully lacerated and life becomes extinct. Even his
own kindred are required to take part in these cruel
indignities, and no outward manifestation of grief is
allowed in behalf of a man who has been guilty of so
odious a crime.
" On the other hand, if he escapes without injury,
his character is thoroughly purified, and he stands on
a better footing in society than he did before be
submitted to the ordeal. After a few days, he is
decked out in his best robes; and, accompanied by
a large train of friends, he enjoys a sort of triumphal
procession over the town where he lives, receives the
congratulations of his friends, and the community in
general ; and not unfrequently, presents are sent to
him by friends from neighbouring villages. After
all this is over, he assembles the principal men of
the town, and arraigns his accusers before them,
who, in their turn, must submit to the same ordeal,
or pay a large fine to the man whom they attempled
to injure." A similar process is followed in Southern
Guinea for the detection of witchcraft. At the
Gabun the root used is called NivAZYA (which see).
The natives on the Grain Coast have another
species of ordeal, called the " hot oil ordeal," winch
is used to detect petty thefts, and in cases where
women are suspected of infidelity to their husbands.
The suspected person is required to plunge the hand
into a pot of boiling oil. If it is withdrawn without
pain, he is innocent. If he suffers pain, be is guilty,
and fined or punished as the case may require.
The ordeal seems not to have been altogether
unknown among the ancient Greeks and Komans.
Thus in the Antigone of Sophocles, in a pas.sage to
which we have already alluded, the poet speaks of
[lersons " offering, in proof of innocence, to grasp the
burning steel, to walk through fire, and take their
solemn oath, they knew not of the deed." I'liny
also, speaking of a feast which the ancient Komans
celebrated annually in honour of the sun, observes
that the priests, who were to he of the family of the
Ilirpians, danced on this occasion barefoot on burn-
ing coals without burning themselves; which is evi-
dently an allusion to the fiery ordeal. It was from
the Norlhern nations, however, particularly the
ancient Danes, that the ordeal was most prohalily
derived by the Anglo-Saxons and Normans. It was
sanctioned indeed by public law in most of the
ORDER— ORDINATION.
509
coimtrios in tin; iiintli ceiitiuy, ami gradually gave
way before more enligliteiied principles of legisla-
tion.
ORDER, a term used at one time to denote tlie
rules of a monastic institution, but afterwards em-
ployed to signify the several monasteries living under
the same rule.
ORDERS, one of the seven sacraments of the
Church of Rome. It refers to tlie consecration of
the ditferent orders of office-bearers in the clmrcli.
Of these in the Roman hierarchy there are seven, —
porters or door-keeijers, readers, exorcists, acolytes,
subdeacons, deacons, and priests. To these some
add an eighth, the order of bishops; others, how-
ever, consider it not as a distinct order, but as a
higher degree of the priesthood. The original mode
of Okdin.^tion (which see) followed by the apostles
appears to have been .-•iniple, ministers and deacons
having been ordained by prayer and the imposition
of hands. In process of time various additional
ceremonies came to be introduced. In the Church
of Rome the plan was adopted of delivering to a
priest the .sacred vessels — the [laten and the chalice
— and accompanying this action with certain words
which authorize him to celebrate mass, and oft'er
sacrilice to God. In the ordination of a priest, the
matter is the vessels which are delivered to 1dm, and
the form is the pronouncing of these words, " Take
thou autliority to offer up sacritices to God, and to
celebrate masses bcjth for the dead and for the liv-
ing, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and
of tlie Holy Ghost."
ORDERS. See Ordin-HTION.
ORDERS (Monastic). See Monaciiism.
ORDIBARII, a party of Catiiaiusts (which
see), in the seventh and following centuries, who
taught that a Trinity lirst began to exist at the birth
of Christ. The man .Jesus became Son of God by
liis reception of the Word conmumicated to him,
and he was the son of JNfary, not in a corporeal but
in a spiritual sense, being born of her in a spiritual
manner, by the communication of the Word; and
when, by the preaching of Jesus, others were at-
tracted, the Holy Ghost began to exist. The most
important of the peculiar doctrines maintained by
this sect are thus noticed by Neander : " According
to their doctrine, repentance must have respect not
only to all single sins, but first of all to that common
Sin of the souls that fell from God, which preceded
their existence in time. This is the consciousness of
the apostasy from God, of the inward estrangement
from him, and pain on account of this inner aversion
to God, as constituting the only foundalion of true
penitence. As the Gnostics supposed that, by vir-
tue of the new birth, every soul is reunited to its
corresponding male half, the higher spirit of the
pleroma, so the Catharist parly of which we are
speaking supposed, in this case, a restoration of the
relation between the soul and its corresponding iJp/nV,
from which it Iiad been separated by the aposta.'*y.
n.
From this spiiit they distinguished the Paraclete,
promised by Christ, the Coiisolalor, into fellowship
with whom one should enter by the spiritual baptism,
which they called, therefore, the consolamentum.
They held that there were many such higher spirits,
ministering to the vigour of the higher life. But
from all these they distingidshed the Holy Spirit,
pre-eminently so to be called, as being exalted above
all others, and whom they designated as the S])irilus
jmneipalis, the principal Spirit. Tliey held to a
threefold judgment ; first, the expidsion of the apos-
tate souls from heaven ; second, that which began
with the appearance of Christ ; third and last, when
Christ shall raise his redeemed to that higher condi-
tion which is designed for them. This they regarded
as the final consummation, wdien the souls shall be
reunited with (he .spirits and with the higher organs
they had left behind them in heaven. This was their
resurrection." The whole system of the Ordibarii
indicates their connection witli a Jewish theology,
and in farther contirmation of this view of their doc-
trines, it may be stated, that they attached a peculiar
value to the apocryphal book called the Ascension
of Isaiah, where in fact the germs of many of their
opinions are to be found.
ORDINAL, the book which contains the forms
observed in the Church of England for the ordina-
tion and consecration of bisliops, priests, and dea-
cons. It was prepared in the time of Edward the
Sixth, and contirmed at the same time by the autho-
rity of Parliament.
ORDINANCES (Hoi.y), institutions of Divine
authority to be observed by the Christian church iu
all ages. Tho.se rites and ceremonies which are not
sanctioned by the Word of God, being of merely
human appointment, are not entitled to the name of
Holy Ordinances.
ORDINANCES (The Tiiikti;i;n). See Teles-
DIRITANGA.
ORDINARY, a term used in England to denote a
person who has ecclesiastical juri.sdiclion, of course
and of conunon right ; in opposition to persons who
are extraordinarily appointed. Ordinary was a title
anciently given to archdeacons.
ORDINATION, the act of setting apart to the
holy office of tlie ministry. The method of ordina-
tion oraiipointment to the office of a religious teacher
in the Christian church, was derived not from any
of the Levitical institutions, but rather from the or-
dinances of the synitgogue as they were constituted
after the Babylonisli captivity. According to Sel-
den and Vitringa, the presidents and readers of the
synagogue were at first set apart to their office by
the solemn imposition of hands. At an after period,
other ceremonies came to be added, such as anoint-
ing with oil, investiture with the sacred garments,
and the delivery of ihe .sacred vessels into the hands
of the person ordained ; the last-mentioned rite being
evidently an imitation of the tilling of the hands re-
ferred to in Exod. xxix. 24, Lev. xxi. 10, Num. iii,
3c
570
ORDINATIOX.
3, as liaving been practised in tlie coiisecratiun of
tbe Jewish priests (inti liigli-priests.
Tlie lirst instance on record ot" tlie ordination of
office-bearers in tlie Christian Chnrch, is that of the
seven deacons at Jerusalem in Acts vi. 1 — 7. Though
the ollice to wliicli these men were appointed had
reference to tlie secular and financial arrangements of
the church, it is worthy of notice, that even to this
office they were set apart by prayer and the imposi-
tion of hands. Various oilier passages of the Xew
Testament give an account of the ordination of Cln-is-
tian teachers and office-bearers. Among these may
be mentioned Acts xiii. 1 — 4; xiv. 23; 1 Tim. iv.
14 ; V. 22 ; 2 Tim. i. 6, in all of wliich three particu-
lars are laid down as included in the ceremony of or-
dination— fasting, prayer, and tlie laying on of hands.
It has been the invariable practice in every age of
the church to observe some solemn ceremonies in
setti.ig apart any man to the sacred functions of the
ministry ; and in the most ancient liturgies, both of
the Eastern and the Western churches, are found
certain special forms of ordination. Nor has the ob-
servance of the rites of ordination been confined to
one section of the Christian church ; but it has ex-
tended to all denominations of Christians, and even
to schismatics and heretics. And while the min-
istry of the word has always been deemed a jiecu-
liarly sacred office, and ordination to the ministry a
solemn transaction, every precaution was used in
the ancient church to prevent unworthy persons
from intruding themselves rashly into the inini.sterial
office. Certain qualifications, aci'orillngly. were re-
garded as indispensable in the candidate for ordina-
tion. Thus it was necessary that any one wdio wished
to take upon himseft' the sacred functions should be
of a certain specified age. The rules by which the
canonical age for ordination were regulated in the
early Christian Church, were, no doubt, derived from
the Jewish economy ; the age of twenty-five re-
quired for the Levites being adopted for deacons,
and that of thirty years recjuired for priests being
adopted for presbyters and bishops. In the Apos-
tolical Constitutions we find fifty years prescribed
as the age for a bishop, but no long time seems to
have elapsed when it was reduced to thirty. Nay,
even cases occurred in which individuals, probably
of eminent qualilication.'i, were raised to the episco-
pal dignity at an earlier age than even thirty. Jus-
tin alleges the lowest age for a bishop to be thirty-
five years. The Konian bishops, Siricius and
Zosiinus, required thirty years for a deacon, tliirtv-
five for a presbyter, and forty-live fora bishop. The
Council of Trent fixed the age for a deacon at twenty-
three, and that t'or a priest at twenty-five. Cliildicn
were sometimes appointed to the ofllce of reader, but
by the laws of Justinian none were to be appointe<l
to that office under twelve years of age. The age
for siibdeacons, acilyths, and other inferior officers,
varied, ranging at dill'erent times from lifteen to
twenty-five.
Every candidate for ordination was required to un-
dergo a strict examination in regard more especially
to his faith, but also to his morals and his worldly
condition. The conduct of the examination was in-
trusted cliiefly to the bishops, but it was held in
public, and the people were allowed to take a part
in it, while their approval of the candidate was
equally requisite with that of the bishop. That the
people might have full opportunity of making in-
quiry into the character and qualifications of the
candidates their names -were published. By a law
of Justinian each candidate was required to give a
written statement of his religious opinions in his own
hand-writing, and to take a solemn oath against si-
mony. It was decreed also, by a council in the
beginning of the ninth century, that every candidate
should go through a course of preparation or proba-
tion previous to his being ordained.
It was a rule in the early church that no person
should be ordained to the higher offices without pass-
ing beforehand through the inferior degrees. This
arrangement was productive of much ad\antage, as
it secured, on the part of every aspirant to the min-
isterial office, the possession of considerable profes-
sional experience, and a familiar acquaintance with
the whole .system of ecclesiastical discipline and
polity. As a general rule, which, however, admit-
ted of some exceptions, no individual was ordained
to a ministry at large, but to the exercise of the pas
toral functions in some specified church or locality.
Non-residence was also expressly discountenanced,
every pastor being expected to remain within his
allotted district. The clerical tonsure was not made
requisite for the ordained ministry until about the
end of the fifth or beginning of the sixth century.
In the fourth, and througliout the greater part of the
fifth century, it is mentioned in teiTns of disappro-
bation as unbeeoniing spiritual persons.
FroTn the canons of councils, and the testimony
of many ecclesiastical writers. Episcopalians con-
clude that the power of administering the rite of
ordination was vested in the bishop ahme, the pres-
byter being only allowed to assist the bishop in the
ordination of a fellow-presbyter. Ordination was
always required to be performed publicly in the pres-
ence of tbe congregation, and during the first four
centuries there does not apjiear to have been any
stated seasons appointed for the performance of the
rite. .Afterwards, however, ordinations took place
on the Lord's day, and usually in connection wiih
the celebration of the Lord's Siqiper, the candidate
kneeling before the table.
It was customary in early times for those who
were preparing for ordination to observe a season of.
fasting and prayer. 'I'be service itself consisted
simply of prayer and the imposition of hands, the
latter practice being considered by many as ditVering
from the common imposition of hands at baptism,
confirmation, and absolution. No mention occurs
previous to the ninth century, of tbe practice of
ORDINATION.
571
avioiiitiiig tlie Ciuiiliilate for Iioly orders. Tlie Greek
Cluircli I1.1S never u.seri it. It i.s not mentioned in
tlie foiirtli council of Cartilage ; where the rites of
ordination .ire de-scribed ; nor was it the practice in
the time of Pope Nicholas I., who died in A. D. 807.
'I'he custom of deliverin.2; the sacred vessels, orna-
ments, and vestments appears not to have been fully
introduced niitil the seventh century, though some
trace of it is to be found at an earlier date. The
badges and insignia differed according to the nature
of the office to which the individual was ordained.
Thus at the ordination of a bislioj), a Bible was laid
upon his head, or pnt into his hands, in order to re-
mind him that it was his duty habitually to search
the Word of God ; a ring was pnt upon In's finger in
token of his espousals to the church, and a staff was
pnt into his hand as an emblem of liis office as a
shepherd to whose care the flock was committed.
The pre.sbyter, in the act of ordination, received the
sacramental cup and plate. On the deacon, when
Sfct apart to his office, the bishop solemnly laid his
right hand, and presented him with a copy of the
Gospels. The sub-deacon received an empty jiaten
and cup, with a ewer and napkin ; the reader re-
ceived a copy of the Scrijitures : the acolyth. a can-
dlestick with a taper, and the doorkeeper the keys
of the church. Tlie custom w.is also introduced of
signing the party ordained with the sign of the cross,
and at the close of the solemn service he received
the kiss of charity from the ordaining minister.
It has been already noticed that iu the early
church, ordination was not given unless to a special
charge, and witli few excejitions this continued to be
the rule until tlie age of Charlemagne, when laws
required to be enacted against the cleriri acephali,
in conserinence of the great number of clergy who
were not regularly settled in parochial cures. Many
of these were the domestic cliaplains of noblemen or
]irivate gentlemen, while others were clergymen who
had received vague or general ordination, a practice
which had been introduced in the seventh century.
At lengtli, however, in A. D. 877, the bishops resolved
to abandon the practice of vague ordinations, and to
adhere sirictly to the practice of the ancient church.
Yet so difficult is it to root out an abuse when once
it has crept into the church, that at the end of the
tenth century, the praclice of vague ordination cmi-
tinued extensively to prevail.
Ordination is practised in all modern churches,
though their views of the rife seem to difier consi-
derably. In the Church of Tvome the delivery of
the vessels, according to the Onliual, is the essenlial
ordaining act. This, indeed, is expressly declared
by the Council of Florence, in A. D. 1439, which
says, " The matter or visible sign of the order of
pi'iesthoodis the delivery of the chalice with wine in
it, and of a paten with bread upon it, into the hands
of the person to be ordained." The form of words
with which this ordaining act is accompanied, runs
thus, " Receive thou power to ofifer sacrifice to God,
and to celebrate masses both for the living ind for
the dead. In the name of the Lord." The oel'very
of the vessels, as a part of the ordination service, has
never been in use in the Greek Church, but is ex-
clusively confined to the Latin Church.
In the Clunx'h of England no person can be or-
dained who has not what is called a title for orders,
that is, " some certain place where he might use his
function." He must have secured the presentation
to a ciiracv, or a chaplaincy, or he must be the fel-
low of a college, or a " ' master of arts of five years
standing, that livefli of his own charge in either of
the universities,' before he can be ordained. The
most general title for orders is a curacy. ' And if
any bishop shall admit any person into the ministrj'
that hath none of these titles as aforesaid, then he
shall keep and maintain him with all things neces-
.sary, till he do prefer him to some ecclesiastical living.'
The bishops have absolute power to refuse ordina-
tion to any party whom they may consider ineligible.
The usual course is as follows : — The candidate
writes to the bishop of the diocese in which tlie
curacy offered to hhn at a title is situated, and re-
quests to be ordained. He obtains a personal inter-
view with the bishop, and passes through a rim race
examinafioii as to his theological opinions and at-
tainments. If approved, he is permitted to send in
his paper.s — that is, ihe registers of his age and b.ap-
tism, testimonials from his college, a certificate of
character attested by three beneficed clergymen, and
another document called <SV fpiia, which is a paper
signed by the clergyman and church-wardens of the
parish in which the candidate resides, and which cer-
tifies that his name has been piihlirli/ railed in the
•prirish ehurcli, and that no objections have been raised
against his being admitted into the ministry. He is
now allowed to proceed, with the other candidates,
to the examination, which is conducted by the
bisliop's examining chaplain, and is sustained, in
some dioceses, during the wliole of three or four days.
It is strictly theological and ecclesiastical. The ap-
proved candidates take the Oiitli of Siii>re»iaci/, sign
a ' Declaration' that they will conform to the Liturgy,
and, moreover, subscribe the thirty -nine articles.
" The ordination service, as arianged in the Book
of Common Prayer, is jierfornicd in the cathedral of
the dioce.se, or in some church or chapel, in the pre-
sence of the congregation. The candidates are there
formally introduced to the bishop by the archdeacon,
or his deputy, in these words : — ' Reverend Father
in God — I present unto you tliese persons jiresent to
be admitted deacons.' Towards the close of the ser-
vice, the bishop, laying his hands severally upon
their heads, says — 'Take thou authority to execute
the office of a deacon in the Cliurch of God coinmit-
fed unto thee, in the name of the Father, and of the
Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen.' And then,
placing the Netn Tcstamevt in the hand of each, he
adds — ' Take flioii authority to read the Gospel in
the Church of God, and to preach the same, if tliou
572
OREADES.
be tlieveto Iieciisc<l by tlie bisliop liiinself.' Tlie
Ordination Service in tlie case of a priest differs in
some meiisiire from tlie service which admits to the
order of deacon. Several of tlie presbyters present,
as well as the bishop, lay their hands sinuiltaneoiisly
on the head of everv candidate, and the bishop says
— ' Receive the Holy (Jliost for the oflice and work
of a Priest in the Church of God, now committed
luito ihee by the imposition of our hands. Whose
sins thou dost forgive they are forgiven ; and whose
siiKS tliou dost retain they are retained ; and be thou
a faithful dispenser of the Word of God, and of his
holy Sacraments : In the name of the Father, and of
the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen.' And
then, delivering to each one a Bible, he adds — 'Take
thou authority to iireach the Word of God, and to
minister the holy Sacraments in the congregation
where thou shall be lawfully appointed thereunto.'
When once ordained a presbyter, he is competent
to take any duty, and to hold any kind of prefer-
ment short of a bishopric, within the pale of the
Church of England." A person must be twenty-
three years of age before he can be ordained deacon ;
and twenty-four before he can be ordained priest,
and thus be permitted to adinini.ster the Lord's Sup-
per. The times of ordination in the Church of Eng-
land are the four Sundays immediately following the
Ember weeks ; being the .second Sunday in Lent,
Trinity Sunday, and the Sundays following the first
Wedne.sday after the 14th of September, and the
L81I1 of December. These are the stated times, but
ordination may take place at any time wliicli the
bishop may appoint.
In countries where Lutherani.sm has a regular
establishment, only the gencr.il superintendent, or at
least a superintendent, performs the rite of ordination ;
yet the Lulheran church allows this power also to
all other clergymen. The manner in which the Lu-
therans ordain their ministers is as t'ollows : " When
a student of divinity has finished his course of theo-
logical studies, he applies to the consistory of his
native district for admission to a theological exami-
nation ; which is never refused him, except for very
important reasons. Such theological examinations
are held by every consistory once, or if necessary
twice, every year; and in each one of them seldom
fewer than ten students are examined in the originals
both of the Old and New Toslament. in Divinitv, in
Christian Morals, in Ecclesiaslical History, in Com-
position, and Catechising Children ; and, in some
countries, also in I'liilnsophy, and the Ecclesiastical
Law. The examination in the tlieoretical sciences
is conducted in tlie Latin language. Those who
have acquired a sufhcieni knowledge of the dill'erent
theological sciences, obtain a claim for an ecclesias-
tical preferment. When a candidate is presented to
a living, he is again examined, to ascertain if he has
continued his theological studies since he has been re-
ceived into the number of candidates for the minislry ;
(in many cases, however, an exception is made to this
rule ;) and if a second time he prove worthy of the
ministry, he is solemnly ordained by the general
superintendent of the country or district, assisted by
at lfea>t two other clergymen, in the cluirch of which
he becomes the minister; and at the .same time he
is introduced to his future congregation. Whoever
has been thus ordained, may ascend to the liighe.st
ecclesiastical dignity, without undergoing any other
ordination."
Episcopalians deny the right of presbyters to or-
dain, alleging that such a right belongs exclusively
to bishops. But, in opposition to episcopal ordina-
tion, Presbyterians are accustomed to urge that
Timothy is expressly declared in 1 Tim. iv. 14. to
have been ordained by the laying on of the hands of
the presbytery ; and further, that in Scripture lan-
guage bishops and presbyters are identical. Be-
sides, from ecclesiastical history we learn, that in the
church of Alexandria presbyters ordained even their
own bishops for more tlian two hundred years in
the earliest ages of Christianity. In Presbyterian
churches, accordingly, the power of ordination rests
in the presbytery, and the service consists simply of
prayer and the imposition of hands. It has been
supposed by some, that the laying on of hands in
ordination had exclusive reference to the communi-
cation of extraordinary gifts, and therefore ought
now to be dispensed with, such gifts having ceased.
Under the influence of such views, the Cluirch of
Scotland, at an early period of its history, discarded
this symbolic rite, and hence in the First Book ot
Discipline we find this passage, " Albeit the apostles
used the impo.sition of hands, yet seeing the miracle
is ceased, the using the ceremony we judge not to be
necessary." Such an idea, however, prevailed only
lor a time, and the imposition of li.ands came to be
regarded as an essential part of the rite of ordination.
Among the Wesleyan Methodists ordination is vested
in the General Conference, and the ceremony con-
sists of a solemn service with imposition of hands.
The Congregationalists consider ordination to be
simply a matter of order, completing and solemnizing
the entrance of the minister on his pastoral engage-
ments; hence, in this denomination of Christians,
the church oflicers, whether pastors or deacons, are
dedicated to the duties of their oflice with special
prayer and by solemn designation, to which most
of the churches add the imposition of hands by those
already in oflice. In the view of the Congrega-
tionalists the pastoral tie is considered as resting, in
subordination to the Great Head of the Church, on
the call of the church members, and ordination is
simply the formal recognition of the tie thus formed.
This view of the matter is diametrically oppo.sed to
the doctrine of the Romish church, which regards
orders as a holy .sacrament, conveying an i.ndklihi.b
ciiAUACTEii (which see), flowing down by regular
succession from the ajiostles.
ORDINATION FASTS. See Embkk D.vYs.
OUICADES \fir. oroa, a mountain), nymphs who
OREBITES -ORIG F.NFSTS.
573
were believed by the ancient Greeks to preside over
nionntains and grottoes.
OREBITES, a party of the Hussitks (wliicli see\
OREITHYIA, one of tlie Nereids (wliich see).
ORGAN. See Music (Sacred).
ORGIES. See Mysteries.
ORIENTAL CHURCHES. See Eastern
Churches.
ORIGENISTS, the followers of Origen, one of
the most celebrated of the Clu'istian fathers. He
was a native of Alexandria in Egypt, having been
born there in A. u. 185. From his father Leonides,
who was a devoted Christian, he received a liberal
and thoroughly Christian education, and having
early become a subject of divine grace, he manifested
so warm an attachment to sacred things, that his
pious parent was wont to thank God who had given
him such a son, and would often, when the boy was
asleep, uncover his breast, kissing it as a temple wliere
the Holy Spirit designed to prepare his dwelling.
In studying the Word of God, Origen insensibly
imbibed, probably from constitutional temperament,
a preference for the allegorical over the natural
method of interpretation. At first, indeed, this ten-
dency was checked rather than encouraged, but
through the influence of the Alexandrian school,
and more especially of Clemens, one of its earliest
teachers, he became an allegorist of an extreme
character. And besides, his opinions were consider-
ably modified by his attendance on the lectures of
Ammonius Saccas, the teacher of Plotinus, who
founded the school of the Nco-Platonists. From this
date commenced the great change in the theological
tendency of Origen's mind. He now set himself to
examine all human systems, and only to hold that
fast as the truth which he found after severe and
impartial exainination. To arrive at a more in-
timate acquaintance with the sacred writings, he
studied tlie Hebrew language after he had reached
the age of manhood.
The talents and attainments of Origen as a theo-
logian led to his appointment to the office of a
catechi.st at Alexandria. His opportunities of use-
fulness were tlius much extended. Multitudes re-
sorted to him for religious instruction, and directing
his attention chiefly to the more advanced catechu-
mens, he gave public lectures on tlie various sys-
tems of the ancient philosopliers, pointing out the
utter inadequacy of human learning and speculation
to satisfy the religious wants of man, thus leading
nis hearers gradually to tlie inspired writings as the
only source of all true knowledge of divine tilings.
One great object, both of his oral lectures and liis
published works, was to counteract the influence of the
Gnostics, who had succeeded in perverting the views
of many Christians. But in exposing the errors of
others, Origen himself incurred the charge of heresy.
Combining the doctrines of the Platonic system with
those of Christianity, he ran, in some of his writings
at least, into wild and unbridled speculation. The
consequence was, that Demetrius, the bishop of
.Alexandria, prohibited him from exercising the oflice
of a public teacher, and drove him to the resohilicn
of quitting his native city, and taking refuge with
his friends at Cassarea in Palestine. The persecu-
tions of Demetrius, however, followed him even
there. A numerous .synod of Egyptians having been
summoned, Origen was declared as a heretic, and
excluded from the connnunion of the church. A
doctrinal controversy now commenced between two
opposite parties. The churches in Pale.stine, Ara-
bia, Phoenicia, and Acliaia espoused the cause of
Origen ; the Cluucli of Rome declared against him.
During the residence of Origen in Palestine, he
was ordained as a presbyter at Csesarea, and be-
sides his clerical duties, he employed himself in
training a number of young men to occupy the im-
portant position of cliurch- teachers. Here also he
wrote several of his literary productions, and
maintained an active correspondence with the
most distinguished theologians in Cappadocia, Pa-
lestine, and Arabia. In the course of the per-
secution of the Christians by Maximin the Tlira-
cian, Origen was compelled frequently to change his
place of residence, and for two years he was con-
cealed in the house of Juliana, a Christian virgin,
employing himself in the emendation and improve-
ment of the text of the Alexandrian version of the
Old Testament. Availing himself of the leisure
which his retirement afforded, he succeeded in com-
pleting his great work, the IIexapla (which see)
Under the reign of the Emperor Gordian, in A. n.
238, he returned once more to Cuesarea, and resumed
his earlier labours. Throughout the rest of his life
he continued with indefatigable ardour to prosecute
his literary and theological pursuits. In the Deciau
persecution he was thrown into prison, and sni jected
to torture, but he was not ashamed to confess his
Lord. At length, worn out by his labours and suf-
ferings, he died about A. D. 254 in the seventieth
year of his age.
The opinions of Origen were maintained with zeal
after his death by many of his disciples. In Egypt
there now existed two opposite parlies of Origenists
and Anti-Origenists. In the fourth century they
appear again, chiefiy among the Egyptian monks, un-
der the names of Anthropomorj]]) ties and Origenists.
One of the most eminent of the followers of Origen
was Gregory Thaumaturgus or the Wonder-woi'ker,
who was chiefly instnunental in spreading Origenist
opinions in the fourth century, and through his
zealous labours Christianity became widely diffused
in Pontus. The writings of Origen, however, formed
the chief source of the extraordinary influence which
this distinguished man exercised over some of the
most eminent church-teachers of the East, among
whom may be mentioned Eusebius of Czesarea, Gre-
gory of Xazianzen, Basil of C?esarea, and Gregory
of Nyssa. Origen, indeed, bore tlie same relation
to the theological development of the Eastern
574
OR[GIXAL ANTIBURGITERS.
cliurcli, tliiU tlie great Aiigiistiii bore to the West-
ern.
'i'lie cliierdiiiractefistic of the Origenistic scliool
was a strong desire to extract iVom the Sacred
Writings a mystical meaning, and tliiis they too ot'ten
fell into the errur of losing sight altogether of their
historical sense, aTul even rejecting it as imtrne. Bnt
the principal heresies with which they were charge-
able were derived from the work of Origen ' On
Principles,' a work which was pervaded throughout
bv (Joctrines drawn from the writings of the Greek
philosophers, especially those of Plato. Some have
even accused this specidalive writer of having
given origin to the Arian heresy. His views of the
Trinity, it must be admitted, were sncli as were likely
to afford too much ground for such a charge. He
seems to have distinguished tlie substance of (he
Father from that of the Sou, to have affirmed the in-
feriority of the Holj' Spirit to the Son, and even to
have regarded both tlie Son and the Spirit as crea-
tures. He held the pre-existence of human souls,
that is, their existence before the Mosaic creation, if
not from eternity ; and that in their pre-existent
.state they were clothed in ethereal bodies suited to
their peculiar nature and condition. He taught that
souls were doomed to inhabit mortal bodies in this
world as a punishment for faults committed in tlieir
pre-existent state. He maintained that the human
soul of Christ was created before the beginning of
the world, and united to the Divine '\^'ord in a state
of pristine glory. He alleged, also, that at the re-
surrection mankind shall lay aside the gross mate-
rial bodies witli which they are clothed in this world,
.ind shall be again clothed with refined ethereal bo-
dies. Origen appears to have been a Restorattonist,
believing that after certain periods of time the lo.st
souls in hell .shall be released from their torments
and restored to a new state of probation ; and that
the e.arth, after the great conflagration, shall become
hal)ilable again, and be the abode of men and other
animals. This jn'occss of alternate renovation and
destruction he supposed would last throughout eter-
nal ages.
Towards tlie close of tlie fourth century a strong
party gradually arose which vicdently opposed the
doctrines of Origen. At the head of this party
stood Epiphanius of Palestine, wlio, in his works,
openly declared Origen to be a heretic, and demand-
ed of the leaders of the Alexandrian seliool in Pa-
lestine to support bis views. This called forth Rufi-
nns, who, to spread the fame of Origen in the West,
and at the same time to vindicate liim from the
charge of heresy, pnblislied a translation of Origen's
work 'On Principles,' into the Latin language, alter-
ing such passages as had been objected to, and ren-
dering them as far as possible agreeable to the ortho-
dox opinions. In A. n. .300 Theophilns, bishop of
Alexandria, who had at one time been an admirer of
Origen, passed a sentence of condemnation upon his
mcinoiy, and was sanctioned in his decision by the
Roman Church. The monks who favom-ed Origen
he loaded with abuse, but they found a kind protec-
tor in Chrysostom, bishop of Constantinople.
In the sixth centin-y a party of monks in the East
venerated tlie name of Origen in consequence of the
relation which his opinions seemed to bear to the
doctrines of the M(ino))hysites. This Origenistic
party, however, met with violent ojiposition from a
class of Anti-Origenists, who prevailed upon the
Emperor Justinian to authorize the assembling of a
synod in A. D. 541, which formally condemned Ori-
gen and his doctrines, in fifteen canons. This
condemnation was renewed in the fifth general
council, wliich met at Constantinople in A. D. 553,
and the circumstance that such a decree was passed
in an oecumenical council had great influence in
bringing about the more general practice in later
times, of treating Oricen as a heretic.
ORIGINAL AXTIBURGHERS, the name
usually given to a small body of Christians which
seceded in 1806 from the General Associate (Anti-
burgher) Synod in Scotland. The occasion of this
secession was what is generally known b}' the name
of the Old and New Light Controver.sy, which chiefly
turned upon the question as to the power of the
civil magistrate in matters of religion. On this sidj-
ject the early Seceders strongly adhered to what is
commonly termed the Establislmient principle. In
course of time, however, a change began to manifest
itself in the opinions of a portion of the Secession
body, who were disposed to doubt the expediency
and Scriptural authority of National Establishments
of religion. The subject came at length to be
openly agitated in the General Associate Synod in
1793, and from that date New-Light or Anti-Estab-
li-shment principles made rapid progress in the bodv.
The alarming extent, however, of the change which
had taken place in the views of the Antiburglier
section of the Secession on the subject of civil
establishments of religion, did not become fully ap-
parent until a new Secession Testimony, under the
name of "The Narrative and Testimony," was laid
before the synod at its meeting in 1793. This docu-
ment differed in several inqiortant particulars from
the Original Testimony, but chiefly on the question
as to the power of the civil magistrate in matters of
religion. Year after year the subject was keenly
discussed, and it was not imtil 1804 that the " Nar-
rative and Testimony" was adopted by the General
Synod. A small number of members, however,
headed by Dr. Thomas M'Crie, protested against the
New Testimony as embodying, in their view, im-
portant deviations from the original principles of the
First Seceders. When at length the Narrative and
Testimony came to be enacted as a term of commu-
nion. Dr. M'Crie, and the brethren who adhered to
his sentiments, felt that it was difficidt for them con-
scientiously to remain in comnumion with the synod.
They were most reluctant to separate from their
brethren, and, accordingly, they retained their posi
0RIC4INAL ANTIBURGHERS.
ticpii ill connection with tlie boiiy lor two years after
tlie New Testimony Imd been adopted by tlie synod.
At lengtli the fonr brethren, Messrs. Bruce,
Aitken, Hog, and M'Crie, finding tliat tliey could
no longer content themselves with mere unavailing
protests against tlto doings of the synod, solemnly
separated from the bodv, and constituted themselves
into a presbytery, imder the designation of the Con-
stitutional Associate Preshjtertj . But though they
had thus taken this important step, tliey did not
consider it prudent to make a ]inblic announcement
of their meeting until they had full time to publi.'sli
the reasons for the course they had adopted. But
as they did not at^'ect secrecy in the matter, intelli-
gence of the movement reached the General Asso-
ciate Synod, then sitting in Glasgow, wliicli accord-
ingly, without the formalities of a legal trial, deposed
and excoumiunicated Dr. M-Crio-
The points of diiVerence between the Original
Secession Testimony, and the '■ Narrative and Tes-
timony" which led to the secession of the four Pro-
testers, and the formation of the Constitutional
Associate Presbytery, cannot be better stated than
in the following extract from the exjilanatory Address
which Dr. M'Crie delivered at tlie time to his own
congi-egation : "The New Testimc/ny expressly asserts
that the power competent to worldly kingdoms is to
be viewed as ' respecting only the secular interests
of society,' tlie secular interests of society only, in
distinction from their religious interests. It is easy
to see that this principle not only tends to exclude
nations and their rulers from all interference with
religion, from employing their power for jiromoting
a religious reformation and advancing the kingdom
of Christ, but also virtually condemns what the
rulers of this land did in former times of reformation,
which tlie original Testimony did bear witness to as
a work of God. Accordingly, this reformation is
viewed all along through the new papers as a mere
ecclesiastical reformation ; and the laws made by a
reforming Parliament, &c., in as far as they recog-
nised, ratified, and established the reformed religion,
are either omitted, glossed over or explained away.
In the account of the First Reformation, the aboli-
tion of the laws in favour of Popery is mentioned,
but a total and de^igned silence is observed respect-
ing all the laws made in favour of the Protestant
Confession and Discipline, by which the nation, in
its most public capacity, staled itself on the side of
Chri.st's cause, and even the famous deed of civil
constitution, settled on a reformed footing in 1692,
is buried and forgotten. The same thing is observ-
able in the account of the Second Reformation.
Oil one occasion it is said that the king 'gave his
consent to such acts as were thought necessary, for
securing the civil and religious right of the nation;'
without saying whether this were right or wrong.
But all the other laws of the reforming Parliaments
during that period, which were specified and .ap-
proved in the former papers of the Secession, and
esen tlie settlement of tlie civil constitution in 16-1!),
which lias formerly been considered as the crowning
part of Scotland's Reformation and liberties, is passed
over without mention or testimony. Even that
wicked act of the Scottish Parliament after the Re-
storation of Charles 11., by which all the laws estab-
lishing and ratifying the Presbyterian religion and
covenants were rescinded, is pa.ssed over in its
proper place in tlie acknowledgment of sins, and
when it is mentioned, is condemned with a reserve ;
nor was this done inadvertently, for if the Presby-
terian religion ought not to have been established by
law, it is not easv to condemn a Parliament for re-
scinding that Establishment.
" Another point which has been in controversy,
is the national obligation of the religious covenants
entered into in this land. The doctrine of the new
Testimonv is, that 'religious covenanting is entirely
an ecclesiastical duty;' that persons enter into it
'as members of the Church, and not as members of
the State;' that 'those invested with civil power
have no other concern with it than as Church mem-
bers;' and accordingly it restricts the obligation of
the covenants of this land to persons of all ranks
only in their sfiiritual character, and as Church
members. But it cannot admit of a doubt, that the
National ,ind Solemn League and Covenant were
national oaths, in the most proper sense of the word;
that they were intended as such by those who framed
them, and that they were entered hito in this view
by the three kingdoms ; the civil rulers entering into
them, enacting them, and setting them forward in
their public capacity, as well as the ecclesiastical.
And the uniform opinion of Presbyterians, i'rom the
time that tliev were taken, has been, that the)' are
binding in a national as well as an ecclesiastical point
of view. I shall only produce the testimony of one
respectable writer (Principal Forrester) : ' The bind-
ing force (says he) of these engagements appears in
the subjects they ati'ect, u.s,Jirst, Our Church in her
Representatives, and in their most public capacity,
the General Assemblies in both nations ; second, The
State Representatives and Pailiiiments. Thus, all
assurances are given that either civil or ecclesiastical
laws can afl'ord ; and the public faith of Church and
State is plighted with inviolable ties ; so that they
must stand while we have a Church or State in
Scotland ; both as men and as Christians, as mem-
bers of the Church and State, under either a reli-
gious or civil consideration, we stand hereby invio-
lably engaged; and not only Representatives, but
also the Incorporation (or body) of Cliurch and
Slate, are under the same.' On this broad ground
have Presbyterians stated the obligation of the Cove-
nants of tills land. And ■«'hy should they not?
Why should we seek to narrow their obligation ?
Are we afraid that these lands should be too closely
bound to the Lord? If religious covenanting be a
moral duty, if oallis and vows are founded in the light
of nature as well as in the Word of God, why should
57G
OnrGINAL BURGHERS.
not iiiei] be capable of entering into them, and of being
bound Ijy tlieni in every cliaracter in which tliey are
placed under the uioralgovennnent of God,as men and
as Christians, as members of the Church and of the
State, wlienever there is a call to enter into such
covenants as have a respect to all these characters,
as was the case in the covenants of our ancestors,
which r?(."ceders have witnessed for and formally i-e-
newed? In the former Testimony witness was ex-
pressly borne to the national obligation of these
Covenants. In speaking of the National Covenant,
it says, 'By this solemn oath and covenant this
kingdom made a national surrender of theniseh'cs
imto the Lord.' It declares that the Solenni League
and Covenant was entered into, and binding upon
the three kingdoms — that both of them are binding
upon the church ami lands, and the church and na-
tions ; the deed of civil constitution is said to have
been settled in consequence of the most solemn co-
venant engagements, and the i-escinding of the law
in favour of the true religion is testified against as
an act of national perjury. Yet by the new Testi-
mony all are bound to declare, that religious co\'e-
nanting is entirely an ecclesiastical duty, and binding
only on the Church and her members as such ; and
that 'those invested with civil power have no other
concern with it but as Church members.' Is it any
wonder that there should be Soceders who cannot
submit to receive such doctrine? The time will
come, when it will be matter of astonishment that
so few have appeared in such a cause, and that those
who have appeared should be borne down, opposed,
and s]ioken against. It is not a matter of small
moment to restrict the obligation of solemn oaths,
the breach of which is chargeable upon a land, or
to explain away any [lart of that obligation. The
quarrel of God's covenant is not yet thoroughly
pled by him against these guilty and apostatizing
lands, and all that have any due sense of the invio-
lable obligation of them, should tremble at touching
or enervating tliem in the smallest point."
At the request of the brethren. Dr. M'Crie drew
np and published a paper explanatory of the princi-
ples involved in the conlrover.sy, which had led to
the breach. This work appeared in April 1807, and
was regarded by those who took an interest in the
subject, as exhibiting a very satisfactory view of the
principles of the Constitutional Associate Presby-
tery. But however able, this treatise attracted
little attention at the time, although copies of it
were eagerly sought many years after when the
Voluntary Contkovkksy (wliich see) engrossed
much of the public interest. The Constitutional
Presbytery continued steadfastly to maintain their
principles, along with the small nmnhcr of people
who adhered to them, and from all who sought to
join them they required an explicit avowal of ad-
herence to the principles of tlie Secession as con-
tained in the original Testimonj-. For twenty- one
years the brethren prosecuted their work and held
fast their princijiles in nmch harmony and peace with
one another, and to the gi'cat edilicfltion of the Hocks
committed to their care. In 1827 a change took
place in their ecclesiastical position, a cordial union
having been efl'ected between the Constitutional Pres-
bi/tery and the Associate Si/nod of Protesteiv, nnder
the name of the Associate Synod of Origiiml Sccetlers.
See OiiicaNAL Sicckders (.Associate Synod of).
ORIGINAL BURGHKKS. Towards the end of
the eiglitecuth century, the ecclesiastical courts of
both blanches of the Secession Church in Scotland
were engaged from year to year in discussing two
points, which have often formed the subject of angry
controversy north of the Tweed. The first of these
points referred to the power of the civil magistrate
in matters of religion, and tlie second to the binding
obligation of the covenants upon posterity. In con-
sequence of the change which the opinions of many
had undergone on both topics of dispute, the Asso-
ciate General (Antiburgher) Synod had deemed it
necessary to remodel the whole of their Testimony,
— a proceeding which led to the formation of the
small but important body of Christians noticed in
the previous article. The Associate (Burgher) Sy-
nod, however, did not proceed so far as to remodel
their Testimony, but simplv prefixed to the Formula
of questions proposed to caiuhdates for license or for
ordination, a preamble or explanatory statement not
requiring an approbation of conqnilsory measures in
matters of religion ; and in reference to the Cove-
nants admitting their obligations on posterity, with-
out defining either the nature or extent of that obli-
gation. The introduction of this preamble gave rise
to a violent controversy in the Associate (Bm-gher)
Synod, which commenced in 1795, .and has been usual-
ly known hy the name of the Formula Controversy.
The utmost keenness, and even violence, character-
ized both parties in the contention ; the opponents
of the Preamble declaring that it involved a manifest
departure from the doctrines of the original standards
of the Secession, while its favourers contended with
equal vehemence that the same statements as those
which were now objected to, had been already given
forth more than once by the church courts of the
Secession. At several successive meetings of Synod,
the adoption of the Preamble was streiuiously re-
sisted, but at length in 1799 it was agreed to in the
following terms : "That whereas some parts of the
standard-books of this .synod have been interpreted
as favouring conqiulsory measures in religion, the
synod hereby declare, that they do not reipiire an
approbation of any such principle from any candidate
for license or ordination : And whereas a contro-
versy has arisen among us res|)ecting the nature and
kind of the obligation of our solcnni covenants on
posterity, whether it be entirely of the stune kind
upon us as upon our ancestors who swore them,
the synod hereby declare, that while they hold the
obligation of our covenants upon posterity, they do
not interfere with that controversy which has arisen
ORIGINAL SECEDERS (Associate Synod op).
respecting the nature and kind of it, and recommend
it to all tlieif members to suppress that controversy
as tending to gender strife rather than godly edify-
ing."
The adoption of this Preamble has'ing been de-
cided upon by a large majority of the synod, Messrs.
William Fletcher, Wilham Taylor, and William
Watson, ministers, with ten elders, dissented from
this decision ; and Mr. Willis gave in tlie following
protestation, to which Mr. Ebenezer Hyslop and
two elders adhered : " I protest in my own name,
and in the name of all ministers, elders, and private
Christians who may adhere to this protest, that as
the svnod hath obstinately refused to remove the
f'reanible prefixed to the Formula, and declare their
simple and unqnalilied aiiherence to our principles, I
will no more acknowledge tlien; as over me in the
Lord, until they return to their principles." Messrs.
Willis and Hyslop having tlius, iu tlie very terms of
their protest, declared themselves no longer in connex-
ion with the synod, their names were erased froin the
roll ; and all who adliered to them were declared to
have cut themselves otl' from the communion of the
Associate body. Accordingly, on the 2d of October
1799, the two brethren, who had thus renoimced the
authority of the synod, met at Glasgow, along with
Mr. William Watson, minister at Kilpatrick, and
solemnly constituted themselves into a presbytery
under the name of the Associate Presbytery. Tliis
was the commencement of that section of the Seces-
sion, familiarly known by the name of " Old Light,"
or " Original Burghers."
In the course of the following year, the brethren,
who had thus separated themselves from the Asso-
ciate Burgher synod were joined by several addi-
tional ministers, who sympathized with them in
their views of the Preamble, as being an abandon-
ment of Secession principles. Gradually tlie new
presbytery increased in numbers until in 1805 they
had risen by ordinations and accessions to fifteen.
They now constituted themselves into a .synod under
the name of " The Associate Synod," but the name
by which they have usually been known is the On-
ginal Burgher Synod. In vindication, as well as ex-
planation, of their principles, they republished the
" Act, Declaration, and Testimony" of the Secession
Church. They also published, in a separate pam-
phlet, an Appendix to the Testimony, containing " A
Narrative of the origin, progress, and consequences
of late innovations in the Secession ; with a Continu-
ation of that Testimony to tlie present times."
In cour.se of time a union was proposed to be
effected between the Original Burgher and Original
Antiburgher sections of the Secessicui, and with the
view of accomplishing an object so desirable, a cor-
respondence was entered into between the synods of
the two denominations, committees were appointed,
and conferences held to arrange the terms of union.
But the negotiations, though continued for some time,
were fruitless, and the project of union was abandon-
ed. In 1837 a formal application was made by the
Original Burgher Synod to be admitted into the com
munion of the Established Church of Scotland. The
jiroposa! was favourably entertained by tlie General
Assembly, and a committee was appointed to con-
fer with a committee of the Original Burgher Synod,
and to discuss the terms of union. The negotiations
were conducted in the most amicable manner, and
the General Assembly having transmitted an over-
ture to presbyteries oii the subject, the union was
approved, and in 1840 the majority of the Original
Burgher Synod became merged in the National
Cliurch of Scotland. A small minority of the synod
declined to accede to the union, preferring to main-
ram a separate position, and to adhere to the Seces-
sion Testimony, still retaining the name of the Asso-
ciate or Original Burgher Synod.
On the 18th May 1842. the small body of Original
Burghers wliieh remained after their brethren had
joined the Established Church, was united to the
synod of Original Seceders, henceforth to form one
Association for the support of the covenanted Refor-
mation in these kingdoms, under tlie name of the
Synod of United Original Secedcrs. It had been
previously agreed that the Testimony adopted by
the synod of Original Seceders in 1827, with the in-
sertion in it of the alterations rendered necessary by
the union, were to be held as the Testimony of the
United Synod, and made a term of religious fellow-
ship in the body. The Synod of Original Burghers
was understood to approve of tlio acknowledgment
of sins and bond appended to the Testimony, and it
was agreed to by the Synod of Original Seceders,
that the question in the formula regarding the bur-
gess-oath should be dropped. On these conditions
the union was etl'ected, and the Synod of Original
Burghers ceased to exist.
ORIGINAL SECEDERS (Associ.iXE Synod
OF.) This body was formed in 1827, by a union be-
tween the Constitutional Associate Presbytery and
the Associate (Antiburgher) Synod, commonly known
by the name of Pkotesteks (which see), from the
circumstance, that they protested against the basis
of union between the two great branches of the Se-
cession in 1820. The articles agreed upon with a
view to imion were drawn up by Dr. M'Crie on the
one side, and Professor Paxton on the other. The
Testimony which was enacted as a term of fellow-
ship, ministerial and Christian, in the Associate Sy-
nod of Original Seceders, was drawn up in the histo-
rical part by Dr. M'Crie, and nowhere do we tind a
more able, luminous, and satisfactory view of the true
position of tlie first Seceders, and of their conteudings
for the Reformation in a state of Secession. Dr.
M'Crie shows that the four brethren wlio furnied the
first Seceders, though soon after tlieir deed of Seces-
sion they formed themselves into a presbytery on the
Gtli of December 1733, still for some time acted iu
an extrajudicial capacity, and in this capacity they
issued, in 1734, a Testimony for tlie principles of
578
ORIGINAL SKCEDEUS (Associate Synod op).
the Ret'oniied Cluircli of Scotland. It was not, in-
deed, until two more yeais bad elapsed, that tliey
resolved to act in a judicative capacity, and accord-
ingly, in December 17;56, they published their judi-
cial Testimony to the princijiles and attainments of
the Church of Scotland, and against tlie course of de-
fection from them. Tliis Testimony, as Dr. M'Crie
shows, was not limited to those evils which had
formed the immediate gronnd of Secession, but in-
cluded others also of a prior date, the condemnation
of which entered into the Testimony which the faith-
ful party in the church had all along borne. The
whole of that Testimony they carried along witli
them into a state of Secession. In prosecuting their
Testimony tliey deemed it their solemn duty to re-
new tlie National Covenants, the neglect of which
had been often complained of in tlie Established
Cluu'ch since the Revolution.
The points of diti'erence between the Original Se-
ceders and the Cameroniaus or Reformed Presbyte-
rians are thus admirably sketched by Dr. M'Crie, in
the Historical Part of tiie Testimony of 1827: "l.We
acknowledge that the fundamental deed of constitu-
tion in our reforming period, in all moral respects, is
morally unalterable, because of its agreeableness to
the Divine will revealed in the Scriptures, and be-
cause it was attained to and fixed in pursuance of our
solemn Covenants ; and that the nation sinned in
overthrowing it. 2. We condemn the conduct of
the nation at the Revolution in leaving the reformed
constitution buried and neglected : and in not look-
ing out for magistrates who should concur witli them
in tlie maintenance of the true religion, as formerly
settled, and ride them by laws subservient to its ad-
vancement. 3. We condemn not only the conduct
of England and Ireland, at that period, in retaining
Episcopacy, but also the conduct of Scotland, in not
reminding tliem of their obligations, and, in every
way competent, exciting them to a reformation, con-
formably to a prior treaty and covenant ; and parti-
cularly the consent which this kingdom gave at the
union, to the perpetual continuance of Episcopacy in
England, with all that flowed from this, and partakes
of its sinful character. 4. We condemn the eccle-
siastical suiiremacy of the crown, as established by
law in England and Ireland, and all the assumed
exerci.se of it in Scotland, particularly by dissolving
the a.sseniblies of the churcli, and claiming the sole
right of appointing fasts and thanksgivings, together
with the practical compliances witli it on the part
of church-courts or ministers in the discliarge of their
public office. 5. We condemn the abjuration oath,
and other oaths, which, either in express terms, or
by just implication, apjirove of the complex consti-
tution. 6. We consider that there is a wide difTer-
ence between the arbitrary and tyrannical govern-
ment of tlie persecuting period, and that which has
existed since the Revolution, which wjis established
with the cordial consent of the great body of the
nation, Mid in consequence of a claim of right made
by the representatives of the people, and acknow.
ledged by the rulers ; who, although they want
(as the nation also does) many of the qualifications
which they ought to possess according to the Word
of God and our covenants, perform the essential du-
ties of the magistratical office by maintaining justice,
peace, and order, to the glory of God, and protect-
ing us in the enjoyment of our liberties, and in the
free exercise of our religion. LaMi/, Holding these
views, and endeavouring to act according to them,
we can, without dropping our testimony in behalf of
a former reforming period, or approving of any of the
evils which cleave to the constitution or administra-
tion of the state, acknowledge the present civil gov-
ernment, and yield obedience to all its lawful com-
mands, not only for wrath but for conscience' sake ;
and in doing so, we have this advantage, that we
avoid the danger of practically disregarding the nu-
merous precepts respecting obedience to magistrates
contained in the Bible, — we have no need to have
recourse to glosses upon these, which, if applied to
other precepts running in the same strain, would
tend to loosen all the relations of civil life, — and we
act in unison with the principles and practice of the
Christians of the first ages who lived under heatlicn
or Arian emperors, of Protestants who have lived
under popish princes, of our reforming fathers in
Scotland under (jueen Wary, and of their successors
during the first establishment of Episcojiacy, and
after the Restoration, down to the time at which the
government degrncrated into an open and avowed
tyranny."
On tlie question as to the liiwl'ulness of swearing
the burgess-oalli, which so early as 1747 rent the
Secession body into two sections, the Original Se-
ceclers avowed in their Testimony a decided coinci-
dence in sentinunt with the Antihiirghers. This is
plain from the following explanations given by Dr.
M'Crie, in which the religious clause in the oath is
shown to be inconsistent with the Secession Testi-
mony : —
" 1. As it is a matter of great importance to .swe.ir
by the great name of God, so the utmost caution
slumld be taken to ascertain the lawfulness of any
oath which we are required to take ; and it is the
duty of ministers and cluirch courts to give dircc
fion and warning to their people in such cases ,
especially when the oath embraces a profession of
religion ; and, more especially, when the persons
required to take it are already under the obligation
of another oath, sanctioning an explicit profession of
religion, in consequence of which they may be in
danger of involving themselves in conlradictory en-
gagements. 2. We cannot be understood as object-
ing to the clause in question on account of its re-
quiring an adherence to the true religion, in an
abstract view of it, as determined by the standard of
the Scriptures, (if it could be understood in that
sense,) nor as it implies an adherence to the Protes-
tant religion, in opposition to the Romish, which is
ORIGINAL SECEDERS (Associate Synod op.
579
rerumiiceil. of aii adln'i-eiice to tlie Confession of
Paitli, and any part of the standards compiled for
uniformity iu tlie former Reformation, so far as tliese
are still approved of by the acts of the Church of
Scotland, and authorized by the laws. In these
respects we account the Revolution settlement and
the present laws a privilege, and agree to all which
tlie Associate presbytery thankfully expressed in
commendation of tliem, in their Testimony, and in
the Declaration and Defence of their [irinciples con-
cerning tlie present civil government. 3. The pro-
fes.-^ion of religion required by the burgess-oath is of
a definite kind. If this were not the case, and if it
referred only to the true religion in the abstract, and
every swearer were left to understand this according
to his own views, the oath would not serve the \tm-
pose of a test, nor answer the design of the imposer.
The Romish religion is specially renounced ; but
there is also a positive part in the clau.se, speci-
fying the religion profes.'^ed in this realm, and
autliorized by the laws of the land ; while the word
prcsenlli/ will not admit of its applying to any
profession dill'erent from that which is made and
autliorized at the time when the oath is sworn.
4. The profession of tlie true religion made by Se-
ceders, agreeing with that which was made in this
country and authorized by the laws between 1G38
and 1650, is diii'erent from, and in some important
points inconsistent with, that profession whicli is
presently made by the nation, and authorized by the
laws of the land. The Judicial Testimony finds
fault with the national profession and settlement
made at the Revolution, both materially and formally
con.sidered, and condemns the State for excluding, in
its laws authorizing religion, the divine right of
presbytery, and tlie intrinsic power of the church, —
two special branches of the glorious headship of the
Redeemer over his spiritual kingdom, and for leaving
the Covenanted Reformation and the Covenants
under rescissory laws ; while it condemns the Church
for not asserting these important parts of religion
ami reformation. On these grounds we cannot but
look upon the religious clause in question as incon-
sistent with the Secession Testimony; and accord
ingly must approve of the decision of synod, con-
demning tiie swearing of it by Seceders. 5. As tliat
which brought matters to an extremity, and divided
the body, was the vote declaring that all might swear
that oath, while, at the same time, it was condemned
as unlawful ; we cannot help being of opinion, that
this held out a dangerous precedent to church courts
to give a judicial toleration or allowance to do what
they declare to be sinful. But provided this were
disclaimed, and proper measures taken to prevent
the oath from being sworn in the body in future ;
and, as the use of tlie oath has been laid aside in
most btn-ghs, — we would hope that such an arrange-
ment may be made, so far as regards tins question,
as will be at once honourable to truth, and not hurt-
ful to the conscience of any. With respect to the
censures which were indii'ted, and wliicli had no
small influence in embittering the dispute, we think
it sufficient to say, that they were transient acts of
discipline, and that no approbation of them was ever
required from ministers or people. If any difference
of opinion as to the nature or effects of church cen-
sures e.'iist, it may be removed by an amicable con-
ference."
At the formation of the United Srcc.'^sion Clivrcli
in 1820, by the union of the Associate (Burgher)
Synoil, and the General Associate (Antibnrgher)
Synod, a niunber of nu'nisters belonging to the latter
body protested against the Basis of Union, and nine
of them formed tliemselves into a separate court,
under the name of the Associate Synod. This body
of Proh'slers, as they were generally called, ha\'ing
merged themselves in 1827 in the body which took
the name of the Synod of Original Seceders, it was
only befitting that the Testimony then issued should
speak in decided language on the defects of the Basis
of Uin'on, which led the Protelers to occupy a sepa-
rate position. Dr. M-Crie, accordingly, thus details
the chief points protested against :
" 1. The Basis is not laid on an adherence to the
Covenanted Reformation, and Reformed Principles
of the Church of Scotland. In seceding from the
establislied judicatories, our fathers, as we have seen,
espoused that cause; declai-ed their adherence to the
AVestminster Standards as parts of the uniformity in
religiim for tlie three nations ; declared the obligation
which all ranks in them were under to adhere to
these by the oath of God ; testified against several
important defects in the Revolution-sctllement of
religion; and traced the recent corruptions of which
they comjilained to a progressive departure from tlie
purity attained in the second period of reformation.
The United Synod, on the contrary, proceeds, in the
Basis, on the .supposition that the Revolution-settle-
ment was faultless : agreeably to it, they receive the
Westminster Confession and Catechisms, not as
suboidinate standards for uniformity for the three
nations, but merely (to use their own words) 'as the
ciinfession of our faith, exjiiessive of the sense in
which we understand the Holy Scriptures;' they
exclude entirely from their Basis ihe Propositions
concerning church government, and the Directory
for public worship, drawn up by the T\'estminster
Assembly ; and they merely recognize presbytery as
the only form of government which they acknow-
ledge as founded upon the Word of God, although
the fir.st seceders, in their Testimony, condemned the
church at the Revolution for not asserting expressly
the divine right of the presbyterian government
Besides, the exception wliich they make to the Con
fession and Catechisms, is expressed in such a man
ner as to give countenance to an unwarranted stigma
on these standards as teaching persecuting princi-
ples ; and as it was well known that this was ofi'ensivs
to not a few, by agreeing to it, they, on the matter
perpetuated two divisions in attempting to heal one.
r
580
OUIGINAL SECEDERS (Associate Synod of).
"2. Tlie tesiiinoiiv to the contimiod obligation of
tlie National Covenant, and the Solemn League, is
dropped. Tliese deeds are not so much as named in
tlie Basis. AVIien tlie United Synod apjirove of tlie
' method adopted by our reforming ancestors, for
mutual excitement and encouragement, by solemn
confederation and vows to God,' this never can be
considered as a recognition of the jireseiit and con-
tinued obligations of our National Covenants ; and
still less can we regard, in this liglit, the following
declaration, including all they say on the suliject :
— ' We acknowledge that we are under high obliga-
tions to maintain and promote the work of reforma-
tion begun, and to a great extent carried on by
them.'
"3. Though the morality of public religious cove-
nanting is admitted by the Basis, yet the pre.sent
seasoriableness of it is not asserted ; any provision
made for the practice of it is totally irreconcilable
with presbyterian principles, being adapted only to
covenanting on the plan of the Congregationalisls or
Independents, and not for confirming the common
profession of the United Body ; and, in the bond
transmitted by the General Synod, and registered by
the United Synod, to be taken by those who choose,
all- idea of the renovation of the Covenants of our
ancestors is set aside, and tlie recognition of their
obligation, formerly made, is exjuinged.
" 4. By adopting the Basis, any testiinony which
had been formerly borne against sinful oaths, and
other practical evils, inconsistent with pure religion,
and a scriptural and consistent profession of it, was
dropped ; and all barriers against the practice of
what is called free conimnnion, which has become so
general and fashionable, are removed.
"5. With respect to the Burgess-oath, we have
already expressed our views, and candidly stated
what we judge the best way of accommodating the
ditference which it occasioned in the Associate Body.
Of the method adopted for this purpose, in tlie Basis,
we .shall only say, that while, on the one hand, by
making no provision for preventing the swearing of
an oath which has all along been viewed as sinful by
one-half of the Secession, it tends to bring all con-
tendings against public evils, and for purity of com-
munion, into discredit with the generation ; so, on
the other hand, by providing that all in the United
Body 'shall carefully abstain from agitating the
questions which occasioned' the breach, it restrains
ministerial and christian liberty in testifying against
sin; and, on the matter, absolves the ministers and
cider.s of one of the synods from an express article in
their ordination -vows."
At the meeting of synod in 1828, the Original
Seceders enacted that all tlie ministers of lluir body,
together with the preachers and students of divinity
under their in«[iection, should enter into the Bond
for renewing the Covenants, at Kdiiiburgh, on the
18tli of the following September. Two years there-
after the synod authorized a committee of tlieir
number to jircjiare and to publish an Address to
their people on tlie duty of Public Covenanting, and
on Practical Religion. In 1832, a controversy arose
in Scotland, which is usually known by the name of
the Voluntary Contkovehsy (which see), and
which involved important principles touching tlie
duty of nations and their rulers to recognize, coun-
tenance, and suj)port the true religion. In the heat
of the controversy, the Synod of Original Seceders
deemed it right to issue an Address on the subject.
This production, entitled ■Vindication of the Princi-
ples of the Cliurch of Scotland, in relation to ques-
tions presently agitated,' was published in 1834. It
condemned the Voluntary .system on various grounds,
(1) on account of its atheistical character and ten-
dency ; (2) as at variance with sound policy ; (3) as
unscriptural ; (4) as directly opposed to one impor
tant design of supernatural revelation — the improve-
ment of human society; (5) as striking at the foun-
dation of God's moral government, so far as regards
nations or bodies politic. While thus maintaining in
the strongest and most decided manner the princi)'le
of Establishments, in opposition to the Voluntary
principle, the Onc/inal Secpi/crs took occasion in the
course of the same pamphlet to lay down with equal
distinctness the grounds on which they felt thenisehes
excluded from all prcspect of an immediate retiini to
the communion of the Establi.shcd Church. '■ Our
objections," they say, "to the Established Church of
Scotland are not confined to her administration : we
cannot unreservedly approve of her constitution as
it was established at the Revolution. Though our
fathers were in communion with that Church, yet
they, together with many faithful men who died
before the Secession, and some who continued in
the Establishment after that event, were all along
dis.satisfied witli several things in tlie settlement of
religion at the Revolution, and in the ratification of
it at the union between Scotland and England. The
first Seceders, in their Judicial Testiinony and De-
claration of Principles, specified several important
points with respect to which that selth nient involved
a sinful departure from a previous settlement of re-
ligion in Scotland (that, namely, between U)38 and
1650), which they distinctly held forth as exhibiting
the model, in point of Scri[itural purity and order, of
that reformed constitution to which they sought by
their contendings to bring back the church of their
native land. Tiiis Synod occupy the same ground
with the first Seceders. They are aware that tlie
Established Church of Scotland iias it not in her
power to correct all the evils of the Revolution set-
tlement which they feel themselves bound to point
out ; but they cannot warranlably (piit their position
of secession, until the Established riiuich show a
disposition to return to that reformed constitution,
by using means to correct what is inconsistent with
it, so far as is conqictent to her, in the use of those
liowers which belong to her as an ceclesiiislical and
independent society under Christ her Head, and by
ORIGINAL SECEDERS (Synod of United).
581
due application to the State for having tliose laws
rescinded or altered which affect her purity and
abridge her freedom. It will be found, on a careful
and candid examination, that a great part of the evils,
in point of administration, which are chargeable on
the Church of Scotland, may be traced, directly or
indirectly, to the defects and errors cleaving to lier
estabhshment at the revolution; and as it is her
duty, so it will be her safety, seriously to consider
these, and, following the direction of Scripture and
the example of our reforming ancestors, to confess
them before God and seek iheir removal." Tlie
evils to which tlie document here refers, were cliiefly
the want of a formal recognition of the National
Covenants, of the Di\ine Right of Presbytery, and
of the spiritual independence of the Church.
The year in which the 'Vindication' appeared,
formed an important era in the history of the Estab-
lished Cliurcli of Scotland, since from that date com-
menced that line of policy in the General Assembly,
which resulted at length in the Disruption of 1843.
It was not to be expected tluvt the Original Secedrrs,
feeling, as they did, a lively interest in every move-
ment of the National Church, could look with indif-
ference on the crisis of lier hi.story upon which she
was entering. In the following year, accordingly, a
pamphlet was drawn up, — remarkable as being the
last production which issued from the pen of the
venerated Dr. M'Crie — entitled 'Reasons of a Fast,
appointed by tlie Associate Synod of Original Se-
ceders,' and containing several marked allusions to
the peculiar circumstances of the Church of Scotland.
Nor were sucli allusions in.ippropriate or unseason-
able. From that period the struggles of the Estab-
blished Church to maintain spiritual indeiiendence,
and to protect the rights of the Christian people
against the intrusion of unacceptable ministers, be-
came the all-engrossing subject of attention in Scot-
land. The views of tlie Original Seceders were in
hannony with those of the m.-ijority of the General
Assembly ; and the important proceedings from year
to year of that venerable court were watched by
them with deep and ever-increasing anxietv'. At
length, in 1842, a change took place in the position
of the Oriijiiud Seceders, a union having been formed
between that body and the Assoa'ate Siinod, com-
monly called the Si/nod of Original Burghers, which
gave rise to a new denomination, entitled the Synod
of Vnitecl Original Seceders. See next article.
ORIGINAL SECEDERS (Synod of Unitkd).
This bodv was formed, as we have already seen in
the preceduig article, by the union in 1842 of the
Synod of Original Burghers with the Synod of Ori-
ginal Seceders. Previous to the completion of the
union, it had been agreed that the Testimony ado))t-
ed by the Synod of Original Seceders in 1827, with
the insertion in it of several .alterations rendered
necessary b)' the union, should be taken as the Tes-
timony of the United Synod. One important altera-
tion agreed to by the Synod of Original Seceders
was, that the question in the formula regarding the
burgess-oath .should be dropped. To under.-tand tlie
position which tlie United body of Original Seceders
occupied after the union, it must be borne in mind
that the Testimony of 1827, which was drawn up in
its historical part by Dr. M'Crie, was essentially An-
tiburgher in its whole nature and bearings. This ele-
ment was dropped in the Testimony of 1842, and
thus the character of the Testimony underwent an
imjiortant change. On this subject the United body
give the following explanation in the historical part
of the Testimony of 1842 : " The .synod of Original
Seceders, in tlieir Testimony, published in 1827,
after stating their reasons for continuing to approve
of the decision condemning the swearing of the oath
by Seceders, suggested it as their opinion, that an
arrangement might be made as to the subject of dif-
ference, which would be at once honourable to
truth, and not hurtful to the conscience of any. This
suggestion was readily and cordialh' met by the Sy-
nod of Original Burghers, and joint measures were,
in consequence, adopted, with the view of ascertain-
ing the practicability of such an arrangement. In
concluding the negotiation, both parties proceeded
on the jirineiple, that de.sirable as union is, if the
reality of the thing is to be sought, and not the ap-
pearance merely, this will be secured more effec-
tually, and witli more honour to truth, by candid
ex[iIanations on the points in question, than by stu-
diously avoiding the agitation of them, a plan which,
while it makes greater pretensions to charity and
peace, lays a ground for subsequeiLt irritation and
dissension.
" In the course of explanation, it was found that
the only diH'erence of opinion between the two bo-
dies related to the exact meanirjg and necessary
application of certain terms in the oath, which, as
the question originally came before the Secession
courts as a question of practice, did not appear to be
an in.snperable obstacle to a Scriptural adjustment of
the 'dispute. After repeated conferences, it was
satisfactorily ascertained, that the members of both
synods were agreed on all points with the Judicial
Testimony of the first Seceders, particularly in its
approval of the jirofession of religion made in this
country, and aiitliorized by the laws between 16.38
and 1650, on the one hand; and in its disapproval
of the defects in the settlement of religion made at
the Revolution, on the other. Encouraged by this
harmony of sentiment as to the great cause of Refor-
mation, so much forgotten and so keenly opposed
from various quarters in the present time, and feel-
ing deeply the solemn obligations under vvliich they
in common lie to support and advance that cause ;
and the burgess-oath, the original ground of separa-
tion, being now, in the providence of God, abolished,
and both parties having now, for various reasons,
seen it to be their duty to refrain from swearing that
oath, should it be re-enacted ; the two Synods agreed
to unite upon the following explanatory declarations
58-2
ORIGINAL SECEDERS (Synod of United).
and resolutions, catciilaled, in tlieir judgment, to re-
move the Inrs in the wav of hannonioiis fellowsliip
and co-operation, and to prevent, throiiijli tlie bless-
in',; of God, the recurrence of any similar dili'erence
for the futm'e.
" 1. That when the chin'ch of Christ is in d:nij;er
from adversaries who hold persecuting principles, or
who are employing violence or insidious arts to over-
turn it, the legislature of a country may warrantaljly
exact an oath from those who are admitted to official
and iiiHuential stations, calculated tor the security of
the true religion; and that, in these circiutistances,
it is lawful and proper to swear.
" 2. That no Christian, without committing sin, can
on any consideration swear to maintain or defend
any known or acknowledged corruption or defect in
the profession or establishment of religion.
"3. That a public oath can be taken only accord-
ing to the declared and known sense of the legisla-
ture or enacting authority, and no person is warrant-
ed to swear it in a sense of his own, contrary to the
former.
"4. That no church court can warrantably give a
judicial toleration or allowance to do svliat they de-
clare to be sinful, or what there is snHicient evidence
from the Word of God is sinful."
Those who hold high Antilmrglior views main-
tain, that the ruling element of the Original Secession
Testimony of 1827 involves the decision come to bv
the .-Vntiburgher party of the Secession in 174(5, viz.
tliat " those of the Secession cannot with safety of
conscience, and without sin, swear any burgess-oalli
with the .said religious clause, while mattere, with
reference to the profession and settlement of religion,
continue in such circinnstanees as at present; and,
particularly, that it does not agree unto, nor consist
with, an entering into the bond for renewing our
Solemn Covenants." So strongly did the Anti-
burgher Synod of that time regard this decision as
virtually com|irehending the whole Secession cause,
that they declared that the Burghers, who had op-
posed this decision, " had materially dropped the
whole Testimony among their hands, allowing of,
at least for a time, a material abjuration thereof."
Thus it is plain, that the Aniiburgher Synod made
the decision of 174G, in regard to the burgess-oatli,
the ex|ionent of the Judicial Testimony, as well as
of the declinature aiul the act for reiu^wing (he cove-
nants. Hence the Original Seeeders, in uniting with
the Original Uurgliers, and adopting the Testimony
of 1842, might be rc'garded as acting in opposition to
tile decision of 174(1, which was the ruling and expo-
sitory element of the Testimony of 1827.
Another peculiarity which distinguished the Se-
ees.sion Testimony was the formal recognition and
actual renewing of the covenants. To this ]iecu-
liarity the Original Secession body steadfastly ad-
liereil, allowing no student to be licensed and no
probationer to be ordained who had not previously
joined the bond, or solemnly promi'^ed that he would
do so, on the very lii-st opportunity that oli'ered.
The descending obligation of the covenants was
distinctly maintained ;iccordingly in the Testimony
of 1827, and the same doctrine is avowed also by the
United Original Seeeders in their Testimony of
1842. In this respect they were oidy following in
the steps of the first Seeeders, who had no sooner
broken off their connexion with the Established
Church of that day than they fell back ujion the
church of a former period, and proceeded to identify
their cause with that of the Reformed Covenanted
Church, and this they did by actually renewing the
covenants. By their act relating to this subject
published in 1743, " the}' considered the swearing of
the bond was called for, and rendered necessary by
the strong tide of defection from the Reformation
cause which had set in," and tliat by so acting they
would serve themsehes heirs to the vows of their
fathers. Dr. M'Crie, accordingly, in referring to
tins part of the history of the first Seeeders, tells us
in the Historical I'art of the Testimony of 1827 :—
"The ministers having entered into the bond, mea-
sures were taken for having it administered to the
people in their respective congregations ; and at a
subsequent period (1744) they agreed that all who
were admitted to the ministry should previously
have joined in renewing the covenants, while such as
opposed or slighted the diuy should not be admitted
to sealing ordinances." Thus both the formal recog-
nition and the actual renewing of tlie covenants
came to be necessary terms of fellowship in the
early Secession Church. The work of renewing the
coveiuints had, in tiie smnmer of 1744, been gone
through in only two .settled congregations, when a
stop was put to it by the synod having forced upon
it the settlement of the cpiestion, " Whether those
in communion with them could warrantably ami con-
sistently swear the following clause in some burgess-
oaths, — " Here I protest, before God and yoiu' Lord-
ships, that I profess and allow with my heart, the
true religion professeil within this realm, and author-
ized by the laws thereof." The question involved in
the swearing of the burgcssoath respected tlie char-
acter of the Uevolution settlement or legally author-
ized profession of religion. It was on this point
that the Secession body beciune divided into two con-
flicting .synods.
From the Testimony of 1827, it is plain that the
Original Seeeders regarded both the principle and
practice of covenanting as inherited by them from
the first Seeeders. Nor does there seem to be any
material difl'ereiicc between the Testimony of 1827
and that of the United Original Seeeders in 1842, in
so far as regards the ipiestion as to tlie descending
obligation of the Covenants. Hut in the latter Tes-
timony, a clause occurs which seems to indicate a
somewhat modified view of the necessity of actually
renewing the covenants. The clause in question
runs thus: "It is also agreed that while all jn'oper
means are iiseil for stiiring up and preparing the
ORIGINAL SIN.
58?
peo|Tle in tlieir respective congregations to engage in
tills important and seasonable dnty, there should he
no undue haste in those congregations lohere it has not
been formerly jyractised." The clause marked in
Italics is not fonnd in the Testimony of 1827, and
must therefore be considered as one of those altera-
tions in the Testiuiony of the Original Seceder.s
which was deemed necessary, in order to the acoom-
plishnient of the Union witli the Original Burghers.
The year which succeeded the formation of the
Syuod of United Original Seeeders, was the year of
the Disruption of the Established Chin-cli of Scot-
land— an event wliich was one of the deepest interest
to every denomination of Christians in tlie country,
but more especially to the representatives of tlie
first Seceders. The formation of the Free Church of
Scotland, in a state of entire iiide])eni!cnce of all
State interference, and professing ini trammelled to
prosecute the great ends of a Christian church, sub-
missive to the guidance and authority of Iter Great
Head alone, was hailed by the newly formed body of
United Original Seceders as realizing the wishes, the
hopes, and the prayers of their forefathers, who had
concluded the Protest which formed the basis of the
Secession in these remarkable words : " And we
hereby appeal unto the first free, faithful, and re-
forming General Assembly of tlie Church of Scot-
land." As 3'ears passed on, after the memorable
events of 184.3, the conviction was growing stronger
and stronger in the minds of many both of the min-
isters and people of the United Original Seceders,
that in the Assembly of the Free Church they could
recognize the General Assembly to which the first
fathers of the Secession appealed, and that tlierefore
the time had come when the Protest of the IGth No-
vember 1733 must be fallen from. At length it was
resolved in tlie synod of the body to lodge a Repre-
sentation and Appeal on the table of the Free
Church Assembly, with a view to the coalescing of
the two bodies. The union thus sought was accom-
plished in May 1852, on the express understanding
that the brethren of the United Original Secession
Synod, who thus applied for aduiission into the Free
Church of Scotland, should be allowed to retain their
peculiar views as to the descending obligation of the
Covenants, while at the .same time the Free Churcli
did not commit itself directly or indirectly, in any way,
either to a positive or to a negative opinion upon
these views. Several ministers and congregations
connected with the United Original Seceders refused
to accede to the union with the Free Church, and
preferred to remain in their former position, and
accordingly, a small body of Christians still exists
holding the principles, and calling themselves by the
name of the United Original Secession. One con-
gregation of Original Seceders in Edinburgh, under
the ministry of the Rev. James Wright, with not
a few adherents in various parts of the country, dis-
claims all connection with those who adhere to the
Testimony of 1842, and professes to hold by the
Testimony of 1827, thus claiming, in the principles
which they avow, to represent the first Seceders,
in so far as in the .advanced state of the Secession
cause they held their principles to be identical with
those of the Reformed Covenanted Cluueh of Soot-
land.
ORIGINAL SIN. This expression is freiiuently
used iu a twofold sense, to denote the imputation of
Adam's first sin to his posterity, and also that in-
herent depravity which we have derived by inheri-
tance from our first parents. The first view of the
subject — the imputation of Adam's first sin — has
already been considered under the articles I.mputa-
TION and HorKiNSl.ANS. Accordiug to the second
view we come into the world, in consequence of the
sin of .4dam, in a state of depravity. On this point
the Wcstmiuster Confession of Faith explicitly de-
clares : — " By this sin," referring to the sin of our
first parents, " they fell from their original righteous-
ness and communion with God, and so became dead
iu sin, and wholly defiled in all the facidiies and
parts of soul and body. They being the root of all
mankind, the guilt of this sin was imputed, and the
same death in sin and corrupted nature conveyed, to
all their posterity, descending from them by ordinary
generation." Again, in another pas.sage the same
Confession teaches, " Man by his fall into a state of
sin, hath wholly lost all ability to any spiritual good
accompanying salvation, so as a natural man being
altogether averse from that good, and dead in sin, is
not able by his own strength to convert himself, or
to prepare himself thereunto." This doctrine per-
vades the whole of the Sacred Writings, and may
be called indeed a fundamental and essential truth of
Revelation. Thus even before the Hood we find the
inspired penman declaring. Gen. vi. 5, " And God saw
that the wickedness of man was great in the earth,
and that every imagination of the thoughts of his
heart was only evil continually." And again after the
flood the same statement is repeated. Gen. viii. 21,
'•The imagination of man's heart is evil from hi.s
youth." David also, in Ps. li. 5, declares, " Behold, I
was sliapen in iniquity ; and in sin did my mother
conceive me." The original and innate depravity of
man might be deduced from the doctrine of Scrip-
ture respecting the necessity of regeneration. Our
blessed Lord affirms, John iii. 3, " Except a man
be born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God;"
we are said to lie " saved liy the washing of regener-
ation, and renewing of the Holy Ghost ; which he
shed on us abundantly through Jesus Christ our Sa-
viour." Such language has no meaning if it be not
true that we are utterly depraved by nature. How
early does this innate corruption manifest itself in
children! It is imiiossible for us to exauiiiie our
own hearts, or to look around us in the world, with-
out having the conclusion forced upon ns, that the
wickedness which everywhere prevails, must have its
seat in a heart that is " deceitful above all things,
and desperately wicked."
584
ORMUZD— OROMATUAS TIIS.
The doctrine i)f original sin has been denied by
lieretics of different kinds. Socinians treat it as a
foolisii and absurd idea. Tlie followers of Pelagiiis
maintain, that notsvithstauding the results of the
fall, man still retains the power, independently of
Divine grace, of originating, prosecuting, and con-
summating good works. God, they allege, gives ns
the ability to believe, but we can exercise the ability
without farther assistance. This doctrine has been
revived in our own day by the members of the
Ecaiujclical Union, commonly called Mon-isonians.
Arminians admit that we are born less pure than
Adam, and with a greater inclination to sin, but in
so far as this inclination or concupiscence, as it is
called, is from nature, it is not properly sin. It is
merely tlie natural appetite or desire, wliich as long
as the will does not consent to it is not sinful. Ro-
manists believing that original sin is taken away in
baptism, maintain, like the Arminians, that concupi-
scence is not sinful. The apostle Paul, however,
holds a very dirt'erent opinion, declaring in the plain-
est language that the proneness to sin is in itself
sinful. Thus in Rom. vii. 7, 8, he says, " What
shall we say then? Is the law sin? God forbid.
Nay, I had not known sin, but by the law : for I had
not known lust, except the law had .said, Thou slialt
not covet. But sin, taking occasion by the com-
mandment, wrought in me all manner of concupi-
scence. For without the law sin was dead."
A keen controversy concerning the nature of origi-
nal sin arose in the sixteenth century in Germany.
A party at Jena, led on by Matthias Flacius, endea-
voured to prove that the natural man could never
co-operate with the divine influence in the heart,
but through the working of innate depravity was
always in opposition to it. Flacius met with a keen
opponent in Victorine Strigelius, and a public dis-
putation on the subject of original sin was held at
Weimar in luGO. On this occasion Flacius made
the strong assertion that original sin was the very
essence of man, language which was believed to im-
ply either that God was the author of sin, or that
man was created by the devil. Hence even the
former friends of Flacius became his bitterest oppo-
nents. See Syni;iigistic Contuq n-;usY.
OltMlJZl), the supremely Good Being, according
to the system of the ancient Persians, not, however,
original and underived, hut the offspring of iUimila-
l)le Time. See Abksta, I'kkii.w.s (Ri-.i,i<:ion of
I'llf. .Vncikxt).
OKNITIIG.MANCY (o;'h/« //w.s, a bird, and man-
I'lii, divination), a species of divination praetiseil
among the ancient (ireeks, by means of birds. See
J)IVINAT10N.
GRO, the principal war-god of the pagan natives
of Polynesia. Such was the delight which he was
supposed to have in blood, that his priest required
every victim otVercd in sacrilice to be covered with
its own blood in order to its acceptance. When war
was in agitation a human sacrilice was offered to
Oro, the ceremony connected with it being called
fetching the god to preside over the army. The
image of the god was brought out ; when the victim
was offered, a red feather was taken from his person
and given to the party, who bore it to their com-
panions, and considered it as the symbol of Oro's
presence and sanction during their subsequent pre-
parations. Oro was, in tlie Pcjlynesian mythology,
the lirst son of Taaroa, who was the former ami
father of the gods. He was the first of the fourth
class of beings worshipped in the Leeward Islands,
and appears to have been the medium of connexion
between celestial and terrestrial beings. In Tahiti
Oro was worshipped under the representation of a
straight log of hard casuarina wood, six feet in
length, uncarved, but decorated with feathers. This
was the great national idol of the Polynesians. He
was generally supposed to give the response to the
priests who sought to know the will of the gods, or
the issue of events. At Opoa, which was considered
as tlie birth-place of the god, was the most cele-
brated oracle of the people.
ORO, the name given in the Yoruba country of
Western Africa to MuMno .Tu.MiiO (whieh see).
OROMATUAS TIIS, .spirits worshipped among
the South Sea Islanders. They were thought to
reside in the world of night, and were never in-
voked but by wizards or sorcerers. They were a
different order of beings from the gods, and were
believed to be the spirits of departed relations.
The natives were greatly afraid of them, and en-
deavoured to propitiate them by presenting olTer-
ings. " They seem," says Mr. Ellis in his ' Po-
lynesian Researches,' " to have been regarded as
a sort of demons. In the Leeward Islands, the
chief oroniatuas were spirits of departed warriors,
wdio had distinguished themselves by ferocity and
murder, attributes of character usually supposed to
belong to these evil genii. Each celebrated tii was
honoured with an image, through which it was sup-
posed his infhience was exerted. The spirits of the
reigning chiefs were united to this cla.ss, and the
skulls of deceased rulers, kept with the images, were
honoured with the same worship. Some idea of
what was regarded as their ruling passion, may be
inferred from the fearful ajiprehensions constantly
enlertained by all classes. They were supposed to
be exceedingly irritable and cruel, avenging with
death the slightest insidt or neglect, and were kept
within the precincts of the temple. In the niarae of
Tdne at Maeva, the ruins of their abode were still
standing, when I last visited the place. It was a
house built upon a mnnber of large strong poles,
which raised the floor ten or twelve feet Ironi the
ground. They were thus elevated, to keep them
out of the way of men, as it was imagined they were
constantly strangling, or otherwise destroying, the
chiefs and people. To prevent this, they were also
treated with great respect ; men were appointed con-
stantly to attend them, and to keep them wra))ped in
0RPHE0TELE3TS— OSIANDRIANS.
585
the clioieest kinds of cloth, to take them out wlien-
ever there was a pae atiia, or general exhibition of
the gods; to anoint them frequently with fragrant
oil ; and to sleep in the house with them at night.
All this was done to keep them pacitied. And though
the oflice of calming the angry spirits was honoura-
ble, it was regarded as dangerous, for if, during the
night or at any other time, these keepers were guilty
of the least impropriety, it was supposed the spirits
of the images, or the skulls, would hurl them head-
long from their higli abodes, and break their necks in
the fall."
The names of the princijial oromatuas were Mau-
ri, Bua-rai, and Tea-fao. They were considered tlie
mo.st malignant of beings, exceedingly irritable and
implacable. They were not confined to the skulls
of departed warriors, or the images made for them,
but were occasionally supposed to resort to the shells
from the sea-shore, especially a beautiful kind of
murex called the murex ramoces. These shells were
kept by the sorcerers, and the peculiar singing noise
perceived on applying the valve to the ear was ima-
gined to proceed from the demon it contained.
ORPHEOTKLESTS, a set of mystagogues in the
early ages of ancient Greece, who were wont to ap-
pear at the doors of the wealthy, and promise to
release them from their own sins and those of their
forefathers by sacrifices and expiatory songs ; and
they produced on such occasions a collection of
books of Orpheus and Musieus on which they
founded their promises.
ORPHIC MYSTERIES, a class of mystical cere-
monies performed at a very early period in the history
of Greece. The followers of Orpheus, who was the
servant of Apollo and the Muses, devoted themselve-
to the worship of Dionysux, not however by prac-
tising the licentious rites which usually characterized
the Dionysia or Bacchanalia, but by the mainte-
nance of a pure and austere mode of life. These de-
votees were dressed in white linen garments, and
partook of no animal food, except that which was
taken from the ox offered in sacrifice to Diony-
sus.
ORTHIA, a surname of Artemis, under whicli she
was worshipped at Sparta, and in various other
places in Greece.
ORTHODOX, a term used to denote those who
are sound in the faith. It is the opposite of hereti-
cal, and supposes a .standard to exist by which all
doctrine is to bo tried, that standard being, according
to Romanists, both Scripture and tradition, while,
according to all Protestant churches, it is Scripture
alone.
OUTLIBENSES, a sect of the ancient Walden-
SES (which see), who are alleged to have denied that
there existed a Trinity before tlie birth of Jesus
Christ, who then, for the first time, in their view, be-
came the Son of God. They are charged also with
having regarded the Apostle Peter as the Holy
Ghost. Such foolish assertions in regard to this
II.
section of the Waldenses, however, are only found
iu Romish writers.
ORTYGIA, a surname of Artemis, from Ortygia,
the ancient name of the island of Delos, where she
was worshipped.
ORYX, a species of antelope held in In'gh estima-
tion among the ancient Egyptians. Sir Jolin G.
Wilkinson says, " Among the Egyptians the oryx
was the only one of the antelope tribe chosen as an
emblem ; but it was not sacred ; and the same city
on whose monuments it was represented in sacred
subjects, was in the habit of killing it for the table.
The head of this animal formed th.e [irow of the
mysterious boat of Pthah-Sokari-Osiris, who was
worshipped with peculiar honours at Memphis, and
wlio held a conspicuous place among the conteniplar
gods of all the temples of Upper and Lower Egypt.
This did not, however, prevent their sacrilicing tlie
oryx to the gods, or slaughtering it for their own
use ; large herds of them being kept by the wealthy
Egyptians for this purpose ; and the sculptures of
Memphis and its vicinity abound, no less than those
of the Thebaid, with proofs of this fact. But a par-
ticular one may have been set apart and consecrated
to the Deity, being distinguished by certain marks
which the priests fancied they could discern, as in
the case of oxen exempted from sacritice. And if
the iaw permitted the oryx to be killed without the
mark of the pontiff's seal, (which was indispen.sable
for oxen previous to their being taken to the altar,)
the privilege of exemption might be secured to a
single animal, when kept apart within the inaccessi-
ble precincts of a temple. In the zodiacs, the oryx
was chosen to represent tlie sign Capriconnis. M.
CliampoUion considers it the representative of Seth ;
and Horapollo gives it an imamiable character as
the emblem of impurity. It was even tliought ' to
foreknow the rising of the moon, and to be indignant
at her presence.' Pliny is disposed to give it credit
for better behaviour towards the dog-star, which,
when rising, it looked upon with the appearance ot
adoration. But the naturalist was misinformed re-
specting the growth of its hair in imitation of the
bull Basis. Such are the fables of old writers ; and,
judging from the important post it held iu the boat
of Sokari, I am disposed to consider it the emblem
of a good ratlier than of an evil deity, contrary to
the. opinion of the learned CliampoUion."
OSCOPHORIA, a festival among the ancient
Greeks celebrated, as some writers allege, in honour
of Athena and Dioni/sus, while others maintain it to
have been kept in honour of Dionysus and Ariadne.
It was instituted by Theseus, or, according to some,
by the Plicenicians. On the occasion of this festi-
val, which was evidently connected with the vintage,
two boys, carrying vine-branches in their hands,
went in ranks, praying, from the temple of Dionysus
to the sanctuary of Pallas.
OSIAXDRIAXS, a sect which arose in the six-
teenth century in Germany, taking their name from
3d
m&
OSIRIS-OVKRSEEUS (jKwrsn).
Andreas Osiander, tlie reforinei- of Nuremburg, who
niiiintained tliat Clirist becomes our righteousness
ill his Divine nature, and by dwelling essentially in
the believer. He taught that if man had never
fallen, the incarnation would still have taken jilace
to complete the Divine image in human nature.
Osiander was driven from Nuiemburg by the opera-
tion of the Inttriia, and was placed by his friend Al-
bert.dulce of IJrandenburg, at the head of ecclesiastical
affairs in Prussia, a position which enabled him to
triumph over his opponents, by driving tliem into
banishment. After his death in 1552, his son-in-
law. Finick, sought and obtained reconciliation with
the P/iilippists. or those who belonged to the scliool
of Melancthon. But a political party, favoured by
the Polish feudal sovereign, having combined with
his theological enemies against him, the controversy
was termhiated by the execution of Fimck in 1566,
and the condemnation of the doctrines of Osiander
as an essential heresy.
OSIRIS, one of the chief deities of the ancient
Egyptians. He was the husband of Isis, and accord-
ing to Heliodorus, the god of the Nile. His descent
is traced to Chronos and Wiea, or according to some
writers to Japiter and Rliea. He was worshipped
under the form of an ox, having been the iirst god
who taught man to use oxen in plougliing, and to
employ agricultural implements in general. He in-
stituted among tlie Egyptians civil laws and religious
worship. In the popular belief he was the Supreme
Being ; but in the inetaphysiciil or .sacerdotal creed,
he was called Cneph. or Amman, which correspond
to the AnathodiKmoii of the Greeks. In his vulgar
acceptation Osiris was the sun or the fountain of
light and heat, and as such merely an emanation of
Ciieph or Amman. Osiris, as the Nile, is nothing
else, as Plutarch observes, but an emanation, a re-
flected ray of the God of light. See Egyptians
(Riii,iGroN OF THE Ancient).
OSS.\, a Homeric female deity, the messenger
of Zeit-i. She was worshipped at Athens, and seems
to have corresponded to the Latin goddess Fama.
See Fami;.
OSSENIANS, a name sometimes applied to llie
Elcksaitf;s (which see).
OSSII.AGO. See Ossipacia.
OSSILEGIUM (Gr. osos.s-w, a lione, %cre, to
gather), the act of collecting the bones of the dead.
It was customary among the ancient Greeks, when
the funeral pyre was burnt down, to quench the dy-
ing embers with wine, after which the relatives and
friends collected the bones of the deceased. This
last practice received the name of the Ossilegmm.
The bones when collected were washed with wine
and oil, and deposited in urns, which were made of
ililTi'rent materials, sometimes even of gold.
OSSIP.VGA, an ancient Roman deity whose office
it was to harden and consolidate the bones of in-
fants.
OSTIARII, subordinate officers in the ancient
Christian Church, wliose employment was to separ-
ate catechumens from believers, and to exclude dis-
orderly persons from the church. They closed the
doors not only when religious worship was ended,
but during divine service, especially when the first
part was concluded, and the catechumens were dis-
missed. They had also the care of the ornaments of
the church. It afterwards became their duty to
adorn the church and the altar for festive occasions ;
to protect the sepulchres of the dead from being vio-
lated ; to ring the bell ; to sweep the church : and
on Maumly Thursday to prejiare for the consecra-
tion of tlie chrism. The customary forms of ordain-
ing the Ostiarli are prescribed in the canons of the
fourth council of Carthage, and the ceremony of deli-
vering the keys is derived from the book of secret
discipline among the Jews. The office was disconti-
nued in the seventh or eighth century as being no
longer necessary. In the Greek Church the order
of Ostiarii has been laid aside since the council of
Trullo, A. b. 692. The Roman Catholic Church
allege the office to have been of apostolical institu-
tion, but no mention of such an office occurs in the
writings of the first three centuries. The ceremony
of ordination in the case of the Ostiarii in tlie Latin
Church consisted simply in delivering the keys of
the church into their hands with a charge couched
in these words, addressed to each individually: ''Be
have thyself as one that must give an account to
God of the things that are kept locked under these
keys."
OV.\TION, a lesser triumph among the ancient
Romans. The name seems to have been derived
from the animal sacrificed on the occasion, which was
not a bull, but a sheep (ovls). In an ovation the gen-
eral entered the city on foot, clothed not in gorgeous
robes, but simply in the inqa pradexta of amagi.strate.
The wreath with which his brows were girt was com-
posed not of laiu'el but of myrtle. He carried no
sceptre in his hand. The procession by which he
was atteinled consisted not of senators and a victo-
rious army, but of knights and plebeians. No trum-
pets heralded the general's entry into the city, in
the case of an ovation, but simply a band of fiute
plavers.
OVERSEER (CiiKisTiAN). See Uisiiop.
OVERSEERS (Jmvisii), .sacred officers connect-
ed with the ancient .lewisli worship. They were
fifteen in number, and presided over the same num-
ber of companies. Mr. Lewis, in his 'Origiiu's
HebrpcT!,' gives the following detailed account of
tliem : —
" The overseer concerning the times, whose office
it was, either himself, or by his deputies, when it
was time to begin divine service, to publish with a
loud voice, 0 ye priests to your service ; 0 ye Le-
vites to your desks; and O ye Israelites to your sta-
tion. And upon his proclamation tliey all obeyed,
and repaired to their several duties.
" The overseer of shutting the doors ; by whose
OXYGRAPHUS— PACIFICATION (Edicts of).
587
ovJer they were opened or shut, and by whose
jippointment the trimipets sounded wlien they were
opened. He was a person appointed by the Immar-
calin for tliis office ; for tliose seven officers had tlie
charge and disposal of tlie keys of the seven gates of
the court.
'' The overseer of the guards. This officer was
called the man of the mountain of the house. His
business was to go his rounds every night among
the guards of the Levites, to see if they kept their
posts ; and if he found any one asleep, he cudgelled
him, and set his coat on iire.
" The overseer of the singers. He appointed
every day who should sing and blow the trumpets.
" The overseer of the cvmbal music. As the offi-
cer above took care to order the voices, the trumpets,
and strung instruments, so this had tlie management
of the music by the cymbal, which was of anotlier
kind.
" The over.seer of the lots. This person, every
morning, designed by lots what service the priests
were to perform at the altar.
"The overseer about birds. His care was to pro-
vide turtles and pigeons, that tliose who had occasion
for them might purchase them fur their money ; and
he gave an account of the money to the treasurers.
" The overseer of the seals. These seals were
such kind of things as the tickets that some clergy-
men at this lime usually give to persons admitted to
the Sacrament. There were four sorts of the.se
tickets, and they had four several words written or
stamped upon them ; upon one was a calf, on anotlier
a male, on a third a kid, and on the fourth a sinner.
The use of these tickets was this : when any one
brought a sacrifice, to which was to be joined a
drink-offering, he applied to this overseer of the
tickets : he looked what his .sacrifice was, and when
lie was satisfied, considered what drink-offering was
assigned by the law to such a sacrifice. Then he
gave him a ticket, whose inscription was suitable to
his sacrifice : as, suppo.se it was a ram, he gave hin:
a ticket with a male ; was it a sin-offering, then he
had the ticket a sinner ; and so of the others. For
this ticket the overseer received from the man as
much money as his drink-ofl'ering would cost ; and
with this ticket the man went to
" The overseer of the drink-oft'erings : whose office
was to provide them ready, and deliver them out to
every man according to his ticket ; for by that he
knew what nature his sacrifice was of, and what
drink-oflering it required ; and accordingly he deli-
vered it out. Every night this overseer of the
drink-ofl'erings, and the overseer of the seals, reckoned
together, and computed what the one had received,
and the other had given out.
'■ The overseer of the sick. His business was to
attend upon the priests that were .sick, to administer
medicines, and was physician to the temple ; for the
priests serving at the altar bai'efooted and thin
clotlied, and eating abundance of flesh, which was
not so agreeable in that climate, were very subject to
colds and cholics, and other distempers ; and this
officer was appointed to take care of them.
" The overseer of the waters : whose office it was
to provide that wells, cisterns, and conduits should
be digged and made, that there should be no want
of water at the temple, es[iecially at the three great
festivals, when the whole people of Israel were to
appear there.
"The overseer of the making of the shew-bread.
"The overseer of the making of the incense.
" The overseer of the workmen that made the
veils.
"The overseer who provided vestments for the
priests."
OX- WORSHIP. See Bull- Worship.
OXYGR.APHUS (Gr. o.cas, swift, and rp-ajjlio, to
write), a name sometimes given by the Greek fathers
to the Notary (which see) of the ancient Christian
Church.
PACALIA, a festival celebrated anciently at
Rome on the 30tli of April, in honour of the god-
desses Pax and Saliis.
PACH.WI.AMA, the goddess of the earth among
file ancient Peruvians.
PACHAMAMAC. See Man&o-Capac.
PACIFICATION (Edicts oi'), a name given to
certain edicts issued by sovereigns of France, in-
tended, under special circumstances, to aflbrd tolera-
tion to the Reformed Church in that country. The
tii-st edict of this kind was granted by Charles IX.
in 1562, and repeated the following year. This
treaty was but imperfectly kept, and hostilities
were resumed between the Protestants and Roman-
ists ; but at length, in 1568, peace was again con-
cluded, and an edict of pacification issued. Only a
short time elapsed, however, when war broke out
anew, and raged with increased violence until, in
1570, peace was once more concluded. So hollow were
the successive edicts proclaimed by Charles IX.
588
PAE ATUA— PAGODA.
that instead of briii^ins ivlief to the Protestunts,
they only served to lull them into a false and de-
ceitful security, while the cniel monarch was pre-
paring the way for the Bartholomew massacre on the
25th of August 1572. when thousands of the inotfen-
sive Huguenots were butchered in cold blood. A few
years more passed away and the Protestants were
tantalized by another edict of [lacilication, published
by Ilem-y III. in 15715, which, through the influence
of the supporters of the Romish Church, the sovereign
was compelled to recall. The most famous edict of
pacitieation, however, was the edict of Nantes, issued
bv Henry IV. in 1598, the most eflectual measure
of relief which the French Protestants had ever eii-
ioyed. By this edict of toleration they were allowed
the free exercise of their religion, declared to be eli-
gible to all public offices, and placed in all respects
on a footing of equality with their Roman Catho-
lic fellow-subjects. This edict, though its provi-
sions were set at nought by Louis XIII. and XIV.,
was not formal) V repealed until 1685, when its fatal
revocation was signed, and the Protestant Church
of France, robbed of all her privileges, was given
over to the tender mercies of her cruel eneinies.
See Fit.^NCE (Protestant Ciiukch of).
PACIFICATIOX (Plan of). See Mcthod-
I.STS (Wesleyan).
PAE .-VTU.V. a general I'xhibition of the gods
among the South Sea islanders.
P.'E.VX, the name in the Homeric mythology of
the physician of the Olympic gods, and afterwards
applied as a surname to Asclepius. the god of healing.
The term was also applied to Apollo.
P/E.A.N. a hymn anciently sung in honour of
Apollo. It was of a mirthful festive character, sung
by several persons under a skilful leader, as they
inarched in procession. It was used either to pro-
pitiate the favour of the god, or to prai.-e him for a
victory or deliverance obtained. It was sung at the
IIyacintiiia (which see), and in the temple of the
Pythian Apollo. Paeans were usually sinig among
the ancient Greeks, both at the eoinmenceinent and
close of a battle, the first being addressed to Arcs,
and the last to Apollo. It would appear, indeed,
that in later times other gods were also proi)itiated
by the singing of p.-eans in their honour ; and at a
later jieriod even mortals were thus honoured. The
practice prevailed from a remote antiquity of sing-
ing paeans at the close of a feast, when it was cus-
tomary to i)Our out libations in honour of the
gods.
PjEDOIJ.VT'TISrS. See Baptism.
PyEUOTHYSIA (Gr. pais, paUlon, a child, and
ihusia, a sacrilice), a term used to denote the sacri-
fice of children to the gods. See IIu.man Sacki-
FICF.S.
PyEON'I.V, the healing goddess, a surname of
Alhena, under which she was worshipped at Athens.
PAGAXAI.IA, an annual Roman festival cele-
brated by the inhabitants of each of the pagi or dis-
stricts into which the country was di\ided I'rom the
time of Nuina.
PAGANS, a name applied to Heathens or Idoi.-
.\TEKS (which see), from the circumstance that, bv
ancient Christian writers, those who adhered to the
old Roman religion were Ciilled Paijani, because, for
a long time after Christianity becaiue the ]irevailing
religion of the towns, idolatry continued to maintain
its bold over the iidiabitants of the country di.stricts.
The name I'elJi/io Piif/aiiorum, religion of the Pagans,
first occurs as applied to heathenism in a law of the
Emperor Valentinian of the year 3G8.
P.\GAS^EUS, a surname of Apollo, derived from
Pagasus, a town in Thessaly, where he had a temple.
PAGODA, a house of idols. In Hindustan, Bur-
mah, and China, it implies a temple in which idols
are worshipped. It is likewise applied to an image
of some supposed deity. A Hindu pagoda or tem-
ple is merely a receptacle for the idol, and a com-
pany of Brahnians as its giuirdian attendants. Hence,
as there is not much occasion for light, there are
few or no windows. The light of day is usually ad-
mitted oidy by the front door when thrown wide
open. Darkness is thus mingled witli light in the
idol cell, and tends to add to the my>teriousness of
the scene. The pagodas in honour of Vishnu ana
Shiva are loftier and more spacious than those in
honour of inferior divinities. Large endowments, in
many cases, are exjiended in support of tlie pagodas,
their idols, and attendant Brahnians. The ceremo-
nies observed by the Hindus in building a pagoda
are curious. They tirst enclose the ground on which
the pagoda is to be built, and allow the grass to
grow on it. AVhen the grass has grown considera-
bly, they turn an ash-coloured cow into the enclo-
sure to roam at pleasure. Next day they examine
carefully where the cow. which they reckon a sacred
animal, has condescended to rest its body, aiui having
dug a deep pit on that consecrated spot, they place
there a marble pillar, so as that it may rise to a con-
siderable height above the surtace of the ground.
On this pillar they place the image of the god to
whom the pagoda is to be consecrated. The pagoda
is then built quite round the jiit in which the pillar is
placed. The place in which the image stands is
dark, but lights are kept burning in front of the idol.
Besides the large pagodas there are ninnberless small ■
er ones, many of which have been erected by wealthy
Hindus for the purpose of performing their private
devotions in them. A pagoda f(U- Hindu worship
generally consists of an outer court, usually a cpiad-
rangle, sometimes surrounded by a |iiazza, and a
central edifice constituting the shrine, which again is
divided into two parts, the sahha or vestibide, and
the f/arb/uif/ri/ia or adytum, in which the image is
placed. When a Iliinlu conu>s to a pagoda to wor-
ship, he walks round the building as often as he
pleases, keeping the right hand towards it ; he then
enters the vestibule, and if there be a bell in it, as is
usually the ease, he strikes niion it two or three
PAH-KWA— PALILTA.
589
times. He tlieii advances to tlie tlueshold of tlie
shrine, presents his oftering to the Brahman in at-
tendance, mntters inaudibly a short prayer, accom-
panied witli prostration of the body, or simply witli
tlie act of lifting his hands to his forehead, and
straightway retires.
PAH-KWA, a Chinese charm, consisting of eight
diagrams arranged in a circular form. This is one
of the charms in most common use in China, and the
figure is thus formed :
The eight diagrams are thus described by Mr.
Ciithbertson, an American missionary to tlie Clii-
iiese : " They are triplets of lines, whole and bro-
ken, the various combinations of which produce
eight sets of triplets, each having its peculiar pro-
perties. These, by furtlier combination, produce
sixty-four figures, wliicli also possess their several
peculiar powers. The first set are representative re-
spectively of heaven, vapour, fire, thunder, wind,
water, mountains, earth. Tliese mysterious figures
embody, in some inscrutable manner, the elements of
all change, the destinies of all ages, the first princi-
ples of all morals, the foundation of all actions.
They of course furnish important elements for the
subtle calculations of the diviner. From such a
system of calculation, the results obtained must de-
pend wholly on the ingenuity and imagination of
the practitioner. The figure of the eight diagrams is
seen everywhere. It is often worn upon the per-
son. It is seen, too, pasted in conspicuous positions
about houses, chiefly over the door, to prevent the
ingress of evil influences."
PAIN (MysTtCAL), a certain indescribable agony
which has been believed by mystics to be neces-
sary, in order to prepare them for a state of rap-
ture. " Tliis mysterious pain," says Mr. Vaughan,
" is no new thing in the history of mysticism. It is
one of the trials of mystical initiation. It is the
depth essential to the superhuman height. With
St. Theresa, the physical nature contributes toward
it much more largely than usual ; and in her map of
the mystic's progress it is located at a more advanced
period of the journey. St. Francis of Assisi lay
sick for two years under the preparatory miseries.
Catharine of Siena bore five years of privation, and
was tormented by devils beside. For five years, and
yet again for more than three times five. Magdalena
de Pazzi endured such ' aridity,' tliat she believed
herself forsaken of God. Balthazar Alvarez suffered
for sixteen years before he earned his extraordinary
illumination. Theresa, there can be little doubt, re-
garded her fainting fits, hysteria, cramps, and ner-
vous seizures, as divine visitations. In their action
and reaction, body and soul were continually injur-
ing each other. The excitement of hallucination
would produce an attack of her disorder, and the dis-
ease again foster tlie lialluciiiation. Servitude, whe-
ther of mind or body, introduces maladies unknown
to freedom."
"These sutferings," adds the same writer, "are
attributed by the mystics to the surpassing nature of
the truths manifested to our finite faculties (as the
snnglare pains the eye), — to the anguish involved in
the surrender of every ordinary religious support or
enjoyment, when the soul, suspended (as Theresa
describes it) between heaven and earth, can derive
solace from neither, — to the intensity of the aspira-
tions awakened, rendering those limitations of our
condition here which detain us from God an intoler-
able oppression, — and to the despair by which the
soul is tried, being left to believe herself forsaken
by the God she loves."
PALjEMON, a surname of Heracles (which
see).
PALAMITE CONTROVERSY. See Barlaam-
ITES.
PALATINUS, a surname of Apollo, under which
he was worshipped at Rome, where he had a temple
on the Palatine hill.
PALES, a deity worshipped by the ancient Ro-
mans as presiding over shepherds and their flocks.
PALICI, demons anciently worshipped in tlie
neighbourhood of Mount jEtna in Sicily. They
were said to be twin sons of 2eiis and Thaleia,
daughter of Ilephastm. In remote ages they were
]iro]iitiated by human sacrifices. The temple of
the Palici was resorted to as an asylum by runaway
slaves.
PALILTA, a festival celebrated at Rome annually
on the 21st of April in honour of Pules, the god of
shepherds. On the same day afterwards this festi-
val was kept as a memorial of the first founding of
the city by Romulus. A minute description of tlie
ceremonies practised on this occasion occurs in the
Fasti of Ovid. The first object to which the festi-
val was directed was a public lustration by fire and
smoke. For this purpose they burnt the blood of
the October-horse (which see), the ashes of the
calves sacrificed at the festival of Ceres, and the
shells of beans. The people were also sprinkled
with water, they washed tlieii' hands in spring-
590
PALL-PALLIUJr.
water, aiul drank milk mixed witli must. In the
evening tlie stables were cleansed with water sprin-
kled by means of laurel-branches, which were also
hung up as ornaments. To produce purifying smoke
for the sheep and their folds, the shepherds burnt
suljilmr, rosemary, fir-wood, and incense. Sacriiices,
besides, were oU'ered, consisting of cakes, millet,
milk, and otlier eatables, alter which a prayer was
ofTered by the shepherds to Pales, their presiding
deity. Fires were then kindled, made of heaps of
hay and straw, and amid cheerful strains of music
the sheep were puritied by being made to i)ass three
times through the smoke. The whole ceremonies
were woimd np with a feast in the open air. In
later times the Pulilia lo.st its character as a shep-
herd-festival, and came to be held exclusively in com-
memoration of the day on which the building of Rome
commenced. Caligula ordered the day of his acces-
sion to the throne to be celebrated as a festival un-
der the name of Palilia.
PALL, the covering of the altar in ancient Chris-
tian cluirches. It was usually a linen cloth, but
sometimes it was composed of richer materials. Pal-
ladius speaks of some of the Roman ladies who,
renouncing the world, bequeathed their silks to
make coverings for the altar. And Theodoret savs
of Constantine, that among otlier gifts which lie be-
stowed upon his newly-built church of Jerusalem,
he gave a royal pall, or piece of rich tapestry for
tlie altar.
PALLADIUM, an image of Pallas Athena, which
was looked upon as a secret source of security and
safety to the town which owned it. The most cele-
brated of these was the palladium of Troy, which
was believed to have come down from heaven. It
was an image three cubits in height, holding in its
right hand a spear, and in its left a spindle and dis-
taff. It was stolen by Ody,s.seus and Diomedes, un-
der the impression that while it remained in the city,
Troy could not be taken. After this, various towns
both in Greece and Italy claimed to have obtained
possession of this sacred image. Pausanias speaks
of an image bearing the name of the Palktdiam,
which stood on the Acropolis at Athens.
PALLAS, a surname of Aihenn, always joined
with lier name in the writings of Homer, but used
independently by the later writers, to denote this
goddess.
PALLENIS, a surname of Athena, under which
she was worshipped between Athens and Marathon.
PALLIUM, the consecrated cloak of a Romish
archbishop, which he receives from the Pope, as a
token of the full possession of the |iontilical office and
privileges. The Grecian philosophers in ancient
times were accustomed to wear a pallium or cloak ;
and when some early Christian teachers assumed this
dre.ss, their enemies took occasion to deride them.
Hence Tertullian wrote a treatise ilc, Pullio, showing
the folly and malice of the objection grounded on
wearing this gown. Jerome .'*ays of his friend N'epo-
tiaii, that he kept to his philosophic hai'it the jxil-
Hum, after he was ordained presbyter, and wore it as
long as he lived. He asserts the same of Heracles,
presbyter of Alexandria. Thus gradually the philoso-
phic ^jo/Zmnt came to be nsed by the Western monks
and afterwards by the otlier clergy. It was not,
however, until many centuries had elapsed that the
pallium came to be conferred by the pojies of Rome
as a sign of pontifical dignity and authority. At
first it was bestowed by the Christian emperors
upon the prelates as a badge of authority over
the inferior orders of the clergy. It was first con-
ferred by the bishops of Rome in the sixth cen-
tury. The first who bestowed it was Pope Vigi-
lius, who sent it, A. D. 543, to Auxenius, bishop
of Aries. Pelagius I., the successor of Vigilius,
sent it also to Sabandiis, the next bishop of Aries.
Towards the close of the sixth century, Gregory I.
sent it to many bishops, and among the rest to Au-
gustine of Canterbury, declaring, at the same time,
that the custom was to give it only to bishops of merit
who desired it importunately. Even in the ninth
century, Hiiicmar observes, tliat " the pall is only an
ornament suitable to the metropolitans as a mark of
the dignity or virtue of him who wears it." Before
the end of the fourteenth century, however, it was
believed to convey extensive spiritual jiowers, so
that, in the decretals of Gregory XL, it was de-
clared, that without the pallium an archbishop could
not call a council, consecrate a bishop, make the
clirLsm, dedicate churches, or ordain clergy. Inno-
cent III. went still farther, having decreed that it
conveys the plenitude of apostolic power, and that
neither the functions nor the title of archbishop
could be assumed without it. Even though the
archbishop may have already received the pallium,
still in the event of his translation to another charge,
he must petition the see of Rome for a new pallium.
An archbishop-elect cannot have the cross carried
before him until he has received the pallium. Nor
can any patriarch or archbishop wear the pallium
out of his own province, nor even within the same
at all times, but only in the churches in the solemni-
ties of mass, on special feast-days ; but not in pro-
cessions, nor in masses for the dead ; moreover, the
pallium is a personal thing, and, therefore, cannot
bo lent to another, nor left to any one at death, but
tlie iiatriarch or archbishop must be buried with it
on him.
The pallium being a vestment possessed, in the
view of the Romish Church, of peculiar sacramental
efficacy, is made with very special ceremonies. The
nuns of St. Agnes jiresent two lambs every year as
an offertory on the altar of their church on the fea.st
day of their patron saint. These holy lambs are con-
veyed away during the night, and put to pasture till
shearing time, when they are shorn with great cere-
motiy, and the pall is made of their wool mixed with
other wool. Having been manufactured, it is laid
on the high altar of the ^^ateran church at Rome,
PALLOR— PANATHEN.EA.
591
wliicli is said to contain the bodies of the apostles
Peter and Paul. From this time it is supposed to
convey full pontifical power to any person on whom
the Pope confei-s it for that purpose ; and, accord-
ingly, when the pallium is sent from Rome, it is de-
livered with great solemnity in these terms: "We
deliver to thee the pallium taken from the body of
the blessed Peter, in the which is the plenitude of
the pontifical office, together with the name and title
of archbishop, which thou niayest use within thy
own church on certain days expressly mentioned in
tlie privileges granted by the apostolic see." At
the inauguration of a Pope also, the chief carduial-
deacon arrays him in the pallium, addressing liim
thus : " Receive the pallium which re])resents to
you the duties and perfection of tlie pontifical func-
tion ; may you discliarge it to the glory of God, and
of his most holy mother, the blessed Virgin ,\Iary, of
the blessed ajiostles St. Peter and St. Paul, and of the
holy Roman Church." It is said to have been Boni-
face who introduced the custom of conferring the
pallium on metropolitans, as a sign of their spiritual
dignity ; this robe of honour having been preWously
bestowed only on primates, or the special represen-
tatives of the Pope. Boniface, however, made it a
maa-k of dependence on the Roman see.
PALLOR, a divine personification of paleness or
fear, which was regarded by the ancient Romans as
a companion o{ Mars.
PALLORII, priests of the Roman deity P.\LLOi;
(which see).
PALM-SUNDAY, the Sunday immediately be-
fore Easter, which derives its name from pahn-
branches having been strewed on the road by the
midtitude, when our Saviour made his triumphal
entry into Jerusalem. This festival is annually ce-
lebrated with great pomp at St. Peter's church at
Rome. The Pope, magnificently arrayed, is carried
into the church on the shoulders of eight men, at-
tended by his court. The priests bring him palm-
branches, which he blesses and sprinkles with holy
water. Then the cardinals, bishops, priests, and
foreign ministers receive from his holiness a palm-
branch, some kissing his hand, and others his foot.
Then the procession of palms commences, and the
wliole is ended by high mass ; after which, thirty
years' indulgence is granted to all who witness the
ceremony. Every member of the congregation car-
ries home his branch, which, having been blessed by
the Pope, is regarded as a sure preservative against
several diseases, and an instrument of conveying
numberless blessings. The sacristan reserves some
of these branches, in order to burn them to ashes for
the next Ash- Wednesday.
PALM-TREE, a tall and graceful tree which is
common in many parts of the East and in Africa.
It is rarely found in Palestine now, though formerly
it abounded in that countiy, and hence is frequently
mentioned in Sacred Scriptm-e. Thus, in Psalm xcii.
12, its fiourishir.g growth is referred to as emble-
matic of the prosperity of the righteous man. " The
righteous shall flourish as the palm-tree." The He
brews carried palm-branches in their hands at the
Feast of Tabernacles. Palm-branches were strewei
along the road as our Lord made his last entry into
Jerusalem. Those wlio conquered in the Grecian
games received a branch of palm in token of victoiy ;
and in the Apocalypse, the redeemed are represented
as standing before the throne and before the Lamb,
clothed with white robes, and with palms in their
liands. The ancients believed the palm to be im-
mortal ; or, at least, if it did die, that it recovered
again, and obtained a second life by renewal.
PALMER, a religious pilgrim who vows to have
no settled home.
PAMBCEOTIA, a festival celebrated by all the
inhabitants of Bceotia, that thev might engage in
the worship of Athena Itnnia. While this national
festival lasted, it was unlawful to carry on war; and,
accordingly, if it occurred in the coin-se of a war,
hostilities were forthwith interrupted by the procla-
mation of a truce between the contending parties.
PAN, the great god worshipped by the ancient
Greeks as presiding over flocks and shepherds. lie
was born in a perfectly developed state, having horns,
beard, goats' feet, a tail, and his body all covered
with hair. His father Hermes carried him to Olym-
pus, where he became a favourite of the gods. The
earliest seat of the worship of Pan apjiears to have
been Arcadia, whence it passed into other parts of
Greece. He was the god of flocks and shepherds,
and all that belonged to the pastoral life, including
the use of the shepherd's flute. Fir-trees were con-
secrated to this god, and sacrifices were offered to
him, consisting of cows, rams, lambs, milk, and
honey. He was extensively worshipped throughout
various parts of Greece. Later writers speak of
him as the symbol of lo pan, the universe, and, in-
deed, identical with it.
PANACEIA (Gr. the all-healing), a daughter of
Asclepiits, worshipped at Oropus.
PAN ACHE A, the goddess of all the Achaeans, a
surname of Demeter and also o! Athena.
PANATHEN^A, the most famous of all the
festivals celebrated in Athens in honour of Athena
Pulias, the guardian of the city. At first it was
called Athencca, being limited in its observance to
the iidiabitants of Athens, but afterwards being ex-
tended to all Attica, it received the name of Pana-
thenxa, in the reign of Theseus, who combined the
whole Attic tribes into one body. The Panathencea
were distinguished into the greater and the lesser,
the former being celebrated every fifth year, while
the latter were celebrated annually. On the year in
which the greater occurred, the lesser Panatlienasa
were wholly omitted. Both these festivals continued
for twelve days, which was a longer time than any
other ancient festival lasted. The greater was dis-
tinguished from the lesser festival by being more
solemn, and marked by a splendid procession, at
592
PANDEMOS— PANIOXIA.
which the peplus of Athena was carried to her tem-
ple.
The Panut/muxa were observed with solemnities
of various kinds. Bulls were sacrificed to Allicna,
each town of Attica, as well as each colony of
Athens, sniiplyinj,' a bull. Races on foot, on horse-
back, and in chariots were indulged in ; contests were
held in wrestling, in nnisic. and in recitation ; amuse-
ments, in short, of every kind, were practised on this
festive occasion. The prize of tlie victors in these
contests consisted of a vase supplied with oil from
the olive-tree sacred to Athena, which was planted
on the Acropolis ; and numerous vases of this kind
have been discovered in ditl'erent parts of Greece
and Italy. In the case of the victors in the musical
contests, a chaplet of olive-branches was given in
addition to a vase. Dancing was one of the amuse-
ments in which the people indulged at this festival,
and, particularly, the pyrrhic dance in armour. Both
philosophers and orators also displayed their skill
in debate. Herodotus is even alleged to have read
his history to the Athenians at the Panathena^a.
Another entertainment, on the occasion of this fes-
tival, was the Lampadrphoria (which see), or
torch-festival. A representation of the solemnities
of the great procession in the Panathenasa is found
on the sculptures of the Parthenon in the British
Museum. This procession to the temple of ylMc?ia
Polios was the great solemnity of the festival, and
probably occiu'red on the last day, as the crowning
act of the occasion. It seems to have been limited
to the greater Paiiathena;a, and to have had as its
object the carrying of the peplus of Athena to her
temple. T!ie pejilus or .sacred garmetit of the god-
dess was borne along in the procession, suspended
from the mast of a ship, which was so constructed as
to be moved along on land by means of undergrouiul
machinery. Nearly the whole population of Attica
took part in the proces.sion, either on foot, on horse-
back, or in chariots ; the old men carrying olive-
branches, the young men clothed in armour, and
maidens of noble families, called Canephori (which
see), carrying baskets, which contained gifts for
the goddess. At the great Panathenoea golden
crowns were conferred on those individuals who had
deserved well of their coinitry, and prisoners were
set at libertv during the festiv.al.
PANI).\NA. See Kmpanpa.
PANDKMOS, a surname of Aphrodite, under
which she was \vorshi|ipe(l at Athens from the time
when Theseus united (he scattered tribes of Atiica
into one political body. White goats were sacrificed
to this goddess. The surname of Pandemos was
al.so ajiiilied to Eron.
PANDIA, said to have been a goddess of the
moon worshipped by the ancient Greeks.
PAN'DIA, an Attic festival, the precise nature of
which is somewhat doublfid, some supposing it to
have been instituted in honour of the goddess men-
tioned in the preceding article, and others alleging it
to have been a festival in honour of Zeus, and cele-
brated by all the Attic tribes, just like the Pana-
theiuca already described. It was held on the 14ih
of the Greek month Elaphebolion, and it appears to
have been celebrated at Athens in the time of De-
mosthenes.
PANDORA, the name of the fir.st woman accord-
ing to the ancient Greek cosmogony. When Prome-
theus stole fire from heaven, Zeus in revenge ordered
Hephxstus to make a woman out of the earth, who
should be the source of wretchedness to the whole
human family. W^hen created she received the name
of Pandora, all gifts, as being endowed with every
quality by the gods, wherewith she might accomplish
the ruin of man. According to some writers she
was the mother, and according to others the daugh-
ter, of Pyrrha and Deucalion. Later writers tell the
story of Pandora's box, which contained all the
blessings of the gods, but which, through the rash-
ness of Pandora, in opening the box, were irre-
coverably lost. She is mentioned in the Orphic
poems as an infernal goddess, associated with He-
cate and the Furies. Pandora is sometimes used as
a surname of Ge, the earth, from the circumstance
that it supplies all blessings to man.
PANDliOSOS, a daughter of Cecrops and Agrau-
los, worshi[iped at Athen.s along with Tliallo. She had
a sanctuary there near the temple oi Athena Poliax.
PANICGYUIS, a term used by the ancient Greeks
to denote a meeting of an entire nation or people,
I'or the purpose of uniting together in wor.ship. It
was a religious festival, in which the people engaged
in prayer, sacrifices, and processions, besides games,
nuisical contests, and other entertainments. At
these meetings poets recited their verses, authors
read their productions, orators delivered speeches,
and philosophers conducted grave debates in the
nndst of assembled multitudes. At a later period
the Panegyris seems to have degenerated into a
mere market or fair for the sale of all kinds of mer-
chandise, and to have almost entirely lost its reli-
gious character.
PANELLKNIA, a festival of all the Greeks, as
the name implies. Its first institution is ascribed to
the Emperor Hadrian.
PANIIELLENIUS, a surname of Dodoneav Znix,
as having been worshipped by all the Hellenes or
Greeks. There was a sanctuary built for his wor-
ship in ilCgina, where a festival was also held in
honour of him.
l'.\NIONI.-\, the great national festiv.al of the
lonians, in luuiour of Poseidon, the god whom they
specially revered. On this occasion a bull was sac-
rificed, and if the aiumal roared during the process
of killing, it was regarded as pleasing to the deity.
The sacrifices were performed by a young man of
Priene, who was chosen for the purpose, with tho
title of king. The festival was held on Moimf My-
cale, where stood the Panioinum or temple of Poxei
don lleliconius.
PANrS BENEDICTUS— PANTHEISTS.
593
PANIS BENEDICTUS (Lat. Blessed bi-ead).
Tliis expression occurring in a passage of the work
of Augustine on baptism, has given rise to much
controversy respecting the sacrament of the cate-
chumens. But Bona, Basnage, and Bingham have
clearly shown that tlie panis henedictiis of Angus-
tine was not the sacramental bread at all, but bread
seasoned with salt ; and that this at baptism was
administered witli milk and honey, salt being the
emblem of purity and incorruption. The blessed
bread of tlie Greek Church is the Antidoron
(which see).
PANIS CONJURATUS. See CoRSNRn Bread.
PANOMPH/EUS, a sm-name of Zeus, as being
the author of all omens and signs of every kind.
PANTIIEISTvS, a class of infidels who main-
tain that God is the soul of the nniverse, the one
and only true existence, the Infinite Element into
wliicli all being ultimately resolves itself. Tliis be-
lief, that God is all, and that all is God, a belief
whicli amounts to a complete denial of a living per-
sonal God, has been held by some men of a pecu-
liarly mystical turn of mind in all ages and coun-
tries. It had its origin at a very remote period in the
East, and forms, in fact, the groundwork of the entire
system of the Vedanta school of philosophy, which
proceeds upon the fundamental axiom, " Brahm alone
exists ; all else is an illusion." According to this an-
cient Pantlieistic system, when man regards external
nature, and even himself, as distinct from Bralnn, he
is in a dreaming state, realizing only phantoms, but
when he recognizes Brahm as the one totality, he
rises to a waking state, and science is this awaking of
humanity. It is at death, however, that the soul of
the sage will be completely freed from illusion, when
he .shall be finally blended and lost in Brahm,
the one infinite being, from whom all things ema-
nate, and to whom all tilings return. Pantheism is
the necessary result of such a system. It denies
true existence to any other than the one absolute,
Independent Being. It declares that what is usually
called matter can have no distinct separate or inde-
pendent essence, but is only an emanation from,
and a manifestation of, the one, sole existing spirit-
ual essence — Brahm.
The philosophy of Greece, in its earliest form, was
thoroughly Oriental, and, accordingly, the Orphic
doctrines, which, from their very remote anticpiity,
are shrouded in mystery, are supposed by Dr. Cud-
worth to have been Pantheistic in their character,
the material world being termed " the body of Zeus,"
in a poetic fiagment said to have been written by
Orpheus. At an after period, we find the doctrine
of Emanations (which see), taught by Pythagoras
and other Greek philosophers, more especially by
Xenoplianes, the founder of the Eleatic school.
With the exception, however, of the last mentioned
school, the Greeks can scarcely be charged with
having taught Pantheism as a S3'stem. Zeno, the
most distinguished Eleatic philosopher, maintained
that there was but one real existence in tlie uni-
verse, and that all other things were merely pheno-
menal, being only modifications or appearances ot
the one substratum. It was not. however, in Greece
that Pantheistic doctrines met with extensive accep-
tance; they found a more favourable soil in the
dreamy speculative Oriental mind. The ancient
Egyptian mythology was framed on pn'nciples of
this kind, and at a much later period, the Alexan-
drian school was deep!}- imbued with a Pantheistic
spirit. In the doctrines of the Neo-Platoiiists
and various Gnostic sects, we can plainly trace the
same tendency. God was with them the univer-
sal idea, which includes the world as the genus
includes the species. Scotus Erigena, also, declar-
ed that God is the essence of all things. Wha>:
men call creation was with him a necessary and
eternal self-unfolding of the Divine nature. This
doctrine was revived in the thirteenth century by
Amalric of Bena and David of Dinant, who de-
clared God not to be the efficient cause merely, but
the material, essential cause of all tilings. The
practical extravagance of this Pantheism was re-
peated by the mystics of the fourteenth century, not,
however, in a materialistic, but in an idealistic form.
They held the creatures to be in and of themselves
a pure nullity, and God alone to be the true being,
the re.al substance of all things. All things are com-
prised in him. and even the meanest creature is a
partaker of the Divine nature and life. Such was
the doctrine of the Btr/hards, the Brethren of the
Free Spirit, and the later Cathari.
The Pantheists of the Middle Ages held different
shades of opinion, which it is difiicult accurately to
distinguish. Some claimed for themselves a perfect
identity with the Absolute, which reposes in itself,
and is without act or operation. Another class
placed themselves simply and directly on an equa-
lity with God, alleging that being by nature God,
they had come into existence by their owm free-will.
A third class put themselves on a level with Christ
according to his divine and human nature. A fourth
class finally carried their Pantheistic notions to such
an extravagant length as to land themselves in pure
nihilism, maintaining that neither God nor them-
selves have any existence. Among the Pantheistical
mystics of the fourteenth century, Eckart occupied
a very high place, having wrought his doctrines into
a regular speculative system. " This .sy.stem," says
Dr. Ullmann, " resembles the dome of the city in
which he lived, towering aloft like a giant, or rather
like a Titan assaidting heaven, and is for ns of the
highest importance. Not unacquainted with the
Aristotelian Scholasticism, but more attracted by
Plato, ' the great priest,' as he calls him, and his
Alexandrian followers, imbued with the mystical
element in the works of Augustine, though not with
his doctrine of original sin, and setting out from the
foundations laid by the Areopagite, Scotus Erigena,
and by the earlier mystics of the Middle Ages, but
594
PANTHEISTS.
adhering still more closely to the Pantheistic doc-
trines which Anialrio von Bena and David of Di-
naiit had transferred to the sect of the Free Sjiirit
and to a part of the Beghards, Master Eckai't, with
great originalitv, constructed out of these elements
a system whicli he did not expressly design to con-
tradict the creed of the church, but which neverthe-
less, by using its fonnulas as mere allegories and
symbols of speculative ideas, combats it in its foun-
dations, and is to be regarded as the most important
niedi;Bval prelude to the Patjtheistic speculation of
modern times."
The fundamental notion of Eckart's system is
God's eternal efflux from himself, and his eternal re-
flux into himself, the procession of the creatiu'e from
God, and the return of the creature back into God
again by self-denial and elevation above all that is of
a created nature. Accordingly, Eckart urges man
to realize habitually liis oneness with the Infinite.
From this time the doctrine of a mystical union with
God continued to occupy a prominent place in the
writings of those (4ernian divines who were the
forerunners of the Reformation. The language was
Pantheistic, but the tenet designed to be inculcated
was accurate and Scriptural. " This mysticism,"
.says Mr. Vaughan, " clothes its thought with frag-
ments from tlie old pliilosopher's cloak, but the
heart and body belong to the school of Christ."
Spinoza has been usually regarded as the father
of modern Pantheism, but in the writings of Jordano
Bruno, who wrote in the course of the latter half of
the sixteenth century, a system as decidedly Pan-
theistic as that of S|)inoza is fully developed. This
endnent Italian philosopher boldly lays down the
principle, that all things are absolutely identical, and
that the infinite and the finite, spirit and matter, are
nothing more than difterent modifications of the one
universal Being. The world, according to this sys-
tem, is simply the unity manifesting itself under the
conditions of number. Taken in itself the unity is
God ; considered as producing itself in number, it is
the world. It was in the writings of Spinoza, how-
ever, that Pantheism was, for the first time, exhibit-
ed in the regular form of a demonstration. Fidly
developing the principles of Des Cartes, who derived
existence from thought, Spinoza identified them, re-
ferring both to the one Infiidte Substance, of which
everything besides is simply a mode or manifesta-
tion. Thus the distinction between God and the
universe was annihilated, and Pantheism- openlv
avowed. To the philosophy of Spinoza, propounded
in the seventeentli century, is to be traced that Pan-
theistic spirit which lias pervaded the philosophy
as well as theology of Germany since the connnence-
nient of the nineteenth century. Schelling and He-
gel, in fact, have proved themselves faithful disci-
ples of Spinoza, carrying out to their legitimate ex-
tent the principles of this rigid logical Pantheist.
Ficlite, by his subjective idealism, had banished
fr.)m the realms of existence both Nature and God,
re<iucing everything to the all-engrossing Ego.
Schelling reproduced what Fichte had amnhilated,
but ordy to identify them with one another, thus de-
claring plainly the mn verse and God to be identical,
nature being, in his view, the self-development of
Deity. The philosophy of Hegel was equally Pan-
theistic with that of Schelling, inasmuch as he de-
clared everything to be a gradually evolving process
of thought, and God himself to be the whole pro-
cess.
Thus " the fundamental principle of philosophi-
cal Pantheism," to use the language of Dr. Buch-
anan, in his ' Faith in God and Modern Atheism
Compared,' " is either Ihe miitij of siibstance, as
taught by Spinoza, — or, the identity of existence and
thought, as taught, with some important variations,
by Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. The Absolute is
conceived of, not as a living Being to whom a pro-
per personality and certain intelligible attributes
may be ascribed, but as a vague, indeterminate soyne-
tdiat, which has no distinctive chai-acter, and of
which, in the first instance, or prior to its develop-
ment, almost nothing can be either aftirmed or de-
nied. But this absolute existence, by some un-
known, inherent necessity, develops, determines, and
limits itself: it becomes being, and constitutes all
being : the infinite passes into the fiinte, the abso-
lute into the relative, the necessary into the contin-
gent, the one into the many ; all other existences
are only so many modes or forms of its manifesta-
tion. Here is a theory which, to say the very least,
is neither more intelligible, nor less mysterious, than
any article of the Christian faith. And what are
the proofs to which it appeals, — what the principles
on which it rests ? Its two fundamental positions
are these, — that finite things have no distinct exist-
ence as realities in nature, — and that there exists
oidy one Absolute Being, maidfe.sting itself in a va-
riety of forms. And how are they demonsti-ated ?
Sinii)ly by the affirmation of universal ' Identity,'
But what if this affirmation be denied? What if,
founding on the clearest data of consciousness, we
refuse to acknowledge that existence is identical with
tlionf//itf What if we continue to believe that there
are objects of thought which are distinct from thought
itself, and which must be presented to the mind be-
fore they can be rejiresc nt ed hy l\\e mind? What
if, while we recognize the ideas both of the finiie
and the infinite, the relative and the absolute, the
contingent and the neces.sary, we cannot, by the ut-
most efl'ort of our reason, obliterate the dill'erence
between them, so as to reduce them to one ab.solute
essence? Then the whole superstructure of Pan-
theism falls along with the Idealism on which it
depends; and it is found to be, not a solid and en-
during system of trnlli, but a frail edifice, ingeni-
ously constructed out of the mere absti-aclion, of the
human mind."
Nor is Pantheism confined to the philosophic
schools of Germany ; it has been taught, also, from
PANTHEISTS.
595
her pulpits and her tlieological cliaiis. Tlie boldest
and most reckless of her Pantheistic divines is un-
doubtedly Dr. David Friedrich Strauss, who repre-
sents the left wing of the Hegelian system, as ap-
plied to theology, and who, in his ' Das Leben Jesu,'
has resolved the entire Gospel history into a mass of
mythological fables, and recommended the worship
of luiman genius as the only real divinity. Strauss
is an extreme Pantheist. With Hegel he believes
God to have no separate individual existence, but to
be a process of thought gradually unfolding itself in
the mind of the philosopher. Christ, also, he re-
gards as simply the embodied conceptions of the
church. Tliis is the extreme point to wliich Pan-
theism has been carried in Germany, and at this
point it becomes nearly, if not completely, identical
with Atheism. A personal God, and a historical
Christianity, are alike rejected, and tiie whole doc-
trines of the Bible are treated as a congeries of my-
thological ideas. Such outrageous infidelity as this
was scarcely exceeded by that of Feuerbach, when
he declared that religion was a dream of the human
fancy.
While this controversy was still raging, both in
the philosophical and theological world, there arose,
after the Revolution of 1830, a scliool of light litera-
ture, which went by the name of Young Germany,
and which, combining German Pantheism with
French wit and frivolity, had as its avowed object,
by means of poems, novels, and critical es.says, to
destroy the Christian religion. This scliool, headed
by Heine, Bijrne, and others, substituted for the
Bible doctrine that man was created in the image
of God, the blasphemous notion that God is no
more tlian the image of man. The literary produc-
tions, however, of this class of intidel wits was more
suited to the atmosphere of Paris than that of Ber-
lin, and, accordingly, some of the ablest writers of
the school left Germany for France, and Young Ger-
many, having lost its prestige, was speedily for-
gotten.
The Pantheistic system is too abstract and specu-
lative in its character to find acceptance with tlie
French mind generally ; but the prevailing philoso-
phy of France is deeply imbued with Pantheism.
Thus Cousin, the founder of the modern eclectic
school of France, declares God to be "absolute
cause, one and many, eternity and time, essence and
life, end and middle, at the summit of existence and
at its base, infinite and finite together; in a word,
a Trinity, being at the same time God, Nature, and
Humanity." In what words could Pantheism be
more plainl)' set forth than in those now quoted, yet
Cousin anxiously repels the charge of Pantheism,
simjily because he does not hold with Spinoza and
the Kleatics that God is a pure substance, and not
a cause. Pantheism, however, assumes a variety of
pliases, and though Cousin may not with Spinoza
identify God with the abstract idea of substance, he
teaciies the same doctrine in another form when he
declares the finite to becompreliended in the infinite
and the universe to be comprehended in God.
The .system of philosophico-theology, which main-
tains God to be everything, and everything to be
God, has extensively spread its baleful influence
among the masses of the people in various continen-
tal nations. It pervades alike the communism of
Germany and the socialism of France. Feuerbach,
in the one country, holds that God is to be found in
man, and Pierre Leroux, in the other, that humanity
is the mere incarnation of Divinity. And in oiu'
own country, the -same gross Pantheisin, decked out
with all the cliarms of poetry and eloquence, has
been imported from America. Man-worship is,
indeed, the pervading element of the philosophy
taught by the Emerson school, or Intuitioxists
(which see), and believed by a considerable number
of speculative thinkers in England. " Standing on
the bare ground," .says the apostle of tins latest form
of Pantheism, " my head bathed by tlie blithe air,
and uplifted into infinite space, all mean egotism
vanishes. The currents of the Universal Being cir-
culate through me. I am part or particle of God."
The Pantheist repels with indignation the cliarge
of Atheism. Far from denying the existence of
God, he pretends to recognize God in all he see.s,
and hears, and feels. In his creed all is God, and
God is all. But the very essence of his system con-
sists in the denial of a living personal God, distinct
from Nature and presiding over it. This, if not
Atheism, approaches to the very verge of it. We
may thcnreticall)' distinguish Pantheism and Atheism
from each other, but the man who can look around
Iiim and .say that the universe is God, or that he
himself is an incarnation of God, a finite particle of
the Infinite Being, makes assertions tantamount in
meaning to the statement, that there is no God.
Christianity has no longer to maintain a conflict with
open, avowed, unblushing Atlieism, but witli secret,
plausible, proud Pantheism. Nor can the result of
the conflict be doubtful. Cliristianity will assuredly
triumpli over this, as she has already done over all
her former adversaries, and men will rejoice in re-
cognizing the One Living Personal God, who watclies
over them, to whom they can pray, in whom they
can trust, and with whom they hope to dwell through-
out a blessed eternity.
The baneful eft'ects of Pantheism cannot fail to
unfold themselves wherever, as among the Hindus,
it lies at the foundation of the prevailing religion. lis
practical fruits, in such circumstances, are moral de-
gradation, barbarism, and cruelty. The natural conse-
quences of a Pantheistic creed are thus ably sketched
by Dr. Buchanan : " The practical influence of Pan-
theism, in so far as its peculiar tendencies are not
restrained or counteracted by more salutary beliefs,
must be deeply injurious, botli to the individual and
social welfare of mankind. In its Ideal or Spiritual
form, it may be seductive to some ardent, imagina-
tive minds ; but it is a wretched creed notwith-
596
P ANTH EON— PAP AC Y.
standing ; and it will be fuinid, when calmly exa-
mined, to be franglit witli the most serious evils.
It has been commended, indeed, in glowing terms,
as a creed alike beautiful and beneficent, — as a
source of religious life nobler and purer than any
tliat can ever spring from the more gloomy system
of Theism: for, on the theory of Pantheism, God is
manifest to all, everywhere, and at all times ; Na-
ture, too, is aggrandised and glorified, and every-
thing in Nature is invested witli a new dignity and
interest; above all, Man is conclusively freed from
all fantastic hopes and superstitious fears, so that his
mind ciin now repose, with tranquil .s.itisfaction, on
the bosom of the Absolute, unmoved by tlie vicis-
situdes of life, and unscared even by the prospect of
death. For what is deatli ? The dissolution of any
living organism is but one stage in the process of its
further development ; and whether it passes into a
new form of self-conscious life, or is re-absorbed into
the infinite, it still forms an indestructible element in
tlie vast sum of Being. We may, therefore, or ra-
ther we must, leave our future state to be determined
by Nature's inexorable laws, and we need, at least,
fear no Being higher than Nature, to whose justice
we are amenable, or wliose frown we should dread.
But even as it is thus exhibited by some of its warm-
est partizans, it appears to us, we own, to be a dreary
and cheerless creed, when compared with that faith
which teaches us to regard God as our ' Father in
lieaven,' and that ' hope whicli is full of immortality."
It is worse, however, than dreary: it is destructive
of all religion and morality. If it be an avowed an-
tagonist to Christianity, it is not less hostile to Na-
tural Theology and to Ethical Science. It conse-
crates error and vice, as being, equally with truth
and virtue, necessary and beneficial manifestations of
the 'infinite.' It is a system of Syncretism, founded
on the idea that error is only an incomplete truth,
and maintaining that truth must necessarily be de-
veloped by error, and virtue by vice. According to
this fundamental law of ' hinnan progress,' Atheism
itself may be providential; and the axiom of a Fa-
talistic Optimism — ' Wliatever is, is best' — must be
ailmitted equally in regard to truth and error, to vir-
'ue and vice."
PANTHEON, a heathen temple still remaining
at Home, called also the lliitiaida. It was aneienth'
dedicated, as ajipears from the inscri|)tion on the
portico, to Jupiter and all the gods, by Agrippa,
son-in-law to the Emperor Augustus; but in A. D.
608, it was re-dedicated by Pope Boniface IV., to
the Virgin Mary and all the saints. In this once
Pagan, but now Uouiish tcmjile, may be seen different
service.s going on at different altars at the same
time, with distinct congregations round them, just
as the inclinations of the people lead them to the
worship of this or that particular saint. In 16.'5'2, a
Barberini, then on the I'apal throne, thought he
would add to his reputation by (lislignring the Pan-
theon, which he despoiled of the urnamunts spared
by so many barb.'irians, that he might cast them in
to camion, and form a high altar for thr church of
St. Peter.
PAPA, father, a name anciently applied to all
bishops, though now claimed as the special preroga-
tive and sole privilege of the bishop of Rome. Thus
we find Jerome giving the title to Athanasius, Ejii-
phanius, and Paulinus, and among Cyprian's Epis-
tles, those written to him are addressed Cypriano
Papse, to P'ather Cyprian. JIany proofs might be
adduced, which clearly show that P«y)a was the com-
mon name of all bishops for several ages ; and it was
sometimes applied even to the inferior clergy, who
were c?i\\e& ixipce pi>!inni,\\n\e fathers, and their ton-
sure or crown, pajmlctra, the tonsure of the fathers.
The first bishop of Rome who obtained the title of
Universal Bishop, and commenced the line of poj>es,
properly speaking, was Boniface III., in A. D. 606.
But it was not till the publication of the PsEUDO-
IsiDOREAN Decketals (which .see), in the ninth
century, that the temporal as well as the spiritual
authority of the bishop of Rome was iiuthoritatively
declared, it being intimated in these decret.ils that
the Emperor Constantine had transferred his sov-
ereign authority in Rome to the Roman bishop, and
from that date commenced a new era in the history
of Komanisrn.
PAPACY, a term used to denote the Church of
Rome, not in its ecclesiastical character, but in its
political constitution and position, as aspiring to, and
claiming, pre eminence and power with relation to
European society and governments. In this article,
accordingly, we are concerned not with the spiritual,
but with the temporal authority of the Pope, and it
will be our principal aim to trace the various steps
by which the papal system has risen to its present
position as a political government on the earth. The
first introduction of Christianity into Rome does not
a[>pear to have been distinguished by any peculiari-
ties which marked it out as different from its intro-
duction into other places. In the Acts of the Apos-
tles we learn that "strangers of Rome" were present
at Jerusalem when the Spirit was remarkably poured
out on the Day of Pentecost ; and it is possible, nay,
not uidikely, that some of those persons on their re-
turn home publicly avowed their adherence to the
Gospel of Chri.st, and laid the foundation of a church
in their native city. And so rajiidly does the truth
seem to have advanced in Rome, that the A]iostle
Paul, in addressing an Epi-stle to the Christians there
in the middle of the first century, mentions their
faith as having been " spoken of throughout the
whole world." The conclusion, therefore, is legiti-
mate, that at an early period, coeval, indeed, with the
churches of Jerusalem and Antioch, there was a
Christian church in Rome. The arrival of Paul as
a prisoner at Rome during the persecution under tlie
Emperor Nero, must have had no small effect in en-
coin'aging and establishing the Christians in that
city. Considerable doubts have been raised on the
PAPACY.
597
point as to tlie visit of Peter to Rome, but granting
that he resided tliere for a time, it must have been
after tlie date of Paul's Epistle to the Romans, as
that a|)Ostle makes no mention of Peter amid the
numerous Christians to wliom he sends salutations
by name. The period, therefore, of Peter's arri-
val in Rome was, in all proliability, about the time
of Paul's release from pri.-^on ; and the two apostles
are sometimes by the earlier writers classed to-
gether as founders of the Church at Rome.
No trace, however, of assumed authority and
power on tlie part of the Roman Cluirch is to be
found until tlie lapse of at least 150 years from the
Christian era. About that time, in the reign of Com-
modus, may be discovered the first germs of the pa-
pacy, in a celebrated passage which occurs in the
writings of Iren:eus. That early father, in his work
against Heresies, speaks of the Roman Church as " at
once the largest, the most ancient and universally
known, and which was founded and constituted by
the two most illustrious apostles, Peter and Paul."
Again, he adds, that " every church, that is to say,
the faithful of all parts, must of necessity repair to,
or agree with [conmnire ad) this church on account of
its greater pre-eminence (jn-ojAer potiorem prmcijmH-
tatcm)—s, diurch in which the apostolical tradition
has always been preserved by those who are of all
parts." Tliis passage, to which Romish writers at-
tach no small importance, has been rejected by not a
few ecclesiastical authors, as occurring only in a
Latin translation of the original Greek, which has
been unhappily lost. But even admitting its au-
thenticity, it is to be observed, that while Irenanis
speaks of the Roman Church as entitled to re-
spect, he neither attributes to it the right of au-
thority over other churches, nor does he imply that
it made any such pretensions. No doubt, even at
that early period the Church of Rome was account-
ed the chief of the Western churches ; but a few
years later, Irenteus, though bishop of the smaller
and poorer cluirch of Lyons, m a letter to a Ro-
man bishop, refused to yield undue submission to
the large and wealthy Church of Rome. The occa-
sion on which this letter was written, was the Pas-
chal controversy, in which Victor, bishop of Rome,
holding the generally entertained opinion, that
Easter, or the festival of the Resurrection, should be
celebrated on the Lord's day, and no other, address-
ed a letter to the faithful everywhere, declaring that
his own church should not hold communion with the
churches of Asia Minor, and endeavouring to per-
suade the bishops of other churches to adopt a simi-
lar measure. In this attempt, though made with a
spirit of overweening arrogance, Victor was com-
pletely unsuccessful ; but throughout the whole of
his conduct, we see nothing which would warrant
us in charging this Roman bishop with an attempt
to usurp a power of governing other churches. It
is impossible, however, to shut our eyes upon the
fact, that the rising spirit of the papacy may be
traced throughout the whole of this tran.saction,
there having been an evident attempt to compel the
minority of churches to yield to the dictates of the
majority. '• The spirit of ecclesiastical aggression
and tyranny," says Mr. Riddle, in his ' History of
the Papacy, '• had begun to work ; and it developed
itself, lirst, in the sentiments and conduct of a Ro-
man bishop. And observe how insidious was the
attempt. Tliere was, in the first place, an efibrt at
something like persuasion : Victor tried the eti'ect of
a letter, a paternal letter as he no doubt would have
called it, but in fact a threatening letter, as a means of
inducing compliance ; and with regard to the act of
writing this letter (though not as to the tone of it),
he could appeal to the practice of sending and re-
ceiving epistles which had prevailed from time imme-
morial among Christian churches. Failing in his
brotherly endeavour at persuasion, he sought to
arouse a spirit, which indeed would not come at his
command, but which, if he could have evoked it,
would have displayed itself in an act of persecution
against hi.s unollending brethren of the East. He
did not succeed in his unworthy etVorts ; but he set
a pernicious example to bishops of later times, and
framed an idea of spiritual despotism which was
afterwards carried out to an extent such as neither
himself nor his contemporaries could possibly have
foreseen. Victor, in short, being himself in advance
of his age, attemjited to get up, and bring into ac-
tion, a kind of Church union ; — a step which he was
led to take, cither thinking that he possessed, or at
least being desirous of possessing, the influence of a
leader."
In the course of the Easter controversy, cluirch
councils were for the first time convenftl, and those
assemblies being generally presided over by the bishop
of the largest or the most influential cliurcli in the
district, a diirerence of rank, and a system of subordi-
nation among both the clergy and the churches, began
to manifest themselves. The president of a coun-
cil was naturally recognized as having a precedence
among his brethren, and he being in most cases the
bishop of a metropolitan church, the bishops of
smaller communities came to acknowledge him as
their superior. The metropolitans, therefore, as
prinii inter pare.i, first among their equals, soon ob-
tained the right of convening and conducting synods,
and of confirming and ordaining provincial bishops.
The same circumstance which led to the elevation of
the Metropolitans conduced, in a still higher degree,
to give power and pre-eminence to the bishops of
the three principal cities, Rome, Alexandria, and
Antioch. To these bishops, acconlingly, were as-
signed larger dioceses, Rome having obtained Mid-
dle and Lower Italy, with uncertain limits, while
Egypt was assigned to Alexandria, and Syria to An-
tiocli.
Of these three principal churches, that of Rome was
the largest, the most wealthy, and the most honoured
of all the churches of the West, and was thus placed
598
PAPACY.
in circumstances peculiarly advantageous for as-
serting authority over tlie otiier elunx'lies. So early
as the niiiidle of tlie second century a Jewish party
in Rome chiimed, in behalf of the Apostle James, a
right to be recognized as a bishop of bishops, a
movement which was looked upon by the African
churches as equivalent to an ecclesiastiavl tyranny.
Hut in the close of that same century, although the
bi.shop of Rome, in common with all other bisliops,
received the name of Papa or father, the e.xistence of
papal authority and power was as yet unknown.
The germs of it, however, may be discerned in tliat
pre-eminence in size and reputation which was now
so extensively conceded to the Church of Rome.
In tlie second century, besides, the doctrine of the
universal priesthood of Christians began to be lost
sight of, and a separate sacerdotal caste made its ap-
pearance in the Christian Church. It is in the
writings of TertuUian that the distinction between
clergy aiul laity is for the first time developed, and
the superiority of the former to the latter plainly
asserted. And coev.il with this formation of a sacer-
dotal caste, a tendency began to develop itself among
Christians generally, to substitute outward in place
of inward religion, and in the course of the third
century many additions were made to the Christian
ritual, which, from their very nature, indicated a
melancholy declension from the primitive simplicity
of Christian wor.ship. Before the time of Constan-
tine numerous innovations had been introduced into
the service of tlie church, all tending towards that
increase of priestly power, which formed the very
foundation of the papacy.
The first jiresage of the future position of the
Roman ChuMi was afforded in two attempts which
it made to impose its usages upon other churches.
These were sternly repelled by the Asiatic and Afri-
can bishops. Cyprian acknowledges the Roman to
be the principal church in various passages of his writ-
ings, without, however, allowing that it pos.-essed a
supremacy inconsistent witli the parity of all bish-
ops. Rut it is an undoubted fact, that Cy|iriaii saw,
in what he considered the pre-eminence of the Apos-
tle Peter, the symbol of ecclesiastical unity, and in
a passage of his work on the unity of the church,
this writer introduces the phrase as applied to the
Cliurcli of Rome, of ratlie/h-a Petri, or chair of Peter.
In the minds of the Roman bishops themselves, the
idea early arose, and took deeji root, that their con-
nexion with the Apo.stle Peter authorized them to
take precedence of all other apostolic churches as
the source of the apostolic tradition. It was this
impression, doubtless, which led Victor to assume
the high ground which he look on the subject of
the dispute about ICaster. And after the middle of
the third century, we find Stephanus, another Ro-
man bisliop, displaying equal presuniptidii in the con-
troversy about the validity of the baptism of here-
tics, and even daring to excdniniunieale the churches
of Asia Minor and of North Africa, which refused
to acknowledge the tradition of the Roman Church,
as an unalterable and decisive law, binding on all
other Christian churches. The arrogant claims,
however, set forth by the Roman bishops were re-
jected by the whole of the Eastern, and even by
many of the Western churches. Cyprian openly
declared, in a council of more than eighty of the
bisho|is of North Africa, that " no one should make
himself a bishop of bishops;" and when Stepliaiius
appealed to the authority of the Roman tradition,
and spoke against innovations, Cyprian replied, that
it was Stephanus himself who had made the innova-
tions, and had broken away from the unity of the
church. Such language is far from indicating that
Cyprian acknowledged the bishop of Rome as entitled
to exercise supreme jurisdiction in the church. On
another occasion, also, Cyprian, in the name of the
North African synod, declared, that the decision of
the Roman bishop was without force, and therefore
not entitled to be respected.
The elevation of Constanline the Great to the im-
perial throne, and the subsequent establishment of
Christianity as the legal and recognized religion of
the Roman Einpire, had an important influence upon
the fortunes of the church. Extensive immunities
were gr.anted to ecclesiastical persons ; large dona-
tions of money, corn, and land were bestowed upon the
church ; a portion of the public revenue was appro-
priated to the use of the clergy, and unlimited license
was given to testamentary bequests in favour of the
church. In the new state of matters various arrange-
ments made by the emperor tended to strengthen
the power of the clergy, and to prepare the way for
[lapal domination. Constantine was himself su-
preme in all causes ecclesiastical, as well as civil ;
but taking advantage of his position, he gave into
the hands of the riders of the chiu'ch a large share of
jiolitical influence and power. From the moment
that he embraced Christianity he seems to have re-
garded himself as the leniporal headand governor of
the church. He issued commissions for the deci-
sion of church controversies, convened councils, and
sometimes presided over them, while their decrees
were without force, unless they received tlie impe-
rial ratification. He even appointed to ecdesiasticjil
otlices, and dejiosed or otherwise punished ecclesias-
tical offenders. In the exercise of his assumed power
he invested the canons of councils with the authority
of civil law, and thus made thein universally bind-
ing on the people. Heresy now became a crime
against the state, as well as against the church, and
a foundation was laid for all the subseipieiit perse-
cutions.
I5y the transfer of the seat of empire to Constanti-
nople, the ecclesiastical power, in the hands of the
bishops of Rome, received considerable extension.
Not being kept in check by the presence of the
civil ruler, they fomid less difficulty in securing to
themselves ])olitical power. As yet, however, we
find no pretensiun to supreme authority oi' flie [lart
PAPACY.
599
of tlie bisluip of Koine. On the contrary, at the
coiMicil of Nice, A. D. 325, summoned by the autho-
rity of Constantine, the sixth canon rims in these
terms : " Tlie ancient custom in Egypt, Libya, and
Peiitapolis shall continue to be observed, namely,
that the bishop of Alexandria have ecclesiastical
jurisdiction over all these districts ; as the bishop of
Kiime, according to usage, exercises such jurisdiction
over the churches of certain countries. In like man-
ner also their privileges shall be preserved to the
Church of Antiocli and the churches in other pro-
vinces. In general, it is plain that the great council
will not suffer any person to remain a bishop who has
become such without the consent of the metropolitan.
If, however, an otherwise unanimous election of a
bishop, according to the laws of the churcli, shoidd
be factiously opposed by only two or three, the
choice of the majority shall prevail." This can-
on expressly asserts the equal authority of the
three metropolitan, afterwards patriarchal, sees of
Alexandria, Rome, and Antiocli. The jurisdiction
of tlie bi.sliop of Rome is ahso declared to be limit-
ed to certain countries. And this was in reality
the case. The Roman bishop exercised a metropo-
litan jurisdiction over the ten suburbicarian i)ro-
viiices, which was as far as the political district of
Rome extended, and comprehended Central and
Lower Italy. Thus far, and no farther, the authority
of the Roman bishop extended at the beginning of
the fourth century, though afterwards, as primate or
patriarch, he was recognized as the head of nearly
all the churches of the West.
The high reputation which the Roman Churcli
possessed in respect of apostohcal tradition since the
days of Irenfeus, gave much value to her opinion and
her decision as a mediator in all controversies. When
the whole Eastern Church was Arian, she declared
her strict adherence to the Niceiie creed, and in con-
sequence East Illyria sought an alliance with her,
and the bishop of Thessalonicii courted her friend-
ship and countenance. "This .same state of affairs,"
savs Dr. Ilase, •' made the Roman court at the coun-
cil of Sardic;v, .\. D, 347, a court of cassation, for the
reception of appeals in the case of bi.shops. The
Eastern churches, when they were so disposed and
when united among themselves, never hesitated to
disregard the interference of the Roman bishops, and
the synods of Nicseji and Constantinople were entirely
independent of his influence ; but when the patriarchs
contended with each other, or with the imperial
court, his powerful friendship was generally sought
by both parties, and was often purchased by conces-
sions. From observing these facts, Innocent I. be-
came convinced that even in his day nothing, in the
whole Christian world, could be brought to a deci-
sion without the cognizance of the Roman see, and
tliat esiiecially in matters of faith all bishops were
under the necessity of consulting St. Peter. The
position of the Roman bishops in the state was that
of powerful subjects who could be judged only by
the emperor liimself, but who, as in the case of '
Liberius for his defence of the Nic^an creed, might i
sometimes be abused by him. But although the '
glory surrounding the apostolic chair had already ,
become so attractive, that those who contended for it
sometimes pressed towards it over the bodies of iheir |
competitors, it was still the subject of derision and
complaint among the heathen. The recollection
that this worldly glory commenced only in the time }
of Constantine, gave occasion to the remark, that j
Sylvester lived long enoiigli to do and wiliie.ss what
was suitable fur a Roman bishop according to more
modern views." 1
The real foiuider, howcNer, of the future great-
ness of the Roman see was Pope I^eo I., usually '
styled the Great. Looking upon the Roman church
as possessed of the true succession from the Apostle
Peter, lie regarded the bishop of that churcli as ap-
pointed by God to be head of ihe whole Church of
Christ upon the earth. Taking advantage of the
disturbed state of the African Church, in conse-
quence of the outcry raisoil by tlie Arian Vandals, \
he added Africa to tlie Roman patriarchate. Through
the influence of this ambitious Pope, Valentinian III.
enacted a law which declared the apostolic see the
supreme legislative and judicial authority for the
whole church. 'I'liis law was at first intended only
for the West, and through the decay of the empire
beyond the Alps, it became an empty title, to take !
effect only in subsequent times.
After the sixth century, the bishops uf Rome were
called Popes, and coii.sidered themselves as under a
sacred responsibility to execute the decrees of conn- '
cils, being invested, as they supposed, with a pecu-
liar power derived from the divine right of Peter.
And the vigour and energy with which they acted,
recommended them to the favour of the people, i
More than once the popes deli\ered Rome and the
surrounding country from the hands of the barba-
rians. And when the Western Empire had been
completely destroyed A. D. 476, and a German king-
dom had been set up in Italy, the Roman people con-
tinued to look upon the pojies as their native rulers,
giving them homage and obedience as the masters
of the country. The high ]iosition of influence and
power which the bishops of Rome had nosv acquired,
enabled them the more readily to adopt measures
for the farther aggrandisement of the clergy. With
this view laymen were publicly prohibited from in-
terfering in the affairs of the church, and the clergy
were declared to be amenable to no bar but that of
the Almighty.
Italy was reconquered by Justinian I., and the
bishops and clergy of Rome became dependent upon
Constantinojile, a state of matters which continued
till the time of Gregory I., who sought to establish
ecclesiastical authority by the deliverance of the
clergy from political dependence. No pontiff ever
wore the triple crown who was more earnest than
Gregory iu promoting the interests of the Roman
eoo
PAPACY.
Church, and advancing the aiitlionty and influence of
tlie popes. His successors sometimes acknowledged
tlie authority of tlie emperor, but never willingly.
In the celebrated and protracted controversy on the
subject of ini.-ige-worsliip, they liesilated not to lay
the emperor under the ban of a solemn excommmii-
wition.
Until the time of Gregory, the papacy contended
for dominion over the church, not only through the
ambition of individual popes, but still more from the
exigencies of tlie times ; but after that period the
struggle for tlie independence and ascendency of the
church assumed a totally different aspect. To his
spiritual authority, as the vicegerent of God upon
the earth, the bishop of Rome now added temporal
authority, having become lord of a considerable ter-
ritory. At this period commenced the struggle be-
tween the emperors and the popes, which was severe
and protracted. Though the Pope was the vassal of
the emperor, and chosen under the imperial dicta-
tion, lie received homage from each emperor as a
spiritual father, from whose hand the crown was re-
ceived. But during the reign of Louis the Pious,
and the contentions of Ids sons for I lie government,
the popes threw oft' to a considerable e.\tent their de-
pendence upon the emperors.
Towards the clo.se of the eighth century tlie pa-
pacy made great advances towards the establishment
of its temporal power, by the spurious story which
arose, and was extensively credited, as to an alleged
donation of Constantine the Great; that emperor, as
■was pretended, having given over Rome, and even
tlie whole of Italy, to Pope Sylvester. Tliis fiction
received no little countenance from the alleged dis-
covery of a document which purported to be the
original deed of gift executed by Constantine in the
Pope's favour, in A. D. 324. Only a short time
elapsed when another expedient was resorted to for
increasing the power and intlncnce of the papacy ;
namely, the wide circulation of a new code of eccle-
siastical laws framed on the princijile of favouring
the papal theocratic system. The collection now re-
ferred to, and which acquired great autliority, by
assuming the names of ancinnt popes, is usually
termed the Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals, and professes
to exhibit a complete series of the decretals of the
Roman bishops from Clement I. .\. l). Ul, to Dama-
sus I. A. D. .384. The claims of llie papacy were
here put forth under the authority of Christian anti-
quity. " It was repeatedly inculcated," says Nean-
der, '■ tliat the Church of Rome was directly consti-
tuted head over all the others, by Christ himself.
The episcopal chair of Peter, the princeps aposto-
lornin, had been transferred on grounds of conve-
nience from Antioch to Rome. The Churcli of
Rome, which appoints and consecrates all bishops, is
therefore the sole and snllicient judge, in the last
re-sort, over the same, to which in all cases they may
appeal. Among the iin])ortant atVairs which could
not bo decided without the authority of the Pope,
belonged the cases of bishops. In one of the decre-
tals, the condition is indeed expresseil, that whenever
an ajipeal is made, it should be reported to the Pope.
But in other places, it is expressly declared, as in-
deed it follows, as a matter of course, from the prin-
ciple lying at the gi'ound of these decretals, that a
decisive sentence can Ln no case whatsoever be pass-
ed upon bishops, without the concurrence of the
Romish church, as well as that no regular synod can
be convoked without its autliority. Hence it fol-
lowed again, that the Pope, whenever he thought
proper, could bring the cause before his own tribu-
nal, even where no appeal had been made, in case
the bishop, as might indeed often happen under the
circumstances of those times, had not dared to ap-
peal ; and the decision of the Pope must be acknow-
ledged and carried into etl'ect without demur. More-
over, it is already intimated in these decretals, that
the Emperor Constantine had transferred his sov-
ereign authority in Rome to the Roman bishop."
The tirmness and energy of the government of
Charlemagne were by no means favourable to the
carrving out of such principles as were developed in
the Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals. But the reign of
his feeble-minded successor, Louis the Pious, and
the quarrels which ensued between him and his
sons, gave the cliurcli an opportunity of now and
again taking [lart in the political strife. Gregory IV.
came to Prance as mediator, but far from acknow-
ledging him as necessarily supreme, the Prankish
bishops threatened him with deposition.
The pontificate of Nicholas I., which commenced
in A. D. 858, formed a new epoch in the history of
the papacy. Boldly avowing his wish to follow out
tlie principles of the Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals, he
quoted this document for the first time as authorita-
tively binding upon the church. With that all-
grasping ambition which has so often characterized
the popes, Nicliolas claimed the right of sovereignty
over the universal church, and conceived the jilan of
convoking synods in Rome, composed of bishojis
from dill'erent countries, with the view of gathering
inl'orination as to the state of the churches in all
(piarler.s, and promulgating the new ordinances
throughout the whole world. lie asserted a supreme
authority over monarchs as well as bishops, ob-
liging Lothaire II. to liumble himself and own sub-
jection to the jiapal .see. On the death of Lothaire,
Pope Adrian II. defended the rights of the lawful
heir to the throne against Charles the Bald and Louis
the Germ.an. Finding that he was defeated in liis
object by the firmness of Charles, he sought to win
liiin over by promising liim the succession to the
empire. This project was executed by Adrian's
successor, John VIII. , who, however, compelled
Charles, as the condition of obtaining the title of
king of France, to acknowledge the independence
of Rome and its territory, and to confess that he
only held the empire by the gift of the I'ope.
But while tlie popes wore thus triunqiliant ovei
PAPACY.
001
the emperors, tliey were severely liiirassed by the tur-
bulent feudal lords, who sought to establisli for them-
selves a virtual independence. These feudal lords
interfered in the election of the popes, and generally
conlroUed them ; they insulted, imprisoned, and mur-
dered the pontilis, and while the supremacy of the
papal power was tacitly acknowIedj;ed throughout
Europe, it was itself compelled to submit to a race of
petty tyrants. Two shameless prostitutes, through
their influence with the profligate nobles, procured
the papal chair for their paramours and their illegiti-
mate children ; and so great were the disorders of the
church, tliatthe emperors once more rose above the
popes, and Pope John XIl. was deposed by the Em-
peror Otho, after summoning him before a synod at
Rome, which convicted him of murder, blasphemy,
and all kinds of lewdness. Leo VIII. was now elected
to the papal throne, and the Romans swore to the em-
peror that no Pope should be chosen or consecrated
without his consent. The succeeding popes were
nominated and with great difficulty defended by the
emperor against the hatred of the people and the craft
of the Tuscan party. Such was the low state of de-
gradation to which the church had sunk, that a loud
cry was raised for its deliverance from the simony
atid the licentiousness of the clergy. Every office
in the church was bought and sold. In these cir-
cumstances the emperors had little difficulty in
maintaining their superiority over a race of profli-
gate popes, who pretended to govern a church which
was notoriously the seat of every species of corrup-
tion.
With the elevation of Leo IX. to St. Peter's
chair in A. D. 1049, commenced a new era in the
history of the papacy, when strenuous efforts were
made to render the church independent of the secu-
lar power. The prevailing corruption of the clergy
had now reached its height, and a strong reaction
began to manifest itself. The soul of this new re-
forming movement was the monk Ilildebrand, a man
of remarkable talent, activity, and energy. In aim-
ing at a reformation and emancipation of the church,
two things seemed to be necessary, the introduction
of a stricter moral discipline among the clergy by
reviving the ancient laws concerning celibacy, and
the abolition of simony in disposing of the offices of
the church. Through the influence of Hildebrand
over the mind of Leo, that Pope became zealous in
opposing the abuses which had crept into the ad-
ministration of ecclesiastical affairs, and yet amid his
anxiety to reform the church, he transgressed its
laws in his own person, by leading an army against
the neighbouring Xornians, who had laid waste the
territories of the church. Such unwarrantable con-
duct, on the part of the head of the church, excited
the greatest regret in the tninds of all the true friends
of ecclesiastical order; and all the more as the expe-
dition proved disastrous, the Pope's army liaving
been wholly destroyed, and the Pope hiinself taken
prisoner; but when in his confinement he beheld the
II.
conquerors at his feet, he blessed their arms and con-
firmed their conquests. Leo died of a broken heart
soon after his release from prison.
While Hildebrand was maturing his plans for the
re-esfablishment of the papacy, many circumstances
occurred which confirmed his desire to prosecute his
design. For nearly two hundred years had the
ecclesiastics of the diocese of Milan maintained their
independence of the holy see ; it appeared, there-
fore, to the cardinal-monk a most desirable object to
bring about the submission of this refractory portion
of the Italian clergy. A legate was, accordingly,
despatched to Milan on this important errand ; but
though he apparently succeeded, it was only for a
time, and no sooner had the legate departed than
the clergy declared as strongly as ever their opposi-
tion to papal authority. Tlie Anglo-Saxon Church
had, from the very commencement of its history, de-
clined to yield subjection to the see of Rome. Now,
however, it was destroyed by the Norman conquest,
to the success of which the interference of the Pope
and of Hildebrand materially contributed. All flie
political struggles of this period, however, were cast
into the shade by the daring citation of the Emperor
Heury IV. The Saxons appealed to Rome against
Henry for his intolerable oppression of his subjects,
and for exposing to sale all ecclesiastical offices for
the support of an army ; and the then reigning Pope,
Alexander II., at the instigation of Hildebrand, sum-
moned the king to Rome that lie might answer the
charges made against him by his own subjects.
This was plainly a declaration of opien war between
the spiritual and temporal authorities, and it was
only the death of the Pope which prevented the
contest from coming to an immediate crisis. The
ambitious Hildebrand, on hearing the tidings of
Alexander's death, felt that the time had now arrived
for his entering upon the execution of his long-cher-
ished plans, .and assuming the dignity of an inde
pendent sovereign. Even at the funeral of Alex-
ander, the people exclaimed " Hildebrand is Pope,
St. Peter has elected him."
Hildebrand accepted of the papal tiara under the
title of Gregory VII., and to disarm hostility, and pre-
vent the election of an anti-pope, he feigned submis-
sion to the emperor, refusing to be consecrated with-
out the imperial sanction. And yet no sooner did
he find himself securely seated in St. Peter's chair
than he proceeded forthwith to carry out his favour-
ite plan for securing the independence of the church
by preventing lay interference in the collation of
benefices. The two great objects of this celebrated
Pope, one of the most famous indeed in the history
of the papacy, were, to enforce the celibacy of the
clergy, and the right of the popes to the investiture
of bishops. At a synod held at Rome A. n. 1074,
Gregory re-established the ancient law of celibacy.
A second synod was held at Rome in the following
year, which condemned all simony, and pronounced
a sentence of excommunication on every man who
3e
602
PAPACY.
should give or receive an ecclesiastical office from
the hands of a lavnian. These decrees were com-
mimicated to the sovereigns of Europe by Gregory
IiimseU" in letters which alVord ample evidence of the
pre-eminent abilities of the writer. The kings con-
tended earnestly in behalf of a long-established pre-
rogative to which they had been accustomed to
attach the gi'eatest importance. Hence the pro-
tracted controversy on investitures between the em-
perors and the poi>es.
Gregory gladly availed himself of every opportu-
nity to assert his privileges as a feudal lord para-
mount, and to exercise his office as a divine umpire
and lawgiver among the nations of Europe. His
plausible professions were viewed with great jealousy
both by kings and nobles, ac^jompanied as they were
by an open invasion of their privileges. At length
a conspiracy was formed against the pontiff' in Kome
itself, when Cincius, the prefect of the city, arrested
his holiness wliile celebrating mass on Christmas
day, and threw him into prison, but the populace
interfered and rescued their favourite. The growing
power and influence of Gregory could not fail to
awaken suspicion in many of the crowned heads of
Europe, but more especially was tliis the case with
tlie youthfid emperor, Henry IV., who saw with
mingled jealousy and indignation a new power es-
tablished which more than rivalled his own. In
defiance of the Pope he restored bishops in his domi-
nions who had been deposed and excommunicated
for simony. Soon afterwards Gregory cited the em-
peror to appear at Kome aiul answer to the charges
laid against him, threatening him with excommuni-
cation if he disobeyed the summons. Enraged at
the itisolence and presumption of the Pope, Henry
assembled a synod at ^^'orms A. D. 1076, composed
of the princes and prelates devoted to his cause, and
procured a sentence of deposition against (iregory.
The Pojie replied by excomminiicaling Henry, and
absolving his subjects from their allegiance, deposed
several prelates in Gennany, France, and Lombardy
who favoLU-ed the emperor, and published a series of
papal constitutions, in which the claims of the popes
to supremacy over all the sovereigns of the earth
were plainly set forth. The most important of
the.se resolutions, which form tlie basis of the politi-
cal system of the papacy, were as follows : " 'I'hat
the Kciman pontilV alone can be called Universal.
That lie alone has a right to depose bishops. That
liis legates have a right to preside over all bishops
a.ssembled in a general council. That the Pope can
depose aljsent prelates. That he alone has a right
to use imperial ornamonls. That ]n-iiices are boimd
to kiss his feet, and his only. That he has a right
to depose emperors. That no synod or council sum-
moned svithout his commission can be called general.
That no book can be called canonical without his
aulhoriiy. That his sentence can be annulled by
none, but that he may annid the decrees of all.
'I'liat the Ronnui Church has been, is, and will con-
tinue, infallible. That whoever dissents from the
Komish Church ceases to be a Catholic Christian.
And that subjects may be absolved from their alle-
giance to wicked princes."
Both the Emperor and the Pope now prepared for
war, but all the advantages were on the side of Gre-
gory. Ilem-y was forsaken by the princes of his
own coint, who so far sided with the Pope, that they
resolved, if the ban of excommunication were not re-
moved from Henry within a limited period, he would
be deprived of his throne. The emperor's condition
was now one of peculiar perplexity, difficulty, and
danger. He knew not in what direction to look for
succoiu". In despair, therefore, he resolved to ajiply
for a personal interview with the Pope, and to ask
for absolution. He crossed the Alps, accordingly,
in the depth of a severe winter with his queen and
child, enclosed in the hides of oxen, and entered
Italy so disheartened, that he thought only of conci-
liating his powerful enemy by submission. Through
the intercession of some of the most influential Ita-
lian nobles, the Pope consented to grant Henry an
interview. His holiness then resided at Canosa, and
thither the emperor proceeded, but was doomed to
experience at the hands of his holiness the greatest
indignities that were ever heaped upon a sovereign.
On reaching the papal residence, at the first barrier
he was compelled to dismiss his attendants; when
he reached the second he was obliged to lay aside
his imperial robes, and assume the habit of a peni-
tent. In this dress he was forced to stand three
whole days barefooted and fasting from morning till
night in the outer court of the ciistle during one of
the severest winters that had ever been known in
Northern Italy, imploring pardon of his transgres-
sions from God and the Pope. He was at length
admitted into the presence of the haughty pontiff,
who, after all the humiliations to which the emperor
had submitted, granted him not the entire removal,
but only the suspension of the sentence of excom-
munication.
The harsh treatment which he had received from
Gregory roused the indignation of Heiny, and to
retrieve his lost liononr he joined the nobles of
Lombardy in a renewed war against the Pope. The
sentence of excommunication and deposition was
again declared against the emjieror, a rival Pope and
a rival king were set up, and Italy and Germany
were filled with blood. Heiu'v besieged and took
Rome in A. D. 10S4 ; but the Pope, though shut up
in his castle of St. Angelo, would accept of notliiug
short of the nnconditional submission of the king.
Having been liberated by Robert Guiscard, and
tiniiiiig that even his own people were iu)t disposed
to espouse his cau^e, (Jregory retired to Salerno,
where he was seized with a mortal disease, and dieil
nnconquered, repeating with his latest breath the ex-
communicatidii he had issued against Ilern-y and all
his adherents. Thus terminated the career of the
great foiunlcr of the papacy as a political power in
PArACY.
G03
Kurope, .ind a power, too, which renders all subsei'-
vient to its own aggi-andisemeiit.
The principles on which Gregory had acted ihrongh-
oiit tlie whole of his public life, both as a cardinal-
monk and as the proud occupant of the papal chair,
continued long afrur his death to actuate his succes-
sors, so that in course of time the Pope became the
controlling power, heading and directing every popu-
lar movement in the Western world. The Crci-
SADES (which see), had no small influence in placing
the church on a political vantage ground, from which,
amid the general and all-absorbing fanaticism which
pervaded the European nations, she could hurl her
anathemas against the most powerful kings with lit-
tle chance of encountering the slightest resistance.
At the very first council, that of Clermont, which
authorized the first Crusade, the king of France, in
whose dominions the council met, was excommuni-
cated, and could only obtain absolution by luuniliat-
ing submission. To consolidate the papal structure,
Paschal If. procured the enactment of a new oath
to be taken by all ranks of the clergy, whereby they
abjured all heres}', promised implicit obedience to
the Pope and his successors, and pledged themselves
to affirm what the church aflirms, and to condemn
what she condemns.
Hemy V. proved a more formidable enemy to the
papacy than his father. lie led an army into Italy,
took Pope Paschal prisoner, compelled him to per-
form the ceremony of his coronation, and to issue a
bull securing the right of investiture to the emperor
and his successors. By the remonstrances of his
cardinals, however, the Pope was persuaded to annul
the treaty, but the death of his holiness prevented
an immediate war. Both Gelasius II. and Calix-
tus II. supported the policy of Paschal, and after a
long struggle, the emperor was forced to resign his
cbiim to episcopal investitures, with the exception of
investiture to the temporal rights belonging to the
sees. This was the purport of the Concordat agreed
upon at an imperial diet at Worms inA. D. 1122,
and confirmed the following 3'ear at the first general
council in the Lateran. Such now was the aiuho-
rity of the papacy that the influence hitherto exer-
cised by the emperors in tlie election of bishops was
gradually transferred to the popes.
About this period arose Arnold of Brescia, a dis-
ciple of Abelard, who directed Ids attention to the
reform of the church and of the government. The
followers of this able and energetic man were numer-
ous both in Italy and Germany. See Arnoldists.
Against this powerfid party Innocent II., Celes-
tine II., Lucius II., ami Eugenius III. found it neces-
sary to contend earnestly for their own domestic
power; and during this period the aggressions of
popery on the rights of kings and nations were sus-
pended. The second council of Lateran, in A. D.
1139, at which a thousand bishops were present, con-
demned the opinions of Arnold, and by papal in-
fluence he was driven from Italy, France, and Zu-
rich, until in the city of Koine itself he attained su-
preme power. Rc.me now set an example of resist-
ance to the temporal power of the papacy, confining
the Pope to the exercise of ecclesiastical govern-
ment and to the possession of tithes and voluntary
oiJerings. Lucius 11. led an army against the Ro-
man people, and though he was killed while his
troops were storming the city, his successor, Euge-
nius III. made no attempts to conciliate his refrac-
tory subjects, but called in the assistance of the king
of the Normans to protect him from tlieir violence.
While the popes were thus exposed to the contempt
and hatred of the subjects of their secular govern-
ment, a work appeared from the pen of St. Bernard,
which was designed to prop up tlieir tottering power.
In this work, which was entitled ' Contemplations on
the Papacy,' the author exhibits the system in its
most favourable aspect, as designed by God for trie
promotion of the best interests of the people, but, at
the same time, he candidly predicts that its worldly
arrogance will prove its destruction. Neither by
force nor flattery, however, could the Roman people
be persuaded to subject themselves anew to the yoke
of the papacy, and it was not until they discovered
that the overthrow of the hated system would se-
riously diminish the funds of the Roman excheiiuer,
tlial they consented anew to surrender their liber-
ties to the pontiff's.
Frederick I. ascended the tlirone of Germany with
the fixed resolution to re-establish if possible tlie an-
cient dominion on both sides of the Alps. He enter-
tained the bold idea of rescuing his subjects from the
subjection which had been so long yielded to a
foreign bishop, and of forming a great national Ger-
man Church, under the spiritual jurisdiction of the
archbishop of Treves. The project, however, was
unsuccessful, chiefly through the jealou.-;}' of the
German princes. Soon after this a circumstance
occurred which led to a remarkable assertion on the
part of the papacy, of the right to bestow kingdoms
and empires at pleasure. Henry IT., king of Eng-
land, anxious to annex Ireland to his dominions, ap-
plied to Pope Adrian IV. to sanction his under-
taking, declaring that his chief object was to re-
establish true Christianity, as he called it, in that
island. Adrian acceded to Henry's request, and
wrote him a letter professing to give over Ireland in-
to his hands. This conveyance was communicated
by Henry to the Irish hierarchy, but it was not un-
til several years had elap.-ed, that Henry was for-
mally proclaimed lord of Ireland, and the severest
censures of the church denounced against all who
should impeach the donation of the holy see, or op-
pose the government of its illustrious representative.
No better proof could be given that the doctrine of
the decretal and canon law, as to the papal supre-
macy, had now been admitted, than the fact that the
Enghsh king asked for Ireland as a gift from the
Pope, thus acknowledging the superiority of the Ro-
man pontiif. This admission was, of course, fatal to
604
I'Al'ACV.
tlie independence of Henry's cmwii, and paved llie
way for tlie exercise of the papal usurpation in tlie
reign of liis son Jolin.
The death of Adriiin gave Fredericlv an oppor-
tunity of asserting tlie ancient right of the emperors
ill the election of a successor; but finding himself
unable to pusli nuitters to extremities, he contented
himself with effecting the election of an anti-pope,
Victor IV., in opposition to Alexander III., who
was elected by tlie Xorman party in tlie college of
cardinals. The choice of the emperor was ratilied
bv a council summoned to meet at Pavia, A. D. IIGO,
and several of the clergy, especially all the Cister-
cian monks who refused to acknowledge Victor, were
compelled to leave the country. His rival Alexan-
der retired to France, where he was kindly received,
and gained over to his interest the kings of France,
England, Spain, and most other countries of West-
ern Europe. In 116-1 Victor died, and the cardinals
of his party cliose as his successor Guido, bishop of
Crema, who assumed the title of Paschal III., and
was continued by the emperor. The Romans, how-
ever, recalled Alexander from France, but tlie em-
peror, having occasion to enter Italy with an army
for the purpose of suppressing an insurrection of the
Lombards, advanced to Rome, and took possession
of the city, Alexander being compelled to flee in the
garb of a pilgrim, and to seek shelter among the Nor-
mans. At length, in 1167, Alexander recovered liis
power in Rome, and ha\ing exconmuniicated Fre-
derick, deposed him, and absolved liis ."ubjects from
tlieir allegiance. The death of Paschal III., in
1168, was followed by the election in his room of
Cahxtus III., who, however, though conlinned by
the emperor, never obtained any considerable in-
fluence.
In the meantime the power of the papacy, while
thus keenly ojiposed in Germany, was making rapid
progress in other countries, more especially in France
and England. To tliis result the famous dispute of
Ilcnry II. of England with the notorious Thomas a
P.ccket not a little contributed. The haughty pre-
late, with whom the advancement of the papal au-
thority was a paramount object, obstinately perse-
vered In resisting the constitutions of Clarendon, by
which all ecclesiastics were placed under the due
control of the sovereign. Recket was banished, but
he found an asylum with the king of France. The
result of this struggle, which takes a ]M'ominent place
in English history, was, tliat Recket Iriumphod over
Henry, returned to England, and i.ssued his excom-
nnmications against his opponents. His ambition
and insolence provoked Henry to ullcr an unguarded
exclamation, wliich was too rigidly interpreted by
his followerii. Recket was murdered at the altar,
and the Romisli Church has enrolled him in the list
of her saints and martyrs. Henry was alarmed at
the unexpected murder of the archbishop, and he
lost no time in desjiatcliing an embas.sy to Rome,
declaring himself ready to submit to any penance
whii'h tlie Pope might inflict, and to comply with
any demands he might make. The humiliation of
the English nionarcli tended more than any event
which had liappencd for a long period to enhance the
influence of the papacy throughout Europe. This
event was speedily followed by anotlier still more
favourable and flattering to the Pope than the sub-
mission of Henry ; the emperor of Germany having
agreed to recognize Alexander as Pope, to receive
absolution at his hands, to restore to him the gov-
ernment of the city of Rome, and to renounce the
anti-pope. To proclaim his triumph over schisma-
tics and kings. Pope Alexander summoned, in A. D.
1178, a large council, which was attended by nearly
300 prelates, and is usually reckoned the third gen
eral Lateran council. To prevent any schisms in
future from controverted elections of the popes, this
council decreed that the voles of two-thirds of the
cardinals should be necessary to secure the success
of a candidate.
The advances which the papacy had already made
in temporal power and authority, encouraged the
successors of Alexander to carry on a renewed strug-
gle for supremacy with the emperors of Germany.
The contest was protracted throughout another cen-
tury, before the close of wliich the popes had con-
trived to exalt themselves far above the occupants
of the imperial throne. England also, through the
pusillanimity of King John, became the victim of
papal ambition. A disputed election to the arch-
bishopric of Canterbury was submitted to the deci-
sion of the Pope, by whom it was pronounced inva-
lid, and another prelate named Langton nominated
to the vacant see. King John refused to acknow-
ledge the papal nominee, and seized upon tlie reve-
nues of the clergy. Pope Innocent III. then laid all
England under an interdict, and excommunicated the
king. In vain did John strive to resist this act of
the Romish pontifl"; he was deposed by Innocent,
and his kingdom handed over to Philip, king of
France. Alarmed at this violent exercise of papal
authority, John, with the most disgraceful cowar-
dice, humbled himself before the Pope, and consented
to receive England as a fief from the holy see.
These transactions called forth one universal cry of
indignation from the lOnglish |ieople. The barons
flew to arms, and in defiance of papal prohibitions,
John was compelled to sign the Magn.-v Ciiauta of
English liberty. It was to no purpose that the Pope
hurled his anathemas against the estates and their
charter; the papal power, notwithstanding the jirond
elevation it had reached, had now found an enemy
loo iiowerful to be withstood.
The .same year (1215) that Innocent III. was foil-
ed in his attempts upon England by the unflinching
energy of her nobles and people, he summoned the
fourth council of Eateran, which, by a solemn de-
cree, declared the Pope to be the liead of the great
Christian family of nations, and elated by the pre-
eminent superiority which he was declared to pos-
PAPACY.
605
sess, Innocent, in his vanity, likened himself to the
snn, and tlie v.irious civil governments to the moon,
receiving tlieir light from him as from a feudal lord.
Great was tlie presumption involved in such a state-
ment, but it must be admitted that, by tlie exertions
oflliis ambitious pontiff, Kome became once more
the head of the civilized world.
At liis death Innocent ^^'as succeeded by Ilonori-
iis III., a man of mild dispositions, who was utterly
unlit to maintain the ground wliich his predecessor
had gained, and, accordingly, allowed the power of
the papacy to be weakened in his contest witli tlie
emperor of Germany. The reign of Ilonorius, how-
ever, was very brief, and to repair tlie damage which
Iiad been occasioned by his weakness, the cardinals
elected as his successor Gregory IX., a nephew of
Innocent III., and of a kindred spirit with that emi-
nent Pope. No sooner had he taken his seat in
St. Peter's chair than tlie new pontiff assumed an
attitude of uncompromising firmness towards the
emperor. At his coronation Frederick had taken
the vow of the cross, and renewed it at Jerusalem.
But when called upon to fulfil his vow during the
pontificate of Honorius, he had always evaded com-
pliance. But Gregory would submit to no further
delay, and perceiving that Frederick was taking no
serious steps to fulfil liis vow by setting out for
Palestine, he issued a sentence of excommunication
against the dilatory emperor, and sent it round to all
the courts and kingdoms of Europe. It happened,
liowever, tliat Frederick, actuated by mere motives
of self-interest, had resolved to undertake tlie cru-
sade in earnest. His preparations were nearly ready,
and disregarding, therefore, (he papal ban, be ac-
tually set out for Palestine in August 1228. The
expedition was successful ; he entered the holy city
in triumph, placed upon his head the crown of Je-
rusalem, hastened back to Italy, and drove the sol-
diers of the Pope before him. At length a peace
was concluded between the Emperor and the Pope,
by which full satisfaction was made to the papacy
for the injuries it had sustained, and even new poli-
tical advantages were conferred upon it. Such an
Hriangement was peculiarly seasonable, as the Ro-
mans, weary of tlie priestly domination under which
they liad suffered so much oppression, had made a
determined effort to throw off the yoke, and it was
only through the effective aid of the emperor that
Gregory was enabled to maintain his temporal sov-
ereignty.
The success, however, which Frederick obtained
soon after, in his war with the Lombards, awakened
anew the jealousy of the Pope. The result was,
that both parlies came to an open rupture, and on
Palm Sunday 1239, the Pope pronounced a solemn
excominunication against the emperor, sending it
throughout Europe along with an interdict upon
everv place in which Henry should reside. An angry
epistolary controversy now ensued, in which an at-
tempt was made, on the one side, to show the iiijus-
lice of the papal sentence; and on the other tc
show that it was fully warranted by the conduct oi
the emperor. But the dispute was not confined lo
letters ; the Pope raised an army of his own, and
openly joined with the Lombards and Venetians
anaiiist Frederick, wdio in turn led his troops into
the Slates of the church, and shut up Gregory in
Rome. In these circumstances the Pope, belea-
guered in his own city, issued an order for the assem-
bling of a general council the following year. Fre-
derick, however, frustrated this design, and soon
after the Roman pontiff died in extreme old age —
ail event which seemed fur a time to promise a res-
toration of tranquillity.
Gregory IX. was succeeded by Celcstin IV., who,
however, survived his elevation only a month, and
the cardinals, being divided in opinion as to the most
suitable person to supply the vacancy, an interreg-
num of two years' duration ensued, at the end of
which a cardinal of the Gliibelline or imperial fac-
tion was chosen under the name of Innocent IV.
The new pontiff feeling that lie was unable to cope
with Frederick in the field, endeavoured to baffle
him by negotialioii. He professed, accordingly, the
utmost readiness to be at peace with the emperor,
and his overtures to that effect being accepted, a
personal interview was arranged, at which a treaty
of peace should be finally concluded. Meanwhile
the Pope, probably afraid to meet Frederick, fled
from Rome to Genoa, his native city, and after in
vain asking for an asylum from the kings of Eng-
land, Fiance, and Arragon, he repaired to the free
city of Lyons. Here he assembled a council, which
solemnly deposed Frederick, and thus kindled a
civil war throughout the empire. Offers of peace
were made to the Pope through Louis IX., king of
France ; but these offers were rejected by Innocent,
who set up a rival emperor, and adopted every ex-
jiedient in his power to reduce Frederick to submis-
sion. Treason and rebellion were openly preached
at the instigation of his holiness by many Romish
ecclesiastics in Germany, and the Dominican monks
urged their hearers to deeds of blood.
In 1250 the Emperor Frederick died, and was
succeeded in the imperial government by his son
t'onrad. The Pope returned from Lyons to Rome,
and as if his rage had been only redoubled by the
death of his enemy, he persecuted and excommuni-
cated the young emperor, offering the crown of
Sicily to a brother of tlie king of England, and after-
wards to a brother of the king of France. Germany
was now the scene of civil commotions of the most
painful kind, the clergy fighting against the laity,
and the laity against the clergy. The unexpected
dealh of Conrad did not diminish the hatred of llie
Pope to his family, although the young emperor be-
fore his death had bequeathed his infant son Conra-
din to the mercy of Innocent. Unsubdued by this
mark of the confidence reposed in him, even by an
enemy, the pontiff took possession of the Neapoli-
60G
PAPACY.
tail (luiiiiniuiis, while MaiilVecl, the illCo'itiniate son
of Freilei'iek, iisiirped the throne of Sicily, and re-
fusing to do lioniage to tlie Pope, tlneatcned to lie-
coine as formidable an enemy of the papacy as his
father liad been. At this juncture, the ambitions
career of Innocent was liroutjht to a. close by Iiis
death, which took place at Naples in the midst of
schemes for tlie ai;grandisement of the [lapal see,
such as, had tliey not been arrested, woidd in all
probability ere long have embroiled the whole of
the European kiugdoms in a general war.
Innocent IV. was succeeded by Alexander IV.
who, though he excommunicated Maufred, found
himself unable to encounter him alone, and, there-
fore, he sought tlie assistance of Henry III., king of
England, ofTering the investiture of Sicily to his son
Prince Edward. Aid, however, was refused, and
Manfred setting the Pope at defiance, raised such a
spirit of insurrection in the city of Rome, that Alex-
ander fled to Viterbo, where he died. Urban IV., the
next Pope, followed the same line of policy, but
while engaged in negotiations with the view of giv-
ing the investiture of Sicily to Charles of Anjon,
brother of the king of France, he also was cut otl'.
The negotiations, however, were completed by bis
successor, Clement IV., who entered upon his pon-
tificate with a firm determination to destroy Man-
fi'cd, and with this view invited Charles to come into
Italy. In accordance with this invitation, Charles
set out for Rome with a large army, and having paid
homage to tlie Pope, marched towards Naples to
seize his new dominions. Manfred encountered the
invaders at Benevcntum, but was defeated and slain,
after wliicli the cruel conqueror murdered the wife,
the children, and sister of liis rival. Conradin now
entered Italy to assert the hereditary claims of his
family, and encouraged by the enthusiasm with which
he was received, he wont forward, in the face of
])a|ia! excommunications, and took possession of
Rome Charles, however, ajipeared with his Freiicli
army, and attacking Conradin, took him prisoner.
He subjected the young prince, who was only six-
teen years of age, lo a mock trial, and commanded
him to be executed. Thus perislied on the scaffold
the last prince of the house of Swabia, wliich had
long been the most powerful obstacle to papal usur-
pation. The triumph of tlie papacy now appeared
to be complete ; Italy was severed from the Ocrnian
empire, but it recovered its independence only to be
rent asunder by contending I'actions, and the pon-
tili's were doomed to discover that the .spirit of free-
dom, which they had so largely encouraged, was a
more formidable enemy than the German emperors
themselves.
Charles of Anjou, fired wiili tlie ambition of con-
quest, aimed almost openly at the complete sov-
ereignty of Italy. Assuming the tide of Imperial
Vicar, lie usurped supreme power, and formed the
project of overthrowing the Greek Empire, which
had just been restored by Michael I'alseologus. Gre-
gory X. had succeeded Clement IV. in ihe cli.nir of
St. Peter, and being anxious to rouse Chrislendom to
a new Crusade, as well as to put an end to the schism
which divided the Greek and Latin churches, he
saw that to eli'ect these objecis, it was necessary for
him to restrain tlie ambition of Charles. With this
view he procured the election of a new western em-
peror in the person of Rodolph of Hajisburg, who,
in entering on his government, formally renounced
all imperial rights over the city of Rome, and made
provision for the separation of the kingdotn of Sicily
from the empire.
It was during the pontificate of Gregory X. that
the second general council of Lyons was convened,
at which was laid the foundation of the present mode
of electing the popes. By this system the cardi-
nals are bound to assemble ten days after the death
of a Pope for the purpose of electing a successor,
and to remain shut np until the new Pope shall be
regularly elected by a majority of votes. Soon after
the introduction of this new mode of election to the
papal cliair, the cardinals were called upon, with ex-
traordinary frequency, to exercise their privilege, for
it so happened, after the death of Gregory, that, in
the course of one single year, three separate pontifi-
cates beg.an and ended, those, namely, of Innocent V.,
Adrian V., and John XX. These short-lived Popes
were succeeded by Nicholas III., who was well qua-
lified to defeat the projects of Charles. The first
step which this ambitious and crafty pontiff took
after his election, was to enter into negotiations
with the Emperor Rodolph. Charles, alarmed at
this coalition, readily made concessions, resigning
the title of Imperial Vicar to please Rodolph, and
that of Roman senator, to gratify the Pope. Ro-
dolpli, remembering that tlie house of Hapsburg
owed its elevation to the papal see, yielded to every
demand of Nicholas, and conlirmed the grants wdiieh
had been made to the popes by Charlemagne and his
successors. Ignorant of his hereditary rights, he
permitted the provinces, which Rome called the
patrimony of St. Peter, to be entirely separated from
the emjiire. Thus the pajiacy was formed into a
kingdom, and the Pope enrolled in the list of Euro-
pean sovereigns.
At this tim.e, Charles having lost the affections of his
subjects by liis tyrannical conduct, a conspiracy was
formed to deprive him of his kingdom. The Sici-
lians were quite prepared for revolt, ami a signal of
insurrection was about to be given, when tlie death
of Nicholas delivered Charles from his most formi-
dable foe. A Frenchman was now elected to the
vacant see, who took the title of Martin IV., and
hi.s elevation being chiefly due to the influence of
Charles, duke of Anjou, the new pontiti', as an ex-
lire.sbion of gratitude to his patron, restored lo him
the dignity of a Roman senator. The conspiracy,
however, which had been forming in Sicily to put an
end to French rule in the person of Charles, was now
matured, and on the evening of Euster Monday.
PAPACY.
607
A. D. 1282, the Sicilians, at tlie signal of the bell
for vespers service, fiew to arms, and massacred all
the French on the island, declaring the rule of the
foreign tyrant to be at an end. This wholesale
butchery is known in history by the name of the
Sicilian Vespers. When this event occurred, Cliarles
was at Orvieto holding a consultation with the
Pope, and when the tidings of the revolt reached
him, liis indignation knew no bounds; he prevailed
upon tlie Pope to excommunicate the Sicilians, and
all who were suspected of favouring their cause,
wliile he himself hastily assembled an army and laid
siege to Messina. For a time the inhabitants were
80 intimidated by the threats of the papal legate, and
tlie boastings of the Prencli, that they thought of
surrendering, but they were happily relieved by the
arrival of Peter, king of Arragon, who came to their
assistance with a fleet. The rage of the Pope was
now turned against Peter, who, liowever, in spite of
the interdict pronounced upon his kingdom and the
papal ban upon himself, kept possession of Sicily,
and set the Pope at defiance. Charles made two
dift'erent attempts to recover his kingdom, but with-
out success ; and both he and Martin were cut off
the same year, 1285.
During the pontificates of the three succeeding
popes, Honorius IV., Nicholas IV., and Celestin V.,
war was still carried on between the sons of Peter
and the sons of Charles. The result was, tliat the
crown of Sicily was given over to the princes if
Arragon, who recognized the Pope as their liege
lord, while Charles IT. having consented to renounce
all claiui to the throne of Sicily, was secured in the
possessioi of Naples.
Celestin V., when elected to tlie pontificate, was
an old monk, who had lived for many years as a
hermit, and being totally unfit for the ofHce to which
he was chosen, was persuaded to resign ; whereupon
Cardinal Cajetan ascended the papal throne, under
the title of Boniface VIII. This remarkable man
was at once crafty, ambitious, and despotic. His
chief aim, in undertaking the pajial office, was to
establish to himself an imdisputed sovereignty
over ecclesiastics, princes, and nations, a sovereign-
ty, in fact, both temporal and spiritual. He com-
menced his ambitious career by interfering in tlie
political alVairs of Naples and Sicily, authoritatively
commanding Frederick of Arragon to lay aside the
title of king of Sicily, and forbidding all princes and
their subjects, under pain of excommunication, to
lend him their supjiort. Not contented, however,
with intermeddling with the rulers of Italian princi-
palities, he resolved to establish his authority, if pos-
sible, over the most povvorful sovereigns of Eurojie.
For this purpose he wrote to Philip the Fair, king of
France, to Edward I., king of England, and to Adol-
phus, emperor of Germany, commanding them, niLder
pain of excomminiicafion, to settle their difl'erences
without delay. This bold and presmnpluous step
was quite in accordance with the lately acknowledged
rights and duties of the papacy, but Philip, who was
one of the ablest monarchs in Cliristendom at that
time, wrote to Boniface a firm, though courteous reply,
stating In's readiness to listen to any exhortation
coming from the see of Rome, but declaring that he
would never consent to receive a command even from
such a quarter. The Po|ie, liowever, was resolved,
if possible, to humble the haughty monarch ; and an
opportunity of accomplishing his purpose now pre-
sented itself. To delray the expenses of his war
with England, Philip had raised heavy contributions
from the church and clergy, and some French pre-
lates having forwarded a complaint to Rome, the
Pope gladly took advantage of tliis circumstance,
and issued the celebrated bull, called, from its com-
inencing words, " Clericis laicos," excommunicating
the kings who shoidd levy ecclesiastical subsidies,
and the priests who should pay them ; and with-
drawing the clergy from the jurisdiction of lay tri-
bunals.
The attempt of Boniface to establish a theocracy
independent of monarchy excited general indigna-
tion, not in France alone, but in other countries.
In England Edward resorted to an expedient by
which he compelled the ecclesiastics to pay their
subsidies, namely, ordering his judges to admit no
causes in which ecclesiastics were the complain-
ants, but to try every suit brought against them.
The king of France, again, while he refrained from
openly opposing the Pope's bull, published a royal
ordinance prohibiting the export from his dominions
of gold, silver, jewels, provisions, or munitions of
war without a license ; and at the same time he for-
bade foreign merchants to settle in France. Such an
edict as this would necessarily aft'ect, in a very se-
rious manner, the papal treasury, and therefore,
Boniface lost no time in remonstrating with Philip,
and urging upon him to modify his edict. At the
same time the French bishops entreated Boniface to
render his bidl less stringent, there being no small
danger that the effect of such a papal decree as the
'■ Clericis laicos," might be the irretrievable ruin of
the Galilean church. The Pope, accordingly, aban-
doned some of the most obnoxious ju-ovisinns of the
bull, and allowed Philip to impose a tribute upon
the clergy of France to the amount of one-tenth of
their revenues for three years. Still further to gra-
tify the king and the whole French nation, Boniface
carried out the canonization of Louis IX., which had
been delayed for twenty-five years. Finally, the
Pope promised to Philip that he woidd support his
brother Charles of Valois, as a candidate for the im-
perial crown, and thus restore the empire to France.
These measures had the desired efl'ect on the mind
of the French monarch, and at the begiiniing of
1298, the dis|iute between Philip and Edward was
submitted to the arbitnition of the Pope, who, with
great pomp and solemnity, published his decision in
the form of a bull. To the astonislimnnt aiul mor-
tification of the king of France, Boniface decided
608
PAPACY.
tli.-it Giiienne sIkuiUI be restored to EtiLjlaiid, tliat
tlie count of Flatulers slioiild receive back all liis tor-
nier possessions, luid tliat Philip himself slioiild un-
dertake a new Crusade. When tliis papal decree
was read in tlie presence of the French court, the
king listened to it with a smile of contempt ; but
the count of Artois, enraged at the insolence of the
Pope, seized the bull, tore it in pieces, and flung the
frtigments into the tire.
Without deigning to send any formal reply to the
Pope's bull, Philii) renewed the war. Angry rei>roach-
e.s now passed between the Roman pontilV and the
French monarch, and the papal legate in France was
thrown into prison for high treason. Boniface now
is-sued edicts sumnuming the French prelates to
Rome ; but the king appealed to his people, and con-
vened a general diet of his kingdom. The three estates
assembled in 1302, and were unanimous in declaring
France to be independent of the holy see. Boniface,
accordingly, commenced a contest with tlie whole
French nation. He denied that he had ever claimed
France as a papal tief ; but lie maintained that every
creature, on pain of linal perdition, was bound to
obey the Roman bishop. He then proceeded to
excommunicate the king, who appealed once more
to a general diet of hi.s kingdom. Before tliat body
he accused Boniface of the most flagrant crimes, and
demanded that a general council should be forthwith
summoned for the trial of the pontiff". His holiness
in turn pronounced an interdict upon the king(iom of
France, and bestowed the French crown upon the
emperor of Germany. At the instigation of Philip,
the Pope was imprisoned in his own city of Anagni,
and although, after three days, he was liberated by
his country-men, such was the eflect produced upon
him, by the dishonour shown to his sacred per.son,
that he died of a broken heart.
The death of Boniface marks an important era in
the history of the papacy. From this time we find it
.seeking to avoid provoking the hostility of kings and
emperors, acting only on the defensive, and tliough
siill theoretically maintaining its claims to universal
supremacy, making no active etTorts to enforce
them. Gregory VH., Innocent HI., and Boni-
face VHI., stand out from the long list of pontirt's as
earnest .supporlers of the temporal authority of the
popes, and vindicators of their supreme sovereignly,
not only over the church, but over all the kingdoms
of the earth.
Benedict XI., the successor of Boniface, being of
a mild and pacilic disposition, sought a reconci-
lialion with tlie French king, by revoking all the
decrees which had been passed against Franco.
But the early death of this pontifT prepared the w.iy
for a new crisis, in which the political system of the
papacy suffered greater shocks than any to which it
had been hitherto exposed. When the cardinals
met for the election of a successor lo Benedict, the
French and Italian parties were .so violently opposed
to each other, that the election was protracted for
several months ; bat at length the choice fell upor
Bertrand d'Agoust, archbishop of 15ordeaux, who as-
sumed the title of Clement V. This was the first
of the series of popes who took up their residence
at .A.vignon instead of Rome. By this new arrange-
ment the Pope was brought into a state of complete
dependence upon the French monarclis, whose in-
terest it now became to perpetuate and uphold the
papacy. For about five years, however, the inten-
tion of the new Pope to reside permanently within
the dominions of France was carefully concealed,
but at length it was openly divulged. The chief
object which Clement seemed to have in view was to
secure the countenance and support of the French
king. Immediately after his accession, according-
ly, he bestowed upon Philip a gi-ant of the tenth of
all church property in France for the space of ten
years, and secured the future election of popes in the
French interest, by nominating ten French cardi-
nals. But one of the most flagrant instances of the
complete subserviency of Clement to the will of
Philip, was the part which he took in the abolition
of the order of Knights Templar, having issued a
bull to that eflect.
The murder of Albert I., emperor of Germany,
which occurred in 1308, led Philip to resume his
old project of securing the imperial throne for his
brother Charles of Valois. The electors, however,
were not disposed to comply with the wishes of the
French king, and their choice fell upon Henry of
Luxemburg, who ascended the imperial throne, bear-
ing the title of Henry Vll. The Pojie approved
and contirmed the election, and commissioned his
cardinals to crown the new emperor at Rome.
Henry no sooner ascended the imperial throne
than he put forward his claims to be recognized as
sovereign of Italy ; and in virtue of this assumed
dignity, he summoned Robert, king of Naples, to
appear before him as his vassal, and on his failing to
appear, he put him under the ban of the empire.
Clement, claiming to be Henry's superior,, removed
the ban ; and even went so far as to excommunicate
the empenjr. The wars were now about to be re-
newed between the pa|iacy and the empire ; but the
sudden death of Henry followed soon after by the
death of Clement, obviated in the meantime such a
calamity. But the vacancy thus cau.sed in the im-
perial throne, and in the papal see, led, in the case
of both, to a disputed succession. After a delay o(
two years another French Pope, John XXI 1.. was
elected. Philip, king of France, did not long sur-
vive Clement, and during the vacancy in the papal
chair, Philip's successor, Louis X., also died.
At this period almost every kingdom of F.urope was
in n disturbed and distracted slale, and the new
Pope took advantage of the prevailing dissensions lo
revive the papal claims to the supremacy of Italy.
Ill the election of a new emperor, also, in place of
Henry, Pojie John availed himself of the ditl'erence
of opinion among the electors, some favouring Louis
PAPACY.
609
of Baviiriii, ami utl.ei's Freilerick of Austria, to ad-
vance liis claim to act as vicar of tlie empire during
an iiitevregniim. He issued a bull accordingly as-
sei-ting this claim in 1317. And the better to secure
his hold upon the empire, John caused an oath to
be taken by all the German bishops, that they would
not acknowledge as emperor any one whom he should
not confirm in tliat dignity. At lengtli, however,
the battle of JIuhldorf established Louis of Bavaria
on the imperial throne, and tlioiigh the Pope had
been inclined to favour Frederick of Austria, he
now vainly endeavoured to gain over the successfid
sovereign. Louis assumed the title of king of the
Romans without waiting for the confirmation of the
Pope, and exerciseii imperial riglits in Germany and
Italy. John was indignant at his authority being
thus palpably overlooked, and after having, to no
purpose, required him to abandon the administration
of the affairs of the empire, he excommunicated him
in a bull dated March 1324. In reply to the fulmi-
nations of the pontilf, the diet of Katisbon, which
met the saitie year, decreed that no papal bull
against the emperor should be received, and that
any person who shoiTtd attempt to introduce such
a document should be forthwith expelled from tlie
empire.
At the invitation of the Ghibelline partv, Louis
marched into Italy in !3"27, and in the beginning of
the following year he entered Rome, and was crowned
in St. Peter's by four temporal barons, having al-
ready received the crown of Lombardy at Jlilan. He
now called together a public assembly of the Roman
people, and in their presence deposed John from the
pontificate as an arch-heretic. In a similar assembly
summoned a few weeks thereafter he presented the
Romans with a Pope under the title of Nicholas V.
Meanwhile, Pope John at Avignon was issuing bulls
and decrees against the emperor without the slight-
est effect. The emperor, however, having soon lost
his influence, fiivt at Rome, and then tln-oughout
Italy generally, returned to Germany ; and his I'ope
was seized and sent to Avignon, where he was im-
prisoned for life. By a papal decree Ital}' was for
ever separated from Germany.
Louis was by no means .satisfied with the state of
affairs in Germany, and began to long for a reconci-
liation with the church. The Pope, perceiving that
he was ready to make exten.sive concessions, endea-
voiu'ed to prevail upon him unconditionally to abdi-
cate. But while negotiations were in progress on
this subject Pope ,Tolm died. His successor in the
papal chair, Benedict XI L, urged strongl}' upon
Louis to carry out his ]iroposed abdication ; but it
was prevented by French influence. The complete
dependence of the popes, indeed, upon the king of
France, was felt by the imperial princes to be at-
tended with many disadvantages, and all the e.«tates
agreed to adopt as a fundamental principle of state
policy, that tlie imperial dignity and power are de-
rived immediately from God, and, therefore, the
II.
emperor needed no other confirmation, having no
superior in things temporal.
In 1342 Benedict having died, was succeeded
by Clement VI., who maintained with unabated
earnestness the contest between the pajiacy and
the em]ierors. In vain did Louis ajiply for absolu-
tion ; the refusal was followed by a bull of excom-
munication in 1343, which was renewed in 1346,
and the electors, at the instigation of the .Pope
elected to the empire Charles, the eldest son of the
king of Bohemia. This election was opposed by
the other estates, who strongly protested against the
assumption that the Pope had power to depose the
emperor. Charles fled to France, and it was not
until two years after the death of Loins, which took
place in 1347, that he was recognized as emperor,
and crowned at Aix-la-CIiapelle. Nor would (he
election of the Bohemian prince have been accepted
even then, had not the Germans become weary of
fighting with the popes.
While these contests were actively maintained be-
tween the papacy and the empire, other countries
were also embroiled in similar quarrels. In Eng-
land, during tlie reign of Edward II., a dispute hav-
ing ari.sen between the sovereign and the othei
estates of the realm, the Pope was requested to act
as arbiter. Legates, accordingly, were despatched
from Rome with full powers to adjust the dispute;
but the powerful party whicli was opposed to Ed-
ward, refused to allow the legation to enter the king-
dom. The Pope was indignant at the insult ofi'cred
to his deputies, and forthwith he laid England under
an interdict, but from reasons of policy he did not
sec fit to push matfera to extremities. A second
time Edward found it necessary to apply for the
good oftiees of the popes. Being involved in a war
with the Scotch under Robert Bruce, and finding
that matters had taken an unfavourable turn, he
despatched an embassy to John XXII., in 1316,
asking his assistance, and promising payment of all
arrears due to the Holy see, as well as expressly
acknowledging papal rights in England. This ap-
peal to Rome was gladly received, and the Pope
without delay issued a command to the Scottish
king to cease from hostilities, and make a truce with
Edward, at the same time charging the Irish, who
were threatening rebellion, to continue their alle-
giance to tlie English monarch. The papal orders
were disregarded both in Scotland and Ireland, and
both countries, accordingly, were laid under an in-
terdict. The war continued, and the king of Scot-
land in turn, finding himself in dithcullies, applied to
the Pope, who consented to remove the interdict
from Scotland, and to compel the king of England to
conclude a truce for two years. Thus did Rome suc-
ceed in procuring the recognition of papal rights
both in England and Scotland.
Notwithstanding the close connection betweei. t).e
papal court at Avignon and the court of France a
quarrel ensued between them in 1340. Edward Itl.
3f
610
PAP AC v.
of England, wlio luirl so fai- reduced tlie Freiicli un-
der liis autliority, lliat lie caused himself to be
crowned king of France, despatched an ambassador
to the Pope at Avignon. While on his journey the
ambassador was seized by Pliilip, the French king,
and the Pope, on hearing I he intelligence, laid the
whole kingdom of France under an interdict, a step
which led to the speedy submission of the king, and
the liberation of the ambassador.
Pope Clement VI. died in 1352, and was succeed-
ed by Innocent VI., on whose elevation an attempt
was made by the cardinals to obtain the entire con-
trol of the papal movements, and to have one-half of
tlie revenues of the Cluircli of Rome placed at their
disposal. Had this attempt been successful, it
woidd have inflicted a fata! blow upon the power of
the papacy ; but the new Pope made it one of the
fii'st acts of his ponlilicate to aniud the arrangement
by a formal deed of cassation. He reduced also the
splendour of his court at Avignon, and introduced
various salutary reforms. During the whole of his
reign war raged between I'^nglaiid and France, and
on this account he was better able to maintain
his independence of French influence and control
than any of his predecessors throughout the en-
tire line of Avignon pojies. For a time after the
removal of the pontilfs from Italy to France, the
Romans rejoiced in their deliverance from papal
rule, but the warm friends of the papacy felt that
the change in the seat of government was injurious
both to tlie power and the prestige of the popes, and
that it was most desirable, now that they could act
independently, that they should transfer the papal
court .again to Rome. Contrary, therefore, to the
wishes of his cardinals, and of the king of France,
Urban V., who succeeded to the pontiflcate in 13G2,
removed in 1367 from Avignon to Rome, to the great
delight of the Roman people, who had long felt that
their city had lost much of its greatness by the ab-
sence of the popes.
Matters had now .apparently returned to their an-
cient order, and the spectacle was witnessed by
the Romans, of a solemn procession, in which the
emperor was seen leading the Pope's horse from
the castle of St. Angelo to St. Peter's church, and
officiating as his deacon at the celebration of high
mass. Urban had not, however, remained at Rome
more than two or three years, when, in conse-
(piencK of the unsettled state of art'airs in Italy, he
returned to Avignon, alleging, however, no other
reason for the sudden step than the general good of
the church. Rut whatever may have been the im-
pelling motives which led to the change, it was far
from favourable in its results to the temporal in-
interesls of the papacy. 'I'he Romans were enraged
at being so soon deprived of the advantages which
they derived from the residence of the pojies in their
city; and at length Gregory XI., the successor of
Urban, yielded to the earnest solicitations of his
Italian subjects, and returned in 1377 to Rome. His
reception, however, by the States of the chiu'ch was
far from encouraging, and he was actually preparing
to set out again for France, when he died in JIarcli
1.378.
As Gregory had ended his days in Rome, the
conclave was held in that city for the election of a
successor, and the Romans having influenced the
election, an Italian Pope was at length obtained in
the jierson of Urban VI., who was unanimously
elected, and gladly hailed by the Roman people.
No sooner had the new pontilf taken his seat in
St. Peter's chair tliiin he began to treat with the
most unwarranted severity the caidinals of the
French party, cliai'ging them with extra\agance, and
even immorality, reducing their pension.s, and in
every way striving to weaken their influence. The
consequence was, that the twelve French cardinals
fled to An.igni, from which place they invited Urban
to confer with them on the afiairs of the church.
The Pope made no reply, and having gained over
to their party three Italian Ciirdinals, they sought
the i)rotection of Charles V., king of France, and
being assured of the royal support, they issued a
manifesto, declaring that, iji the election of Urban
they had acted under constraint. In vain did the Pope
appeal to a general council, to which he was willing
to submit the question as to the validity of his elec-
tion. The propo-sal was only met by another mani-
festo declaring the election of Urban to have been
illegal, and cjUling upon him to resign the office
without delay. In the course of a month they for-
mally chose one of their own body, Cardinal Robert
of Geneva, for their Pope, under the name of Cle-
ment VII. Thus was effected the well-known schism
of the papacy, which lasted from 1378 to 1428.
The dirterent European nations were divided in
regard to the rival pontitfs, some adhering to the
one, and some to the other. The chief supporters o(
Urban were the emperor of Germany, the kings of
England, Hungary, and Poland, of Sweden and Den-
mark ; while the kings of FraTice and Scotland, along
with Queen Jo.anna of Naples, adhered to Clement.
The latter pontifl', who was the proper successor of
the French popes, endeavoured at flrst to maintain
his ground in Italy, but was at length compelled to
escape to France, where he took up his residence ai
Avignon. The two rival ]iopes hurled anathemas at
each other, and though Urban died in 1380, the
schism was not thereby brought to an end ; but, on
the contrary, .«o violent was the hatred of the Ro-
mans to the French, tliat almost immedi.-itely they
chose a successor in the person of Boldface IX. This
new Pope made a propo.sal to Clement, that if he
would resign all claim to the pontiflcate, he would
appoint him his legale in all the countries which had
acknowledged hiniasPojie. The offer was instantly
and indignantly rejected. The first efl'ective move-
ment for the restoration of peace was made by the
University of Paris, which drew up a memorial re-
commending the abJication of both the contending
PAPACY.
Gil
popes, calling upon Charles VI., tlie king of France,
to support them in making this pacilic recommenda-
tion. A copy of tlie memorial was forwarded to
Clement at Avignon, and such was the effect pro-
duced upon him that it caused his death. No sooner
did this event happen, than the French king urged
upon the cardinals at .Avignon to take no steps in tlie
meantime towards filling up the vacancy thus caused
in the pontificate. The cardinals inclined to follow
the suggestion, but declared their readiness to bind
the Pope whom they should elect to abdicate as soon
as the rival pontitf at Rome should do the same.
Accordingly, the_v elected Cardinal Peter de Lucca
mider the title of Benedict XIII. ; but though he
solemnly swore to abdicate, he sternly refused when
called upon to fulfil his engagement. Boniface IX.,
the rival pontiff in Rome, adopted the same course.
The courts of Europe being earnestly desirous to put
an end to this unseemly schism in the papacy, re-
solved to use compulsory measures, with the view of
bringing about the abdication of the two refractory
popes. Benedict was more unpopular than Boni-
face, and against liim, therefore, the sovereigns di-
rected their attacks. The king of France led the
way in this movement, publishing an edict charging
both popes with unfaithfulness to their engagement,
renouncing on the part of his people all obedience to
Benedict, and declaring that the French Churcli
should be governed only by its own bishops, who
alone should fill up the vacant benefices. Besides
issuing tliis manifesto, the king of France despatched
an army to Avignon, which shut up Benedict lor
three years in his own palace.
Boldface was supported by Robert, emperor of
German)', who sent an expedition into Italy to main-
tain the authority of the Italian Pope in opposition
to that of his rival. Shortly after, chiefiy through
the inrtuence of the duke of Orleans, a reconciliation
took place between the French king and Benedict,
who agreed to abdicate as soon as it might apjiear to
be neces.sary. This Pope, in 1404, des]iatched an
embas.sy to Boniface, inviting him to a personal con-
ference on the present complicated state of aft'airs ;
but while the ambas:>adors were still in Rome, Bold-
face died, and availing themselves of this event to
promote the interests of their master, they urged
upon the cardinals the importance and desirableness
of putting an end to the unhappy schism by elect-
ing Benedict. The French Pope, however, had ren-
dered himself so unpopular, that the Italian cardi-
nals preferred to choose a Pope of their own, and
fixed upon Innocent VII. ; and when, after a brief
pontificate, he died in 140C, they chose Gregoiy XII.,
impo.sing in both cases the condition, that they
.should abdicate as soon as Benedict should take the
same step. A reasonable time having elapsed, and
there being still no prospect of either the one Pope
or the other abdicating, the cardinal.s, on both sides,
at leugth laid aside their divisions, and convoked a
general council, which met at Pisa in 1409. To this
important assembly the eyes of the whole church
were auxiou.sly turned. Tlie attendance was large
and highly influential, and envoys also were present
from the courts of France and England. At the
commencement of the proceedings the principle was
formally affirmed, that the power with which Christ
invested the church was independent of the Pope.
The two lival pontiff's were then suuunoned before
the council, and after a regtdar trial, were deposed
for contumacy and the violation of their solemn en-
gagements. It only now remained to elect a suc-
cessor, and the cardinals having gone into conclave,
they presented to the council an aged and peacefid
cardinal as the new Pope, under the title of Alex-
ander V. Notwithstanding this nnainmous election,
however, and its ratification by the council, Bene-
dict still maintained authority in Spain and in Scot-
land, while Gregory was acknowledged by Rupert,
emperor of Germany, and Ladislaus, king of Naples.
Thus Christendom beheld the strange spectacle of
three popes reigning at one and the same time, each
professing to be the legitimate successor of St. Peter.
The party of Alexaiuler V. was by far the strong-
est ; but his adherents, who hailed his election as
likely to promote the reformation of the church, were
not a little disappointed by his postponement of all
such matters to a council which he pledged himself
to summon for the purpose in tlie course of tliree
years. The advanced age, liowever, at which he
assumed the tiara gave small promise of a lengthened
pontificate. In one sliort year, accordingly, his
course was run, and lie was succeeded by Cardinal
Cossa, under the title of John XXIII. The new
pontiff', who, in early life, had been a pirate, was
better fitted for the management of secular afl'airs
than to exercise the duties of a spiritual office. Soon
after his election lie was driven from the Ecclesiasti-
cal States ill a war with the king of Naples. He
applied for .aid in his difficulties to the Emperor Si-
gismund, who, however, declined to render him
assistance, unless he would convene a council beyond
the Alps for the removal of the schism and the re-
formation of the church. A council was accordingly
siuninoned at the instance of John and the emperor
to meet at Constance in 1414. At this famous as-
sembly the acts of the council of Pisa were declared
to be null and void, and it was agreed that all the
three existing popes should be called upon to abdi-
cate. There was a very general feeling, also, in
favour of the impeachment of John XXIII., in con-
sequence of the notorious profligacy of his character.
He endeavoured to arrest the proceedings by mani-
festing an apparent readiness to resign the tiiira, but
in a short time, with the assistance of Frederick of
Austria, he fled to Scbaffhausen, revoking his ]iro-
mises, and assuming an attitude of proud defiance.
After a short suspense, the council declared itself
superior to the popes, and proceeding to the trial of
John in his absence, and finding him guilty of a long
list of crimes, they suspended him from his office.
612
PAPACY.
impi-isoned, and at lengtli deposed liim. This was
soon followed l)v tlie voluiilnry abdication of Gre-
gory XII., who vacated the papal chair on the most
honourable terms. Benedict was now called upon
to take the same -step; bnt he obstinately refused lo
resign the papal dignity, and was at length, in 1417,
deposed by the coiint-il as a heretic with respect to
the article asserting that there is only one Catholic
Chin'ch.
The ground was now clear for the election of a
new Pope, who should be recognized by all parlies
as the only sovereign pontiiV. To secure unanimity
as far as possible, six deputies from each of the Eu-
ropean nations were combined with the twenty-three
cardinals in the conclave, and the election fell upon
Otlio Colonna, a Koman noble, who took the name
of Martin V. Tlie council of Constance, from which
high expectations were formed in the matter of
church reform, terminated its proceedings in 1418,
having been chiefly famous for healing the great
schism of the West, and for condemning the re-
forming doctrines of Wyclille and IIuss. The latter
having I'eceived a safe-conduct from the emperor,
appeared before the council to defend the doctrines
he had taught ; but Sigismund was persuaded to for-
feit his pledge, and to deliver the courageous re-
former into the hands of his enemies, by wliom he
and his friend Jerome of Prague were burned at the
stake as obstinate heretics. One of the most obnox-
ious tenets of the Bohemian reformer, which called
forth the censures of the council, was the denial of
the supremacy of the popes ; and so enthusiastic
were the members in the support of their new pon-
tiff that, at the close of the whole proceedings, they
attended him in solejnn proces.'^ion to tlie gates of
Constance, the emperor leading his horse by the
bridle.
Martin V. regarded his election to the papal chair
as a sure evidence that the pa]iacy had recovered its
former supremacy, and his whole efibrts were direct-
ed to maintain the pre-eminence it had gained.
Himself descended from tlie illustrious Colonna fa-
mily, and accustomed to tlie splendour of the Ro-
man court, he sought to revive all its former luxury
and pomp. One of the tirst acts of his pontificate
was to declare that it was unlawful to make appeal
from the decision of the I'ope, a decree which was
keenly oppos^ed by the French clergy. Though
John IIuss had been burnt, as we have seen, by the
orders of the council of Constance, the lius.site party
had risen to great power, and actually threatened
the security of the imperial throne. Martin pro-
claimed a crusade against them, chiefly in conse-
quence of tlicir determined hostility to the papacy,
but though they protracted the struggle for .several
years, the unhapijy divisions which arose in their
councils finally led to the triumph of the papal
party.
Benedict XIII., now arrived a( exircme old age,
Btill obstinately peruisted in maintaining his right to
the dignity of Pope, and his empty pretensions were
supported by the king of Arragon. Death, however,
put an end to the claims of Benedict, and the two
cardinals who adhered to his party elected Cle-
ment VIII. as his successor — a step which would
undoubtedly have renewed the schism of the pa-
pacy, had not Martin, using his influence with the
king of Arragon, brought about the abdication of
Clement; after which the two cardinals, by "honi
he had been chosen, went formally into conclave,
and declared Martin V. to be the object of their in-
spired choice. Thus finally, in 1428, came to an
end that papal schism which had lasted upwards of
half a century.
Tlie principles of Wyclifi'e and IIuss on the ques-
tion of the authority and power of the popes had
now obtained extensive diffusion throughout a great
part of Christendom. For a time JIartin Haltered
himself that the doctrine of the papal siiprcmacv
was firmly established, but the events of every day
served to undeceive him. A general demand aro.-e
for a new council, to wliich this contested jioint
might be referred. The Pope resisted the urgent
entreaties which reached him fruin all quarters, but
at last he was compelled to yield, and it was agreed
to convoke a council at Basle in 1431. Before the
appointed time arrived, Martin died, and a successor
was elected in the person of Eugeuins IV., who,
however, before assuming the tiara, took an oath,
that he would interpose no liinderance to the meeting
of the proposed council. The council, accordingly,
assembled at Basle, and the new Pope, perceiving
that its proceedings were likely to be at variance
with his own views and policy, endeavoured, at the
very commencement of its sessions, to procure its
adjournment to Bologna, where he himself ottered
to preside. This projiosal, though coming from his
holiness through his legate, was rejected, and the
council, after declaring the chief object of its meet-
ing to be the consideration of the question of eccle-
siastical reform, set out with formally sanctioning
the great principle recognized by the council of
Constance, that a general coujicil is superior to the
Pope. EugeniiLs coininued to insist upon the disso-
lution of the council, but instead of listening to his
remonstrances, the ecclesiastical body agreed, with
scarcely a dissenting voice, to summon the Pope lo
appear within three months at Basle in person, or
by a plenipotentiary, to take his proper part in the
deliberations of the assembly. At the expiry of the
prescribed time, it was moved in the council that the
Pope should be declared contumacious; but it was
decreed that a new term of sixty days should be al-
lowed ; to this was .afterwards added thirty daj s, and
even thirty more. The Pope now resolved to sub-
mit, and declared himself fully reconciled to the
council, recognizing the validity of all its acts, and
revoking all his proceedings against it. The sub-
mission of the Pope gave great satisfaction to the
council, which, however, to secure itself again.^t pa-
PAPACY.
613
pal encroaclimeiit, fonnally repealed the decree of
Constance, declaring the superiority of a general
council to tlie Pope. Soon after, the proceedings of
the council being directed against tlie claims and au-
tliority of tlie Pope, gave great offence to Eagenius,
who re.solved to come to open war with the coun-
cil. He renewed his attempt to dissolve it, or at
least to change its place of meeting; fixing upon
Perrara as the most eligible locality, and one whicli
would suit the convenience of tlie emperor, who was
willing to attend in order to promote a reunion of
the Greek Cliurch with the Latin. The council
bad already consented to accommodate the emperor
by removing their sittings to Avignon ; but the Pope,
to carry out his own views, caused the Venetians to
convey the emperor and his bishops to Italy, and
opening his council at Fen-ara on the 8th of January
1438, he declared the meetiug at Basle scliismatical,
and all its acts invalid. Undeterred by the proceed-
ings of the Pope, the council of Basle declared his
holiness suspended from his office, and announced
that the administration of all thepowerof the papacy,
whether temporal or spiritual, had now reverted to
itself. The council at Ferrara was pronounced
schismatical, and at lengtli, on the 25th of May 1439,
Eugenius was formally deposed. It was not, how-
ever, until the 27th of November following tliat the
council elected a new Pope in the person of the duke
of Savoy, who took the title of Felix V.
Although the council of Ba.sle had spent much
of its time in personal altercations with the Pope, it
had not lost sight of the important subject of eccle-
siastical reform. In particular, it liad defined the
nature imd extent of ]iapal authority, declaring that
infallibility and the plenitiido pote.itatis, or fulness of
power, did not reside in the Pope, Ixit in the whole
church represented by a general council, the Pope
being only the ministerial head of the church. The
decrees of the council of Basle on this important
.subject were accepted by Charles VII., king of
France, and by edict known as the Pragmatic Sanc-
tion of Bourges, they were constituted fundauiental
laws of France and of the Gallican Church
(which see).
The estates of Germany acoejited also of the most
important decrees of the council in the matter of
ecclesiastical reform ; but dreading the renewal of
a schism of the papacy, they declined to support the
council in its proceedings against Eugenius. A new
em|)eror, Albert II., had been elected in 1438, and
on the occasion of this election, the estates liad
agreed to use all their endeavours to accomplish a
reconciliation between the Pope and the council.
Eugenius gladly availed liimself of tlie support thus
rendered to him. and by skill'ul diplomatic arrange-
meuts, in which he was assisted by ^-Eneas Sylvius,
one of the ablest men of the age, he established liis
authority over the patrimony of St. Peter, and alien-
ated from the antipope most of his former sujiport-
urs. By the death of Eugenius, however, which
occurred in 1447, the pontitV's chair became vacant,
and was iunnediately filled up by the election of
Nicholas V., who enjoying, like his predecessor, the
support of the German nation, maintained the au-
thority of the Pope against the council. One of (he
first acts of the new pontiff was to issue a bull ab-
solving all who had taken part with the council of
Basle, on condition of their abandoning it within six
months, and returning to their obedience to the papal
see. The emperor also withdrew his protection
from the council, and ordered its members forthwith
to disperse. A number of the bishops had already
quitted Basle, and those who still remained when
the commands of the emperor reached them, retired
to Lausanne, where they still continued to sit as a
council, until their Pope, Felix, resigned the pontifi-
cate in 1449, thus leaving Nicholas V. iu exclusive
possession of the papal authority and power.
The latter half of the fifteenth century forms a
most eventful period in the history of the papacy.
Em-ope was evidently ripening for some great change.
A loud and earnest cry resounded through every
country for ecclesiastical reform. A large and in-
fluential party had arisen irrespective altogether of
the Lollards and Hussites, wlio were determined to
use the most energetic and persevering eftbrts to
reduce within reasonable bounds the exorbitant
power of the popes. The papacy was equally re-
solved, on the other hand, to maintain with unflinch-
ing tenacity all its privileges, and the firm e.xcr-
cise of all its powers. Such was the policy on which
Rome acted quietly and steadily during the reign of
several successive [lontifiis, until the abuses which
led to the reforming decrees of Constance and Basle
were more deeply rooted, and more firmly sanc-
tioned, than they bad ever been in any previous
period of the history of the popes. All the states of
Europe were now groaning under Romish despotism
and oppression ; nor did complaints, liovvever well
grounded, meet with any other treatment from the
haughty pontiffs than ridicule and contempt. Lordly
insolence, insatiable avarice, and disgusting profli-
gacy characterized several of the popes of this time.
Every act of power was in their case an act of ex-
tortion ; every new oppression was connected with
some financial speculation.
When Leo X. ascended the papal throne in 1513,
he found the treasury exhausted by the expensive
wars which had been carried on by his predecessors,
and yet enormous demands made upon the exche-
quer, not only for the maintenance of an army, and
the pay of numerous political agents, but also for
carrying on extensive (lublic works, especially the
building of the cathedral of St. Peter's. To recruit
bis treasury, Leo had recourse to the sale of indid-
gences — an expedient which had been frequently
adopted by his predecessors. But from the extent
to which the minds of men came to be divided on
the claims of the papacy, this mode of raising money,
more especially when carried to excess, raised a for-
1)14
PAPACY.
miilable opposition, wliicli led by a rapid series of
events to tlie Reformation.
Leo taking more interest, perhaps, in tlie cultiva-
tion of art and science than in tlie progress of reli-
gion, was far from bein^ prepared for tliis great
revolt from tlie antliority of Kome. He liad achieved
a glorious victory for the papacy in the removal of
the Pragmatic Sanction which was yielded by Fran-
cis I. in 1516. Four years after this apparent tri-
umph, he confidently entered the lists against Mar-
tin Luther, who liad boldly published ninety-five
theses, condemning the sale of indulgences as con-
trary to reason and Scripture. The haughty pontiff
miscalculated the strength of this obscure Aiigusti-
niaii friar. Vainly imagining tliat he could crush
him by the slightest exertion of papal power, Leo
issued a bull condemning the theses of Luther as
heretical and impious. The intrepid reformer at
once declared open war against the papacy, by ap-
pealing to a general council, and burning the bull of
excommunication in presence of a vast multitude at
Wittemberg. Not contented with setting the reign-
ing Pope at defiance, Luther collected from the
Canon Law some of the most remarkable enact-
ments bearing on the plenitude of the papal power,
as well as the subordination of all secular jurisdic-
tion to the authority of the holy see; he published
these with a Commentary, sliowing the impiety of
such tenets, and their evident tendency to subvert
all civil governments. The result was, that in Ger-
many Luther soon counted among his warm sup-
porters princes as well as their subjects. In Swit-
zerland also reformed principles, by the labours of
Zwingli and CEcolanipadius, made rapid progreeg.
But in England the most severe blow was inflicted
upon the authority of the papacv. Henry VIII.,
irritated by Pope Clement's opiiosiiion to his divorce,
proclaimed himself head of the English Church, and
abolished the authority of the Pope throughout
his dominions. Several kingdoms of Europe threw
off their allegiance to the Pope, and abolished his
jun.sdiction within their territories. " The defec-
tion," says Dr. Robertson, in his ' History of
Charles V.' " of so many opulent and powerfid king-
doms from the papal see, was a fatal blow to its
grandeur atid power. It abridged the dominions of
the popes in extent, it diminished their revenues,
and left them fewer rewards to bestow on the eccle-
siastics of various denominations, attached to them
by vows of obedience as well as by tics of interest,
and whom they employed as instruments to estab-
lish or support their usurpations in every part of
Europe. The countries, too, which now disclaimed
their authority, were those wliich formerly had been
most devoted to it. The empire of superstition
differs from every other species of duminion ; its
power is often greatest, and most implicitly obeyed
in the provinces most remote from the seat of gov-
ernment ; while such as are sitiialed nearer to that,
arc more apt to discern the arliliccs by wliicli it is
upheld, or the imjiostures on which it is founded.
The personal frailties or vices of the popes, the
errors as well as corruption of their administration,
the ambition, venality, and deceit which reigned in
their courts, fell immediately under the observation
of the Italians, and could not fail of diminishing that
respect which begets submission. I?ut in Germanv,
England, and the more remote jiarts of Eiu-ojie.
these were either altogether unknown, or being only
known by report, made a slighter impres.sion. Ven-
eration for the papal dignity increased accordingly
in these countries in proportion to their distance
from Rome; and that veneration, added to their
gross ignorance, rendered them eiiually ' credulous
and passive. In tracing the progress of the papal
domination, the boldest and luost successful instan-
ces of encroachment are to be found in Germanv and
other countries distant from Italy. In these its im-
positions were heaviest, and its exactions tlie most
rapacious; so that in estimating the diminution of
power which the court of Rome suffered in conse-
quence of the Reformation, not only the number but
tlie character of the people who revolted, not only
the great extent of territory, but the extraordinary
obsequiousness of the subjects which it lost, must
be taken in the account.
Thus did the Church of Rome sufl'er a severe
shock at the Reformation, not only in her spiritual,
but also in her civil power and influence. In the
midst of this eventful cri.vis in her history, however,
arose tlie order of the Jksuits (which see), a society
of zealous and energetic Romanists, who devoted
themselves with indefatigable diligence to revive the
decayed influence of the church, and to win back
Protestant heretics into the true fold. But how-
ever much the church was indebted to the Jesuits
for her defence in the time of need, the occurrence
of the Reformation rendered the cry for internal
reform imperative and irresistible. The council of
Trent, accordingly, was convened by Paul III. with
the avowed design of exterminating heretics, and
securing definitively the internal unity of the church.
The canons of the council were accepted uncon-
ditionally by some of the Romish countries, while
certain reservations were made by others, and in the
case of France, only those of iheiii were adopted
which referred to doctrines.
No event, indeed, has ever occurred in the history
of the papacy which has more ellectually weakened
the temporal power of the popes than the great Re-
formation of the si teeiith ceiiluiy. After that revo-
lution in ecclesiastical alVairs, the popes were not
long in feeling that their cause could ill dispense
with the favour of kings, and to secure this they con-
nived to bestow large subsidies upon them, thus ren-
dering it a source of wealth to sustain llie pajuicy. In
most of the principal cities, also, the (lOpes sonulit
to preserve their influence by eslablishing nuneios
invested with high plenipotentiary powers. Tho
(iailican Chinch alone keptaloof Ironi these agencies.
PAPPUS— PARABOLANI.
615
'I'lie papacy now began to feel tliat all liope of
Biibjeeting the woild to its control must be sm-ien-
dered ; it gradually dwindled down to a small Italian
piiiicipality. And yet, unwilling to jiart with the
vast claims which it had so long been accustomed
to put forth, it continued to urge its proud but
iiietl'ectnal demands upon the Roman Catholic stales
of Kiirope. In France, more especially, the extra-
vagant pretensions of the pojies were almost disre-
garded, and diu'ing the long and brilliant reign of
lyOuis XIV. the Gallican Church boldly continued
to assert its independence of the see of Rome. Long
did the Jesuits struggle, not only to overthrow the
Jansenists in France, but to bring the whole Galli-
can Cluu'ch into implicit submission to the Pope. In
the first object they succeeded to a great extent at
least, but in the second they utterly failed. 'I'lie
French Revolution inflicted a heavy blow upon the
power of the papacy, not in France alone, but
throughout all Europe, and though the return of the
j Bourbons to the throne, and the restoration of quiet
to the country, gave an apparent revival to the in-
fluence of the popes, that influence, in political mat-
ters, has been directly limited to the small Italian
government over which they rule ; and even there,
so impopular is ]iapal sovereignty, that only a few
years have passed away since the reigning Pope,
Pius IX., was coni|ielled to flee in disguise from
Rome, and to seek a temporary asylum in the neigh-
boin-ing kingdom of Naples. Under the joint pro-
tection of France and Austria he was restored to his
throne, where he is enabled to maintain his seat
solely by their united support. The day, however,
is evidently not far distant when the Pope shall be
wholly divested of his temporal authority, and the
papacy shall cease to exist as a political power in
Europe.
PAP/EUS. a Scythian surname, o( Zens.
P.APAS, a name given to the secular clergy in
the Ghf.ek Church (which see).
PAPELLARDS, a term applied to a class of
Pietists in the thirteenth century. Neander consi-
ders it as denoting etyraologically persons wholly
devoted to the popes, the parsons, the clergy. They
were most directly opposed to the men of the world.
To this body Louis IX., king of France, was consi-
dered to belong, and their ascetic habits were keenly
opposed in the writings of William St. Amour.
PAPIIIA, a surname of A/ikrodile derived from a
temple in honour of this goddess at Paphos in Cy-
prus.
PAPISTS, a name frequently applied by Pro-
testants to Roman Catholics, in consequence of their
acknowled.;ment of the Pope as the head of their
church. The tenth article of the creed of Pope
Pius IV. runs in these terms : " I promise true obe-
dience to the bishop of Rome, successor to St. Peter,
prince of the apostles, and vicar of Jesus Christ."
And the Douay Catechism teaches, that " He who
is not in due coimection and subordination to the
Pope and general councils, must needs be dead, and
cannot be accounted a member of the church." Ths
terin^OT^i/ste, however, is more strictly ajiplicable to
those members of the Church of Rome who admit
the infallibility of the Pope, and the fulness of power
as being vested in him alone indepiendently alto-
gether of general councils. This view is held by a
large portion of the Romish Church, but is strenu-
ously resisted by all who hold Gallican and Janseii-
ist principles, including a considerable body of Ro-
manists both in England and France. See R0.M13
(Church of).
P.\1'P.\TI, the New-Year's day festival among
the Parsee.s (which see). This day is celebrated in
honour of Yezdegird, the last king of the Sassanide
dynasty of Persian moiiarchs, who was dethroned
by Caliph Omar about A. D. 640. The ancient Per-
sians reckoned a new era froni the accession of each
successive monarch, and as Yezdegird had no suc-
cessor, the date of his accession to the throne has
been brought down to the present time, making the
current year (1859) the year 1219 of the Parsee
chronology. On the Piqrpati the Parsees rise early,
and either say their prayers at home or repair to
the lire-temples, where a large congregation is assem-
bled. After prayers they visit their friends and re-
lations, when the Hamma-i-jour, or joining of hands,
is performed. The rest of the day is spent in feast-
ing and rejoicing till a late hour at night. It is cus-
tomary on this day to give alms to the poor, and
new suits of clothes to the servants.
PAPREMIS, the god of war among the ancient
Egyptians, who was worshipped under the figure of
the hippopotamus. At Heliopolis, and at Putos,
sacrifices are .said to have been offered to this deity,
and at Papremis, which was called after him, there
was a festival celebrated every year in honour of
him.
PARABAPTISMATA, baptisms in private
houses or conventicles, which are frequently con-
demned in the canons of ancient councils under this
name.
PARABOLANI, a name applied among the an-
cient Romans to those v,ho hired themselves out to
fight with wild beasts in the public amphitheatres.
Hence the word came to be sometimes used in re-
ference to the early Christians, who, in the days of
persecution, were in some cases compelled to enter
the arena and fight with wild beasts as a public
spectacle for the amusement of the heathen. To
this custom the Apostle Paul alludes in 1 Cor. xv.
32, when he says, " If after the manner of men I
have fou<;ht with beasts at Eiihesus."
PARABOLANI, an order of officers in the an-
cient Christian Church, whose ofHce it was to attend
njion the sick, and to take care of their bodies in
time of their weakness. At Alexandria they were
iiicorporated into a society to the number of 500 or
600, to be chosen at the discretion of the bishop
of the place under whose govermnent and direction
616
PARABHAHMA— PAUAMAHANSAS.
they were, aooording to a law laid down by the Em-
peroi" Theodosiiis the younger, A. i>. 415. We tiiid
no inentioii of the office before the fifth century, and
yet it is then referred to as a standing and settled
office in the church. Nor was it limited to the
church of Alexandria, but is mentioned also as exist-
ing in the church of Ephesus in A. D. 449. The
Paraholtini derived tlieir name from the circum-
stance that they exposed their lives to dangers in
attendance upon the sick in all infectious and pesti-
lential distempers. It would appear that the civil
government of Rome looked upon them as a formi-
dable body of men, and, therefore, laid down laws
strictlv limiting them to tlieir proper duties.
PAR.\BRA1L\L\, a term often used to denote
Braiim (which see), the supreme divinity of the Hin-
dus.
JPARACLETE, a word used in John xiv. It) and
26; XV. 26; and xvi. 7, where it is applied to the
Holy Spirit. Considerable ditiprence of opinion
exists among the learned as to the proper significa-
tion of the original word ; some supposing that the
term I'araclete is employed to denote the Spirit's
otfice as Comforter, while others believe that the
name strictly signifies an advocate. The great Per-
sian heresiarch Manior Manes, from whom the Mani-
cheans derived their name, claimed to be f lie promised
Paraclete or Comforter. The same pretensions were
put forth by Mohammed, and the Islamite doctors
assert that the Christians are chargeable with a wil-
ful perversion of the texts in the Gospel according to
John, inasmuch as they have substituted Paraclefoa,
a Comforter, for the word Periclutos, Most Famous,
which has the same signification as the name Mo-
bammed. Such a charge is absurd in the extreme.
PARADISE, a word used in the New Testament
to denote the state of the souls of believers between
death and the resurrection. The Apostle Paul de-
scribes himself in 2 Cor. xii. 2, 4, as having enjoyed
a foretaste of the blesseihiess of this state. The
Jewi.sh Rabbis teach tliat Paradise is twofold ; one
in heaven and another here below upon earth. They
are said to be separated by an upright pillar, called
the strength of the hill of Zion. By this pillar on
every Sabbath and festival the righteous climb up
and feed themselves with a glance of the Divine
Majesty, and at the end of the Sabbath or festival
they slide down and return to the lower Paradise.
Access to the upper Paradise is rejiresented as not
enjoyed by the righteous immediately after death,
but they must first pass a kind of noviciate in the
lower Paradise. Even when admitted into the up-
per Paradise, the righteous are alleged to be in the
habit of revisiting this lower world. Both in the
upper and the lower Paradise there are said to be
seven apartinenls or dwellings for the righteous.
A certain Rabbi allirms that he sought all over
Paradise, and he foiuid therein seven bouses or
dwellings ; and each house was twelve times ten thou-
sand miles long, and as many miles in wiihh.
The Paradise of the Mohammedans is wholly sen-
sual in its character, consisting, to adopt the lan-
guage of Jlr. Macbride, in his ' Mohammedan Reli-
gion Explained,' " of gardens through which rivers
flow abounding with palm-trees and pomegranates,
where the believers will taste of whatever fruit they
desire, which they may gather from the branches
wliich will bend towards them while reclining not
only under the sh.ade, but on siik couches, them-
selves clothed in green silk and brocades, and adorn-
ed with bracelets of gold and pearl. They are to
drink of the liquor forbidden in this life, but this
wine will never intoxicate or make the head ache;
it will be sealed not with clay, but with musk, and
diluted with water from the spring Tasnim, and
this shall be served to them in cups of silver liy
beautiful youths. But their highest enjoyment will
be derived from the company of damsels created for
the purpo.se out of pure nuisk, called Houris, from
the brightness of their eyes. Such will be the per-
petual sensual enjoyments of all who are .'vdmiited
into Paradise ; but for those who have attained the
highest degree of excellence it is said, in hmgu.age
borrowed from the genuine Scriptures, that for them
are prepared, in addition, such joys as eye has not
seen nor ear heard, nor has entered into the heart ot
man to conceive. This addition is said to be the
beatific vision, and many of the more respectable
JFosIems endeavour to explain away and spiritualize
the sensual delights, of their pr.ophet's Paradise ;
Algazali considers the attempt heretical, and Mo-
hammed himself seems to have intended his words
to have been taken literally. It is still the common
faith of his people ; and we read, in an early native
history of the conquest of Syria, of a voluntary mar-
tyr, who, longing after these joys, cliarged the Chris-
tian troops, and made havock till struck through
with a javelin, he exclaimed, ' Methinks I see look-
ing upon me the houris, the sight of one of whom,
would cause all men to die of love; and one with
an handkerchief of green silk and a cup made of
precious stones, beckons me. and calls me, " Come
hither quickly, for I love thee."' Such was the
spirit that led the first Moslems to victory, and it is
still the jiopular belief." It is a dispute among the
Mohammedans whether Paradise be now in exist-
ence, or is as yet uncreated. The more orthodox,
however, adhere to the former opinion. See Hades,
Heavkn.
PARAFRENARir, the coachmen of the higher
clergy in the ancient Christian Church. They had
also the care of their stables and horses. They were
sometimes reckoned among the number of the clergy,
but of an inferior order.
PARAMAHAXS.AS. a species of Snmjosi or
Hindu ascetics, and, indeed, the most eminent of the
four gradations, being solely occu])ied with the in-
vestigation o( lirulim, and equally indilTcrent to ]ilea-
sure, insensible to heat or cold, and incapable ot
satii'tv or want. In accordance with this delinitiun.
PARAMANDYAS-PARISH.
617
individuals are sometimes found who pretend to
have readied this degree of perfection, and in tolien
of it tliey go naked, never spealt, and never indicate
any natural want. Tliey are fed by attendants, as
if unable to feed themselves. They are usually
classed among the Saivn ascetics, but Professor H.
H. Wilson doubts the accuracy of the classification.
PAMAJL-VXDYAS, a portion of the dress «f
Caloijers or Greek monks. It consists of a piece of
black cloth sewed to tlie lining of their caps, and
hauging down upon their shoulders.
PARAMATS, a Budhist sect which arose in the
beginning of the present century at Ava. They re-
spect only tlie AhlikUmrmma, and reject tlie other
sacred books. Kosau, the foimder of tlie sect, with
about fifty of his followers, were put to death by
order of tlie king.
PARAMONARIOS, an inferior otficer belonging
to the ancient Christian Church, referred to in the
canons of the council of Chalcedoii. Translators
and critics difl'er as to the meaning of the word.
Some of the more ancient writers consider it as equi-
valent to the Mansionarius or Ostiarius (which
.see). More modern critics, again, explain it by v!l-
licus, or steward of the lands.
PARANYMPII, a term used in ancient Greece
to denote one of tlie friends or 'elations of a bride-
groom who attended the bridegroom on the occasion
of his marriage. Among the Jews there were two
Pwam/mjjJts, one a relative of the bridegroom, and
the other of the bride. The first was called his com-
panion, and the other her conductor. Their busi-
ness was to attend upon the j.-artics at the marriage
ceremony.
PARASCEUE, the d:iy before our Saviour's pas-
sion. It is called by the council of Laodicea the
fifth day of the great and solemn week, when sucli
as were to be baptized, having learnt their creed,
were to repeat it before the bishop or presbyters in
the cluirch. This was the only day for several ages
that ever the creed was publicly repeated in the
Greek cluircbes. It is called also Holy Thursday,
or Maundy Thursday (which see), and is observed
with great pomp in the Romish Churcli.
PARASCHIOTH. It was the custom among the
Jews to have the whole Law or Five Books of
Moses read over in the synagogues in the course of
every year. Hence for the sake of convenience the
Law was divided into fifty-four sections or Paras-
chioth, as nearly equal in length as possible. These
were appointed to be read in succession, one every
Teek till the whole was gone over. They were made
tifty-four in number, because the longest \'ears con-
eisted of that number of weeks, and it was thought
desirable that no Sabbath, in such a case, should be
left without its particular portion ; but as common
years were shorter, certain sliorter sections were
joined together so as to make one out of two in
order to bring the reading regularly to a close at the
end of the 3'ear. The course of reading the Paras-
chioth in the synagogues commenced on tlie first
Sabbath after the Feast of Tabernacles ; or rather
on the Sahbatli before that, for on the same day that
they finished the last course of reading, they began
the new coui-se, in order, as the Rabbis allege, that
the devil might have no ground for accusing them to
God of being weary of reading the law.
PARASITI, assistants to certahi priests among
the ancient Greeks. The gods, to whose service
parasites were attached, were Apollo, Heracles, the
Anaces, and Athena of Pallene. Tliey were gen-
erally elected from the most ancient and illustrious
families, but wdiat were the precise duties assigned
to them it is difficult to discover. The}' were twelve
ill number, and received as the remuneration for
their services a third part of the sacrifices ofl'ered to
their respective gods. Parasites were al.so appointed
as a.ssistants to the highest magistrates in Greece.
Thus there were both civil and priestly parasites.
The term is now generally used to denote flatterers
or sycophants of any kind.
PARATORIUM, a name sometimes given to the
Oelationarium (which see), of the Ordo Konianus,
because when the oli'erings were recei\'ed, prepara-
tion was made out of them for the eucharist.
PARC.E. See Fates.
PARCLOSES, screens separating chapels, espe-
cially those at the east end of the aisles, from the
body of the church.
PARE1.\, a surname oi Allicna, muler which she
was wor.-liipi ed in Laconia.
PAREKTALIA. See Infeei^.
PARISH, the district assigned by law to the care
of one minister. The word^JoniA was in use as early
as the third century, but it was at that time equiva-
lent to the term Diocese (which .see). In ])iinii-
tive times the diocese of a bishop was neither more
nor less than what is now called a parish ; and even
when the jurisdiction of bishops had become exten-
sive, the diocese long continued to be called the
parish. Afterwards the word was limited to the dis-
trict attached to a single church over which a pre.s-
byter presided, who was hence called parodins. It
was not until the sixth century, however, tliat tlie
term parish was employed in this sense. "The
fourth century," as we learn from Mr. Riddle, " wit-
nessed the establishment of parish churches in large
towns generally ; a custom which had already pre-
vailed in capitals, such as Rome and Alexandria ;
the chief church of the city being now called ' catlie-
dralis,' because the bishop's seat (cathedra) was there
— and the others ' ecclesise plebanse.' During this
formation of the parochial sj'stem, the diocesan
bishops took care that the several parish presbyters
should not be bi.shops in their own churches, and
measures were adopted to retain tlicse churches in a
state of dependence on the mother or cathedral
church. The diocesans, however, were often ob
liged to allow the parish churches a greater degree
of independence than they were of their own accord
616
PARMEXIANISTS.
willing to conceiie to them. At first, llie Ijlsliop
appointed one of the catliednil clergy to officiate in
ii pai'iah clun-i-h ; al'terwai-ds, presbyters were or-
dained especially for certain churches, their ordina-
tion and apptiiiitment . being still vested in the
bishop. When it became necessary to appoint sev-
eral clergy to one parish, still the appointment was
retained in the hands of the bishop ; in some places
only permission being granted to the parishes to
choose their own readers and choristers. The bish-
ops also retained the right of recalling or removing
a jjarish priest, and transferring him back to the body
of cathedral clergy. Still more etfectually were the
parochial clergy kept in a state of dependence upon
the bishops, by regulations concerning the sphere
of their duties. At their first origin, and throughout
the fourth centur)', they were permitted only to
preach, to instruct catechumens, and to administer
the offices of religion to the sick and dying, but not
to administer the sacraments, nor to excommunicate
oTenders or to absolve penitents, without special
permission from the bishop. In the fifth century it
liad become impossible for all communicants to rejiair
to the motlier or cathedral church, and permission
was granted to adjninister the Lord's Supper in
parish churches, — the elements, however, having
been previously consecrated in the cathedral, and
sent thence for use to the several churches. After-
wards, the privileges of parish churches and of the
parochial clergy were still further extended ; ftdl
I)ermission for the complete celeb)-ation of both sacra-
ments was given, — the parochial clergy were autho-
rised to pronounce the sacerdotal benediction, or to
conduct the religious solemnity at marriages, — and
it was even enacted that every parishioner shoidd
receive these ofiices at the hands of no other than
his own minister. At the same time the parochial
minister was qualified as penitentiarius within his
own limits, certain eases only being reserved for the
cognizance of the bishop. And thus the oidy spirit-
ual act with respect to the laity now entirely re-
served to the bishop was that of confirmation. These
changes we may regard in general as having taken
place during tlie .sixth century ; and in this way the
rights and powers of the parochial clergy were so far
enlarged, that they had become, to a considerable
extent, the rei)resentatives of the bishops in their
own parishes. Hence it was natural that they
should seek also to become proportionally indepen-
dent of the bishops with regard to their incomes ;
and this most important change in the diocesan con-
stitution was also by degrees effected. For some
li[ne after the iirst introduction of the parochial sys-
tem, the revenues of a diocese continued to be re-
garded as a whole, the distribution of which was
subject to the bishop ; that is to say, whatever obla-
tions or the like were made in parisli cluirchcs were
jiaid into the treasury of the caihcdnil chiu'ch, as the
one heart of the body, and thence distributed among
the clergy after the claims of the bishop li.ad been
satisfied. This arrangement remained generally in
force until the end of the fifth century, many parish
churches having in the meantime greatly increased
in wealth by means of bequests and donations, and
having come into the receipt of considerable obla-
tions. At this time the payment of fees for the per-
formance of religious ofiices, which was at first purely
voluntary, was exacted as a legal right or due, and
regular tal}Ies of such fees were set up ; a practice
against which the protests of councils appear to have
been without effect. But in the course of the sixth
century the revenues of the parochial clergy came to
be considered simply as their own, the bishops being
obliged to relax their hold of them."
In England there are somewhere about 10,000
parishes. The country, according to Camden, was
divided into parishes by Archbishop Ilonorius, alxmt
A. D. 630. Others, again, allege the division to have
taken place as late as the twelfth century. Each of
the parishes in England is tmder the spiritual super-
intendence of a rector, vicar, or perpetual curate,
and the more populous parishes are subdivided into
districts, each ecclesiastical district being under the
charge of an incumbent or curate.
Ill Scotland there are 96.3 parishes, each of which
is bound by law to have a parish church projiortion-
ed in size to the number of inhabitants, and capable
of accommodating two thinls of the examinable po-
pulation, that is of those who are above twelve years
of age. The duty of building and repairing a parish
church devolves upon the heritors or proprietors,
each being assessed for the purpose, if in a purely
landward parish, according to the valued rent of his
estate, or if in a parish partly rural, partly burghal,
according to the real or actual rent of the properties.
Should the heritors fail in fultilling their legal obli-
gation, whether in repairing an old, or building a
new parish church, it is the duty of the jiresbytery,
on the report of competent tradesmen, to ordain the
neces.siry repairs, or an entirely new building ; and
this decree of the presbytery sitting in a civil capa-
city, and issued in due form, has the force of law.
By the law of Scotland, parish ministers are support-
ed by a stipend or salary raised from a tax on land.
It is raised on the principle of commuting tithes or
tcinds into a modified charge — the fifth of the pro-
duce of the land, according to a method introduced
in the reign of Charles I., ratified by William 111.,
and unalterably established by the treaty of Union.
Ill addition to his stijicnd, the parish minister is pro-
vided with a manse or parsonage-house, a garden
and offices. He has also a glebe consisting of four
acres of arable land, which is its statutory extent,
but in many cases the glebe is larger, and in addition
there is frequently a grass glebe snfiicient for the
support of a horse and two cows. In royal burghs
the parish ministers are jnovided with manses, but
not in other cities and towns.
PAKMKNIANISTS, a party of the sect of the
DoNATisT.? (which sec) in the fourth ccntiu-y, who
PARNASSIDES— PARSEES (Religion of the).
619
derived their name from Panneniaii, a bisliop of
Cai-tliage.
PARNASSIDES. a name given to the Muses
(wliich sue) from Jloimt Parnassus.
I PARXF.THIUS, a surname of Zeus derived from
Mount Parnes in Attica.
PARNOPIUS, a surname o( Apollo, nnder wliich
lie was worsliipped at Alliens. The word indicates
an expeller of locusts.
PARSEES (Religion of the\ This interest-
ing race, wliich is found scattered over the western
portion of Hindustan, but more especially in Bom-
bay, is the remnant of the ancient Persians. Their
name is derived from their original country. Pars,
which the Greeks term Persis, and hence comes Per-
sia. In the middle of the seventh century the Arabs
invaded Persia under Caliph Omar, and that once
glorious empire passed into the hands of the bigot-
ed and intolerant Mohammedans. The consequence
was, that througliout the whole country the religion
of Zoroaster, which was the ancient Persian faith,
was exchanged for the faith of Isldm, and the fire-
temples were either destroyed or converted into
mosques. Those who still cleaved to the religion of
their forefathers fled to the mountainous districts of
Khorassan, where, for about a iiundred years, they
lived in the free and undisturbed exercise of their
religion. At length, however, the sword of the per-
secutor overtook them even in these remote dis-
tricts, and again they were compelled to seek safety
ill flight, a considerable number emigrating to the
small island of Ornius, at the month of the Persian
Gulf. Here, however, they remained only a short
time, when finding that they were still within the
reach of their Moslem persecutors, they sought an
asylum in Hindustan, partly concealing the true na-
ture of tlieir religion, and partly conforming to Hin-
du practices and ceremonies. At length, after a
long series of hardships, which they endured with
the most exemplary patience, they resolved to make
an open profession of their ancient faith, and, ac-
cordingly, they built a fire-temple in Sanjan, the
Hindu rajah of the district kindly aiding them in the
work. The temple was completed in .4. D. 721, and
the sacred fire was kindled on the altar.
For three hundred years from the time of their land-
ing in Sanjan, the Parsees lived in comfort and
tranquillity; and at the end of that period their
numbers were much increased by the emigration of
a large body of their countrymen from Persia, who,
with their families, located themselves in diti'erent
parts of Western India, where they chiefly engaged
in agricultural pursuits. Being a peaceable and in-
dustrious people, the Parsees lived in harmony with
the Hindus, though of dilferent and even op|iosite
faiths. Nothing of importance, indeed, occurred in
their history until the beginning of the sixteentli
century, when they were called upon to aid the
rajah under whom they lived in resisting the aggres-
Bions of a Mohammedan chief residing at Alimeda-
bad. On that occasion they distinguished them-
selves by their valour and intrepidity, contril)uting
largely to the success which at tirst crowned the
arms of the Hindus. Ultimately, however, the Mos-
lems were victorious, and the Hindu government was
ovei thrown. The Parsees, carrying with them the
sacred fire from Sanjan, now removed to the moun-
tains of B.aharout, where they remained for twelve
years, at the end of which they directed their course
first to Bansda, and afterwards to Nowsaree, where
they si)eedily rose to wealth and influence. Here,
however, a quarrel arose among the priests, and the
sacred fire was secretly conveyed to Oodwara, a place
situated thirty-two miles south of Surat, where it
still exists, and being the oldest fire-temple in India,
it is held in the highest veneration by the Parsees.
Nowsaree is the city of the priests, numbers of whom
are every year sent to Bombay to act as spiritual
instructors of their Zoroastrian fellow-worshippers.
It is difficult to ascertain the precise time at which
the Parsees arrived in Bombay, but in all probabi-
lity it was in the latter half of the seventeenth cen-
tury, somewhere about the time that the island passed
into the hands of the British, having been given bv
the king of Portugal as a dowry to his daughter Ca-
tharine when slie became the wife of Charles 11.
Ever since, this remarkable remnant of anliqnity has
maintained its footing in Hindustan, cliiefiy in Bom-
bay and in some of the cities of Gujerat, and a few
are also to be found in Calcutta, and other large
cities in India, in China, and other parts of Asia.
The census of 1851 rated the Parsees in Bombay at
110,544, but their number is rapidly increasing. In
Surat the Parsee ]iopuIation was at one time more
numerous than that in Bombay, but the latter city
being now the chief seat of trade in Western India,
and the Parsees being generally active and enter-
prising, have flocked thither in great numbers, leav-
ing not more than 20,000 of their countrymen in
Surat. The whole Parsee population, including
6,000 GuEBRES (which see) in Persia, is considered
to amount to 150,000.
There are two sects of Parsees in India, the Shen-
so.ysand the Kudmis, both of whom follow in all points
the religion of Zoroaster, and dither only as to the
precise date for the computation of the eraofYez-
degird, the last king of the ancient Persian monarchy.
The only practical disadvantage which arises from
this chronological disimte is, tliat there is a month's
dilierence between them in the time at which they
observe tlieir festivals. The Kudmis are few in
number, but several of the most wealthy and in-
fluential of the Parsees belong to this sect. About
thirty years ago a keen discussion, known among the
Parsees by the name of the Kubeesa controversy,
was carried on in Bombay, and though argued with
the greate.st earnestness and acrimony on both sides,
the contested point in regard to the era of Yezde-
gird has not yet been satisfactorily settled. The
dilierence was first observed about 200 years ago,
620
PARSERS (UKLiGfON or the).
when a learned Zoroastrian, named Janiasp, caine
from Persia to Snrat ; and wliile cni^aged in instruct-
ing the Mobeds or Parsee priests, lie discovered tliat
there was a difference of one full month in the calon-
lalion of time l)etween ihe Zoroastrians of India and
those of Persia. It was not, liowever, till 174G tliat
any great importance was attached to this chronolo-
gical dirference. In that year, however, the Kudmi
sect was formed, its distinguishing tenet being an
adherence to the chronological view imported by
Janiasp from Persia, while the great mass of the Par-
sees in India still retained their former mode of cal-
culation. At first sight this might appear a matter
of too small importance to give rise to a theological
dispnte, bnt it mnst be borne in mind, that when a
Parsee prays, he must repeat the year, month, and
day on which he offers his petition, and this circum-
stance leads to an observable difference between the
prayer of a Kudmi and that of a Shensoi/, and the
same difference of conrse exists in the celebration of
the festivals which are common to both sects.
Tlie Parsees are distinguished from the Hindus
among whom they reside by several customs pecu-
liar to tliemselvcs. When a cliild is about to be
born, the mother is conveyed to the ground floor of tlie
bouse, where she must remain for forty days, at the
end of wliich she undergoes purification before again
mingling with the family. Five days after the child
is l)orn an astrologer is called in to cast its nativity ;
and all the relatives assemble to he.ar what is to be
the future fortune of the babe, and what influence it
is to exert upon its parents and family. Till the
child is six years old its dress consists of a single
garment called the Juhhht, a kind of loose shirt, wliich
extends from the neck to the ankles, and the head
is covered with a skull-cap. When it has reached
the age of six years and three montlis, the investi-
ture of the child with the sudra and kusti takes
place, by which it is solemnly initiated info the reli-
gion of Zoroaster. The ceremony commences with
certain puriiicAtions, and the child being seated lie-
fore the higli-priest, after a benediction has been
in-onoimced, the emblematic garments are put on.
The siidrn is made of linen, and the hiisti is a thin
woidlen cord, consisting of seventy-two threads, re-
presenting the seventy-two chapters of the Izashn^,
a sacred book of the Parsees. This cord is pa.ssed
round the waist three times, and tied with four knots,
while a kind of hymn is sung. At the first knot the
person gays, "There is only one God, and no other
is to be compared with him ;" at tlie second, "The
religion given hy ZuHoHlit is true;" at the third, ^' Zuv-
li)>:ht is the true Prophet, and he derived his mission
from God ;" and the fourth and last, " Perform good
actions, and abstain from evil ones."
The following interesting account of a mairi.age
ceremony among the Parsees is given by Dosalilioy
Framjce, in a work just published, entitled, 'The
Parsees: Their Ilistoiy, Manners, Customs, and Re-
ligion : " .MiDut sunset the whole of the bride-
groom's party, both males and females, repair in pro-
cession to the house of the bride. The procession U
headed by a European or native band of music, ac-
cording to the means of the parties ; the bridegroom,
accompanied by the dmtom-s, then follow, after whom
walk the m.ale portion of the assembly, the female
company bringing up the rear of the procession.
When the whole of this party is accommodated at
the bride's quarters, the nuptial ceremony is com-
menced soon after sunset. It generally takes place
in a hall or spacious room on the ground-floor of the
house, where a galicha or cai'pet is .spread. The
bride and bridegroom are seated close to each otlier
on ornamented chairs, and facing them stand the
dustoors or priests, who repeat the nuptial benedic-
tion finst in the Zend and then in the Sanscrit, of
which the following is a short abstract, — ' Know ve,
that both of you have liked each other, and are
therefore thus united. Look not with impious eye
on other people, but always make it your studv to
love, honour, and cherish each other as long as both
of you remain in this world. May quarrels never
arise between you, and may your fondness for each
other increase day by day. May you both learn to
adhere to truth, .and be always pure in your thoughts
as well as actions, and always fry to please the
Almiglify, who is a lover of truth and righteousness.
Shun evil company, abstain from avarice, envy, and
pride, for that is the road to destruction. Think not
of other men's property, but try industriously, and
without any dishonest means, to improve your own.
Cultivate friendship between yourselves, and with
your neighbours, and among those who are known
to be good people. Hold out a helping hand to the
needy and poor. Always respect your jiarents. as
that is one of the first duties enjoined njion yon.
May success crown all your efforts. May you be
blessed with children .and grandchildren. Mav vou
always try to exalt the glory of tlie religion of Zo-
roaster, and may the blessings of the Almighty de-
scend upon you.'
" The concluding ceremony of washing the toes of
the bridegroom's feet with milk, and rubbing his
face with his bride's eliolee, as well as other triviali-
ties, need not be mentioned here, as they are not
enjoined by the P.arsee religion, bnt are mere 'grafts
of Hindooism.' When the above ceremonies are
nearly concluded, bouquets of roses, or other beauti-
ful and fragrant flowers, and little triangular p.ackels
of jmn soparce, a kind of leaf and betel-nut, pro-
fusely gilded, are distributed to each member of the
company. Rose-wafer from a golden or silver 1700-
Idhdaiice, is also showered upon Ihe persons of the
guests. The signal is then given for the bridegroom
and his party to retire to their quarters."
The first work of the Parsees, wherever thoy set-
tle, is to construct a tomb, which they call Dokhma,
or tower of silence, for the reception of their dead.
It is erected in a solitary place, and generally on a
mountain. The body placed on an iron bier is there
PARSERS (Remg-ion of the)
f.-21
exposed to tlie fowls of the ivii', ami when they have
stripped oft" the flesli, tlie bones fall through an iron
grathig into a pit beneath, from which they are after-
wards removed into a subterranean passage con-
structed on purpose.
Tlie faith of tlie Parsees is that of Zoroaster, as
contained in the sacred books called the ArsESTA
(which see), which originally extended to no fewer
than twenty-one volumes, the greater number of
which, however, are lost, having been destroyed, as
is supposed, either during the hivasion of Persia by
Alexander the Great, or immediately after the con-
quest of that country by the JVEohammedans. Those
which are still in the possession of the Parsees are
the Vcmdidad, Yacna, or Iza.<ihne, and Vitpard.
These three together are called Vcmdidad Sade, an
edition of which was published by Professor Wes-
tergard of Copenhagen, in the Zend character, in the
year 1854. The entire structure of the Zend Abesta
rests on three important precepts expressed by three
significant terms, Hoiiuite, Hoolchte, and Vuruste,
meaning purity of speech, purity of action, and
purity of thought. The Parsees are generally charged
with idolatry, worsliip|)ing not merely the good and
evil deities, under the name of Onivisd uni Ahrinum,
but almost every object that is named in heaven or
on earth. Thus Dr. Wilson, who has many years
laboured as a missionary in Bombay, remarks, in
6|ieaking of the Parsee : " He at one moment calls
upon Ormusd, at the next upon his own ghost ; at
one moment on an archangel, at the next on a sturdy
bull ; at one time on the brilliant sun, the next on a
blazing tire; at one moment on a lofty and stnpen-
•dous mountain, the next on a darksome cave ; at one
moment on the ocean, at the next on a well or
spring." In reply to all such charges, Dosabhoy Frani-
■ee, in the work from which we have already quoted,
remarks, " The charge of fire, sun, water, and air
worship has, liowever, been brought against the
Parsees by those not sufficiently acquainted with the
Zoroastrian faith to form a just opinion. The Par-
sees themselves repel the charge with indignation.
Ask a Parsee whether he is a worshipper of the sun
or fire, and he will emphatically answer — No ! This
declaration itself, coming from one whose own reli-
gion is Zoroastrianism, ought to be sufficient to
satisfy the most sceptical. God, according to Par-
see faith, is the emblem of glory, refulgence, and
light, and in this view, a Parsee, while engaged in
prayer, is directed to stand before the fire, or to direct
his face towards the sun as the most proper symbols
of the Almighty.
" All Eastern liistorians have acknowledged that
the Persians from the most early time were no idol-
aters, but worshipped one God the Creator of the
world, under the symbol of fire, and sucli is also the
present practice among their de.scendants in India.
■" In Bombay at present there are three fire-tem-
ples for public worship. The first of these was
erected in the 1153 year of Yezdegird, 1780 of the
Christian era, by a wealthy Parsee named Dadysett.
The second was built about the year IS.'JO, at the
expense of the late Hormnsjee Bomonjee, Esq. ; and
the third one was erected by the late Franijee Cow-
asjee, Esq., in the year 1844, at the cost of £25,000."
Speaking of fire-worship, Dean Prideaux says, that
" they," that is, the ancient Persians, "abominating
all images, worshipped God only by fire ; " and Sir
William Ouseley to the same ell'ect affirms, " I shall
here express my firm belief tliat the first Per.sian
altars blazed in honour of God alone ; as likewise,
that the present disciples of Znrtosht, both in India
and the mother country, Iran or Persia, have no other
object when they render to fire a semblance of vener-
ation."
Forbes, in his ' Oriental Memoirs,' thus states the
view which he is disposed to take of the sacred fires
of the Parsees : " These fires," says he, '• are attend-
ed day and night by the Andiaroos or priests, and
are never permitted to expire. They are preserved
in a large chafing-dish, carefully supplied with fuel,
perfumed by a small quantity of sandal-wood or
other aromatics. The vulgar and illiterate worship
this sacred flame, as also the sun, moon, and stars,
without i-egard to the invisible Creator; but the
learned and judicious adore only the Almighty
Fountain of Light, the author and disposer of all
things, under the symbol of fire. Zoroaster and the
ancient magi, wliose memories they revere, and
whose works they are said to preserve, never taught
them to consider the sun as anything more than a
creature of the great Creator of the universe : they
were to revere it as His best and fairest image, and
for the numberless blessings it difi^uses on the earth.
The sacred ilame was intended only as a perpetual
monitor to preserve their purity, of which this ele-
ment is so expressive a symbol. But superstition
and fable have, through a lapse of ages, corrupted
the stream of the religious sy.stem which in its
source was pure and sublime." Niebuhr, also, holds
a similar opinion in reference to this interesting peo-
ple : " The Parsees, followers of Zerdust, or Zoroas-
ter, adore one God only, Eternal and Almighty.
They pay, however, a certain worship to the sun,
the moon, the stars, and to fire, as visible images of
the invisible Divinity. Their veneration for the ele-
ment of fire induces them to keep a sacred fire con-
stantly burning, wliich they feed with odoriferous
wood, both ill the temples and in the houses of pri-
vate persons who are in easy circumstances."
The Parsees, having so long mingled with the
Hindus, naturally adopted many of their customs and
practices which for centuries they have continued
to observe, and though the jmnc/iai/et, or legal council
of the Parsees, about twenty-five years ago endea-
voured to discourage and even to root out all such
ceremonies and practices as had crept into their reli-
gion since they first settled in Hindustan, their at-
tempts were wholly unsuccessful. So recently, how-
ever, as 1852 steps have been taken for the accom-
G22
PARSON— 1^\SE-BUI)IIAS.
plislimeiit of llie same (le!^il"able object, wliidi are more
likely to bring about tbe restoration of tbe Zoroas-
trian religion to its pristine purity. In lliat year an
ass'iciation was formeii at Bombay, called the " Kali-
numai M;izcliasna," or Keligioiis Reform Association,
composed of many wealthy and influential Parsees,
along with a number of intelligent and well educated
young men. The labours of this society have been
productive of considerable im|irovement in the social
condition of the Parsees. The state of the priest-
hood calls for some change in that body. Many of
them are so ignorant that tliey do not understand
their liturgical works, though they regularly recite
the required portions from memory. Tlie office of
the priesthood is hereditary, the son of a priest being
also a priest, unless he chooses to follow some other
profession ; but a layman cannot be a priest. That
the priests maybe incited to study the sacred books,
an institution has been established called the " Mulla
Firoz Mudrissa," in which they are taught the Zend,
Pehlvi. and Persian languages. On the whole, the
Parsee community in India appears to be rapidly
iinbibijig European customs and opinions, and rising
steadilv in influence and importance.
PARSON, a term which properly de otes the rec-
tor of a parish cluu'eh, as rejircsenting the church,
and regarded as sustaining the person thereof in an
action at law. The word, however, is generally used
in ordinary language to denote any minister of the
Cliin'ch of England.
PARSONAGE, the residence of a parson.
PARTHENIA, a surname of Artemis and also of
PARTHENOS (Gr. a virgin), a surname of
Athena at Athens, where the Parthenon was dedi-
cated to her.
PARTICULAR 1!.\PTISTS. See Baptists.
PARTICULAR Rl'.DHMPTION. See Re-
ni-.MPTION.
P.\RTICULARISTS, a name sometimes apiilied
to C.^i.viNiSTS (which see), because they hold the
doctrine of particular redemption, and a limited atone-
ment.
PAKV.\TI, one of the nnmes given in Hindu my-
thology to the coiLsort of Shiva. She was worship-
ped as the universal mother, and the principle of
fertility. She is also considered as the goddess of
the moon. In conserpience of her remarkable vic-
tory over the giant Durgjt, she was honoured as a
heroine with the name of Durga (which .see), and
in this form her annual festival is most extensively
celebrated in Eastern India. l$y the worsliippers of
Shiwi, the personified energy of the divine nature is
termed Pdi-rali, lihaviini, or Diirr/d, and the Tan-
tms assume the form of a dialogue between Shiva
and his bride in one of her many fornis, but mostly
as l^iiin arid Pdrmiti, in which the goddess questions
the god as to the mode of iierforming various cere-
monies, and the prayers and iiu-antations to be used
in them. These the god explains at length, and un-
der .solemn cautions that they involve a great mys-
tery, on no account to be divulged to the p ofane.
P.-VRVISE, the name applied in England to the
small room which is generally situated over tlie porch
of a church, and which is used either as the resi-
dence of a chantry priest, or as a record room or
school.
PASAGII, or Pasagini, a sect which arose in
Lombardy towards the close of the twelfth century,
springing out of a mixtiu'e of Judaism and Chris-
tianity, occasioned, perhaps, by the conquest of Je-
rusalem. This sect held the absolute obligation of
the Old Testament upon Christians in opposition to
the jManicIieans, who maintained only the authority
of the New Testainent. Hence they literally prac-
tised the rites of the Jewish law, with the exception
of sacrifices, which ceased to be ofl'ered at the destruc-
tion of the temple of Jerusalem. They revived
also the Ebionite and Arian doctrines on the subject
of the Person of Christ, maintaining that he was not
eqtial, but subordinate to the Father, and, indeed,
merely the highest of the creatures of God. "The
name of this sect," says Neander, "reminds one of
the word pasagiwn (passage), which signifies a tour,
and was very commonly employed to denote pil-
grimages to the East, to the holy sepulchre, — cru-
sades. May not this word, then, be regarded as an
index, pointing to the origin of the sect as one that
came from the East, intimating that it grew out of
the intercourse with Palestine ? May we not sup-
pose that horn very ancient times a party of Jiidaiz-
ing Christians had survived, of which this sect must
be regarded as an oflshoot ? The way in which they
expressed themselves concerning Christ as being the
firstborn of creation, would point also, more directlv.
at the connection of their doctrine with some older
Jewish theology, than at that later purely ^^■e.st-
ern origin."
PASCH, a term sometimes used to denote the
festival of Easter (which see).
PASCHA. See Par.sovkr.
PASCHAL CONTROVERSY. See Easticr.
PASCHAL SOLEMNITY, the week preceding,
and the week following, Enxtcr.
PASCHAL TAPER, a taper used in the Roman
Catholic Church at the time of Easter. It is lighted
from the hohj fire, and receives its benediction by the
priest's putting five grains of incense in the fonn of
a cross into the taper. This blessed taper must re-
main on the Gospel side of the altar from Easter-
eve to Asecnsion-day.
PASCHAL TERM (Tin;), a name given some-
times to Edstcr-tltnj.
PASE-BUDHAS, the niidhas who arise in the
period in which there is no supreme liiiilhn, and dis-
cover intuitively the wny to Nivwdiia, hut are iina-
l)le to teach it to others. If alms be given to a
J'line-Iliidha, it produces merit greater by one hun-
dred litnes than when gi\en to a rahat. The jiecu-
liarilies of the I'lini-Hiidhii are thus di't.'iilcd by
PASIPHAE— PASSrOX WEEK.
623
Mr. Speiice Hardy, in his ' Eastern Monacliisin :'
" He lias attained the liigh state of privilege that he
enjoys, by his own unaided exertions, as he has had
no teacher, no one to instruct liini ; he is called pra-
ty(5ka, severed or separated, and is solitary, alone,
like the unicorn ; thus his mind is light, pure, free
towards the Pasd-Budliaship ; but dull, heavy, bound,
towards the state of the supreme Budhas ; he has
learnt that wliich belongs to his order, but he under-
stands not the five kinds of knowledge that are per-
ceived by tlie supreme Budlias and by no other be-
ing ; lie knows not the thouglits of others ; he has
not the power to see all things, nor to know all
things ; in these respects his nnnd is heavy. Tbus
a man, whether by day or night, arrives at the
brink of a small stream, into which he descends
without fear, in order that he may pass to the other
side. But at another time he comes to a river
that is deep and broad; tliere are no stepping-stones
by which he can cross ; he cannot see to the oppo-
site bank ; it is like tlie ocean ; in consequence of
these obstacles he is afraid to venture into the water,
he cannot cross tlie stream. In the same way the
Pas^-Budhais free as to that which is connected with
his own order, but bound as to all that is peculiar to
the supreme Budlias."
PASIPH.VE, a goddess worshipped among tlie
ancient Greeks at Tiialamre in Lacoiiia. She was
believed to give supernatural revelations or oracular
responses in dreams to those who slept in her temple.
PASITHE.A, one of the Gi'.Acns (whicli see),
among the ancient Greeks.
PASSALORYXCHITES, a branch of the MoN-
TANISTS (which see), who are said to have observed
a perpetual silence, and hence their enemies repre-
sented them as keeping their finger constantly upon
their mouth, not daring to open it even to say their
prayers, grounding tliis practice, as was alleged, on
Ps. cxli. 3, " Set a watch, O Lord, before my mouth ;
keep the door of my lips." This sect appeared first
in the second century, and Jerome states, that even
in his time he found some of them in Galatia as he
travelled to Ancyra.
PASSING BELL, the bell wliicli in former limes
was tolled when any person was dying, ur passing
out of this lil'e. It is tolled in England at the burial
of any parishioner, the practice being enjoined in
the sixth canon of the Church of England. See
Bulls.
PASSION DAY. See Good Fiudav.
PASSION WEEK, the week preceding Easter,
so called from our Lord's passion or sufierings on
the cross. It was called anciently IIebdojias-
Magn.v (wliicli see), or the Great Week, and many
Christians were accustomed to fast much more strict-
ly on this week than on tlie other weeks of Lent.
Epiphanius says, that in his time the people con-
fined their diet, during that week, to drie<.l meats,
namely, bread, and salt, and water. Nor were these
used during the day, but in the evening. In an-
other place, the same ancient writer says, " Some
continued the whole week, making one prolonged
fast of the whole ; others eat after two days, and
others every evening." Chiysostom mentions, that,
during this week, it was customary to make a miu'e
liberal distribution of alms to the jxior, and the exi'r-
cise of all kinds of charitj' to those who bad need of
it. To ser\ants it was a time of rest and liberty,
and the same privilege extended to the week follow-
ing, as well as to the week preceding Easter. The
emperors, also, granted a general release to prison-
ers at this season, and commanded all suits and jiro-
C€sses at law to cease. The Thursday of the Pas-
sion Week, behig the day on which our Lord was
betrayed, was observed with some peculiar custom-^.
In some of the Latin clunches the communion was
administered on this day in the evening in imitation
of our Lord's last supper, a provision being made
for this in one of the canons of the third council of
Carthage. On this .day tlie competentes, or candi-
dates for baptism, publicly recited the creed in the
presence of the bishop or presbyters in the church.
Such public penitents, also, as had completed the
penance enjoined by the church, were absolved on
this day. From the canons of the fourth coun-
cil of Toledo, it would appear that a general abso-
lution was proclaimed to all those who observed
the day with fasting, prayers, or true contrition. The
Saturday or Sabbath in Passion Week was com-
monly known by the name of the Great Sabbath.
It was the only Sabbath throughout the year that
the Greek churches, and some of the Western,
kept as a fiist. The fast was conlinued not only
until evening, but even protracted till cock-crowing
in the morning, which was supposed to be the time
of our Lord's resurrection. The previous part of
the night was spent in religious exercises of various
kinds. Eusebius tells us that in the time of Con-
sfantine this vigil was kept with great pomp ; for
he set up lofty pillars of wax to burn as torches all
over the city, and lamps burning in all places, .so
that the night seemed to outshine the sun at noon-
day. Gregory Nazianzen, also, speaks of the cus-
tom of setting up lamps and torches boih in the
churches and private houses ; which, he says, tliey
did as a forerunner of that great Light, the Sun of
Righteousness, arising on the world on Easter-day,
This night was famous above all others for the bap-
tism of catechumens.
Passion Week, or Holy Week, as it is often term-
ed, is observed with great pomp in the Romish
Church. The ceremonies of this season commence
on P.\LM Sunday (which see), when the commemor-
ation takes place of our Saviour's triumphal entry in-
to Jerusalem. On Wednesday of Holy Week, in the
afternoon, there is the service of the Tic.Niir.ij^E,
a kind of funeral service which is repeated at the
same hour on the Thursday and Friday. The cere-
monies of the Thursday consist principally of a re-
presentation of the burial of our Saviour. This is
624
PASSOVEn.
followed in Kume by the ceremony of the Pope wash-
ing the feet of thirteen pilgrims in imitation of our
Saviour's washing the feet of his disciples ; this
ceremony being followed up by the same pilgrims
being sers'ed bv his Holiness at dinner. A singular
ceremony takes place on the Thursday at St. Peter's
in Rome — the washing of the high altar with wine.
(See .\j/rAU.) On Good Frit/a;/ die ceremony of
uncovering and adoring the cross is observed, at the
close of which a procession is marshalled to bring
back the liost from the sepidchre in which it was de-
posited on the previous day. Tlie Pope and cardi-
nals, also, adore the three great relics, wliich are glit-
tering casket.s of crystal, set in gold and silver, and
sparkling with precious stones, and which are said
to contain a part of the true cross; one half of the
spear wliich pierced our Saviour's side; and the
Voho Santo or holy countenance.
On the Saturday of Passion Week at Rome, con-
verted Jews and heathens ai'e baptized after holy
water has been consecrated for the purpose. Young
men also are ordained to various sacred offices. The
chief employmeBi of the day, however, consists of
services in honour of the resurrection. The ceremo-
nies of li-ister Sunday have already been described
under the article Easti-.I!. Holy AVeek closes with
an illumination and fireworks of the most splendid
description.
PASSOVER, one oi the great Jewish festiva's.
It was originally instituted by command of God him-
self, in commemoration of the deliverance of the Is-
raelites from Egyptian bondage, and the sparing of
the first-born on the night previous to their departure.
The feast lasted for seven days, during which it was
unlawful to eat any otlier than unleavened bread.
Thus the command was given, Exod. xii. 18, " In (he
first month, on the fourteenth day of the month at
even, ye shall eat unleavened bread, until the one and
twentielh day of the month at even." Hence the
festival is frequently called in Scripture, "the feast
of unleavened bread." A lamb without blemish was
to be killed on the first day of the feast, and this
lamb being an eminent type of Christ, the Apostle
Paul speaks of Christ as " our Passover sacrificed
for us." The month Nisan being that on which the
Israelites left Egypt, was appointed to be the first
month of the sacred or ecclesiastical year ; and on
the fourteenlh day of this month they were com-
manded to kill the paschal lanil), and to abstain from
leavened bread. The following day, being the
fifteenth, was the great feast of the Passover, which
continued seven days, but only the first and seventh
days were particulariy solemn. Each family killed
a lamb or a kid, and if the number of the family was
not sutBcient to cat the lamb, two families might be
associated together. With the blood of the slain
lamb they sprinkled the door-posts and lintel of each
house, that the destroying angel, on seeing the blood,
might pass over them. The lamb was roasted and
eaten on the same night with unleavened broad and
bitter herbs. It was to be eaten entire, and not a hone
of it was to be broken. The Jews, in partaking of
the Paschal Lamb, bad their loins girt, shoes on their
feet, and staves in their hands. So strict was the
command to keep the Passover, that whoever should
dare to neglect it was to be condemned to death. It
could only be kept in Jerusalem, and if any pei-son
arrived at Jerusalem too late for tlie feast, lie was
allowed to defer his celebration of the Passover un-
til the fourteenth day of the following month in the
evening. Sacrifices peculiar to the festival were
commanded to be offered every day as long as it
lasted ; but on the first and ia.st days no servile la-
bour was allowed, and a sacred convocation was lield.
Since the dispersion no sacrifices have been oft'ered
by the Jews, and hence, in this point, the Passover
has undergone an alteration among the modern Jew-s.
With those Jews who live in or near Jerusalem, the
feast lasts seven days, and with Jews in all other
places eight days. The Sabbath preceding the feast
is called the Great Sabbath, when the Rabbi of each
s\'nagogue delivers a lecture explaining the nature of
the approaching feast, and the ceremonies necessary
to be observed. On the thirteenth day of the month
in the evening, the most careful and minute search
is made by the master of each family lest any lea-
vened bread, or even a particle of leaven, should be
in the house. Having burned all the leaven that
can be discovered, they make unlea\'ened cakes, con-
sisting in general of flour and wafer only, baked into
round thin cakes, and fidl of little lioles. On the
fourteenth day of the month the first-born son of
each family is required to fast in commemoration of
the protection afforded to the first-born of Israel
when the first-born of the Egyptians was destroyed.
The special ceremonies of the Passover-festival, as
observed by tlie Modern Jews, are thus described by
Mr. Allen, in his ' Modern Judaism :' " In the even-
ing of the fourteenth day of the month, the men
assemble in the synagogue, to usher in the festival
by prayers and other offices prescribed in their
ritual; during which, the women are occupied at
home in laying and decorating the tables against
their return. It is customary for every Jew to hon-
our this festival by an exhibition of the most sump-
tuous furniture he can art'ord.
"The table is covered with a clean linen cloth,
on which are placed several plates or dishes. On
one is laid the shank bone of a shoidder of lamb or
kid. but generally lamb, and an egg; on another
three cakes, carefully wrapped in two napkins ; on
a tliird, .some lettuce, chervil, parsley, and celery,
wild succory or horseradish. These are their bitter
herbs. Near the salad is jjlaced a cruet of vinegar,
and some salt and water. They liave also a dish
representing the bricks required to be made by their
forefathers in I^gypt. This is a thick paste cimi-
posed of apples, almonds, nuts, and figs, dressed in
wine and .seasoned with cinnamon. Every Jew who
can alfurd wine, also provides some for this occasion.
PASTOPHORI.
G25
" 'I'lie t'ainilv being seated, tlie master at' tlie lioiise
pfoiioiinces a grace over tlie table in general, and
the wine in particular. Tlien leanin:j in a stately
manner on his loft arm, as an indication of the
liberty which the Israelites regained when they de-
parted from Egypt, he drinks a glass of wine : in
which he is followed by all the company. Having
emptied their glasses, they dip some of the herbs in
vinegar, and eat them, while the master repeats an-
other benediction. The master nest unfolds the
napkins, and taking the middle cake, breaks it in two,
replaces one of the pieces between the two whole
cakes, and conceals the other piece under his plate,
or under the cushion on which he leans ; in pro-
fessed allusion to the circumstance recorded by
Moses that ' the people took their dongh before it
was leavened, their kneading troughs being bound
up in their clothes.' He removes the lamb and egg
from tlie table. Then the plate containing the cakes
being lifted up by the hands of the whole company,
they unite in rehe.arsing : ' This is the bread of po-
verty and affliction which our fathers did eat in Egypt.
Whosoever hnngei-s, let him come and eat. Who-
soever needs, let him come and eat of the Paschal
Iamb. This year we .are here : the next, God will-
ing, we shall be in the land of Can.aan. This year
we are serv.ants : the next, if God will, we shall be
free, children of the family and lords.
" The lamb and egg are ag.ain placed on the table,
and another glass of wine is taken. The plate con-
taining the cakes is removed, in order that the chil-
dren may be excited to inqnire into the meaning of
the festival. If no children are present, some adult
proposes a question according to a prescribed form ;
which is answered by an account of the captivity
and slaveiy of the nation in Egypt, their deliverance
by Moses, and the institution of the Passover on that
occasion. This recital is followed by some psalms
and hymns. After which — (not to proceed with a
detail of every particular movement) — the cakes are
replaced on the table, and pieces of them are distri-
buted among the company, who, ' instead of the Pas-
chal lamb,' the oblation of which is wholly disconti-
nued, 'eat this unleavened bread,' with some of the
bitter herbs and part of the pudding made in memory
of the biicks.
" After this succeeds a plentiful supper, which is
followed bv some more pieces of the cakes, and two
more glasses of wine : for they are required on this
occasion to drink four glasses each, and every glass,
according to the r,abbies, commemorates a special
b'essing vouchsafed to their forefathers. The fourth
and last cup is accompanied with some passages bor-
rowed from the Scripture imprecating the divine
vengeance on the Heathens and on all the enemies of
Israel. — The same coui-se of ceremonies is repeated
on the second night. — This ceremonial, the modern
.Tews profess to believe, ' will be as acceptable in the
presence of the Lord as the actual otiering of the
Pas.sover."
ir.
The last day of the festival closes with the Hau-
DAt.A (which see). They are now permitted to re-
turn to the use of leavened bread. Contracts of
marriage may be made, but no marriage is allowed
to be solemnized during this festival. There are
four d,ays in Passover- Week on which business may
be done. Every Jew who has a seat in the syna-
gogue, whatever the amount of his seat-rent luay
be. pays two shillings in the pound .as a tax towards
the Passover cakes, and about- six weeks before the
Passover a box is placed at the entrance of the sv-
nagogue, when every Jew, who is unable to pro-
cure Passover cakes for himself, signifies by a note
the number of his household, .and they are provided
for him out of these funds.
The Passover has been observed without inter-
mission by the Jews from the period of their return
from the Babylonish captivity; and it is probable
that very few changes have been introduced into the
mode of its celebration. The question h.as frequently
given rise to considerable discussion, whether ov not
the last Sup'ier f*' our Lord was the Pascli.al Sup-
per. The Western churches geiier.ally maintain the
affirm<ative view of this subject, and the Greek
Church the negative. The latter body of Chris-
tians, also, contend that, in instituting the Lord's
Supper, Christ made use of leavened bread. At an
early period in the history of Christi.anity. the Eas-
ter controversy chiefly turned upon the chronology
of the Passover. In the second century a controver-
sy arose, first between Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna,
and Anicetiis, bishop of Rome, and afterwards be-
tween Victor, bishop of Roiue. and Rolycrates, bishop
of Ephesus, concerning the proper time for cele-
brating the Easter feast, or rather for ternn'nating
the ,ante-pascli,al fast. At that time the whole of
Christendom, with the exception of proconsidar
Asia and its immedi.ate neighbourhood, prolonged
the fast to the Sunday after the Jewish Passover.
But the Christians of the proconsuljile, guided by
Jewish custom, ended the fast on the very day of
the P.aschal sacrifice. The keen controversy wliich
ensued has already been noticed under the .article
Easteu.
PASTOPHORI, priests who carried the Pus/os
in the sacred rites of heathen antiquity. The priests
of Isis and Osiris among the ancient Egyptians,
who were so denominated, were arr.anged in in-
corporated colleges, which again were divided into
lesser companies, each consisting of ten Pastophori,
headed by an ofUcer who was appointed every five
ye.ars to preside over them. Along with the Egyp-
tian worship, the Pastophori were long after found in
Greece. The duty of this class of priests w.as to
carry in their religious processions the Pastos
(which see), or sacred sh.awl, often employed in cov-
ering and concealing from public view the mhjlioa
or shrine containing the god. It w.as customary
for the Pastophori to chainit sacred music in the
temple, and to draw aside the^MStos that the peo-
3g
G26
PASTOPHORIOiSr— PATRE5.
pie might bclioW and arlore tlieii' deity. Gener-
ally sjieakinj, tliis order of priests had the custody
of the temple anil all its sacred appiirlenances.
The rashiphnri were looked upon by the Egyptians
as eminently skilled in the medical art.
PASTOl'llOKION, a term used by the ancient
Greeks to signify tlie residence witliin an Egyptian
temple appropriated to tlio Pastophori (which see).
The same word occurs in tlie Septiiagint translation
of the Old Testament, where in Ezek. xl. 17. it is
ii.sed for the chambers in the outward court of the
temple. Jerome, in commenting upon the passage,
savs, that in the translations of Aquila and Sym-
macluis it is rendered Giizophykicium and Exedra,
and signified cliambers of the treasury, and habita-
tions for the priests and Jjevites round about that
court of tlie temple. This explanation of tlie word
was probably derived from tlic writings of Josephus,
who meulions the Pastophorium as a part of the
temple at Jerusalem, constituting the treasury, in
which the oH'eriiigs of the people were deposited.
Jerome, in another passage in his Commentary on
Isaiah, terms the Pastophorium the chamber or habi-
tation ill which the ruler of the temple dwelt. It is
plain, therefore, that the word must have been em-
ploved under a very extensive signiiication.
PASTOR (Lat. a shepherd), a word often eniphiy-
ed figuratively lo express a minister appointed to
watch over and to instruct a congregation, which is in
the same way described as his flock. And the nse of
the term pastor in this conneclion is particularly re-
commended by the circiniistaiice, that our Lord
styled himsolfa shepheril in John x. 12, and ihe
church his flock. 'I'he Apostle Peter, also, denomi-
nated our Lord the Chief Shepherd, in 1 Peter v. 4.
The pastor is menlioned in tlie cal.alogiie whicli tlie
Aposllc Paul has given of the extraordinary and or-
dinary office bearers of the Christian Church, Kph. iv.
11, 12, "And he gave some, apostles; and some,
prophets; and some, evangelists: and some, pastors
and teachers; for the perfecting of the saints, for the
work of ihe ministry, for the edifying of the body of
Christ." Ill this list the ordinary office-bearers are
termed pastors and teacliers. Two ideas are sug-
gested by the designalioii of pastors — those namely
of feeding and of governing Ihe cliurch, duties which
may be performed witliont tlie supernatural endow-
ments whic.li were bestowed upon apostles, ])rophets,
and oviingelists. Some have supposed tlial the pas-
tors and teachers were the same persons; but it is
not ;it all probable that the apostle would have used
two words in such close connection to describe the
same office. The Teacher or Doctou (wliicli see),
Beeins not to ha\e been employed like the pastor in
preaching the gospel and in administering the sacia-
meiits, but in instructing the yoimg.as well as candi-
dates for baptism, and all who were not yet fully
iiiiliatcd in the knowledge of divine truth.
I'.VSrOH.M. SI'AKP. See CuosircK.
PASTOK.VTIO, ihe office of a pd^Uir in connec-
tion with the congregation to the charge of whicli he
is ordained.
PASTOS, a shawl frequently used in the religious
ceremonies of the ancient Egyptians as well as the
heathens of Greece and Rome. It was generally
Hgiired witli various symbolical representations cor-
responding to the pai'ticular rites in which it was
used. The word pastoH was also used to denote a
small shrine or chapel, in which a god was contained.
PASTUSHKOE SOGLASIA, a sect of Dissent-
ers from the Russo- Greek Church, founded by a shep-
herd, whose chief peculiarities were, that they held
the marriage tie to be indissoluble by any human
power, and that it is sinful to carry fasting so far as
to injure healtli or destroy life.
PATyECI, Phoenician gods, whose images were
used as ornaments to their ships.
P.\TAL.\, the hell or place of fliud punishment
of the Hindus. See Ht.LL.
PAT.VR.A. See At.ms-Bowl.
PATAUEXEiS, a name used in Italy during the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries as a general aji-
pellation to denote sects contending against the
dominant churcli and clergy. Different oiiiiiioiis
have been entertained in regard to the origin of the
name, some believing that it is derived from a certain
place called Pataria, where the heretics, as they were
considered, held their meetings. The word Pataria,
however, in the dialect of IMilan, sigiiitied a popular
faction, and as the sects in question were generally
held ill high estimation by the people, it may easily
be seen how the name arose. It was applied to the
Miniicheam, the PituHeifins, and the CatharisLi.
PATAREUS, a surname of .\pollo, derived from
the town of Patara in Ijycia, where he had an oracle.
PATELLA, a surname of 0/)9, as opening the
stem of the corn plant that the ears might sprout
out.
PATELL.VRII pil, a name sometimes given
among the ancient Romans to the Lores, because
offerings were made to them in pateUce or dishes.
PATEN, a term used to denote among the Ro-
manists, and also in the Churcli of England, the
plate on which the sacramental bread is jilaced.
P.\TEUNTA\S, a heretical sect which aro.se
about the beginning of the fifth century, maintaining
that only the upper parts of the human body were
made by God, and the lower parts were the work-
manship of the devil. Their name was derived from
their founder Paterniis, and as they lived in impu-
rity, (hey were also called Vemistimis, from Vemis,
the heathen goddess, who patronised unchastity.
PATEKNOS'l'l'iRiLat. Our Eather), a term some-
times used to denote the Eokd's Phayicr (which
see), derived from its commencing words. The chap-
let of beads worn by some Romanists, [larticiilarly
monks and nuns, is occasionally called a I'lilernosliT.
P.\ TlIS (Till-, Four). See Nii!WAN.\.
I'ATKES (l-at. Eaihers), a name Creiiueiitly ap-
plied lo the I'niMATi'.s (which see), of the Clirisiiaii
PATRES PATRUM— PATRrARCH (Jewish).
627
Cliurcli ill Africa ; ami tliere was a peciiliai* reason
forgiving tlieni this name; as tiie primacy in the
African cliurclies was not fixed, as in otliei" places,
to the civil meti-opolis, but went along with the old-
est bishop of the province, who succeeded to this
dignity by virtue of his seniority, whatever place he
lived in. The only exception to this rule was the
Cliiirch at Carthage, where the bisliop w,as a tixed
and .standing metropolitan for the province of Africa,
properly so called. The term Patre< was also ap-
plied to the fathers of the monasteries, as Jerome
and .\ngiistine commonly call them.
P.VFRES PATRUM (Lat. Fathers of Fathers,)
a designation sometimes given to bishops in the an-
cient Christian Church. Gregory Nyssen was called
by this name in the canons of the second council of
Nice ; and others say that Theodosins the emperor
gave Chrysostom the same honourable title after
death.
PATRES SACRORUAr. priests of A[itiiras
(which see), among the ancient Romans under the
emperors.
PATRFARCH (Jewish), the father or founder
of a family or tribe. It is a|iplied chiefly to those
fatliers of the Hebrew nation who lived l)efore Moses,
such as Abraham, Isaac, ,and .Jacob, while the twelve
children of the last-mentioned ancestor of the Jews
usually receive the name of the twelve Patriarch.s.
The term, however, came to be used among the
.lews in the later ages of their history as a title of
dignity and honour. They allege that the institu-
tion of the patriarchs existed before the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem, and they explain its origin thus.
Thirty years before the Christian era, Hillel arriv-
ed from Babylon, and was consulted concerning a
difficulty whicli had arisen in regard to the celebra-
tion of the Passover, and giving a highly satisfactory
answer, he was hailed tlie Patriarcli of the nation.
His posterity succeeded him in this dignity until the
fifth century, when the office of Patriarch ceased in
Jiidca. But this notion of the Jews as to the pa-
triarchal dignity having l)een enjoyed by any one be-
fore the time of our Lord, is in the highest degree im-
probable, since had tliere been individuals exercising
such an office during the days of our Saviour, they
would have presided in the ecclesiastical court.s, and
our Lord would have been arraigned at their tribunal.
On the contrary, the chief priest presided at the trial
of Christ, imposed silence upon the apostles, commis-
sioned Saul to go to Damascus th.at he might perse-
cute the Christians, presided at the trial of Paul, and
commanded him to be smitten on the face. From
these facts it is quite plain, that no Patriarch could
possiblv have existed at that time, and, therefore,
the origin of the office must have been of a later
date, not probably before the reign of the Roman
Emperor Adrian.
The tirst authentic P.'itriarch of the Jews was
Simeon the Third, who lived in the time of Adrian,
and was descended in a direct line from Hillel the
Old. Ill that family the patriarchal dignity remained
until it was abolished in A. D. 429. The office had
been created for the benefit of the Western Jews,
and the seat of the dignitary who held the office was
at Tiberias in Galilee, which had become a kind of
second Jerusalem, the residence of the most learned
.Tews of the time. From the imperial edicts it would
appear, that there were inferior officers under the
grand Patriarch, who was styled Illustrious, and was
honoured even by Christians. He employed envovs
or legates to make an annual circuit through all the
Western provinces, wiili full powers to decide in his
name, and by his authority, the questions or dis-
putes that arose between private individuals, or
Iwtween diii'erent synagogues. The half shekel
appointed by Moses to be levied from every male
Jew of twenty years old and upward, was carefully
collected during the whole of the Jewi-sli dispensa-
tion, and constituted the greatest source of revenue
to the Patriarchs. The grand Patriarch exacted
this tribute-money from all the synagogues of the
West. Epiphanius says, that the apostles of the
Patriarch went as far as the province of Cilicia to
levy this sacred contribution. Its collection was
sometimes conducted with such severity, that the
Patriarchs became odious to the people. This hap-
pened particularly in the reign of Julian the Apos-
tate, when, in consequence of a petition from the
Jews themselves, he abolished the tribute.
The Patriarch, from his office, had great authority
among the Jews. " He nominated," we are told, in
an interesting history of the Modern .Jews, " the
heads of all the synagogues ; and this nomination
proved a source of wealth. For the Patriarch often
sold these offices, and Palladiiis charged the Pa-
triarch of his time, not only with exposing to sale
these dignities, but frequently deposing the heads of
the synagogues for no other reason but to enrich
himself by supplying their places. Thus the Greek
Patriarchs at Constantinople deposed the metropoli
tans ami bishops, to have the adviintage of selling
the priesthood ; and the grand vizier acts the same
part towards the Patriarchs. Though this power
was sometimes restricted by the emperor, yet the
Patriarcli had .also the power of erecting new .syna-
gogues. He likewise decided controversies which
.arose concerning questions of the law, .and .all dis-
putes between particular .synagogues. Origeii is
mist.aken in .asserting that the Patriarch had the
power of life and death invested in his hands. The
imperial laws establish the contrsiry ; nor can one
example be produced in the history of the Patriarchs
of their exercising any such power. — It is granted,
tliiit their punishments were sometimes severe, .and
that by their commands persons had been almost
whipped to death in their synagogues. But this ori-
ginated from the indulgence of the emperors, .and
even they were often constrained to limit their
power. The power of lite and death indicates royalty,
of which the Jews were now dejuived.
628
PATRIARCH (Christian).
" There is an edict of the Emperor Theodosius
wliich ascertains the extent of tlie patriarclial juris-
diction. He forbids Gamalieh who was then P;i-
triarcli, 'to build new .'iynni^ogiicp, and conimanded
Aurelian to demolisli those tliat were little frequent-
ed, if it could be done without occasioning commo-
tions in the cities.' There was a general law in the
empire, that none should erect new churches without
au iinperial grant. — One of the Christians applied to
the emperor for liberty to erect Christian chm-ches
in .several places in the land of Judea. Justinian
cauiloned the bishops to be careful that no person
occupied an}- public place without liberty from him.
In the reign of Leo, also, some monks who had
consecrated places of public shows and recreations
were prohibited. And it appears that the Patri-
arch Gamaliel having abused tliat power it was re-
called.
" By the same edict he is prohibited from judging
in disputes between Jews and Christians. Such
disputes were to be tried before the civil magistrate,
and the Patriarch had only the power to decide be-
tween Jew and Jew. On the contrary, Gamaliel
insisted that if one of the parties was a Jew, the
right of decision belonged to him ; but the emperor
restricted Ids power.
" That edict also prohibits ' the Patriarch from
dishonouring any man, whether a slave or a free-
man, with the mark of Judaism.' That mark was
circunicision, whieli Ibe Patriarchs supposed that he
could confer upon all who embraced the Jewish re-
ligion. But tlic emperor Antonius issued a law, by
whicit it was declared a capital crime for a Jew to
circumcise any man who was not of his nation ; and
Theodosius went farther, and prohibited the Jews
from keeping Christian slaves, because many of
these under the influence of their masters embraced
the Jewish faith. It appears, therefore, that the
Jews enjoyed liberty of conscience, but were not
permitted to make ]iro.selyles.
"The most important and the most obscure part
of the edict of Theodosius remains yet to be exa-
mined. He farther commanded Aurelian ' to with-
draw out of the hands of the Patriarch G.anialiel, the
letters of command he bad received, and to leave him
oidy the honour he had before, since lie thought he
might transgress with impunity, whilst he saw him-
.self raised to a gi-eater dignity. The reason assigned
for the restriction, was the abuse of power. Tiiat
power, or those letters of connnand, ajijiear to have
been the honour of prefecture, which were granted
to tliose distinguished by birth or merit, or imperial
favour. The person who was distinguished by that
favour, wore the insignia of his honours in ]ud)llc.
Though this honour conferred no judicial power, yet
the person who enjoyed it might sit among the
judges, as a mark of distluguished honour. This
favour ai)pears to have been conferred upon Gamii-
liel ; but on account of his haiightliu'ss and impru-
dence it was recalled. Thus an examination of the
dIrTerent branches of that Imperial law aseerialns the
authority of the Patriarclis.
" But to behold the utmost limits of the Patriarchal
authority, let us attend to tlieir power, with resjiect
to deposition. As they were the heads of the na-
tion, they appear to have been amenable to no other
tribunal. The Jewi.sh writers, however, contend,
that no society can be deprived of the inherent right
of deposing a head, who is eitlier negligent, or ty-
rannical, or ignorant. In proof of their jiosition,
they mention that one Meir attempted to depose the
Patriarch of his time: that Gamaliel was, durhig a
short time, actually deposed ; and that several to
whom it belonged by birth were superseded on ac-
count of their incapacity."
_^The last Patriarch of the West was Gamaliel, who
is mentioned by Jerome. So corrupt had this race
of officers become, that they exposed to sale the
dignities of which they had the patronage, in order
to enlarge their revenues. Accordingly, in A. D.
41.5, a law was passed by the Emperor Theodosius
to restrict tlieir power, and this measure having
failed to accomplish its design, the patriarchal dig-
nity was entirely aboli.shed, in so far as the Western
Jews were coucenied, in A. D. 429, after having ex-
isted for the space of 350 years. The Pah-iarehs
were succeeded by the Primates (which see), a
class of officers who.se jurisdiction and authority was
of quite a diflercnt ch.araoter.
The Patriarch of the Eastern Jews had his resi-
dence in Babylon. Ills proper title was Resh-
Gi.OTiiA, or AiciiMALOTARCii (which See), prince
or chief of the caiifivity, the oflice being rather civil
than sacred. The dignity originated while the Par-
thians reigned in Persia, but it continued under the
new dynasty of the Sassauides, and only came to
au end under the caliphs towards the middle of the
eleventh century. A shadow of the oflice seems to
have remained in the E.ast in the twelfth century ;
and in Spain, among man)' other hereditary remiius-
cences of the Babylonian Jews, we find in the mid-
dle ages the Prince of the Captivity under the title
of Rahhino-Mayor.
PATRIARCH (Christian). It would appear
from the writings of Gregory Nazianzen, as well as of
Gregory Nyssen, that the word Patriarch was some-
times applied to all bishops of the ancient Christian
Church. Among the Montanists there was a class
of men wdio received the name of Patriarch,s, ami
who were superior to tlnnr bishops, being regarded
as a distinct order from them. The first occasion,
however, on which the title is applied to any bishop
by any public authority of the church, is in the
council of Chalcedon, which mentions the most holy
Patriarchs of every diocese, and particularly Leo,
patriarch of Rome. Socrates, the ccclesiasticjll his-
torian, who wrote a few years before the council of
Chalcedon, mentions Patriarchs, and refers to them
in language which would seem to indicate that the
name had begun to be used as an appropriate title of
IV ^i)
' "^ ' ^f/i^^/i^nt^lcfy. VS'. ^L^/i^l^J
PATRIARCH (Christian.)
629
some eminent bishops of tlie cliurcli. Various Ro-
mish writers, however, headed by Baroiiias, trace
the patriarchal power as far back as tlie time of tlie
apostles, deriving it from the Apostle Peter; others,
ai^ain, reject this idea, and reckon the first rise of
I'atriarclis to liave been some time before the coun-
cil of Nice, A. D. 32.0; wliile some modern Greek
writers allege, that Patriarchs were tirst instituted
by that council; and some writers of our own coun-
try are of opinion, that patriarclial power was not
known in tlie cluirch till about the time of the sec-
ond general council of Constantinople, A. D. 381.
Socrates, in .speaking of this council, expressly af-
firms, that "they constituted Patriarchs, and distri-
buted the provinces, so that no bishop should med-
dle with the artkirs of another diocese, as was used to
be done in times of persecution." The power of tlie
Patriarchs gradually increased, and had evidently
reached its heiglit in the time of the general councils
of Ephesus and Chalcedon. From the middle of the
fiftli ceuiury, the title of Patriarch was given to some
of the greater bishops, who exercised authority not
only over the bishops of a province, but over the
bishops of several provinces together with their me-
tropolitans. These Patriarchs were the bishops of
Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, and Antiocli.
The increase of their power arose from tlie circum-
stance, that at the council of Chalcedon in A. D.
451, the metropolitan of Constantinople was invested
with authority over the provinces of Thrace, Pontns,
and Asia Minor, and the bishop of Jerusalem was
acknowledged as the fifth Patriarch. The Pa-
triarchs were now empowered to consecrate all the
metropolitans within their patriarchate, and in addi-
tion to this, the Patriarch of Constantinople claimed
the right of consecrating not only metropolitans but
bishops. Another privilege conceded to the Pa-
triarchs by the council of Chalcedon, was the right
of convening general councils ; and to them lay an
appeal from the decisions of nietropolitjins in mat-
ters of greater importance.
The patriarchaies were very diflerent from one an-
other in size. Alexandria was the largest in point of
territorial extent, but Constantinople had the pre-emi-
nence in the number of its churches and ecclesiastical
provinces, and its Patriarch, in process of time, came
to be Patriarch over the Patriarchs of Eplicsiis,
Heraclea, and C;esarea, and was called the cccunicni-
cal and universal Patriarcli. Tlie patriarchal system
extended only to the limits of the Roman Empire east-
ward and westward, not to the churches which exist-
ed in Persia, Arabia, and part of Armenia. The four
great patriarchates, however, were gradually made
to include every part of the church. But the two
Eastern patriarchates of Alexandria and Antioch
were stripped of their power in the course of the
Jlonophysite controversy, and the Patriarchs of
Rome and Constantinople stood alone as the repre-
sentatives of the Eastern and Western divisions of
the cmijire, and viewed each other with a jealous
eye. Tlie Patriarch of Constantinople was much
indebted for his power and influence to the favour of
the Greek emperors, and at length John the Faster,
towards tlie end of the sixth century, assumed the
title of Universal Bishop. Gregory the Great, the
Roman bishop, was indignant at this presumption on
tlie part of his rival, and denounced it as unchris-
tian, but his own immediate successor soon after
prevailed upon the Greek emperor, Pliocas, to con-
fer u[ioii him the same title, on the ground that the
Roman Church was entitled to the first rank, bo(h
from political and personal considerations.
The original Patriarclis were those of Rome, An-
tioch, and Alexandria. Towards the close of the
i'oiirth century tlie bishops of Constantinople, having
also become Patriarclis, extended their authority over
several dioceses not subject to the other Patriarchs.
In the following century the bishops of Jerusalem
became independent of the Patriarchs of Aiitioch,
and thus there were five patriarchates formed, which
continued from the filth century onward to the Re-
furmation. In the course of the se\enth century
the Persian army under Chosroes made great devas-
tation in several of the patriarchates, and subse-
quently the Saracens made themselves masters first
of Antioch, then of Jerusalem, and finally of Alex-
andria. The Turks next appeared on the field, .and
though the progress of their invading armies was
checked for a time by the Crusaders, they succeeded
in maintaining possession of S^ria, Egypt, and Pa-
lestine. At length, in A. D. 1453, Constantinople
fell into the hands of the Turks, and from that pe-
riod it has continued to be the residence of the sid-
taus. The Turks siyjialized their conquest of New
Rome, as Constantinople has been often termed, by
converting the church of St. Sophia into a mosque.
One half of the Oriental churches remained in pos-
session of the Christians until the beginning of the
sixteenth century, when the Sultan Sclim appropri-
ated as many of them as he thought needful to the
use of the Mohaniniedaiis.
At present there are four Patriarchs connected with
the Greek Cluirch, these of Constantinople, Jerusa-
lem, Antioch, and Alexandria. The three last are
equal in rank and authority, but they acknowledge the
superiority of the other, and submit so far to his au-
thority as to require his consent before any important
ste|i in ecclesiastical atl'airs can be undertiikon. The
Patriarch of Constantinople is elected by the metro-
politan and neighbouring bishops, and presented to
the sultan, without whose consent he cannot be ad-
mitted to his office. Besides, he is obliged to pay
tribute to the Mohammedan government for leave to
enter on his office, and he is liable to deposition
whenever such is the will of the sult.m. So com-
pletely has this Patriarch been dependent on the ca-
price of the Ottoman Porte, that, as history informs
us, between the years 1620 and 1671, the patriarchal
throne was vacant no fewer than nineteen times.
As an illustration of the cruelly with which tha
630
PATRIARCH (CiiuiSTiAN).
Greek Patriarclis have been often treated by the
Turkish govenimeiit, we may quote from an inter-
esting sketch of tlie Greek and Eastern clnn-ches,
tlie following account of the eventful life and tragi-
cal death of Gregory, one of the latest of the Con-
stantinopolitan patriarchs. " He was born in 1739,
and educated in a town of Arcadia. Having com-
pleted his studies at Mount Atlios, and filled for a
while the archlji-shopric of Smyrna, he obtained the
patriarchate of Constantinople in 1705. Three years
after this, when tlie French were occupying Egypt,
the Turks accused him of being in correspondence
with the enemy, and vehemently clamoured for his
destruction. The sultan fully believed him inno-
cent, but to seciu'e his safety sent him into tempo-
rary banishment to his old resort on the Holy Moun-
tain. His exile was but short; he was soon restored
to oftice, where he gained much repute for his learn-
ing, piety, charity, and humility. He gave alms to
the poor without any invidious distinction as to their
religious creed, promoted schools of mutual instruc-
tion, and befriended the cause of the British and
Foreign Bible Society. In 1806, the appearance of
an English fleet before Constantinople, and the ap-
proach of the Russian forces, revived the accusations
against the Patriarch, who, though he had sedu-
lously incidcated on his compatriots and co-religion-
ists the duty of submission and patience, and had
earnestly besought them to abstain from all hostil-
itv, was a second time banished to Monte Santo, as
a suspected traitor to the civil government. A third
time he ascended the ecumenical ihrone. But in
1821, the insurrection which broke out in the Morea
involved him in renewed periL Sym))athizing with
his people in their oppressed state, yet disa|ii>roviiig
of their rebellion, his ta>k was a hard one. and it is
probable that a hope of preventing the mass.acre of
all the Greeks in Constantinople was the induce-
ment which made him consent to exconnnunicate the
Russian general Ypsilanti and all the insurgents.
When the excited Mussulmans had broken into the
house belonging to the Russian counsellor of lega-
tion, and had beheaded Prince Constantine Morousi,
the family of the latter were confided by the grand
vizier to the care of Gregory. By some means, not
positively known to us, and certainly unknown to
the aged Patriarch, they all escaped on board a Rus-
si:in vessel. He was charged, however, with ha\ing
coimived at, if not contrived, their flight, and the
vizier resolved on his death. On the twenty-second
of .\pril, the first day of the Easter festivities, usually
a high season among the inendjcrs of the Oriental
communion, their chief place of worship was thinly
attended, the people fearing to \emin'e out of doors
in such a time of commotion. The Patriarch, how-
ever, assisted by his bishops, went through the ser-
vice with the usual ceremonies, but on lea\ing the
church, thev were all surrounded and seized by the
J.missaries. 'I'lic latter shraiik back indeed with
some niingivings as thev looked on tlie old man's
venerable aspect; but their leader reminded them
of the grand vizier's instructions, and their hesita-
tion was at an end. Gregory, three of his bishops,
and eight priests, without imprisonment — wilhcnit a
trial — were hung in their canonical robes bel'ore the
church and palace gates. At the expirtition of two
d,ays. their bodies were cut down, and delivered to a
Jewish rabble, who, after having treated them with
every species of indignity, dragged them through the
streets and cast them into the sea. That of the Pa-
triarch having been preserved from sinking, was
purch.ased from the Jews by some Greek sailors, who
conveyed it by night to Odessa, where the Russian
archimandrite Theophilus gave it a very magnificent
fimeral. The fm-y of the Tin-ks was not yet ap.-
peased ; several hundred Greek churches were de-
stroyed, and on the third of May, .another Patriarch,
Cyrillus, who had retired into solitude, Prccsos an
archbishop, and several others, were similarly put to
death at Adrianople. Instead of exciting fear, these
barbarous acts only inflamed the enthusiasm of the
rebels ; the war was carried on with increased vigoiu-,
and Greece finally became independent."
The Patriarch of Antioch has two rivals who as-
sume the same style and dignity ; the one as the
liead of the Syrian Jacobite Church, and the other
as the Maronite Patriarch, or head of the Syrian
Catholics. The Patriarch of Alexandria, who resides
generally at Cairo, has also his Coptic rival, and the
t'ew who are subject to his spiritual authority reside
chiefly in the villages and the capital of Lower
Egypt. The Patriarchs of Antioch and Jerusalem
reside chiefly at Constantinople, and possess a very
limited and somewhat precarious income. The Pa-
triarch of Constantinople has a pernument synod of
bishops and notables, who act as his cotmcil and
judicial court, in connection with which he is the
arbitrator and judge of his people. There are three
patriarchates among the Armenians, and the Patriarch
receives the name of C.\tiioli('0.« (which see). The
highest of all the Armenian Patriarchs has his seat
at Etchmiadzin. and has nndcr his jurisdiction the
whole of Turcomania or Armenia Major. This dig-
nitary has since 1828 been appointed by the czar ot
Russia, .and has nnder him a synod ami an imperial
procurator. The next in rank of the Armenian Pa-
triarchs resides at Sis, a city in Cilicia. and has a
limited province in Syria ami the south of Anatolia.
The third Patriarch of the Arnieiuan Clnirch is that
of Aghlamar, an island in Lake Van, and holds his
sway over Kiu-distan. There arc also some minor
Patriarchs ; one at Constantino]ilc, who presides over
Tin'kish Armenia; another at .Icrusalcm for the Ar-
menians of Palestine ; and another at Kamenietz for
those ill Russia and Poland.
The murder of the Patriarch Gregory broke asun-
der the last link which connected the oppressed
Greeks with the Turkish government. In conse
queiice of the rapid spread of libcr<al principles, the
civil ami judicial authority of the episcopal courts
PATRIARCH (Christian).
631
was speedily overthrown. Tlie Greeks felt that it
was hicoiisisteut witli sound principle that their
church sliould continue dependent upon a Patriarcli
appointed by the sultan, and, accordingly, an assem-
bly of bishops met at Syra in August 1833, and was
directed by the Greek government to declare, that the
Ortliodox Church of Greece acknowledged no head
but Jesus Ciirist, tliat tlie administration of the
church belonged to the king, and was to be carried
on under the directions of the saered canons by a
synod of bishops permanently appointed, but an-
nually renewed by him. This separation of the
Greek Ciun-ch from tlie Patriarch of Constantinople
gave great offence to a large portion of the people,
and ill 18.39 a consijiracy was formed to destroy all
fOTeign iiitluence, and to place the church under the
jiirisdictioii of the Patriarch Gregory VI. This pre-
late acted with singular imprudence, and in 1840 he
was deposed. The Greek Constitution of 1844 re-
cognized the Orthodox Eastern Church as estab-
lished by law, required the successor to the tlirone
to be a member of that church, and while it gave free
toleration to other furins of worship, it prohibited all
proselytizing. The ecclesiastical statute of 1845
rendered the synod much less dependent upon the
government. It was recognized by tlie Patriarch of
Constantinople, through the mediation of Russia, in
1850, on condition that tlie holy oil should always be
obtained from the mother church, but it was itself to
be cliosen by the clergy, and the bishop of Attica
w,^s to be its perpetual president.
The history of the Riisso- Greek Church sets be-
fore us a series of ten Patriarchs, who successively
presided over and regulated its ecclesiastical arrange-
ments. For six centuries that church was governed
by metropolitans dependent on the church of Con-
stantinople ; some of them being Greeks sent direct
from the Patriarch, while others were Russians who
Iiad been elected by a synod of their own bishops,
but afterwards received the patriarchal sanction.
In course of time the Russian Church became inde-
pendent of the Patriarch of Constantinople. The
Czar Tlieodore, having quarrelled wiih the Porte,
formed the idea of establishing a patriarchal throne
in Russia. At length an opportunity ottered of ac-
complishing this design. In June 1588, Jeremiah II.,
Patriarch of Constantinople, having been deposed by
the Sultan Amurath, took refuge in Uii.ssia, and the
Czar having stated his wishes on the subject of a Pa-
triarcli, they were readily complied with, and Job.
the metropolitan of iMoscow, was forthwith conse-
crated to the office with great pomp. This step was
warmly approved by the other Patriarchs, who or-
dained that the Russian should rank among the other
patriarchates as the fifth and last. The inferior
rank thus assigned to the new dignitary gave great
offence to the Czar, who insisted that the Patriarch
of Moscow should lake precedence both of Jerusa-
lem and Antioch, yielding only to Constautinople as
the uecumenical Patriarch, and to Alexandria as the
oecumenical judge. The Patriarch of Alexandria
has, since the eleventh century, borne the title of
oecumenical judge, and in token of the dignity there-
by conferred, he has always worn two omophoria over
his robes, and a twofold crown on his mitre.
The Russian Patriarchs, who were only ten in
nundier, were obliged, until the middle of the seseu-
teenth century, to obtain confirmation at Conslan ■
tinojile. In token of the high estimation in which
the oflice was held, it was cu.^^tomary for the Czar on
Palm Sunday to lead by the bridle an ass, on which
the Patriarch rode through the streets of Moscow in
commemoration of the Saviour's entry into Jerusa-
lem. The most famous of tlie Muscovite Patriarchs
were Philaret and Nikon. The former, wdio was
father of Michael, the founder of the present Roman-
off dynasty, is particularly noted for having cor-
rected such errors as had gradually crept into the
Russian Trebnik, or ofiice-book ; while the latter,
who was the third Patriarch in succession from
Philaret, is noted for having corrected such errors as
still remained in the Slavonic version of Scripture,
and in the service-books, for which he collated about
a thouEand old Greek manuscripts. His labours,
however, instead of being appreciated, were visited
with persecution, and yet it is remarkable, that the
corrections which he proposed in the Trebnik were
readily adopted by command of tlie Emperor Alexis.
The last of the Russian Patriarchs was Adrian,
who died in 1700. For some time the Patriarchs
had assumed a power and wielded an influence which
was incompatible with the independent exercise of
civil authority on the part of the government. Peter
the Great, amid the other reforms which he intro-
duced, resolved to embrace the first o])portunity which
should present itself of putting an end to the Pa-
triarchal office. When the Russian bishops, accord-
ingly, were assembled to electa successor to Adrian,
Peter unexpectedly entered the place of meeting,
and with the concise but firm remark, " I am your
Patriarch," arrested their proceedings, appointing in
the meantime, on his own responsibility, a tempo-
rary guardian of the patriarchate, until his plans for
an improvement in the government of the church
should be fully matured. Having revolved the sub-
ject in all its bearings, he came to the conclusion,
that the continuance of the Patriarchal power, as
exercised by a single individual, was dangerous to the
public interests, and, accordingly, having sought and
obtained the consent of the synod of Constantinople,
and the Patriarchs of the Eastern Churcli, he pub-
lished a royal edict in 1721, to theefiect, that hence-
forth the ecclesiastical affairs of the Russo-Greek
Church should be managed by a permanent court,
consisting of a certain number of bishops, several
presbyters, and an imperial procurator. The pres-
byters sit in this assembly, which is termed the
Holy Synod, and vote along with the bishops, wdiile
the procurator, who neither presides, nor is even a
member of the court, is empowered merely to be
632
PATRICIANS— PATRONAG E.
present at its sittings, and to !,'ive or refuse tlie sanc-
tion of tlie civil power to its decisions. The Holy
Synod is recognized as tlie supreme court of tlie
clmrcli, and in all matters purely spiritual tlie Czar
uiakes no pretence to interfere. See Russo-GuKEK
Church — Syxod (Holy).
PATRICI.\NS, tlie followers of one Patricius. a
lieretic wlio is meniioned by Augustine as liaving
belonged to tlie fifth century. Tlie tenets of this
sect were, that the substance of man's body was m.ade
bv the devil and not by God ; and, tlierefore, that it
is lawful for a Christian to kill himself in order to
be di>eii;;.aged from the body.
P.A.TRII DII (Lat. pater, a father, and Dii gods),
a name applied in heathen antiquity to the gods
from whom tribes were believed to be sprung, or to
gods worshipped by their ancestors. Sometimes the
mime was given to the spirits of their deceased an-
cestors. Among the ancient Romans the term was
sometimes used to denote llie Furies or Eu.MF.NinES
(wliich see).
PATRIMt and :\I ATRl MI, a name applied among
the ancient Romans to cliildren whose parents li.ad
been married according to the religious ceremony
called C0N'F.\RP.E.\TI0 (which see). These were gen-
erally considered as more suitable for the service
of the gods tli.an the children of other marriages.
PATRIOTS IN CHRIST, certain Wm-temberg
Separatists mentioned by tlie Abbd Gregoire, who
appeared in 1801, during the rising poimlarity of
Buoii.aparte, and maintained that he was tlie second
and true Me.ssiah who was to destroy the spiritual
Babylon, and give freedom to the nations. They
formed themselves into an order of knighthood,
called the Knights of Napoleon, but as the ambitious
personage on whom their expectations rested made
no pretensions to the dignity wliich they had marked
out for him, they met with no encouragement, and
speedilv fell into oblivion.
P.VTRIPASSIANS (Lnt. Pater, Father, .and Pas-
sin, sutTering), a class of MoNARClirAN'.s (which see),
originated by Praxeas in the second century, who
held that the Fatlier was in all respects identical witli
the Son in the blessed Trinity, and therefore may be
said to have sull'ered on the cross as well as the Son.
PATROXAGH. In the times of ancient [lagaii-
ism, whoever erected to any god either a larger or
a smaller temple, had the right of designating the
prie»ls and attendants on the altar, who should offi-
ciate there. And after Christianity had been estab-
lished by Constaiitine as the recogniEed religion of
the Roman Empire, a similar cn.stom came to be in-
troduced into the Christian Church, so that whoever
erected a Christian place of worship came to possess
the right of nominating the minister who conducted
divine service in it. At fir.st certain privileges
not amounting to patronage had been granted to
persons who built or endowed churches, such as the
insertion of their names in the public prayers of the
churcli, or the emblazoning of their names in some
iWd
part of the building, and afterwards they were allow-
ed some inrtuence or share in the nomination of tlie
officiating clergy. At length, in the course of the
seventh century, the right of presentation to bene-
fices was fonnally conceded, both in the Eastern and
Western Church, to all patrons, whether ecclesiasti-
cal or lay. " In many cases, however," to quote
from iSIr. Riddle, " churches were built and endowed
by laymen, witli the reservation of certain rights to
themselves as patrons; a reservation sometimes per-
haps only of a certain portion of the proceeds of tiie
estate conveyed to the church, but sometimes also of
a certain portion, extending in some instances to one
half, of the voluntary offerings or fees. That is to
say, churches were built, as in modern times, on sne
culation, with a view to a pecuniary return. A'
although the impropriet)' of this speculation was
severely felt, and the bishops perceived that it was
at variance with their interests, it is doubtful whe-
ther they succeeded in entirely removing the evil
during this jieriod. The synod of Hraga, A. D. 572,
prohibited bishops from consecrating cliurclies erect-
ed under these conditions.
" In the time of Cli.arlemagne advowsons wore
sold, and were even divided into portions among
heirs. Presentations also were often sold ; but this
practice was coniimially denounced as an abuse.
" Patrons and their heirs were formally invested
with the right of exercising a kind of oversight of
the churches wliich they had founded, and especiallv
with power to see that the funds were approprial^-d
to their proper purposes according to the intentions
of the donor. This right even included power to
proceed legally against the bishop of the diocese if
he should attempt any act of spoliation or misappro-
priatinn.
'■The patron could indeed only nominate to a be-
nefice, and present his nominee to the bishop, with
whom it still rested to ordain the candidate, and ad-
mit him to the benefice, with power to reject him on
the ground of unfitness or nnworthiness. Still this
was a considerable limit.ation of the power of the
bisliop.s, compared with that which they had for-
merly possessed; not to mention the fact tliat llie
law appears to liave been often evaded or iiiliinged,
so tliat patrons presented and instituted wiihoui the
bishop's consent."
It was not until the middle of the twell'tli century
that popes began to interfere with the patronage of
ecclesiastical benefices. Adrian IV., in A. n. 1154,
sent a papal brief to 'Theoliald, bishop of Paris, in
favour of the chancellor of Louis VII., asking his
appointment to a canonry — a request which was
readily complied with. Under the successors of
Adrian such applications were greatly multiplied, so
as in a short time to equal in nuinber the bcnetices
in the gift of ecclesiastical patrons. 'The preccx, as
these re(piests were called, were soon changed into
mnmiutn, and when not complied with, certain exe-
cutors were appointeil to put the nominees in |>os-
PATRONAGE IN SCOTLAND.
C33
session of tlie beiielices. So rapidly liad ii'iatters
readied tliis point, that Alexander 111., tlie second
successor of Adrian IV., proceeded in the liigli-
lianded way we have now indicated to enforce the
right which lie claimed over ecclesiastical benefices
as they became vacant.
Succeeding popes adopted a similar line of proce-
dnre. Before the expiration of thirty years all
the beiietices in Germany, France, and England,
the right of collation to whicli had been vested in
bishops, and chapters, were lilled with papal nomi-
nees. Still, however, the form of collation was left
with the ancient patrons. But with the thirleenlh
century even this form passed away. Innocent III.,
as Mr. Riddle informs iis, "began not only to nomi-
nate, btit to issue bulls of collation, merelv giving
notice to bisliops and chapters that collation had
been made ; and, in 1210, he declared that the Pope
had absolute right to dispose of all benefices in fa-
vour of persons who had rendered good service to
the Roman see. From this time the popes ignored
or set aside, at their pleasure, the rights of all pa-
trons, lay as well as ecclesiastical ; and from this
time also they assumed the right of their legates
to confer benefices, and claimed the power to dis-
pose of bishoprics and abbeys as well as of smaller
benefices."
In accordance with tlie right which the popes thus
claimed, the glaring abuses of their patronage, which
came to be notorious among the people, hastened on
tlie Reformation of the sixteenth century. Dr. Ro-
bertson, in his 'History of Charles the Fifth,' asserts
that companies of merchants openly bought the bene-
fices of different districts from the Pope's agents,
and retailed them at advanced prices. Such simon-
iacal practices were regarded as in the highest de-
gree discreditable, and the warmest friends of the
church lamented that her revenues should be in-
creased by this unholy traflic. The way was thus
opened up for Luther, who found a ready entrance
for his doctrines among a people fully prepared for
throwing oft' the yoke of Rome.
The right of patronage is termed in England the
right of Abvow.sON (which see), whicli was origi-
nally founded in the building or endowing of church-
es. The right thus obtained became attached to
the manor, and the tithes of the manor were also
annexed to the church. An advowson then may
be sold like any other property ; hence many ad-
vowsons have become separated from the land to
which they originally belonged. The greater part
of the benefices in England are presentative, that
is, in the hands of the patrons.
P.A.TROXAGE IN SCOl'LAXD.— We possess
no precise information as to the time when lay
patronage was introduced into Scotland. The el-
der M'Crie refers it to the tenth century, but it is
not until the following century that we find men-
tion for the first time of Scottish patronages and
presentations in the Book of Laws of JNIalcolm II.
II.
It is not improbable that these were acrpiired as a
return for liberality in the erection and eiidowinent
of churches and monasteries. When the clergv,
however, rose into great power, wealth, and influence,
they became desirous of recovering the patronages
which had passed into the hands of the laity. With
this view they persuaded the patrons to convey their
rights over to the church, by annexing them to
bishoprics, abbacies, priories, and other religious
houses. The benefices thus annexed were termed
patrimonial, and their nunjber was such that (he
government became alarmed at the vast accession
which was thus made to the wealth and authority of
the clergy. An attempt was, accordingly, made to
check this process of annexation by a statute passed
in the reign of James III. in A. D. 1471 ; but so lit-
tle effect had the restraints imposed by tlie civil
power, that at the Reformation, out of about 940
benefices in Scotland, only 202 were non-appropriat-
ed, and even of these a considerable nmiiber, though
not annexed, were in the hands of bishops, abbots,
and the iieads of other religious houses. It is plain,
therefore, that at the commencing period of the Re-
formed Church of Scotland, there were no more than
about 200 strictly lay patronages. With these,
viewing them as resting upon civil enactments, the
church did not deem it proper to interfere.
Lay patronage became riveted still more firmly
on the Scottish Church by the conduct of James VI.,
who prevailed upon tlie parliament to pass an act
detaching the church lands from all connection with
ecclesiastical persons, and annexing llieni to the
crown. Having thus got these lands into his own
power, he lavishly bestowed them on almost any
one who sought them, conveying also along with the
lands the patronages which had formerly belonged
to their ecclesiastical proprietors, and which lie thus
converted into lay patronages. This arbitrary step
on the part of the monarch met with a strong but
iiiefiectual remonstrance from the General Assem-
bly in 1588. '-By the Act of 1592," .says Mr. Du-
gald Stewart, in his ' Life of Dr. Robertson,' " which
gave a legal establishment to -the form of church
government now delineated, the patron of a vacant
parish was entitled to present to the presbvtery a
person properly qualified ; and the presbytery were
required, after SLibjecting the presentee to certain
trials and examinations, of which they were consti-
tuted the judges, 'to ordain and settle him as min-
ister of the parish, provided no relevant objection
shoidd be stated to his life, doctrine, and qualifica-
tions.' This right of presentation, however, although
conferred by the fundamental charter of presbyte-
riaii government in Scotland, was early complained
of as a grievance."
For upwards of sixty years patronage, though dis-
tasteful to the Scottish people, continued in all its
force, but at length, in 1649, the parliament passed
an Act abolishing lay patronage in the Church of
Scotland, and describing it ■' as being unlawful and
a II
G34
PATUOXAGE IX SCOTLAND.
mnvan-aiitable by the Woi-d of God, aiKl contnii-y to
tiie iloctriiies jiuil liLiei'tius of tliis cliiircli." This
Aut of I'lii-lianieiit was followefl up at tlieii- request
liy an Act of tlie General Assembly, entitled ' Di-
rectoiy for tlie Election of Ministers.' Shortly after
the Restoration of Charles U. in IGGO, however, the
Act Rescissory, as it is called, was passed, amudlingall
the parliaments held since 1633, with all their pro-
ceedings, and tints restoring patronage along with pre-
lacy. But the abolition of prelacy, and the tinal
establishment of presbytery in Scotland in 1690,
once more [lut an end to lay patronage, compensa-
tion being allowed to patrons for the loss tliey there-
by sustained. The parliament, symi)atlnzing with
tlie hostility generally entertained against patron-
age, passed an Act "discharging, cassing, annulling,
and making void the power of presenting ministers
to vacant churches," and declaring, "that, in the
case of the vacancy of any parisli, tlie heritors of the
said i)arish, being Protestants, and the ciders, are to
name and propose tlie person to the whole congrega-
tion, to be either apiiroven or disapprovcn by them."
The obvious intention of this Act was to abolish ]ia-
tronage entirely, to put an end to presentations, and
to cause the voice of the people to be heard in ilie
choice of ministers. To reconcile the lay patrons to
denude themselves of their right in favour of the
parish, the heritors and lil'erenters were held bound
to pay to each of them the sum of GOO merUs, or
£33 6s. 8d. as an equivalent.
The treaty of Union between England and Scot-
land was fully completed and ratilied in 1707. It
w:ts acconqjanied also witli an .^ct of Security, in
which the acts confirining the Confession of Faith
and tlie Presbvlerian form of church government
were sanctioned and established, " to continue with-
out any alteration to the people of this land in all
succeeding generations." Notwith-standing the as-
surance thus solemnly given to the people of Scot-
land, that the constitution of their (diurch should
remain intact in all time coming, only a few years
elapsed when a heavy blow was aimed at its inte-
grity and usefulness. In the parliament of England
in 1712, a bill for the rcstoratiini of cluirch jiatron-
age in Scotland was introduced, linrried tlirough both
Houses with the utmost haste, and passed. The
commissioners of the church had in their address
and representation to the queen on the subject, de-
clared the jiassing of the Patronage Act to be " con-
trary to our church constitution, so well secured by
the treaty of Union." This address the A.ssembly
embodied in an act, tlnis adopting its sentiments as
those of the wliole church. The utmost unanimity
hits prevailed among liistorians in disapproving of
this famous Act of Queen Aiiiie. liishop Huriict
very plainly declares its de.^ign to have been ■• to
weaken and nnderniine the" Scottish "establish
■Hient." And Sir AValter Si-ott with equal candour
slates his own impressions on the subject. '• There
is no doubt," says he, " that the restoration of the
right of lay patrons in Queen Anne's time, was de-
signed to sejiarale the ministers of the Kirk iVoni
the people who could not be siqqiosed to be equally
attached to, or influenced by, a minister who held
his living by the gil't of a great man, as by one who
was chosen by their own free voice, — and to render
them more dependent on the nobility and geniry,
amongst whom, much more than the cuininoii people,
the sentiments of Jacobitism predominated." The
iirst General A.^seinbly which met after the pa.ssing
of this memorable Act, ratified and embodied in s|ie-
citic acts the representations which their coinmis-
sioiiers made when in London, and issued particular
instructions to the Commission of Assembly to use
all dutiful and proper means for obtaining redress of
these grievances, — instructions which were repeated
to every succeeding Commission till the year 1784,
when they were omitted, and have never since been
renewed. It is somewhat remarkable that though
the rights of patrons were restored by llie lOlli of
Queen Anne, the exercise of these rights was t'ound
to be so unpopular that ministers were generally
settled, till after the year 1730, not according to the
Patronage Act of 1712, but in I he manner jirescribed
by ilie Act of King "William in 1G90. About this
time, however, an attempt was made to exercise the
right which Queen Anne's Act conferred upon the
patron, and while the (leojile resisted with violence,
" the church courts," says Jlr. Stewart, " although
they could not entirely disregard the law, contrived
in many instances to render it inelVectual, and sanc-
tioned by their authorily the prevailing prejudices
against it. They admitted it as an uncontrovertible
principle in Presbyterian church government, that a
presentee, although perfectly well qualitied, and un-
exceptionable in life and doctrine, was nevertheless
inadmissible to his clerical office, till the concurrence
of the people who were to be under his ministry had
been regularly ascerlained. The form of exjiressing
this coiicurreiiee was by the subscription of a paper
termed a Cidl ; which was considered as a step so
iiidisiieiisable towards constituting the jiastoial rela-
tion, that the church courts, when dis.satisiied with
it, as an expression of the general wishes of the
parish, sometimes set aside the presentee altogether:
and when they did authorize a settlement, proceeded
in a manner which sufficiently implied a greater re-
spect for the call than for the presentation. Many
of the clergy, considering it as a matter of conscience
not to take any share in the settlement of an obnox-
ious presentee, refused on such occasions to carry
into execution the orders of their superiors; and such
was the temper of the times, that the leading men of
the .Assembly, although they wished to siqiport the
law of the land, found themselves obliged to have
recourse to expedients ; imposing slight censures on
llic disobedient, and appointing special committees
(whom it was found sometimes necessary to ju'olcct
by a military force), to discharge the duties which
the oihcrs bad ileclincd."
PATRONAGE IN SCOTLAND.
C35
It was ill tliis ^late of inalters (liat the priiiciiiles
of the moderate party in tlie General Assembly,
headed by Principal Robertson, obtained the ascen-
dency ill tliat venerable court, and from this time a
steady and imiforiu support was given for many
years to the law of i«i,lronage. But all the while tlie
form of the call was caiel'ully maintained, although
it was reduced to an empty and almost imineaning
form. At length, liowever, after_Priiicij)al Robert-
sou had resigned the leadership of the General As-
sembly, and he had been succeeded by Dr. Hill of
St. Andrews, the call began to be considered by
various menibei's of the moderate section of the
church as incompatible with patron.age, and therefore
nugatory. The abolition of the call, however, wns
too strong a step to be taken by tlie cliurch, and
accordingly it continues, in form at least, down to the
present day.
Diu'iug the years 178-3 aiul 1784 patronage engaged
tlie chief attention of tlie Genei'al Assembly, in cou-
sequence of a miinber of overtures having been pre-
sented on the subject. Dr. Hill moved the rejection
of these overtures '• as ine.Kpedient, ill-founded, and
dangetous to the peace and welfare of the eliurch."
Not only was this motion carried, but another to
omit the clause in tlie instructions annually given to
tlie Commission, which required them to apply for
redress from the grievance of patronage. The omis-
sion of this clause was nothing less than a tacit ad-
mission that the church had ceased to regard patron-
age as a grievance, and was prepared to yield to it
an uncomplaining submission. The law of patronage
was now enforced with iinlllnching linnness by the
dominant party in the General Assembly, and the
peoiile generally began to see that opposition or even
remiuistrance was of inx avail. From that time for
many a long year the law of patronage continued in
full and uncontrolled operation, wiiile the aversion
of the people generally to ils unrestricted exercise
seemed every year to become stronger and more in-
veterate.
Soon after the commencement of the present cen-
tury the influence and nmnbers of the moderate
party began gradually to decline, and in process of
years the evangelical or popular party, as they are
called, became an important section in the Gen-
eral Assembly. A decided change now took place
in the spirit and policy of the proceedings of
that venerable court. The subject of patronage
came to be discus.sed. Motion after motion vins
made, with tlie view of inducing the Assembly to
declare patronage a grievance, and to adopt measures
for its renioial. But those motions were rejected
by very large majorities. The subject of the total
abolition of patronage had occupied much of the
attention of the public, and an anti-patronage society
had liceii formed in the year 182-5, which, by public
ineeiings and occasional publications, excited no
small interest both among churchmen and dissenters.
The discussion of the subject, both within and with-
out the church courts, led lo a veiy general desire
that some nioditicaiion of patronage should take
place ; and hence oiiginated a propo.sal to effect a
constitutional limitation of patronage, by restoring
the call to a proper degree of efficiency. At the
meeting of the General Assembly in 1832, overtures
embodying tliis proposal were laid on the table from
three -synods and eight presbyteries; but by a ma-
jority of forty-two the Assembly decided that it was
unnecessary and inexpedient to adopt the measures
recommended in the overtures. This refusal, on the
part of the .Assembly, to entertain the subject, only
tended to increase the excitement of the public mind,
and in the following year (1833) not less than forty-
iive overtures on calls were laid on the table of the
Assembly. A very long and able debate ensued, in
svliieh the question in all its bearings was fully dis-
cussed, and ahhoiigh a positive majority of twenty
ministers voted in favour of the restoration of the
efficiency of the call, such was the prepomlerance of
elders opposed to it, that the motion was again re-
jected by a majority of twelve. In the As-senibly of
1834, liowever, the relative strength of the parties
was found lo be materially changed, and a motion
was passed by a majority of forty -six, declaring tliat
the disapproval of a majority of male heails of fami-
lies being communicants should be deemed sufficient
ground for the presbytery rejecting the person so dis-
approved of. This act on calls is generally known by
the name of the Veto Act, and its chief characteristic
was, that it put a check upon the law of patronage,
not by giving a direct efficiency to the positive call
of a majority of the people, but by rendering the
dissent of the people conclusive .igainst the pre-
sentee.
From the passing of the Viio Act dates an im-
portant era in the history of patronage in Scotland.
Grave doubts were entertained by many whether it
was within the |)ower of the church to take such a
step, and only a few months elapsed when a case oc-
curred which tested its legality. A presentation to
the parish of Auchterarder by the Earl of Kinnoul
having been njected by the presbytery of the bounds
on the ground of the dissent of the people, the ques-
tion was introduced into the courts of law. Several
similar cases occurred which led to the same step be-
ing taken both by patrons and lu-esentees. The residt
was, that the Veto Act was declared by the civil courts
to be illegal, and ultra vires. This decision, along
wiili several instances wliich had occurred of alleged
interference with the spiritual independence of the
church, produced the disrujition of 1843, and the for-
mation of the Free Chnrdi of Scotland. Immediately
after, the Established Church repealed the Veto Act,
and thus the law of patronage maintained its former
])Osition in the statute-book of the land. It was
I'cit, however, by many tliat -some delinite expression
should be given of the mind of the legislature as to
the relation which existed Tietsveen p.atron.age and
the call, which were in danger of being regarded, in
630
PAUL (Festival of the Conversion op St.)— PAULICFANS.
consequence of all lliat liad happened, as being neces-
sarily inconipalible, ami imlced antagonistic. Ilenee
originated Lord Aberdeen's bill, connnonly called tlie
Scotcli Benetices Act, wliicb declared tliat the pres-
bytery shall [lay regard to the character and nuniber
of objectors, and have power to judge whetlier, in all
the circumstances of the case, it be for editication
that the settlement shall take place. This declara-
tory enactment seemed for some time to be regarded
by the Kstablislied Churcli as thoroughly satisfac-
tory, but several cases having occurred in which the
General Assenibly declined to give effect to the ob-
jections of a reclaiming majority iii a parisli, a move-
ment has again commenced on the part of a number
of the lay-members of tlie church, who liave memo-
rialized the cluu'ch coiu'ts with a view to have the
question agaiji considered, wliether it may not be
expedient to give complete efficiency to the positive
call of a majority of the people. It remains to be
.seen wliether the ecclesiastical courts will revive tlie
discussion of a point of such serious import, while
the generation still lives which retains a vivid re-
membrance of those eventful years in the church's
history, reaching from 1834 to 1843.
PAUL (Festival of tiih Conveh.sion of St.).
A festival observed anmi.'.Uy by tlie Church of Uuine
on the 25th of January.
PAULLA.XIST.S. See Sa.mosatemians.
PAULICLA.XS, a sect which arose in the seventh
century in Armenia. They are said to have been a
branch of the Manicheans, and to have been descend-
ed t'rom a wtnnan in the province of Samosata named
Callinike, who lived about the fourth century, and
whose two sons, Pauhis and .lohannes, were the first
founders of the sect. P)Ut it is not ini|)robable that the
sect, drawinga distinction between the teaching of Pe-
ter and that of Paid, and having a decided [ireference
to the latter, and even adopiing it as the ground work
of their own teaching, derived their name t'rom this
circumstance. The principal founder, however, of tlie
Paulicians is considered by Neander as having been
Constantine, who ffourished toward the end of the sev-
enth century, and cliielly during the reign of the Em-
peror Constantine Pogonatus. The perusal of the
New Testament, more especially of the epistles of
Paul, made a deep impression upon this man's mind,
and gave a new direction to his whole thoughts and
t'eelings, and impelled him to act the part of a reformer,
and to seek after the restoration of the primitive apo.s-
tolic churcli. For twenty-neven years, that is from
C57 to 684, did Constantine labour with untiring
energy to propagate the principles of his sect. At
length the emperor commenced a violent |)crsecutioii
of the Paulicians, and at his instigation Constantine
was stoned to death by his own disciples, headed by
his adopted son, Justus, who was the tirst to raise his
hand against iiim. A few years after the sect was
again called to endure a severe persecution at the
hands of the Lmperor Justinian II. In the reign of
1-eo the Isaurian, the Paulicians were once more ac-
cused at Constantinople, but they are alleged to have
experienced on that occasion the favour and protec-
tion of the emperor.
At the conmiencemfiit of the ninth century the
sect was beginning to degenerate through the in-
fluence of false teachers and the effect of internal
dissensions, but about this period it received a fresh
impulse from the labours of Sergius, who set himself
to revive the body of religionists with whom, from
his early youth, lie had been connected. His ene-
mies accused him, but in all jirobabiliiy without
foundation, of assuming the name of the Paraclete and
the Holy Ghost. The Paulicians were not unlikely
to give rise to this absurd accusation t'rom the cir-
cumstance that they approached, in some points of
doctrine, to the ancient Afanic/ieaiis, with whom they
agreed in maintaining a diialistic theory. But with
this single exception the Manichean and Paulician
systems were at utter variance with each other.
" According to the Paulician system," says Neander,
'• the entire material world proceeds from the De-
niiurgos, who I'ornied it out of the matter which is
the source of all evil. The soul of man, however, is of
heavenly origin, and has a germ of life answering to
the being of the highest God. Thus liimian nature
consists of two antagonist princijiles; but this union
of the soul with the body, of a diff'erent nature, and
in which all sinful desires have their root ; this its
banishment into the sensual world, a world whieli
owes its existence to an altogether difi'erent creator,
and in wliich it is held captive, cannot possibly be the
work of the supreme and perfect God. It must be
the ^'ork, therefore, of that hostile Deniiurgos, which
has sought to draw the germ of divine life into his
own empire, and there to hold it pri-soner. Accord-
ing to this account we must ascribe to the Paulicians
an antliropogony and anthropology corresponding to
these principles. They must either have deduced
their theory from the doctrine of the pre-existence
of the soul, connecting it with the supposition that
the Deniiurgos is perpetually striving to entice the
souls which belong to a higher sphere into the male-
rial world; or, like the old Syrian Gnostics, they
must have believed that the Deniiurgos was able to
drive from its original seat the germ of divine lite
into the visible form of the first man, created after
the tyjie of a higher world; that this germ is ever in
process of development ; and that hence is the begin-
ning of human souls."
The Paulicians believed in an original relationship
of the soul to God, and an enduring union with him
which the Deniiurgos could not destroy. Consist-
ently with their views they could not ascribe a ma-
terial body to the Kcdeemer, or one capable of actual
suft'ering, and hence they can scarcely be said to
have held the doctrine of an atonement through the
sufferings of Christ. They de.^ired to restore both
in lil'e and doctrine the simplicity of the apostolic
age, and they called themselves, therefore, the Ca
I tliolic Church and Christians. " It was the wish o.
TAULINIANS— PAUPERES CATHOIJCr.
637
those people," to quote again tVom Neatuier, " to re-
store an apostolic simplicity to tlie cliiircli. Tims
they asserted, that among tlie varieties of ontwarfl
forms and ceremonies in the dominant church, the
true life of piety was lost ; and they contended
against every species of trust in outward things, es-
pecially the sacraments. Tiiey carried this opposi-
tion so far, that they rejected altogether tlie formal
celebration of baptism, ,and the Lord's Supper.
Hence tliey argued, that CIn-ist never intended to
institute a water baptism fur all times ; but that by
this baptism lie had signified a spiritual b.aptisni, in
which, by means of his doctrine, that living water,
he imparts himself to all mankind. In the .same
manner they also believed, that the eating of the
tiesh, and drinking of tlie blood of Clirist, consisted
only ill a lively communion with him by his doctrine,
by his word, which are his true flesh and blood. It
was not of material bread, or material wine, that he
spoke, as his flesh and blood, but of his words, which
ouglit to be for souls, what bread and wine are for
the body."
Tlie Paulicians, rejecting the Old Testament froni
the canon of Scripture, made their appeal on every
point solely to the New Testament, with the excep-
tion, however, of the Episiles of Peter. Tliey put
away from them all the outward religious ceremo-
nies then in use, and even baptism and the Lord's
Supper they regarded as wholly spiritual acts. Af-
ter the death of Sergius, which occurred in A. n.
8.35, no single individual was elected to preside over
them, but they were governed by a council of their
teachers. They jiatiently submitted to persecution
of every kind for a time, but at length, driven to mad-
ness by the cruel treatment of the Empress Theo-
dora, who had resolved to exterminate them, they
flew to arms in self-defence. Military officers had
heen sent tliroughout Armenia with orders to mas-
sacre every member of the obnoxious sect, and on this
occasion no fewer than 100.000 are reported to have
fallen victims to this indiscriminate carnage. A body
of nearly .5,000 Paulicians, however, escaped from
this bloody outrage, and found an asylum in Me-
litiiie, a province of Armenia, then under the domi-
nion of the Saracens, in conjiiiicfion with whom they
often committed serious depredations upon the Greek
Empire, and laid waste the proiinces of Asia Minor.
Inconsequence of a treaty formed with the Emperor
Zimisces, in A. I). 970, a considerable number of the
Paulicians removed to Thrace, where a colony of
them had been formed even in the eighth century.
Under the name of EucillTr.S (which see), they had
become numerous among the Bulgarians, and thence
they extended themselves into other parts of Europe.
Small communities of Bogomiles (which see), as
the}' were also called, were found among the Bul-
gririans throughout the Middle .A.ges, and Pauliciani,
under many changes, have continued to exist in and
around Philippopolis and in the valleys of the Hajmus
until tlie present day.
But it was ill Asia, and more especially in Arine-
iiia and the adjacent countries, where the sect at tirst
originated, that it continued to maintain its groiinii
with peculiar vigour. Here, however, the Paulieian
doctrines underwent considerable modilication, being
mixed up with some of the opiniuns and tendencies
of the Oriental P.\rsi!F,s (which see). There had long
previously existed in Armenia a sect called tlie Aitl-
vuuDis (which see), or children of the sun, a name
which they derived from their worship of that lumi-
nni-y. But in addition to this older sect, the Pauli-
cians, having imbibed some of the tenets and even
]iractices of the Pwsces, gave rise to a new sect
called the Thondracians (which see), from the vil-
lage Thondrac, in which tlieir founder settled. This
modilication of the Paulieian system arose from an
attempt to make a new combination of Parseeism
and Christianity. The Paulicians thus mingled up
with other Oriental sects, existed in Armenia till the
middle of the eleventh century ; and thence lliev
spread into other countries, particularly the adjacent
provinces of the Roman Empire, partly scattered by
persecution, and partly desirous to ditfuse their pe-
culiar opinions.
PAULINIANS, a name sometimes applied bv the
Ariaiis to the ancient Christians, from Paiilinus,
bisliop of Antloch.
PAUPERES C.VrHOLlCI (Lat. Poor Catho-
lics), a Romish order which was formed in the twelfih
century, and contirnied by Pojie Innocent III. It
consisted of Waldeuses, who had conformed to the
dominant church. Some ecclesiastics from the south
of France, who had once been AValdensians, took the
lead in the formation of this order, particularly a
person named Durand de Osca. It maintained it-
self for some time in Catalonia. The design of this
society is tliiis described byNeander: '• Tlie eccle-
siastics and better educated were to bii.sy themselves
with preacliing, expo.sition of the Bible, religious in-
struction, and combating the sects; but all the laitv,
who were not qualified to exhort the people and
combat the seels, should occupy houses by them-
selves, where they were to live in a pious and order-
ly manner. This spiritual .'society, so remodelled,
should endeavour to bring about a reunion of all the
Waldeuses with the church. As the Waldeuses held
it unchristian to shed blood and to swear, and the
presiding officers of the new spiritual society begged
the Pope that those who were disposed to join them
should be released from all obligation of complying
with customs of this sort, the Pope granted, at their
request, that all such as joined them should not be
liable to be called upon for military service against
Christians, nor to take an oath in civil processes;
adding, indeed, the important clause, — so far as this
rule could be observed in a healthful manner with-
out injury or oft'ence to others ; and, especially, with
the permission of the secular lords. In Italy and
Spain, also, the zeal of these representatives of the
church teiidcnev among the M'aldenses seemed to
C38
r.VUl^KRKS CIUUSTI— PKCULIARS.
nUH't witli acceptance. The Pope gladly lent a
liuiul in proiuoliiig its more general spread, and lie
was inclined to grant to those who came over to
it, when they had once become reconciled with the
church, various marks of favour. Hut he insisted
on unconditional subml.s.sion ; and refused to enter
into any coTulitional engagements." The principles
of the W'ahlenses were too firmly rooted to be se-
riously atiVcted by the society of the Pauperes Ca-
tholici, and, accordingly, it is saiil to have gradu.nlly
ilied away.
P.VUl'KltES CIIRISTI(l,at. The Poor of Christ),
a Roman Catholic order wliich arose in the twelt'th
century, formed by a zealous ecclesiastic called Ro-
bert of Arbriscclles, on wliom Pope Urban II. had
conferred the dignity of apostolic preacher. The
religious society termed Paitpercs Chrhti was com-
posed of persons of both sexes, and of ecclesiastics
and laymen who wished to learn the way of spiritual
living under the direction of the founder of the order.
PAIIPKUIOS ])K LOMBAUDIA (Lat. Poor
Men of Lombardy), a name applied in the twelfth
century to the Wai.densks (wliich see), in the ncjrth
of Italy, derived from the province in which thev
were chiefly found.
P.AUSARII, an appellation given to the priests
of Isis (which see), at Koine, because in their reli-
gious processions they were accustomed to make
pauses at certain places where they engaged in sing-
ing iiymns and performing oilier sacred rites.
PA VAN, a Hindu deity who is believed to pre-
side over the winds. He was the father of Hanu-
MAN (which see), the ape-god.
PAVOR, a personitication of Fear, worshipped by
the ancient Uomaiis, as a companion of jl/im-!, the
god of war. The worship of this deity is said to
have been instituted by Tullus Ilostiliiis.
PAVORIl, priests among the ancient Romans
who conducted the worship of Pavoh (which see).
PAX, a personification of Peace, worshipped by
the ancient Romans. A festival was celebrated aii-
iinally in honour of this goddess on the 30th of
April.
I'.\X, a small tablet of silver or ivory, or some
other material, by means of which the kiss of peace
was circulated tlirough Christian congregations in
ancient times. It was customary in primitive limes
for Christians, in their public assemblies, to give one
another a holy kiss, or a kiss of peace. liiit when
this practice was discontinued in consequence of
some ap|icarance of scandal which had arisen out of
it, the inxwAs iniroduced insiead, consisling of a
small tablet which tirst received the kiss of the ofli-
ciating minist(>r, after which it was presented to the
deacon, and by him again to the people, each of
whom ki.^^sed it in turn, thus transmitting througli-
out tlie whole assembly the .symbol of Christian love
and peace.
PAX VORIS(Lat. Peace be to yon), an oidi-
ii.-iry 8alulati"ii amtmg the ancient Christians. It
was addressed by the bishop or pastor to the ])eople
at his first entrance into the chiircli — a practice
wliich is frequently mentioned by Chrysostom, ndio
derives it from apostolic practice. The same form of
■salutation was employed in commencing all the offices
of the church, but more especially by the reader
when commencing the reading of the Scriptures.
The custom continued in the African churches nnlil
the third council of Carthage forbade its use by the
reader. This form of salutation, " Peace be with
you," to which the people usually answered, " And
with thy spirit," was commonly ]ironounced bv a
bishop, presliyter, or deacon in the church, as Chry-
sostom informs us. It was customary to repeat the
" Pax Vobis" before beginning the sermon, and at
least four limes in the course of the communion ser-
vice. It was used also when dismissing the congrega-
tion at the close of divine worsliip. The deacon
sent the people away from the liouse of God with
the solemn jirayer, " Go in peace." In the Liturgy
of the Church of England a similar salutation oc-
curs, " The Lord be with you," to which the people
rp]il\', "And with tliv spirit."
PEACE. See Pax.
PEACE-OFFERINGS, s.icritices or oblations
among the ancient Hebrews, which were intended to
express gratitude to God for his goodness. Thev
were divided into three classes, thank-offerings, free-
will-offerings, and ofl'erings for vows. The first were
expressive of tliankfulness for mercies received; the
second by way of devotion ; and the third with the
view of obtaining future blessings. The peace-ofVer-
ings of the Hebrews were either olVercd by the whole
congregation, or by particular individuals. The first
consisted of two lambs offered at the Feast of Pen-
tecost. The second sort were of three kinds : (L)
Those wliich were ofl'ered without bread — a species
of peace-ofVcrings of a festive nature at the three so-
lemn festivals. (2.) Those which were offered with
bread, that is, with unleavened cakes mingled with
oil. These were peace-oflerings of thanksgiving.
(3.) The ram of the Nazaritk (which see). The
south side of the court of the Temple was the usual
place in which all peace-oflerings were sacrificed, and
the blood was sprinkled round about the altar. The
ott'erer might eat his sliare of the sacrifice in aiiv
clean place in Jerusalem ; and eviMi, if he chose, in the
Temple. The peace-ofiering of thanksgiving was
eaten the same day ; but a vow or freewill otfering
might be eaten on the following day. The animals
used in this kind of sacrilices were bullocks, rams,
heifers, ewes, or goals; bii-ds were not sacrificed in
this way. The Hesh of the sacrifice was divided be-
tween the jiriestand the oli'erer; the priest receiving
for his part the breast and the right shoulder, while
the offerer had all the rest. The number of peace-
ofleiin'4s sacrificed everv vear was very great.
PLC rOKAL. See liitr.AST-Pi.ATK.^
1'1';('UL1/\RS, a term used in Englami to dciKjic
parishes and places exempted from the jurisdiction of
PECUNI A— rELAG lAXS.
639
(lie ordinary of the diocese in wliicli tliey are situat-
ed. Before tlie Keforniation, the Pope exempted
tliese places from tlie jurisdiction of the bisliop of
tlie diocese, and this peeidiarity was never clianged.
PECUNIA, a god worsliipped among tlie ancient
Romans as presiding over money.
PEDIL.WIUM (Eat. Pes, pedh, a foot, and la^
vrire, to wash), the ceremony of washing the feet of
thirteen pilgrims, in imitation of our blessed Eord
washing the feet of the apostles. The Romish
Church practise this cerenmny on AFaundy TllUltS-
DAY (which see), in the following manner. After
reading John xiii. the gospel for the day, the pre-
late or superior strips olf his pluvial, and is girded
witli a towel by the deacon and subdeacon. Thus
girded he proceeds to the ceremony of foot-wash-
ing. Those whose feet are to be washed being ar-
ranged in a line, the clerks supplying the bason
and water, the prelate kneels and washes the right
foot of each, one by one, tlie subdeacon holding
it for him, and the deacon supplying the towel,
he wipes and kisses the foot. While this rite is
in course of being performed, several antiphones,
versicles, and other pieces of .sacred music are chant-
ed. All being washed, the prelate waslies his
liands, ami wipes them with another towel ; then
returning to the place where he was before, he re-
sumes the pluvial, and standing willi his head lui-
covered, says the Paternoster secretly, with some
versicles and responsorles aloud, and then concludes
with the following prayer : " 0 Eord, we beseech
tlieo, be present to this office of our service, and be-
cause thou didst voucl)safe to wash the feet of thy
disciples, despise not tlie works of thy hands, which
thou hast commanded us to observe ; that like as
here outward delilemcnts are washed away for us,
and by us ; so the inward sins of us all may be wash-
ed awav by thee. The which vouchsafe thyself to
grant, who livest, &c. R. Amen."
The Pedilavium is praclised by the Moravian
Brethren. Formerly it was observed by some con-
gregations of the Brethren before every celebration
of the communion. At present it is practised only
at certain seasons, as on Maundy Thursday by the
whole congregation, and on some other occasions in
the choirs. It is performed by each sex separately,
accompanied with the singing of suitable verses,
treating of our being washed from sin by the blood
of Christ. The Glassites in Scotland also obser\ e
the Pedilavium.
PEEPAE TRl'.E, an extraordinary tree of the
fig tribe which grows in Hindustan. It is thus de-
scribed by Mrs. Speir, in her ' Eife in Ancient In-
dia:' " The leaf is heart-shaped, with a long taper
point and a slender leaf-stalk, rustling in the wind.
'I'he roots of the peejial s|)read horizontally near the
surface of the ground, and-old peeiial-trees often ex-
hibit a great extent of bare roots, owing to the ground
having been washed away ; the trunks also lose
their roundness with age, and become so full of
ridges as to louk like several trunks united : this
tree is reinarkable for the facility with which iis
seeds germinate, springing up in every crevice of
brickwork, to which, if not speedily removed, their
rapid growth causes great destruction. In India, in
consequence, ruins and the peepal are as much asso-
ciated in the mind as rniiis and ivy are in England.
And not only in brickwork does it spring unbidden,
but its sprouts are often seen on other trees, and es-
pecially on the summit of tlie palmyra, where its
berries or seeds are frequently dropped by birds.
The peepal then sends its roots down outside the
palmyra stem, round which they gradually form a
case, until at length nothing is seen of the palmyra
except the head, which appears to be growing in the
midst of a jieepal tree. When this occurs the joint
free becomes a very sacred object, modern Hindus
reg.ardiiig it as a divine marriage. Trees in India
also grow together by simple contact, and trees half
peepal and lialf banyan, or half peepal and half man-
go, are by no means uncommon ; and in soine cases
the union is even purposely etTected, — a notion at
present prevailing in the central parts of Indi.a, that
the fruit of a new mango plantation must not be
tasted until an imaginary marriage has been per-
formed between the mangoes and some other tree ;
and money must be spent and feasting carried on to
as great an extent as if the marriage were a real
one."
PEGiVSIDES, a n.ame given to the Muses, as
well as to other nymphs of wells and brooks.
PICG.ASUS, according to the earlier Greek writers,
the thundering horse of Zeus, but according to the
later the horse of Eos. He is represented as a winged
hori-e, and is said by his hoof to have caused the
well Hippocrene to spring forth. Hence the Muses
who drank of this inspiring well are sometimes term-
ed Pi'r/nsides.
PEGOMAXCY (Gr. pe/je, a fountain, and vian-
te'ui, divination), a species of divination anciently
jiractised with water drawn from a fountain. See
IIvnROMANCY.
PEIRITHOUS, one of the Eawtii.e (which see),
who was worshipped anciently at Athens, along with
Theseus, as a hero.
PEEAGIANS, a heretical sect which arose in the
commencement of the fifth century. Its founder, by
name Pelagius, is alleged to have been a British
monk, and there is an English legend that bis real
name was Morgan. Neither the place nor the date
of his nativity, however, can be ascertained. Ilis
first ap|icarance in history is in tlie character of a
rigid ascetic resident at Rome. Animated by no de-
sire to form a new doctrinal system, he seems to
have been chiefly anxious to oppose certain practical
errors then prevalent, more especially the tendency
to a worldly spirit, which was so prominent a feature
of the character of Christians in his day. By this
view of matters his theological views were to a
great extent modified and determined. " Hence he
640
PELAGIANS.
was of the opinion," as Neander remai-ks, " that in
all moral exhortations tlie great point to be aimed at
was, to inal^e men clearly see that they were in want
of none of the faculties necessary for fulfilling the
divine commands ; to bring them to a conscious
sense of the jiower bestowed on them by the Creator
for accomplishing all good ends, as he says that he
himself was accustomed to pursue this method in
his exhortatory writings. Hence he appealed to the
examples of virtue exhibited among the Pagans, in
proof of how much nature, left to itself, could eU'eet
even among the heathen ; and argued that, with the
new aids and advantages possessed by Christians, the
.same nature would be able to do still more. On this
princi|)le, and from this point of view, he denied that
there was any such thing as a corruption of human
nature, which had grown out of the fall. Such a
doctrine appeared to him but a means of eneourag
iiig moral indolence — a means of excuse supplied to
the hands of vicions men. The question which from
the iir.st had so occupied the iirofound mind of Au-
gustin — the question concerning the origin of sin in
man — could not be attended with so much difficulty
to the more superficial mind of Pelagius. This was
no enigma for him ; it seemed to hiui a thing per-
fectly natural that there should be moral evil. The
necessary condition to the existence of moral good is
the possibility of evil. Rvil and good are to be de-
rived alike from the free-will, which either yields to
the seductions of sense, or overcomes them."
.\t Rome Pelagius became acquainted with Celes-
tius, who, being of a kindred S[iirit with himself,
renounced his professinn as an advocate and em-
braced the monastic lite, desirous of devoting him-
self to a strict observance of all the precepts and
counsels of Christ. In A. D. 411 the two friends left
Home in comjjany, and passed to Africa, where they
took lip their abode at Carthage. The rumour, how-
ever, that they had become infected with theological
errors went before them, and reached the ears of Au-
gustin, who lost no time in siunmoning a council on
the subject. Six heretical propositions were set
forth as held by Ce.lestius, all of which, however,
were grounded on the idea, that the sin of Adam had
injured only himself, not the whole hninan family;
whence was drawn the conclusion, that children still
came into the world in the same stale in whicli Adam
found himself before the fall. Cnelestiiis endea-
voured to obviate the imputation of heresy by alleg-
ing that the points in dispute had never been for-
mally decided by the church, .and, therefore, ought
to be regarded as open questions. Hut such eva-
sions were of no avail, and. accordingly, he was ex-
cluded from church fellowship.
Pel.agius having rpiilted Africa, and passed to
Palestine iu A. l). 41ij, the controversy was renewed
in that country, and Jerome, who was then resident
at Ui:lhleheni, keenly opposed the Pelagian doctrine
concerning free-will, and couceruing the freedom
from corruption of human natine. On this latter
jioint Pelagius was accused of maintaining that
man is without sin, and can easily obey the Divine
commandments if he chooses. The subject was di.s-
cussed iu a .synod over which Bishop John of Jeru-
salem presided, when the simple statement of Pela-
gius, that he acknowledged the Divine a.ssistance to
be necessary in order that a man might be enabled
to obey the law of God, was received as a satisfactory
explanation. The opponents of Pelagius, however,
determined to renew the assault before another
bishop and a still more numerous assembly. The
same year, accordingly, a synod was assembled at
Diospolis in Palestine, under the presidency of Ku-
logius, bishop of Csesarea. This council also, like
the fn'mer one, was ready to acquit Pelagius, pro-
vided only that grace and free-will were both main-
tained— a point which of coiu'se was readily conced-
ed. He agreed to condenni all that taught the con-
trary doctrines on condition that he was allowed to
condemn them as fools, not as heretics. The result
of the whole matter was, that Pelagius was recog-
nized as a member of the Catholic Church.
Thus by the verdict of two Oriental chiu'ch as-
semblies was Pelagius acquitted of the charge of
heresy. Augustin and the North African Church,
by way of counterpoise, appealed to the Roman
Bishop Innocent for his opinion on the disputed
points ; Pelagius and Ccelestius also ap]iealed to the
sauie quarter. The decision of Innocent was con-
demnatory of the Pelagian doctrines ; but dying soon
after, he was succeeded in the papal chair by Zosi-
mus ; and Ccelestius having appeared In person at ■
Rome, and presented a confessicni of faith, plausibly
drawn nji, the new Roman bishop despatched two
letters to the North .African bishoiis, in which he
gave the most decided testimor,y to the orthodoxy
of Pelagius and Ccelestius, reproving their accusers
in the strongest terms, for raising a controversy on
ipiestions which had no connection whatever wiih
the faith. On receiving these letters from the Ro-
man bishop, the North African bislio|is siunmoned a
council at Carthage, which unanimously protested
against the decision. Zosimus, startled at the re-
sistance thus offered to his authority, agreed to sus-
pend the final decision of the matter until alter further
examination. But without longer delay the North
African bishops held an assembly at Carthage in
A. n. 418, at which nine canons were franu'd in ojipo-
sition to Pelagianism.
The doctrines of this heretical system are thus
sketclied by Walch : ''1. .Men as they now come
info the world are, in respect to thiir powers and
abilities, in the same .state in which Adam was
created. 2. Adam siimed, but his sinning haruied
no one but himseh'. .3. Human nature therefore
is not changed by the fall, and death is not a pun-
ishment for sin ; but Adam would have died had
he not apostatized. I'or death is inseparable from
our nature, and the same is true of flu; pains of
child-birfli, diseases, and outward evils, particularly
PELAGIANS.
041
in cliildreii. -i. Much less is tlie giiill of Adam's sin
imputed to liis ufl'spring, for God would be unjust
if lie imputed to us the actions of otiieis. 5. Sucli
imputation cannot be proved by tlie fact tliat Christ
lias redeemed infants ; for, this redenipiiun is to be
imderstood of their heirship to the kingdom of liea-
ven, from which an heirship to another's guilt will
not follow. 6. Neither does the baptism of infants
prove such an imi)Utation ; for tliey thereby obtain
the kingdom of heaven, which Christ has promised
only to baptized persons. 7. When children die
without baptism they are not therefore damned.
They are indeed excluded from the kingdom of hea-
ven, but not from eternal blessedness. For the Pe-
lagians held to a threefold state after death ; damna-
tion for sinners, the kingdom of liea\ en for baptized
Ciiristians who live a holy life and for baptized chil-
dren, and eternal life for imbaptized children and for
unbaplized adults who live virtuous lives. 8. IVIucli
less is human nature depraved in consequence of the
fall of Adam. There is therefore im hereditary sin.
9. For though it may be granted that Adam is so far
the author of sin, as he was the first that sinned and
by his example has seduced others, yet thi.s is not to
be imderstood of a propagation of sin by generation.
10. This su|iposed propagation of sin is the less ad-
missible, because it would imply a propagation of
souls, which is not true. 11. Neither can such a
propagation be maintained without impeaching the
justice of God, introducing unconditioiuil necessity,
and destroying our treedom. 12. It is true there are
in men sinful propensities, in particular the propen-
sity for sexual intercourse, but these are not sins.
13. If sin was propagated by natural generation, and
every motion of the sinful propensities and every de-
sire therefore were sinful, then the marriage state
would be sinful. 14. As man has ability to sin, so
has he also not only ability to discern what is good,
but likewise power to desire it and to perform it.
And this is the freedom of the will, which is so essen-
tial to man that he cannot lose it. 16. The grace
which the Scriptures represent as the source of
morally good actions in man, Pelagius understood to
denote various things. For he understood the word
(a) of the whole constitution of our nature and espe-
cially of the endowment of free will; (b) of the pro-
mulgation of the divine law ; (c) of the forgiveness
of past sins without any intluenoe on the future con-
duct ; (d) of the exainple of Christ's holy life, which
be called the grace of Christ ; (e) of the internal
change in the understanding whereby the truth is
recognized, which he called grace and also the assist-
ance of the Holy Spirit ; (f) and sometimes grace
with him was equivalent to baptism and blessedness.
16. Man is as capable of securing salvation by the
proper use of his powers, as of drawing on himself
danmation by the misuse of them. 17. And there-
fore God has given men a law, and this law prescribes
nothing impossible. 18. God requires from men a per-
fect personal obedience to bis law. 19. Actions origi-
nating from ignorance or forgetfulncssare not sinful.
20. So also natural projiensities or the craving of
things sinful is not of itself sinful. 21. Therel'ore
perfect personal obedience to the law on the ptirt of
men is practicable, through the uncorruptness of the
powers of nature. 22. And by grace (consisting in
external di^iHe aids, the right use of which depends
on men's free will) good works are performed. Thev
did not deny all internal change in men by grace,
but they confined it solely to the understanding, and
controverted all internal change of the will. They
also limited the necessity of this grace by maintain-
ing that it was not indispensable to all men, and that
it only facilitated the keeping of God's command-
nients. 23. This possibility of performing good
works by the free use of our natural powers they en-
deavoured to prove, by tlie existence of virtuous
persons among the pagans ; and likewise — 24. From
the saints mentioned in the Old Testament, whom
they divided into two cla.sses — the iirst from Adam
to Moses, who like the pagans bad only natural
grace ; the second, from Moses to Christ, who had
the grace of the law. Some of the saints who had
the law were all their lifetime without sin, others sin-
ned indeed, but being converted they ceased to sin
and yielded a perfect obedience to the law. 25. The
grace whereby perfect obedience becomes possible, is
a consequence of precedent good works ; 26. and
such obedience is absolutely necessary to salvation.
27. Sins originating from a misuse of human free-
dom and continued by imitation and by custom were
forgiven, imder the Old Testament solely on account
of good works, and under the New Testament through
the grace of Cfirist. 28. Their idea of the way of
salvation then was this : A man who has sinned con-
verts himself — that is, he leaves otf sinning and this
by his own powers. He believes on Christ — that is,
he embraces his doctrines. He is now baptized, and
on account of this baptism all his previous sins are
forgiven him, and he is without sin. He has the in-
structions .and the exatnple of Christ, whereby he is
placed in a condition to render perfect obedience to
the divine law. This he can do if he will, and he
can either withstand all temptations or fall I'roin
grace. 29, Moreover they admitted conditional de-
crees, the condition of which was either foreseen
good works or foreseen sin."
Through the influence of the North African bish-
ops the Roman emperors were prevailed upon to
issue several edicts against Pelagius and Ctelestius,
and their adherents. The Roman bishop Zosimus,
perceiving that the civil authorities took so decided
a part, and that a strong anti-Pelagian party had
arisen, issued a circular or letter, in which he pro-
nounced sentence of condemnation on Pelagius and
Ccelestius, and declared himself on the doctrines of
the corruption of human nature, of grace, and of
baptisin, in accordance with the views of the North
African Church. This circular letter was sent
throughout the Western churches, and all bishops
6i2
PELANI— PEN ANTE.
were required tu siitjscril)e it on [laiii of clein'iviitiuii,
!ui(l even excoriiinmiiciuiun. Eighteen bisliojis of
Itnly, who favoured Pelayius nud liis docirines, were
ill consequence subjected to this severe penalty ; and,
down to the middle of the lifih century, vaiious oft-
shoots from the Pelagian parly were found in differ-
ent parts of Italy. The eigliteen bishops wlio had
tlius been de[iosed and driven from Italy for favour-
ing Pelagian doctrine, chiefly repaired to Constan-
tinople, wliere, becoming mixed up to a certain
extent with the Nestoriaiis, they were condemned
along with tliein at the general synod of Ephesus,
A. D. 431.
The chief, and assuredly the ablest opponent of
Pelagian doctrine was Augustin (wliich see), who,
in several works wliicli he published on the disputed
points, defended the doctrines of grace and predes-
tination with a power of argument so stnnig as to
rank him justly among the most skilful polemic
divines of which the Christian Church can boast.
In the latter part of liis lite, .4.ugiistin was engaged
in a keen controversy witli the Semi-Pela/jians, a sect
which arose in Gaul, and consisted of opponents of
Augustiii's doctrine of predestination, while the de-
fenders of that doctrine were termed Pkicuestina-
RIANS (which see).
PEL.\NI, a sort of cakes used anciently in Atliens
in making libations to the gods. They were substi-
tuted instead of animal sacrifices by the coniniand of
Ceerops.
PELLEUWOIXEX, the god of plants among the
Finns.
PELLOXI.V, an ancient Roman deity who was
believed to ward ofl'the aitacks of enemies.
PEEOPEIA, a lesti^al held annually at Elis
among the ancient Greeks, in honour of Pelops, king
of Pisa ill Elis, from whom the Peloponnesus is
sujiposed to have derived its name. His sanctuary
stood ill the grove X\lU. where the young men an-
nually scourged themselves in his honour. The
niagistrates of Elis also ollered ihere a yearly sacri-
fice of a black ram.
PICLORIA, a festival of the Pelasgi, in which
they .sacrificed to Jupiter Pelor. It partook of the
nature of the Satuiinalia (which see).
PEEU.SIO r,E (Gr. from pdos, mud), a name ap-
plied by the Oriijenisls in the third century to tlie
orthodox Christians, denoling that they were earthly,
sensual, carnally-minded men, because they dillered
from them in their a|ipreIieiision of spiriliial and
heavenly Ijntlics.
PEN.WCE. the inlliclioii of pnnishmont for ec-
c.lesiasticjil olVeiices. Its introdiu'tioii into the Chris-
tian Church is to be dated from the earliest times.
f.See Ci:n.sui!i;s, Ecci.icsiA.sTirAi,.) The history of
the Primiiive Cliurch, for the fust three centuries, is
full of inforination on this subject. The apostolical
fathers very freipiently treat of penance as a part of
church diseijiline, as distinguished from the spiritual
grace of penitence. TeriuUian ilc\oled an eiiliro
treatise to the subject of penitence, from which it
would appear, lliat even so early as the second cen-
tury a complete system of discij;line and iienaiice
existed in the church. This diseijiline he describes
as consisting in exhortations and censures, and to-
kens of Divine displeasure. Penance had a refer-
ence only to those who had been excluded from llie
communion of the church, and its object was the re-
conciliation of the ofTenderwiih the church. It was
intlicted only for open and scandalous offences, it
being a recognized maxim wiili tlie ancient Chris-
tians, that the church takes no cognizance of secret
sins. It belongs to a later age to arrogate the power
of forgiving sins.
When a penitent wished to do public penance in
the early ages of the Christian Church, he was t'or-
inally granted penance by the imposition of hands.
He was then obliged to appear in sackcloth, and as
Eusebius adds, sjirinkled with ashes. Nor were the
greatest personages exempted from this ceremony,
which continued through llie whole course of their
jienance, and they were even clothed in this liumi-
liating garb when they appeared before the church
to receive formal absolution. While penitents were
obliged to wear a mourning dress, some canons en-
joined male peiiitenis to cut off their hair, or shave
tlieir heads, and female penitents to wear a penilen-
tial veil, and either to cut oft' their hair or appear with
it dishevelled and hanging loose about their shoul-
ders. All classes of penitents exercised themselves
in private abstinence, mortification, fasiing, and self-
denial.
The privilege of performing public penance in the
church was only allowed once to .all kinds of relap-
sers, but not oftener; and this practice prevailed not
only during the three first centuries, but for some
time after that period. The ordinary course of penance
often extended to ten. fifteen, or twenty years, and
for some sins throughout the whole course of the na-
tural life, the penilcut being only absolved and re-
conciled at the point of death. If, however, in the
last-inenliuned case, the penitent, after having been
reconciled to the cliurch, recovered from his sick-
ne.ss, he was obliged tu perform the whole penance
which woidd have been required of him had he not
in the peculiar circumstances procured absolulion.
At an early period those who had been guihy of
idolatry, adultery, and murder, were refused adniis-
.sioii to the commimion of the church even at the
last hour.
.-Vccording to the doctrines of flic Uoiiiish Church,
|)eiiaiice is a sacrament which is necessary in order
to the remission of sins committed after baptism.
In the Douay version of the Scriptures, accordingly,
the term pruance is generally substituted for rrpent-
oiice. Thus, " Excejit ye repent, ye shall all like
wise perish," is rendered, " Except ye do pennnce,
ye shall all likewise perish ;" and in Malt. ill. 2, we
have not " Itepent," but " Do penmire, for the kiiig-
doni of lieaNcii is at hand;" and again in Mark i. -1,
PENANCE.
643
" Jolin was in the desert baptizing and preaching
flie baptism o( jmiaiice for the remission of sins."
The council of Trent tlius lays down tlie doctrine
of penance in its canons : " Whoever shall atlirni
that penance, as used in the Catholic Charcli, is not
truly and properly a sacrament, instituted by Christ
our Lord, for the benefit of the faithfid, to reconcile
them to God, as often as tliey sliall fall into sin after
baptism : let him be accursed.
" Whoever shall deny, that in order to the full
and perfect forgiveness of sins, three acts are re-
quired of the penitent, constituting as it were the
matter of the .sacrament of |)ejiance, namely, contri-
tion, confession, and satisfaction, which are called
the three parts of penance; or shall affirm that
there are only two pans of penance, namely, terrors
wherewith the conscience is smitten by the sense of
sill, and faitli, produced by the gospel, or by absolu-
tion, whereby the person believes that his sins are
forgiven him through Christ: let him be accursed."
The three p.nrts of penance, then, according to the
Rondsh Church, are contrition, confession, and satis-
faction. Contrition is described as " a hearty sor-
row for our sins, proceeding inmiediately from the
love of God above all things, and joined with a firm
purpose of amendment." But this spiritual grace is
not absolutely necessary to the proper recejition of
the sacrament of penance ; imperl'ect contrition, or
as it is termed by Romish writers, ottn'</o», will accom-
plish the object. Hence the council of Trent ex
pressly declares, that " attrition, with the sacrament
of penance, will place a man in a state of .salvation."
The second part of penance is confession, or as it
is usually designated, auricttlur confession, being the
secret confession of sins to a pi-iest. The confes-
sional, accordingly, forms an essential accompani-
nient of every place of worship, and the council of
Lateran decrees, " That every man and woman, after
they come to years of discretion, shall privately con-
fess their sins to their own priest, at least once a-
year, and endeavour faithfully to perform the pen-
ance enjoined on them ; and after this they shall
come to the sacrament, at least at Easter, uidess the
priest, for some reasonable cause, judges it fit for
them to abstain at that tinie. And whoever does
not perform this, is to be excommunicated from the
cliurch ; and if he die he is to be refused Christian
burial." " Once a-year then, at least," .«ays the liev.
Dr. Andrew Thomson, in an admirable Lecture on
the Confessional, "the Roman Catholic, having used
a variety of prescribed expedients, in onler to bring
liis sins to his remembrance, and to produce a right
state of mind for confes.sing, is required to approach
the tribunal of penance, which is usually a small in-
closed place situated in some obscure part of the
cathedral or chapel. Imagine to yourselves a priest
seated on this tribunal, to receive from a professing
penitent a confession of all the sins he has connnit-
ted since he last confessed, — sins the most secret,
and, it may be, the most impure | while sitting there
in the assumed character of the \icegerent ol the
great God, he is regarded by the trembling devotee
as invested with the tremendous power of binding
his sin upon him, or of absolving him from its guilt.
The penitent drawing near, is required to kneel
down at the side of the priest, and having made ihe
sign of the cross, with uncovered head, witli closed
eyes bent towards tlie earth, and uplifted hands, to
ask the blessing of the priest in the>e words : ' Pray,
father, give me your blessing, for I have sinned.'
Having receiveii the blessing, he next repeats the first
part of tlie ' Confifeor,' as follows: — 'I confess to
Almiglity God, to the blessed Virgin Mary, to bless-
ed Michael the Archangel, to blessed John Baptist,
to the holy apostles Peter and Paul, to all the saints,
and to you, father, that 1 have sinned exceedingly in
thought, word, and deed, through my fault, through
my fault, through my most grievous fault.' The
penitent then proceeds with a free and unreserved
acknowledgment of all his sins, mentioning the aggra-
vating circumstances 'with which they have been
attended, and the number of times in which they
have been committeil ; and should he through shame
or fear seem to shrink from a full disclosure, the
priest, directed by books that have been provided
for use in the confessional, well skilled by practice,
and by his knowledge of all the crimes and pollu-
tions of his neighbourhood, can place the individual
on a sort of intellectual rack, and by means of dex-
terously suggestive and ensnaring questions, prompt
the reluclaut memory, dispel the rising blush, or
drive out the fear of man by the more tremendous
terrors of the spiritual world, until at length the
heart of the indiiidual is laid open and exposed to
his gaze. The process of confession being ended,
the penitent now concludes with this, or the like
form: — ' For these, and all other my sins which ]
cannot at this present call to my remembrance, I
am heartily sorry ; purpose amendment for the fu-
ture, and most humbly ask pardon of God, and pen-
ance and absolution of you, my ghostly father.
Therefore I beseech the blessed JFary ever Virgin,
blessed Michael the Archangel, blessed John Bap-
tist, the holy apostles Peter and Paul, all the .saiius,
and you, father, to pray to our Lord God for me.'
Then listening humbly to the instructions of tlie
jniest, and meekly accepting the penance he pre-
scribes, the priest, should he be satisfied with the
confe.ssion, solemnly pronounces his absolution in
these words : ' I absolve thee in the name of the
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost ;'
and the penitent retires from the confessional ima-
gining himself forgiven."
The third part of the sacrament of penance is
satisfaction, in exjilanalion of which we may quole
the three following canons of the council of Trent
"Whoever shall affirm, that the entire punishmeni
is always remitted by God, together with the fault,
and therefore that penitents need no other satisfac-
tion than faith, whereby they apprehend Christ.
GU
ri':\ATES. •
who Ims made siitisi';ioli(in for tliein : let liiiii be iic-
cursed.
" Whoever sluill affimi, that we can by no means
make satisfaction to God for our sins, through the
merits of Christ, as I'ar as tlie teinporal penalty is
concerned, either by punislniients inflicted on lis by
liini, and ijatienlly borne, or enjoined by tlie priest,
though not undertaken of our own accord, sucli as
fastings, prayers, ahtis, or other works of piety ; and
tlierefore that the best penance isiiothing more llian
a new life : let liim be accm-sed.
" Whoever shall affirm, that the satisfactions by
which' penitents redeem themselves from sin tlirough
Christ Jesus, are no part of the service of God, but,
on the contrary, human traditions, which obscure the
doctrine of grace, and the true worship of God, and
the benetils of the death of Christ : let Iiini be ac-
ciu'sed."
According to the Catechism of the council of
TreJit, " satisfaction is the full |iaynient of a debt,"
or, in other words, the compensaiion made by man
to God bv doing something in atonement for the sins
which he has committed. Dens, in liis 'System of
Divinity,' divides penances into three classes, \indic-
tive, medicinal, or curative, and preservative. All
satisfactory works he regards as included under the
three kinds, prayer, fasting, and alms. "Tlie follow-
ing," says this Romish divine, "can be enjoined un-
der tlie head of prayer, once, or oftener, either for
many days or weeks ; namely, (l.)To say five pater-
nosters and five Ave Marias, in memory of the five
wounds of Christ, either wilh bonded knees or out-
stretched arms, or before a crucifix. (2.) To recite
the Rosary, or Ijilanies of the blessed Virgin INIary,
or of the saints, &c. (3.) To read the p-alin Aliser-
ere, or the seven penitential psalms. (4.) To hear
mass, or praises, or preaching. (5.) To read a chap-
ter in Tliomas \ Kenipis. (6.) To visit churclics, to
pray before the tabernacle. (7.) At stated hours, in
the morning, evening, during the day, or as often as
they hear the sound of the clock, to renew orally, or
in the liearl, ejaculatory prayers, acts of contrition
or cliarit}' : such as, ' I love thee, 0 liOrd. above all
things :' ' I detest all my sins ; I am resolved to s n
no more:' ' O Jesus, crucified for me, have inercy
onme!'&c. (8.) At an appointed day, to confess
again, or, at any rale, to return to the Confessor.
"To fasting may be referred whatever pertains to
the mortification of the liody : so that a |)crfect or
partial fast can be enjoined. (1.) Let liiin fast [firia
srxta) on the sixth holyday, or oftener. (2.) Let
him fast only to the middle of the day. (.'!.) Let
him not drink before noon, or in the afternoon, un-
less at dinner or Slipper, though be may be thirstv ;
let him abstain from wine and from cfmu'viii fiirti.
4.) Let him cat less, and lake in the evening only
half the quanlily. (5.) Let him rise earlier from
bed; let him kneel frequently and for a long period;
let him suft'er cold, observe silence for a certain lime,
:ind abstain from sports and recreations, &c.
'•To alms is referred whatever may be expended
for the benefit of our neighbour. (L) To give money,
clothes, food, &c. (2.) To furnish personal assist-
ance, to wait on the sick, to pray for the conversion of
sinners, &c., and other works of mercy, whether cor-
poreal or spiritual." To this ample catalogue of
[lenances may be added pilgrimages, scourging, and
bodily tortures of various kinds.
The primitive regulations of the Christian Church,
in regard to penance, seem to have been handed
down almost entire to the eighth century, but about
that time various abuses were introduced. Private
came to be substituted for public penances; and the
practice commenced of allowing the priest to grant
absolution immediately on confession to those who
declared their readiness to fulfil the appointed pen-
ance, even although they were not prepared to par-
take of the communion. It was at this period, also,
that the payment of a fine became one of the recog-
nized punishments of the church ; and in many cases
a prescribed penance came to be exchanged for a
fine, the money thus paid being employed in alms for
the poor; in the ransom of captives ; or in defrav-
iiig the ordinary expenses of the church. Several
synods protested, bolli in the eighth and ninth cen-
turies, against tlie.se abuses, while the edicts issued
during the reign of Charlemagne endeavoured to
place the subject of penance in its true light. In the
eleventh century the severer exercises of penance
were resorted to in Italy, chiefly through the in-
fluence of Peter Damiani, who recommended, in the
strongest terms, the practice of self-scourging, repre-
senting it as a voluntary imiiation of the sniVerings
of the martyrs as well as of the suft'erings of Christ.
PKNATES, the household gods of the ancient
Romans. Images of these deities were kept in Ihe
penetraliii. or inner ]iarls of the house, and ihev were
regarded as aflbrdir.g protection to the household.
It is not certain whether all or which of llie gods
were venerated as Penates, for many are nieniioned
of both sexes, incliuling Jupiter, Juno, Minerva.
Vesta, Neptune, Apollo, and others, and everv fa-
mily worshipped one or more of them. 'I'he Lares
as tutelary deities were sonielimes confounded with
the souls of deceased persons. Apuleius, indeed,
alleges that the private or domestic Lares were guar- •
dijin spirits. Hut the Penates were divinities of
three classes; those who presided over cinpires and
states, those who bad the protection of cities, and
those who took the care or guardianship of private
families; the last were called the lesser Penaies.
According to others there were four classes: the
celestial, the .sea-god.s the infernal deities, and all
such heroes as had received divine honours after
death. A variety of opinions exists as to the origin
of the Penates, but lliey are generally admitted to
have come from Asia, and they were known as the
tutelary gods of the Trojans. According to Diony-
sius llalicarna-'siis, jlOneas first lodged Ihese gods in
Ihe city of Ijaviiiiuin and when his son .\scanias
PENEIUS— PENITENTS.
(_;4£
built Alba, he traiislateii tlieiu tliithei', but they re-
turned twice niiraculoLisIy to Ijaviiiiuiii. The same
autlior says, that in Home tliere still existed a dark
temple in whidi were images of the Trojan gods,
with the inscription " Delias," which signities Pen-
ates. These images represented two young men
sitting, each carrying a lance. Varro brings the
Penates from Samothrace to Phrygia to be after-
lerwards transported by ^Eneas into Italy.
Tlie questiijii has been often discussed among the
learned, Who were the Penates of Rome? Some al-
lege them to have been no other than the goddess
Vesta, while others make them N'cptime and Apollo.
Vives, followed by Vossius, regards them as Castor
and Pollux. It seems, indeed, to have been left to
the master of every family to select his own Pen-
ates. Every Roman consul, dictator, and praetor,
hnmedialely after entering upon his office, was ob-
liged to olfer a sacritice to tlie Penates and Vesta at
Lanuvium. Both the hearth and the table, but more
especially the former, were sacred to the private Pen-
ates. A perpetual fire was kept burinng on the
hearth iu honour of these divinities, and tlie salt-cel-
lar and the first fruits on the table were also consi-
■ dered as consecrated to them. Every feast was in-
troduced by a libation poin-ed out to them either up-
on the table or the Iiearth. Any member of the fami-
ly, on returning home after having been absent, saluted
the Penates as he had done before leaving. No
event occurred affecting the family, either favourably
or otherwise, without being accompanied with prayer
to the Lares and Penates. The images of the Pen-
ates were generally made of wax, ivory, silver, or
earth, according to the wealth or poverty of the wor-
shipper, and the only offerings which tliey received
were wine, incense, and fruit, except on rare occa-
sions, when lambs, sheep, or goats were sacrificed on
their altars. Timseus, and from him Dionysius, says,
that the Penates had no proper shape or figure, but
were wooden or brazen rods, shaped somewhat like
trumpets. Their most general appearance, however,
is that of young men carrying lances or spears in
their hands.
PEXEIUS, a river god among the ancient Thes-
saliaus, said to be the son of Oceaniis and Tct/iy.
PP>N'ETIl.\HS, a surname applied to the difi'er-
eut Roman divinities who occupied tlie penetralia or
inner parts of a house. These deities were Jiqji-
ler, Vi'slfi, anil the Penates.
PENITEXTI.\L, a book prepared by Theodore,
archbishop of Canterbury, for the guiding of priests
in confessing penitents.
PENITENTIAL, a collection of canons appoint-
ing the time and mode of penance for every sin, the
forms of prayer to be used both in first admitting
penitents to penance, and in reconciling them by
absolulion.
PENITENTIAL PSAL:\I, a name given in the
ancient Clirisfi.'in Cluirch to tlie fit'ty-first P.salin.
PENITENTIAL PRIESTS, officers appointed in
many cliurches, when private confession was intro-
duced, for the purpose of hearing confessions and
imposing penances- The office, as we learn from
Socrates, the ecclesiastical historian, originated in the
time of file Decian persecution ; and it existed in the
church until the reign of the Em|ieror Theodosius,
when it was abolished by Nectarius, bishop of Con-
stantinople. Sozomen alleges the duties of the peni-
tentiary presbyter to be partly to guide those who
were under public penance as to the best mode of per-
forming it, and partly to impose private exercises of
penance on those who were not subjected to public
censure. The example of Nectarius, in abolishing
the office, was followed by almost all the bishops of
the East, but it continued in the Western churches,
and chiefiy at Rome, to prepare men for the public
penance of the church. The penitentiaries now in
use, however, originated in the twelfth century, and
the council of Lateran, A. D. 1215, ordered all bish-
ops to have a penitentiary.
PENITENTS, the name given to those who, hav-
ing fallen under ecclesiastical censure, had become
impressed with a sincere sorrow for sin, and sought
to be restored to the communion of the Christian
Church. Even from the earliest times the utmost
attention of the church was directed to such cases,
but fur a considerable period we find no mention of
ditl'erent classes of penitents. These are first spoken
of by Gregory Thaumaturgus, bishop of Neocjesarea,
in the third century, about which time they came to
be divided into four classes — the flentes or weepers,
the audientes or Iiearers, the tjenujlcctentes or kneel-
ers, and consistenUis or co-sfanders. The " weepers"
took their station in the porch of the church, where
they lay prostrate, begging tlie prayers of the faith-
ful as they entered, and desiring to be admitted to
do public penance in the church. When admit-
ted to public penance, they received the name of
■' hearers," being allowed to remain in church dur-
ing the reading of the Scriptures and the preaching
of the sermon ; but they were obhged to depart along
with the catechumens before the common prayers
began ; and, accordingly, in.the Apostolical Consti-
tutions, the deacon is ordered to make the announce-
ment at the close of the sermon, '' Let none of the
hearers, let none of the unbelievers, be present."
Gregory Thaumaturgus assigns this second class of
penitents their place in the muiliex, or lowest part of
the church. The "kneelers," again, or third class, were
allowed 10 remain in church after the ■' hearers" were
dismissed, and to join on their bended knees in the
prayers which were ofi'ered specially for them, and to
receive from the bishop imposition of hands and bene-
diction. The station of the "kneelers" was within
the nave, or body of the church, near the aiuho, or
reading desk. The last class of penitents consisted
iif the " co-standers," so called from their being al-
lowed, after the otlier penitents, energumens, and
catechumens were dismissed, to stand with the faith-
ful at the altar, and join in the common prayers, and
640
PENTATEUCH.
see tlie oblation ort'crcd ; but tliey were not pennitted
to make tlieir own oblations, nof partake of tlie eii-
charist willi them. Tbe liitl'erent classes of penitents
are separately considered in tlie present work, nnder
the articles Flentes, Aiu/ieiitcs, Genufledentes, and
Various duties were required of penitents suited to
the diti'erent decrees to which they belonged. Peni-
tents of the first tln-ee classes were required to kneel
in worship, while the I'aithfid were permitted to stand.
Throughout the wliole term of their penance, peni-
tents were expected to abstain from all expressions
of joy, to lay aside all personal decorations, to clothe
themselves literally with sackclotli, and to cover
their heads with ashes. The men cut short their
hair and shaved their beards ; the women appeared
with dishevelled hair, and a penitential veil. Bath-
ing, feasting', and sensual gratification were forbid-
den. Besides these negative restrictions, penitents
of all classes were laid under certain positive obliga-
tions ; such as, to be present and to perform their
part at every religious assembly, to abound in alms-
giving to the poor, to give attendance upon the sick,
and to assist at the burial of the dead.
The length of time through which the penance cx-
teniled varied accordmg to circumstances, reaching
from three to ten years. None was readmitted to
the fellow.ship of llie church until he exhibited evi-
dent signs of sincere and unfeigned peidtence. The
restoration of penitents was regarded as not only a
public act, but a part of public worship ; and it was
performed uniformly by the .Kame bishop nnder
whom the penitent had been excluded from the com-
mmiion of the church. The usual time for the res-
toration of penitents was Passion Week, which was
hence called Ili'Jjdomn-'i Imhtlijeiitia; or Indulgence
Week. The ceremony was performed in the church
dm-ing the lime of divine service, and generally be-
fore the adminislration of the Lord's Supper. It was
a deeply impressive spectacle. 'l"he penitent clothed
in sackcloth, and covered with ashes, kneeling before
the allar or reading desk, was readmitted by the
bishop with ]n'ayer and imposition of hands. The
chrism was also administered to peintent here-
tics, but to no other. We do not find any estab-
lished form of absolution in the ancient writers.
The fifiy-first psalm was usually sung on the occa-
sion of restoring a penitent, but not as a necessary
part of the service; and at the close of the whole
ceremony the Lord's Supper was aihninistered in
token that the penitent was reinstated in all his for-
mer |)rivilege.* as a member of the church. All pen-
itents, however, even though restored, were regarded
as ever after dis(pialified for the sacred duties of the
clerical office.
Until about the beginning of the I'ourlh century
the laity took a jiart in the administration of disei-
[iline, but before (he middle of that century it was
wholly engrossed by the clergy. From this tinie the
bishops alone were regarded as having authority to
impose penance, infiict excomminiication, and grant
absolution. Ecclesiastical censures were now looked
upon by many as a grievance to which they were
unwilling to submit. A distinction was. intro-
duced between private and public sins, and a corres-
ponding distinction between ju-ivate and public
penance. The bishops were intrusted with |iower
to modify and abridge the penitential observances
enjoined by ancient canons ; and this led to a con-
siderable relaxation of discipline during the sixth
century. It had been the practice, as we liave
seen, in the ancient church, to exclude penitents
from church fellow.ship during a certain period be-
fore absolution. In the eighth and ninth centuries
a custom was introduced of granting absolution im-
mediately npon confession, on condition of certain
acts of penance to be afterwards performed. Abuses
were gradually mtdtiplied in the matter of church
discijiline. One form of penance was exchanged for
another; a pecuniaiy fine was added to prescribed
penances, and at length the payment of a sum was
allowed to be substituted for the penance enjoined.
In the twelfth centmy a regular tarift" w^as estab-
lished regulating the practice of compounding for
penances by money. " With the same intention,"
Mr. Kiddle remarks, •' another system of compound-
ing for penance was adopted during this period, by
admitting as an etjuivaleiit the repetition of a jire-
scribod number of paternosters or other forms of
devotion. Thus, sixty paternosters repeated by the
penitent on his knees, or fifteen paternosters and
fifteen misereres repeated with the whole body pros-
trate on the ground, were accepted instead of one
day's fast. A fast of twelve days was compensated
by cau.sing one mass to be .said, — of four months, by
ten masses, — of a whole year, by thirty masses. A
lienance and fast of seven years could be despatched
in one year, provided that the penitent repeated the
whole P.salter once in every twenty-four hours.
Sometimes the compensation consisted in rejiairing
to a certain church on appointed days, — in a jiil-
grimage to some sacied spot, — or in placing a IriHing
offering on some privileged altar." Peidtents now
ceased to exercise feelings of true repentance, .Mud
the whole system of chiu'ch discipline was ccjuvorted
into a regular tralfic for the pin-pose of replenishing
the treasury of the church.
I'ENTATlOUCir, a term by wliirli the Five lUioks
of Moses are collectively designated. It is a word
of Greek original, denoting five books or volumes,
and it is supposed that the name was first prefixed
to the Septiiagint version by the Alexandrian transla-
tors. The Jews have always held the Penlatcuch in
the highest estimation, and hence they exiiend much
money in iirocuring manuscript cojn'es of this portion
of the Scriptures. On ibis point Mr. Ilyams, in his
' Ceremonies of the Modern Jews,' gives the follow-
ing interesting details : " In many of the modern
Jewish synagogues, there arc as many as forty or filly
copies of the Pentateuch written on vellum, and pre-
PEXTArKUCII.
647
seiiled to tlie synagogues for tlieir use, as h volun-
tary offering by the opulent Jews. Tlie cost of tacli
of these is very great. First, tlie velhnn must be
manufactured by a Jew, and the skin must be of
call', tliat lias been slaughtered by them ; and wlieii
niaiuifaetured, if a spot or the least blemish be I'oiiud
thereon, it is considered iletiled, and they will not
use it. Upon an average a roll of the Law will lake
sixty skins, and for this reason ; the middles are
taken out into a square piece, and joined to each
other: after wliicli, ihey are affixed to two maho-
gany rollers, which generally cost not less than fifty
pounds. The Pentateuch is a maniiscript, and must
therefore be written by a -•■eribe. He must be mar-
ried, and a man of learning and integrity ; one looked
upon as possessing some dignity, or he must not
write the Law. The salary consequently must be
adequate to his station. Those who present one of
ilicse rolls of the Law to the synagogue generally
liiuc it written under their nwii roof; it is written
ill columns about sixteen inches wide; and it is not
permitted in this or any otiier Jewish manuscripi or
printed books, when they come to the end of a line,
to divide a word; and therefore to prevent this, they
always contrive to stretch out the word, so as to
make it uniform. Tliey consider it much more hon-
ourable to have it written under their own roof, than
at any other place. It is also a law laid down by
the Rabbins that the first five days in the week there
shall be only a cerlaiii number of lines written each
day, which is but a trifling number. Resides, their
lime is much occupied during their writing with a
great variety of other matters; and they have cer-
tain prayers which must be said during the time.
The ink they write with is also made up in a pecu-
liar manner, and of ingredients which are not defiled
by other hands. The donor of the gift, independent
of having it written under his own roof, has at dif-
ferent periods, while it is writing, many of the Rab-
bins, will) come to examine it, in case of any mis-
lakes. Every time they make such visits he has to
entertain them ; and the task not uufrequenlly occu-
pies two years. When completed, there is a sujierb
covering for it provided, made in the following man-
ner: it is seamed up at the sides and the top, leav-
ing two large loop-holes for the rollers to appear;
but .the bottom of the said covering or mantle is
quite open. The texture or quality of these mantles
is superb, consisting of rich brocades and silks, and
embroidered with gold, silver, and precious stones,
according to the fancy of the giver. The decorations
to complete it, are two sockets made of gold or sil-
ver, in the following maimer; each of them is a foot
ill length, and is fixed on the top of the two rol-
lers. They are made globular, and on the summit
is a crown, a bird, or a flower, according to the
taste of the donor; and on the globe there are a
great nuniber of little hooks and little bells attached
to them, made of gold or silver. There is likewise
a small gold hand formed as follows ; the hand is
shut, exce[)t the forefinger, which is pointing, and is
lixcd to a handle a foot in length, at the extremity of
wliicli is a loop, hanging down outside the mantle.
When the Pentateuch is finished, a day is appointed
by the chief Rabbins for the presentation of the
gift. The synagogue is generally crowded on the
occasion, and in the time of prayers the presentation
is ottered. All the other copies of the Pentateuch
are taken out of the ark by the dif.'erent donors, if
present, or by iheir relaiions, and are carried in their
arms. They walk in ])rocession with them seven
times round the desk, which is ]:laced in the midst
of the synagogue. The doiiur of the gift on that day-
leads the \an. The whole ceremony has a striking
aiipearance, particularly if it should take jilacc in
the evening, the .synagogue being then brilliantly
lighted. At the conclusion of the ceremony it is
customary for the donor to invite the chief Rabbi
and his friends to a least. During the day there s
a prayer offered up for the benefactor, and each one
present offers a gift in coin, which is put into the
treasury for the benefit of the poor." Folding and
unfolding the Law, bearing it in procession through
the synagogue, elevating it on the altar to be seen
by all the jieople present, reading certain lessons on
particular days, and other public services, are per-
formed by various Lsraelites at difl'erent times. Each
of these functions is regarded as a high honour, and
the privilege of discharging it is put up to public
auction, and sold to the highest bidder.
PENTl'XOST (Gr. the fifiieth), one of the great
festivals of the Jews. It derived its name from the
circumstance, that it was celebrated on the fiftieth
day after the sixteenth of Nisari, which was the sec-
ond day of the Passover. Moses calls it the Feast
of Weeks, because it was fixed at the end of seven
weeks from the ofi'eriiig of the sheaf. It was also
celebrated as a thanksgiving for the harvest ; hence
it is called also the Feast of Harvest. Another name
by which it was known was the day of First-Fruits,
because on this day the Jews offered to God the
first-fruits of the wheat harvest in bread baked of the
new corn. The form of thanksgiving for this occa-
sion is given in Deut. xxvi. 5 — 10. On the day of
Pentecost was also celebrated the giving of the Law
on Mount Sinai. Among the modern Jews this fes-
tival includes two days, and is celebrated with the
same strictness as the first two days of the Passover.
Iti some countries the synagogues and houses are
adorned with flowers and sweet-smelling herbs. The
two days are days of holy convocation. When
as.■^embled in the synagogue each one reads to himself
the whole Book of Ruth. They read also that por-
tion of the Scripture which gives an account of the
delivery of the Law from Mount Siiiai. The 613 pre-
cepts said to comprehend the whole Law are formally
recited on this occasion. The morning service of
the second day is concludeii with prayers for the
dead. On the evening of the second day the festival
is terminated by the cereniony of Ilabdala, performed
648
PENTKCOSTAI.S-PICRL^UMICS.
ill tlie same inauner as on die ei^'litli day of tlie
I'assover.
On tlie first Pentecost at'tev tlie resiin-ection of
Clii-ist, A. D. 33, tlie Holy Spirit was remarkably
poured out on tlie assembled mnltitiidcs at .Icnisaleni.
Accordingly, in the Christian Chnrch, a festival was
instituted in the close of the second centnry, under
the name of Whitsuidkle, in reinenibraiice of Christ
risen and glorified, and of tlie eft'usion of flie Holy
Spirit. The fifty da^'S which immediately followed
Easter, formed a season of festivity, aiid the last day
of that period was called the Proper Pentecost. No
fastings were observed during the whole fifty da3-s ;
prayers were made in the standing, not in the kneel-
ing, posture, and in many of the churches the<;on-
gregations assembled daily and partook of the com-
munion. Afterwards the celebration of Pentecost
was limited to two special events, the ascension of
Christ, and the effusion of the Holy Spirit.
PENTECOST A LS, oblations made by the paiish-
ioners, in the Church of England, to their priests, at
the Feast of Pentecost, which are sometimes called
Wliitsun-farthings. The deans and prebendaries in
some cathedrals are entitled to receive them, and in
some places the bishop and archdeacons.
PENTECOSTARFON. one of the service books
of the Greek Church, containing the office of the
church from Easter day till the ei^'hth day after Pen-
tecost, which they call the Sunday of .^U-Saints.
PEPLUS, a crocus-coloured garment made in hon-
our of the goddess Athena at the festival Pana-
TllEN^A (which see). It had figures woven into it,
such as the Olympic gods conquering the giants.
The peplns was not carried to the temple by men,
but suspended from the mast of a ship, and this ship
was moved along on land, but by what precise means
is not known.
PEPUZIANS, a name given to the Montanists
(which see), because Montanns, it was said, taught
that a place called Pepuza in I'hrygia, was the cho-
sen spot irom which the milleiniial reign of Christ
was destined to begin.
PEU/EANS, the followers of Iviphrates of Pera
in Cilicia, who was said to have believed that there
are in the Trinity three Fatliers, three Sons, and
three Holy Ghosts. It has been alleged that, in
opposition to this class of heretics, was framed the
clause in the Athanasian creed, which says, '■ So
there is one Fallier, not three Fathers; otre Son, not
three Sons; one Holy Ghost, not three Holy Ghosts."
I'HKA.NHUJL.VriON. It is customary in Eng-
land for the minister, churchwardens, and parishion-
ers of each parish, to go round, or make a jierambu-
lalinn, for the purpose of defining the parochial
boundaries. This ceremony is gone tlirough once
a-ycar in or about Ascension Week, and there is a
homily a|ipointed to be used before setting out.
PJCUDOITK, an ancient Slavonic deity worship-
ped by mariners and fishermen, who believed that he
presided over the sea.
PEREMAVANOFTSCHINS, Ke-Anointers, a
sect of Russian dissenters, which separated from the
Riisso-Greek Church about the year 1770 at Vetka.
Tiiey agree in almost every respect with the Staro-
bredsi, or Old Ceremonialists, except that they re-
anoint those who join them with the holy chrism.
PERFECT (The), an appellation frequently ap-
plied in the early Christian Church, to those wlio
had been baptized, and thereby been admitted to
the full privileges of Christians, having a right to
partake of the Lord's Supper.
PERFECTIONISTS, a modern sect of Chris-
tians in New England, North America, who main-
tain that every individual action is either wholly
sinful, or wholly righteous ; and that every being in
the universe at any given time is either entirely holy,
or entirely wicked. In regard to themselves they give
out that they are wholly free from sin. In support
of this doctrine, they say that Christ dwells in and
controls believers, and thus secures their perfect
holiness; that the body of Christ, which is the
church, is nourished and supported by its Head.
Hence they condemn the greatest portion of that
which bears the name of Christianity as the work of
.Antichrist. " All the essemial features of Judaism,"
they say, " and of its successor, popery, may be dis-
tinctly traced in every form of protestantism ; and
although we rejoice in the blessings which the Re-
formation has given us, we regard it as rightly
named the Reformation, it being an improvement of
Antichrist, not a restoration of Christianity." The
views of this sect were supported for some time by
a periodical paper published at New Haven, Con-
necticut, called the Perfectionist.
PERFECTIONS OF GOD. See Gon.
PERFUMES. In Oriental countries generally
perfumes have been always held in high estimation,
and are so at the present day. The use of perfumes
was very common among the Hebrews even in the
most remote ages. Moses gives the composition of
two perfumes, one of which was to be ofi'ered to the
Lord on the golden altar, and the other to be used
for anointing the higli-)iriest and his sons, the taber-
nacle and the vessels of divine service. The He-
brews, as well as the Egyptians, used perfumes for
embalming the dead. The prophet Isaiah mentions
(iii. 20.) " hou.'ies of the soul," which appear to have
been small boxes containing rich perfumes, attached
to a necklace which hung down to the waist. Pro-
fessor Rosellini speaks of them as being worn by the
Egyptian women in ancient times, having an image
of the goddess Thniei engraved on iheni. Perfumes
were liberally used at Oriental marriages in ancient
times, and the same custom still exists. They seem
also to have freiiuently formed a part of the obla-
tions ofi'ered to heathen deities. Hence the king of
Babylon is represented (Dan. ii. 46.) as having
treated the prophet with the richest perfumes after
he had predicted the future destinies of his emjiire.
"Then tlic king Nebuchadnezzar fell upon his face,
PERGUBRIOS— PERSIANS (Religion of the Ancient.)
G49
iiiui worsliipped Uaiiiel, and coiniiianded that tliey
sliould oti'er an oblation and sweet odours unto liini."
Perl'umes were regarded in many cases as an essential
part of tlie religious worship ot tlie gods.
PERGUBRIOS, an ancient Slavonian deity, who
was believed to preside over the t'niits. An annual
festival was celebrated in his honour on llie 22il of
March.
PERIAMMA'l'A. See Piivlactf.ky.
PE1!IB(JL.'E0N. See Pallium.
PEKI1!(_)L0N, the outer enclosure of an ancient
Christian churcli, being the utmost bounds allowed
for refuge or sanctuary. See Asylum.
PERICOPjE, specific selections from the writings
of tlie New Testament, appointed in the anciejit
Christian church to be read on certain Sabbaths and
special fe.stive occasions. Considerable diversity of
opinion exists in regard to the time when these
selections were first made, some contending that
they are of apostolic origin ; oiliers, that they origi-
nated in the fourth century; and others again trace
them no further back than the eighth century. The
Pericvpce of the Christian corresponded to the Para-
schhih of the Jewish church. See LESSONS.
PERIMAL. See Vishnu.
PEKlUDEUTiE, itinerating or visiting presbyters
decreed by the council of Laodicea, A. D. 3ti0, to
supersede the Chorepiscopi (which see) in the
country villages.
PERIPATETICS. See Aui.-totelians.
PERIRRHANTERIA, fonts placed at the en-
trance of the ancient heathen temples, that those
who entered the sanctuary to pray or to ofier sacri-
fices might first purify themselves.
PEltlS, a race of beings, according to the Mo-
liannnedans, intermediate between men and angels,
which inhabited the eartli before the date of the
Mosaic creation. Mussulman doctors inform us that
the dynasty of the .IlNS (which see) lasted seven
thousand years, when they were succeeded by the
Peris, beings of an inferior but still a spiritual nature,
whose dynasty lasted two thousand more. The sove-
reigns of both were for the most part named Solo-
mon; their number amounted to seventy-two. The
Jins were male, and the Peris female demons. See
Genii.
PERISCYLACISMUS, the process of histrating
or purifying an army among the ancient Macedonians.
A dog was cut in two pieces in the place where the
army was to assemble, and one half of the dog was
thrown at a distance on the right, and the other half
on the left. The army then assembled in the [jlace
between the spots where the pieces had fallen.
PERISTIA, the victims sacrificed in a lustration
among the ancient heathens.
PERISTIARCH, the officiating priest in a lustra-
tion or purification among the ancient Greeks when
they wished to purify the place where a public as-
sembly was held. He received this name because he
went before the lustral victims as they were being
II.
carried round the boundary of the place. See Lus
tration.
PERXOCTATIONS. See ViOiL.
PERPETUAL CURATES. See Curates.
PERSEPHONE, the goddess among the ancient
Greeks who ruled over the infernal regions. By the
Romans she was called Proserpina. She was the
daughter of Zeus and Demeter, and by Homer she
was styled the wife oi Hades, and the queen of the
realms inhabited by the souls of the dead. She is
said to have been the mother of the Furies. Hesiod
mentions a story of her having been carried oft' by
Pluto, and of the search which Demeter instituted
for her daughter all over the eartli, by torchlight,
until at length he found her in the realms below.
An arrangement was now made that Fersejihone
should spend a third of every year with Pluto and
two-thirds with the gods above. She was generally
worshipped along with Demeter, and temples in her
honour were found at Corinth, Megara, Sparta, and
at Ijocri in the south of Italy.
PERSIANS (Religion of the Ancient). The
original inhabitants of Persia sprung from Elam the
son of Sliem, from whom doubtless they received the
true religion which at first existed among them in
all its primitive purity. In process of time, how-
ever, they seem to have fallen, in conunon with the
rest of the Oriental nations, into that species of Na
ture-worsliip which is known by the name of Tsalto
ism. Some authors have alleged that they were re
claimed from this idolatry by Abraham, who restored
their religion to its original purity. But if such a
reform was indeed efi'ected among the Persians, tliev
did not long retain their adherence to the Abrahamic
creed, but relapsed into an idolatrous worship of the
heavenly bodies, and more especially of the sun, with
its emblem fire. And yet, amid all the corruptions
which had crept into their religion; though their
outward forms of worship might appear to indicate
a strong tendency to polytheism, their Matii or
philosophers held firm by the grand fundamen;al
article of all true religion, the unity of God. lire
they maintained to be the appropriate symbol of
deity, not tlie deity himself And such a view of
the element of fire is the less to be wondered at
when we bear in mind the perpetual fire kept on the
altar of buriit-ofl'ering in the temple of Jerusalem
that God revealed himself to Moses in a burning
bush on Mount Horeb ; and that he manifested his
presence to the Israelites in the wilderness by a pil-
lar of fire which went before them in all tli£ir jour-
neyings. And it is not improbable, that the vener-
ation of fire, and of that glorious embodiment of
fire, the sun in the heavens, may have been derixed
by the Persians from the Chaldeans of Mesopota-
mia. They seem to have adopted the practice of
fire-worship while renouncing the principle ; and
such was their intense hatred of the grosser forms
of idolatry exhibited by other nations, that they cast
down witli indignation the statues and temples of
'A I
650
PERSIANS (Religion of the Ancient).
tlie Greeks. Their own sun-worsliip, nevei'tlieless,
assiinieil, in course of time, a very gross and mate-
rial character. And even at tliis day their descend-
ants, tiie Parsees at Bombay, may be seen in crowds
every morning and evening, in tlieir wliite flowing
garments and coloured turbans, hailing the rising
sini with tlieir hand laid devoutly on the breast, or
paying respect by their humble prostrations to liis
deparling rays.
The great reformer of the ancient Persian religion
was Zoroaster, who originated the system whicli, amid
various persecutions, has continued for 2.400 years
down to the present day. Considerable dift'erence of
opinion has existed among the learned as to the
precise time wlien Zoroaster lived. The great Ger-
man historian, Niebulir, hesitates not to pronounce
his existence a mylli. Tlie honours due to the great
Per>ian Reformer have been assigned to difl'erent in-
dividuals who happened to bear his name; but the
generally received opinion is, tliat the true Zoroaster
lived in the reign of Darius Hystaspes, in the sixth
ccntur)' before Clu'ist ; and this view has been es-
tablished with great ability in a treatise published at
Bombay in 18.51 by Mr. Nourozjee Purdoonjee, a
learned Parsee. This work is entitled ' Tareekh-i-
Zurtooshtee, or Discussion on the era of Zurtoshf, or
Zoroaster;' and may be considered as having set at
rest a long-disputed question.
The changes which Zoroaster introduced ijito the
religion of Persia were of great interest and import-
ance. He taught that the sun was oidy to be wor-
shipped as an emblem aud exhibition of the power
of Onnuzd, the original good principle, whose
benevolent efforts, however, are incessantly coun-
terworked by the exertions of Ahriman, the evil
))rinciple. This Dualistic notion appears to have
(jcrvadcd the whole doctrines of Zoroaster. Abo\e,
however, and prior to these two co-equal principles
is the Supreme Being, the Zeruane Akarane, or
"Time without bounds," the uiicrealed All in All.
This abstract, ideal being, wholly absorbed like the
Brahm of Hirjduism in the conlemiilation of his own
excellence, is not set forth as a proper object of the
worshi]) of man. From this Being sprung the two
subordiiuite divinities, Oriniizd and A/iriman, who
were destined to uiainlain a perpetual struggle, while
Mitliias, the deifieii symbol of light and tire, was de-
nominated the Mediator, his oftice being to aid in
bringing about the reconciliation of the malignant
Ahriman to Zenitine. Akarmie, and nhimatelv secur-
ing his submission to the divine laws.
The entire theoretical system of the ancient Per-
sians has been already explained under the article
Abesta, a work written in the Zeml tongue, and
hence usually known by the name of Zend-Abcsta
The books thus designated arc ascribed to Zoroaster.
and are said to have exieiuled to twenty-one vol-
umes. The greater jiart of this voluminous work,
however, is believed to have been destroyed either
during the invasion of Persia by .Mexaudcr the
Great, or immediately after the conquest of that
comilry by the Arabs, who entertained a bitter ha-
tred to the writings of the great Persian hierophant.
The only remaining portions are the Vendidad, the
Izashne, and the Visjxird. all of which are regarded
as authoritative liturgical works, by the GiiAres of
Persia, and the Parsees of Hindustan, boih of whom
claim to be the direct descendants of the ancient Per-
sians, and have both held fast the faith of their ances-
tors. For 556 years after the subyersion of the Per-
sian dynasty by Alexander, the religion of Zoroaster
seems to have declined until it was revived by Ar-
desliir Babekan in A. i>. 226, in wliose reign strenu-
ous elTorts were put forlli to restore it to its original
purify, \yhen taught by the prophet himself. 'J'his
reformation lasted during a period of 416 years, that
is until the religiiin ami monarchy of Persia fell into
tlie hands of the Arabs, an event wliicli happened in
A. D. 641.
No sooner had the followers of Jlohammed taken
possession of the Persian kingdom than, with their
usual intolerance, they sought to extirpate the an-
cient faith of Zoroaster ; and so successful were
they, by means of tyranny and oppression in the
accomplishment of this object, that in less tlian 200
years from the date of their coiupiest, the greater
part of the i)0|)ulatioii had embraced the religion of
Islam. In the tenth century, scattered and scanty
remnants of the Zoroaslrians were to be found oidy
in the provinces of Fars and Kirman. and at this
day their miml^ers do not exceed 2,000 families, or
fcomewhere about 5,000 or 6.000 souls. The Giiel/res,
as the Zoroaslrians are now called, are limited almost
exclusively to Yezd, and the twenty-four surroimd-
ing villages. 'J'liey have firc-lemples, thirty-four
of them being situated in Yezd and its vicinity. Be-
sides being branded as Gnebres, or infidels, they are
not oidy opprcs-ed by the govermnent, but treated
with the utmost harsluiess by their fellow-subjects.
PKKSON.V (Lat. Person), a term used by the
Latin or Western Church in speaking of the Triiuty,
aud corresponding to what the (ircek Church termed
Hypostasis (which see). There has been a keen
controversy between the Greek and Latin ehiu'ches
about the use of the words Hjiposlasis and Pcrsoiin.
The Latins, maintaining that the Greek word Hy-
posta-sis meant substance, or essence, asserted that
to speak as the Greeks did of three divine Hyposta-
ses, was to hold lliat there were three gods. The
(ireek Church, on the other hand, alleged that the
use of the word Persona exposed the Latins to the
charge of holding the Sabellian notion of the saitie
indi\idiial Being in the Trinity sustaining three re-
lations. Hence the two churches accused each other
of heresy, and the matter in dispute was rei'erred to
the council of Alexandria, which met A. I). .362. The
state of the controversy, when this council was con-
vened, is thus laid down by Dr. Newman, in his able
work entitled 'The Arians of the Foin-lh Centiny:'
" At this date, the furnuila of the Three llypuslasct
ricituN— ricTZKiJAXS.
G51
Nuems, as a mattei' of fact, to liave been more or less
a characteristic of the Arians. At tlie same time, it
was held by tlie ortlioilox of Asia, who had comiiiii-
nicated witli them ; i. e. interpreted by them, of
course, in the ortliodox sense whicli it now bears.
Tliis will acconnt for St. Basil's explanaiion of the
Nicene Anathema; it being natural in an Asiaiic
Christian, who seems (unavoidably) to havearianizod
for tlie first thirty years of his life, to imagine, (whe-
ther rightly or not,) that he perceived in it the dis-
tinction between o;(.v/a and H^/^JOsto/s, whicli he him-
self had been accustomed to recognize. Again, in
the schism at Antinch, which has been lately nar-
rated, the party of Meletius, which had .so long
arianized, maintained the Three Hypostases, in op-
position to the Enstathians, who, as a body, agreed
with the Latins, and had in consequence been ac-
cused bv the Arians of Sabellianism. Moreover, this
connexion of the Oriental orthodox with the Semi-
arians, partly accounts for some apparent tritheisnis
of the former; a heresy into wdiich the latter cer-
tainly did fall.
■ '• .Vtlianasiiis, on the other hand, williout caring
to be uniform in his use of terms, about which the
orthodox diti'ered, favours the Latin usage, spealcing
of the Supreme Being as one Hypostasis, ;'. c. sub-
stance. Aui\ in this he differed from the previous
writers of his own church ; who, not having expe-
rience of the Latin theology, nor of tlie perversions
of Arianism, adopt, not only the word Hjipostasis,
but, (what is stronger,) the words ^)/(_»/.sw and oiiski,
to denote the separate Personality of tlie Son and
Spirit.
"As to the Latins, it is said that, when Hosiiis
came to Alexandria before the Nicene Council, he
was desirous that some explanation should be made
about the Hypostasis; though nothing was settled
ill consequence. But, soon after the Council of
Sardica.an addition was made to its confession, which
in Theodoret runs as follows : ' Whereas the lieretics
maintain that the Hypostases of Father, Son, and
Holy Ghost, are distinct and separate, we declare
that according to the Catholic faith there is but one
Hvpostasis, (which they call Oiisia.) of the Tliree ;
and the Hypostasis of the Son is the same as the
Father."
I ' Botli parties having fully explained their \iews to
the council, it was I'luind they were agreed in point
of doctrine, but dillered only about the grammatical
meaning of a word, and tlie council came to the
unanimous decision, that such expressions were not
so desirable or accurate as those of the Nicene creed,
the words of which tliey promised for the future to
acquiesce in and to use. See Arians.
PERTH (Articlics of). See Art]clk.s of
Perth.
PERL'N, the god of thunder among the ancient
Slavonians. His image was made of wood, with a
head of silver, and golden whiskers. " The Sla-
vonians," says Procopius, in his work ' De Bello |
Gothico,' " worship one God, the maker of the thun-
der, whom they acknowledge the only Lord of the
universe, and to whom they ofier cattle, and differ-
ent kinds of victims." Periin, then, was the chief
deity of the Slavonians.
PERUNATE'LE'. a goddess among the ancient
Lithuanians, who was at once the mother and the
wife of Pekun (which see).
PESSOS, a small black stone which held the place
of a statue in the temple of Ci/hcle, the great goddess
of the Phrygians. It was probably an aerolite, hav-
ing been represented as fallen from heaven.
PETALUM, the golden plate which the Jewish
Iiiy/i jji-ie-s-t wore upon his forehead.
PETER'S (St.) DAY, a festival observed by the
Church of Rome on the 20th of June, in honour of
the Apostle Peter. The Greek Church keep a fes-
tival on the same day in honour of both the apos-
tles, Peter and Paul.
PETERPEXCE, an annual tribute of one penny
paid at Rome out of every family, at the festival of
St. Peter. It was regularly paid in England from
tlie time of the Saxon kings till the reign of Hen-
ry VHL, when it was enacted, that henceforth no
person shall pay any pensions, Peter-Pence, or oilier
impositions, to the use of the bishop and the see of
Rome.
PETROBRUSIANS, a Christian sect which arose
in the twelfih century in the south of France, de-
riving its name from Peler de Bruys, who, thoxgh
deposed from the priesthood, continued to propagate
his peculiar opinions. He was violently opposed to
infant-baptism, the mass, and celibacy ; he burned
the crosses, and called upon his followers to destroy
the churches, seeing God is not confined to temples
made with the liands of men. It has also been main-
tained that he denied Romish transuhstantiation, and
held the bread .and wine in the I^ord's Supper to be
signs or symbols. He is, moreover, alleged to have
taught that the oblations, prayers, and good works of
the living do not profit the dead. The founder of
this sect laboured chiefly in Langucdoc and Provence,
and after having preached for twenty years against
the errors of the dominant church, he was burned
by an infuriated mob at St. Giles, in A. D. lloO.
After the death of Peter de Bruys, his opinions con-
tinued to be promulgated by his successor Henry,
wliose followers received the name of Hi:nricians
(which seel.
PETROJOANNITES, a small sect which origi-
nated in the twelfth century, named from their leader
Peter Joannis, who principally opposed the doctrine
maintained by the dominant church, that grace is
cimferred in baptism.
PETZELIANS. or PrESCiiiCLiANS, a modfi-n
sect of a politico-religious character, who derived
their name from a jiriest of Breniiau, called Petzel, or
Preschel. They held the natural and legal equality
of all human beings, and maintained that they have
a ciintinual and inalienable [iroperty in the earth, and
G52
PliAl'yniON— PIIAIUSEKS.
its natural productions. 'I'lieir enemies cliarged
tliein witli olVering Inmiaii sacrifices, particular!}' on
Good Friday. Congregations belonging to this .sect
are said to have existed in Upper Anstria, bnt by
the interference of the public authorities they have
been dispersed.
PIIAE'l'IION (Gr. the shining), a Homeric epi-
thet or surname of IlKl.los (which see), but he is
generally regarded as the son of Helioa. On one
occasion he is said to have asked from his father
permission to drive the chariot of the sun across tlie
heavens ; and being unable to restrain the horses, lie
was thrown so near the earth as almost to scorch it.
From tliis time, according to mytliology, dates the
black colour of the inliabitants of the tropics. For
this rash adventure Zeus killed hi?n with a Hash of
lightning, aiwl he fell down into the river }'o, — a myth
whifli probably originated in the circumstance, that
the Greeks received the andjer from the lialtic
tln'ough the niediinii of the Venetians, who dwelt
near the mouths of the Po. His sisters were changed
into poplars, and their tears into amber.
PHAGESIA (from Gr. plnr/ein, to eat), a portion
of the festiv.ils of the Dioiit/m'a in ancient Greece,
wln'cli was devoted to indulgence in eating and drink-
ing in honour of Dionysus.
PlIALLOPHOUl (Gr. plmllos, the phallus, and
plieio, to caiTy), the bearers of the sacred Pliallas in
the Dionysia of the ancient Greeks.
PIi.\LHJS, t!ic .symbol of the fertility of nature
among tlie ancient (ireeks. It was carried in the
processions of the Diom/niii, and men disguised as
women, callcil Itliyplidllol, followed innnedlately be-
hind it. The I'liallii^:, which was called among the
\\om:m^ fdxriinini, was often used by that people as
an annilet hung rouiul tlie necks of children to avert
evil iiilluences. 'I'he Satyrica xir/vn of Pliny proba-
bly referred to the I'/ial/u.i, and lie says that these
were placed in gardens, and on hearths, to jirotcct
against the fascinations of the envious. From Pol-
lux, also, we learn that smitlis were accustomed to
place ligures of the PliuUus before their forges for
the same purpose. This symbol, which revolts us
by its indecency, conveyed to the ancient Heathens,
as the r.iiir/aiii does to the modern Hindus, a pro-
found and sacred meaning.
The reverence entertained for this emblem of fer-
tility was probably introduced into Greece from
Kgypt, along with the mysteries of Osin's. It is the
opinion of Stuhr that the worshiji of thoLtnynm,
which is identiciil with that of tlie Phallun, origi-
nated after the Christian era, and arose from the
powerfid infiuence exerted upon India by Western
Asia. The Hindus wrap up an image of the Jj'iir/am
nlong with the bodies of their dead, implying, doubt-
less, the immorlal life which is in man, and which
death cjnmut destroy. The (ireeks, also, expressed
probably the same iilea when they alleged that
Dionyiewi had placed the I'IiuIIuh at the gates of
Ibules. Diodcrus Siculus, referring to the vencra
tion in which the Phallus was held among the Greeks,
tells us that by this tliey would signify their graf-
tude to God for the populousness of their country.
Herodotus alleges, that the reason of the Egyptian
observances connected with the Phallus was a sacred
mystery.
PHANES, a mvstic deity in tlie system of the
Orpines, who is .said to have sprung from tlie mun-
dane egg, and to have been the father of the gods,
and the former of men.
PHAN TASIAST^C. See Bocf.t^,.
PHARISEES, a ]iowerful sect among the ancient
Jews. The precise date of their origin has not been
accurately ascertained, but the most general belief
is. that they arose in the time of the wars of the
Maccabees, about n. c. 300. The first writer by
whom they are mentioned is Josephus, who speaks
of them as existing under Hyrcaiuis about B. c. l.W,
and even then in great favour among the Jews.
Their name is usually supposed to have been de-
rived from the Hebrew word phriroah, to seiiarate,
because they were regarded as separate and dis-
tingiiislied from all others by their extraordinary
pretensions to piety. They were remarkably strict
in their literal observance of the law of Moses. Their
religious lite consisted only in outward forms, which
they observed from no higher principle than to be
seen of men. Hence they prayed in the corners of
tlie streets, and distribiiled their alms in the most
public places. And as our blessed Lord said, " Verily
they have their reward." So highly were they, in
common with the Scribes, held in estimation by the
people, that it was a current saying, that if only two
men were to enter lieaven, the one would be a Scribe
and the other a Pharisee. " Tlie Pharisees," savs
Neaiider, "stood at the summit of legal dudaism.
They fenced round the Mo.saic law with a miihilude
of so-called ' hedges,' wliereby its precepts wore to
be guarded against every possible infringement.
Thus it oanie about, that under this pretext mativ
new statutes were added by them, particularly to
the ritual portion of the law. These they contrived,
by an arbitrary method of interpretation,— a method
which in part tortured the letter and in part was
allegorical, — to find in the Pentateuch ; appealing
at the same time to an oral tradition, as furnishing
both the key to right exposition, and the anthoriiy
for their doctrines. They were venerated by the
poojile as the holy men, and stood at the head of
the hierarchy. An asceticism, alien to the original
Hebrew spirit, hut easily cajmlile of entering into
union wiih the legal sectarianism at its most extra-
vagant pitch, was wrought by them into a system.
We find among them a great deal that is similar to
the evangelical counsels, and to the rules of Mona-
diism in tlie later church. On painful ceremoni.il
observances they often laid gri'ater stress than <in
good morals. To a rigid austerity in the avoidance
of every even seeming transgression of ritual jire-
ceiits, they united an easy sophistical casuistry which
PHARISEES.
knew liow fo excuse many a violation of tlie moral
l.iw. Hesides those wlio made it tlieir [laiticnlar busi-
ness to interpret the law and its supplemental tradi-
tions, there were among them those, also, who knew
how to introduce into the Old Testament, by allego-
rical interpretation, a peculiar Theosophy ; and this
they propagated in their schools ; a system wliicli,
starting from the development of certain ideas really
contained in the Old Testament in the germ, had
grown out of the fusion of these with elements de-
rived from the Zoruastrian or Parsic system of reli-
gion ; and at a later period, after the time of Ga-
maliel, witli such also as had been derived from
Platonism. Thus to a ritual and legal tradition
came to be added a speculative and tlieosophic one."
The Pliarisees were very luimerous, and the mem-
bers of the sect belonged to all classes of societj'.
Such was the esteem in which they were held, and
the influence which they exerted over the Jews, that
the Maccabean princes viewed them with jealousy,
and even with fear. So highly, indeed, did they
pride themselves on their imagined superiority in re-
ligious knowedge, that they despised others. Their
niunbers and influence were nnicli increased shortly
before the Christian era, by the controversy wliich
arose between the two Jewish scliools of HUM and
Sliammai.
As to the religious doctrines of the Pharisees, we
learn from Acts xxiii. 8, 9, that they believed in tlie
resurrection of the dead, and in the existence of
angels and spirits ; and in iliese articles of their
creed they differed from the Scidducees. But Jose-
phiis informs us, that while they undoubtedly be-
lieved in the immortality of the soul, thev tauglit the
doctrine of its transmigration into other human bo-
dies, not, however, as in tlie~ Pytliagorean system of
philosojihy, into the bodies of inferior animals. And
even the transnn'gration of the Pharisees was not the
destiny of the whole race of man, but was allotted
only to 1 lie' righteous after having been rewarded for
a time in a separate state. The wicked, on the other
hand, were believed to pass away into everlasting
punishment ; and if they ever re-apjieared on earth
it was to afflict men with epilepsy, lunacy, and other
similar diseases. The Pharisees are said by some
writers to have believed in Fate, but it is difficult to
reconcile this notion with (he statements of Josepluis,
who alleges that they agreed with the Essenes in
holding absolute predestination, wliile at the same
time they agreed with the Scidducees in holding the
doctrine of tlie free-will of man. The grand funda-
mental error of this great Jewish sect, however, was
their placing oral tradition on a level in point of
aiithorit}' with the written revelation ; or rather in
many cases tliey exalted it above the Bible, actually
" making the Word of God," as our Saviour declares,
" of none effect by their traditions. '^ Thus tlie wash-
ing of hands before meals was made a religious diitv,
and the Pharisees went so far as to teach that the
omission of this ablution was a flagrant crime, and
wortliy of death. To this were added various other
washings, as of cups, and pots, and fables, which
came to be established as sacred duties.
Tlie Pharisees thought themselve.s, and were
tliought by others, to be righteous, but our Lord
expressly declared to all his followers, " Except
your righteousness shall exceed the rigliteousness
of the Scribes and Pharisees, ye shall in no case
enter into the kingdom of heaven." From this
passage it is evident, that the righteousness of the
Pharisees was defective, whether viewed as a jus-
tifying or a sanctifying rigliteousness. It was de-
fective in various respects: (1.) In its extent, in-
asmuch as, in.stead of reaching to tlie whole law,
it was limited to a few, and these comparatively
unimportant points. Thus " they tithed mint, and
anise, and cummin, but neglected the weightier
matters of the law, justice, and mercy, and truth."
(2.) It was defective in the principle from which it
arose, having regard simply to the outward conduct,
without reference to the state of the lieart. (3.) It
was defective in its end or design, which went no
farther than to be seen of men. (4.) It was defec-
tive in the spirit with which it was performed, which
was uniformly a spirit of pride and self-sutficiency.
Hence their righteousness being thus essentially de-
fective, even their religious duties, actions in them-
selves good, were entirely vitiated and converted
into actions totally unacceptable in the sight of God.
If tliey gave alms, they did so in a public and osten-
tatious way, selecting the synagogues and the streets
as the most public places for discharging this most
important Christian duty. AVhen they prayed, it
was not in the privacy of the closet, but in the open
high ways, amid jiassing crowds of observers. On
the days set apart lor fasting, the Pharisee might be
seen clothed in the meanest dress, with his head and
face covered with ashes, liis head hanging down like
a bulrush, and his face fixed upon the ground, wish-
ing to convey, by his whole aspect and demeanour,
that his soul was weighed down to the dust because
of sin. In their every action, in short, the Pharisees
were actuated by the all-engrossing desire to " have
glory of men."
The Pharisees, thougli agreed in general points of
doctrine among themselves, were nevertheless di-
vided into several branches or subdivisions. Both
the Jerusalem and Babylonian Tahnnds speak of
seven difl'erent kinds of Pharisees, of which two ap-
pear to be alluded to, though not mentioned by
name, in the New Testament. Tims in Matt, xxiii.
5, 14, we may perceive an obvious allusion to the
Shecheniite Pharisees, or those who joined the sect
from no other motive than self-interest and the love
of gain. In Luke xviii. 18. also there appears to be
a decided reference to another sect of Pharisees who
observed a strict moral discipline, and were ready to
perform every duty. Besides these two classes or
divisions there was tlie Dasliing Pharisee, as he was
termed, who walked with app.-iient liumili'y, moving
654
PIIARMACIDES- PHILISTINES (Religion of the Ancient).
slowly, wiili tlie heel of one foot toiiuliing the great
toe of the othef; nor ilid he lift his feet from the
ground so thiit his toes were dashed against llie
stones. There was also tlie Bleeding Pliarisee, tliat
shut his eyes when he walked abroad to avoid the
sight of women, and would piess himself against the
wall that he might not touch those that passed hy,
thus hurting his feet and making them bleed. Tlie
Talmuds speak of the Pharisee of the Mortar, who
wore a loose coat in the shape of a mortar, with the
mouth turned downwards; or as others say, lie wore
a hat resembling a deep mortar, so that he could not
look upward nor on either side, but only downward
or straight forward. In addition to these we have
the Pharisee from Love, who obeyed the law from
love of virtue, and the Pliarisee from Fear, who
obeyed from fear of pimi>hment ; the one observing
the positive and the other the negative connnand-
meiits. It appears women also sometimes voluntarily
joined the sect of tlie Pharisees.
PII.\Il.VIACIDES, ail appellation signifying sor-
ceresses or witches, wliicli was given by I he Thebans
to those who delayed the birlli ot' Hcruclet:.
PH.VHMACY, a name applied to llie arts of the
magician and enchanter, in llie early ages of the
Christian church. The council of Ancyra forbid-
pharmacy, that is the magical art of inventing and
preparing medicaments to do mischief ; and live
years' penance is there appointed for any one that
receives a magician into his house for that purpose.
Basil's canons condemn it under the same characler
of pharmacy or witchcrafl. and assigns thirty years'
penance to it. Tertullian plainly asserts that never
did a magician or enchanter escape unpunished in
the church. Tliose who practised the magical art
were sometimes tenueii 2>haniuici, and their magical
liotioiis p/icirmiica.
PIIAKYGjE.A., a surname of Htni, derived froin
the name of a toun in Locris, where she was wor-
shipjied.
PHEI.OXIOX, a cloak which in th.e Greek
church corresponds to the chitxuUe in the Latin
church. This ecclesiastical vesliiient is worn by the
priests, and that worn by the patriarch is embellished
with triangles and crosses. This is supposed to
liave been the sort of garment which Paul left at
Troas, and his anxiety for its restoration is to be at-
tributed, we are told, to its sanctity as an ecclesiasti-
cal robe.
PlIKliKI'IlATTA. See Picu.^i.imk.m..
I'I11.\L.\. See Cantiiauij.s.
J'llllMTlA. See CiiAuisTiA.
PIIILADELPIIIAN A.SSOCIATIO.X, a sect of
Afi/'ticg which arose in the seventeenth cenliiry. It
was founded by I'ordage, a KoyalisI clergyman in
England, who took to medicine under the Protec-
torate. This visionary was a great student and ad-
mirer of Jacob Behineii ; but unlike his master, an
inveterate spirit-seer. He attracted a niiMiber of
f-jllowers, to whom he ga\c the name "I' llie Ddlti-
delphlcui Association, and who protessed to have seen
appaiilions of angels and devils in broad daylight,
every day for iiearl}' a month. One of the inosl con-
spicuous members of this association was Jane Leade
or Leadley, a widow of good family from Norfolk,
who, having retired from the world, gave herself uj) to
tlie study of the works of Belimen. She professed
to hold intercourse witli spirits, and committed her
revelations to writing, printing them at her own ex-
pense. She died in 1704, in her eighty-tirst year.
Pordage died a few years before her, but he is
said to liave previously combined with Mrs. Leade
in forming the Philadelpliiun Afsociulion in 1G97.
This remarkable woman, whose wriiings occupy
eight volumes, carried to its practical extreme the
Paracelsian doctrine concerning the mjigical power
of faith. It was by union with the divine will,
she alleged, that the ancient believers wrought
their miracles, and that faith can do miracles still ;
the will of the soul wholly surrendered to God be-
comes a resistle-s power throughout the universe.
Had aiiv considerable number of men a faith so
siroiig, rebellious nature would be subdued and
Paradise restored. The one grand desideratum in
the view of the Philadeliihian Association was, that
the soul of man should be coiiiinilted to the internal
teacher to be moulded, guided, and governed by him
to the total neglect of all other doctrines, precepts,
and opinions. This the members believed was the
case with themselves, and that they were tlie only
church of Christ upon the eartli in which the Holy
Spirit resided and reigned. They seem also to have
maintained the doctrine of universal salvation, and
the final restoration of all fallen intelligences. The
sect, wliicli was short-lived, embraced while it lasted
a considerable number of nieuibers, drawn not only
from the illiterate, but even from the well-informed
classes in England. A small body of Philadelphians
existed for a short time also in Holland.
PIIILAUELPHIAN UNIVEKSALISTS. Sec
U.MVEltSAI.ISTS.
PHILALETIIES. These lovers of Iriilli, as
their name implies, were a sect of inlidels which
arose at Kiel, in Germany, about 1847, and who
wished to ignore Chri-stiaiiity altogether, and to use
only the most general forms of pielv.
PHILIP (St.) and JAMES'S* (St.) D.W. a
festival observed in memory of the apostles Pliiliji
iiud Jaines the less, on the 1st of May. In ilic
Greek church the festival of St. Philip is kept un
the 14lh of November.
PHILll'PISTS. See Adiai'Hoiji.sts.
I'llILlSTINES (Kki.icion or the Ancient).
This people arc alleged to have descended from
Miziaim, the second son of Ham, and to have origi'
iially inhabited the north-eastern portion of Egypt.
At an early period they seem to have emigralcd to
Canaan, where, having dispossessed the Avites, they
took possession of a siniill jiDrtion of territory in the
souih-wcsl. This lam! of the Philistines was divi<lcd
PIIILOPOFTCHINS— PHCEXIX.
655
ill tlie (lays of Josluw into tive lurii»liii>s or princi-
paliiies, namely, Gaza, Askelon, Aslidoti, Gatli, and
Kkroii. Tlie period at wliicU they settled in Canaan
has not been ascertained, but they had probably
been located there a considerable time before Abra-
ham ap(ieared in their country. In their aboriginal
.state, and even in the day.s of Abraham and Isaac,
tliey were evidently worshippers of the true God.
Afterwards, however, they fell into gross idolatry,
and became inveterate and irreconcilable enemies of
the Israelites. Each of the five principal cities
seems to have had its own favourite idol. Tlieir
chief god was Dagon, worshipped at Gaza and other
cities on their coast. To him they ascribed tlie in-
vention of bread-corn or of agriculture, as his name
imports. He is said to have been Identical with the
Syrian goddess Derceto. As Dagon was the greatest
and the most ancient of the Philistine deities, so he
Seems to have histed longer than all the others, being
mentioned in 1 Mac. x., and thus evidently existing
at a late period of the Jewish iTistory. Next to Da-
gon in importance was Baalzehub, the god of Ekron,
who is styled the lord of flies. Another deity wor-
shipped by the Pliilistines was Asliteroth or Astarte,
a goddess having the head of a horned heifer. Slie
is mentioned as tlie last idol worshiiiped by the Jews.
Thus in Jer. xliv. 17. we resid, " But we will certaiidy
do whatsoever thing goetli forth out of our own
mouth, to burn incense unto the queen of heaven,
and to pour out drink oti'erings inito her, as we have
done, we, and our fathers, our kings, and our princes,
in the cities of Judah, and in the streets of Jerusa-
lem : for then bad we plenty of victuals, and were
well, and saw no evil."
PHILOPOFTCIIIXS, a sect of Dissenters from
the liiisso- Greek church, who are remarkable for
tlieir abstemiousness. Their ministers are trained
to the sacred office from their boyliood, not being
allowed to touch animal food, or to taste strong
drink, and they are doomed throughout life to celi-
bacy. The members of this sect fast on Wednesday,
because it was the day on which Jesus was betrayed;
and on Friday, as being the day on whicli he was
crucitied. They celebrate three extraordinary fasts;
tlie first, before Easter, lasts throughout seven weeks;
the second, up to the commencement of August,
fifteen davs; and the third, before Christinas, six
weeks. They drink no wine except on special oc-
casions. They decline to take an oath, but simply
use the words, '■ Yes. yes, in truth," with a peculiar
gesture of the hand. Many of them limit their food
to milk and vegetables.
PIIILOPONISTS, a sect which arose in the sixth
century, deriving its name from one of its wannest
supporter.s, John Philoponns, an Alexandrian phi-
losopher and grammarian of the highest reputation.
Tliev were 'fritheink; maintaining that in God there
are three natures as well as persons, absolutely equal
ill all respects, and joined together by no essence
Common to all. This sect belicNed also, in opposi-
tion to the CoHonites, that the form as well as the
matter of all bodies was corrupt, and that both,
therefore, were to be restored in the resurrection.
PHILOSARC^E {G\: phileo, to love, and sarx,
flesh), a term of reproach used by the Origeiiists in
reference to the orthodox as believers in the resur-
rection of tlie body.
PHILOSOPHlVrS. See Illuminati.
PH1L0THEI.\ (Gr. j5/(;fco, to love, and Theos,
God), a term sometimes applied by ancient Christian
writers to the monastic life, because those who em-
braced that life professed to renounce all for the
love of God. Hence Theodoret entitles one of his
books ' Philotheiis,' because it contains the lives of
the most famous ascetics of bis time.
PIILEGETIION, a river in the infernal regions,
according to the system of ancient Heathenism. It
was one of the four rivers which the dead must cross
before finding admission to the realms of Orcus.
See IIicLL.
PIIOBETOR, an attendant on Somnus, the god
of sleep, in the ancient Heathen mythology. It was
his office to suggest to the mind images of animated
beings, and in this capacity he is mentioned bj Ovid
in liis ' Metamorphoses.'
PHOBUS, the personification of Fear among the
ancient Greeks. He is said to have been the son of
Ares and Cythercia, and a constant attendant upon
his father. He was worsliipped by the Koinans un-
der the name of Melus.
PHCEXICIANS (Keligion of the Ancient).
This people are generally admitted to have been
Cunaamtes by descent, and must originally have had
a knowledge of tlie true God. In course of time, how-
ever, tliey degenerated into a blind idolatry. The
chief of their deities, as we learn from a fragment of
Sanchoniathon, preserved by Eusebius, was Baabam-
in, or the lord of heaven. The same name is found
also in the comedies of Plautus as a Phoenician deity.
The prophets and priests connected with the service
of this god appear to have been numerous. Thus we
read that 450 of them were fed at Jezebel's table.
They conducted tlieir idolatrous worship not only
with burnt-ort'erings and sacrifices, but with dances
and gesticulations, by which they wrought them-
selves up to a high stale of madness, in the midst of
which they cut themselves with knives and lancets.
Herodotus supposes the Phoeiiicians to have been
circumcised, but Josephus asserts that, with the ex-
ception of the Jews, none of the nations of Palestine
and Syria used that religious rite.
PHffiXIX, a fabulous bird among the ancient
Egyptians. It had the size and shape of an eagle,
which apjieaied, it was alleged, on the return of cer-
tain astronomical periods, sui)posed to correspond to
certain phases in the life of nations. This hierogly-
phical bird is represented as perched upon the hand
of Hercules. "A star," says Mr. Gross, "the em-
blem of Sirius, and a balance, significant of the sum-
mer solstice, defined and illustrated its symbolical
G56
PIIONASCUS— PHRONTISTERIA.
impoi-taiice. Its liead is orimmeiited witli a tuft of
foatliers ; its wings, according to Herodotus, are
|>artly of a gold, and partly of a ruby colour; and its
form and size perfecily correspond to tlie contour
and dimensions of the bird of heaven — the eagle: it
is also recognized in the form of a winged genius in
human shape. This emphatically aslronomical bird,
at the expiration of the great Sirius year, comprising
a period of fourteen iuuidred and sisty-oiie years,
used regularly to come from the East, we are told,
hearing the ashes of its defujict sire, and depositing
them in the temple of the sun at Hohopolis; that is,
a new cycle of Sirial time commenced or succeeded
the old ! It is further to be <ibserved that at (he
termination of the fourteen hundred and sixty-one
years, and at the time of the new moon duririg the
sunmier solstice, the fixed agrarian and the vague
ecclesiastical year of the Egyptians, exactly coin-
cided. This event tilled all Egypt wiili unbounded
joy, and attested the perfection and triumph of the
astronomical science of the priests, especially tlie
most erudite among them — those of Ileliopolis. Ow-
ing to the facts before us, the phoenix was a leading
type of the resurrection among the ancients, and re-
garded emphatically as the bird of time." The
phcenix was said to revive from its ashes after hav-
ing voluntarily built for itself a funeral pile on which
it was con.sumed. This is supposed by Rougemont
to be a mytli representing that the present world
must perish by lire only to revive in a new existeiice.
The East is full of fables rcsendjling the phcenix.
Thus the Simoyg of the ancient Persians is said to
have witnessed twelve catastrophes, and may yet see
many more. It has built its nest on Mount /CW/J and
perched upon the branches of ihe Gogard, or tree of
life, it predicts good and evil to mortals. Similar
legends are to be found connected with the Jiolch of
the Arabians and the Seme/tda of the Hindus. The
Jews also have their sacred bird Talts.
PHOXASCUS, a name given in the ancient Chris-
tian Church to- the individual who acted as pre-
centor, or led the psalmody in divine service. This
appellation seems to have been iirst used in the
fourth centiny, and is still employed in the Greek
Clun-cli.
PHOlvCIJS, or PilORCY.s, a Homeric sea-god, to
whom a harboin- in Ithaca was dedicated. He is
said to have been the son of Pcmtus and fie, and to
have been the father, by his si.ster Ceto, of the Gof-
goii.'!. the Hesperian dragon atul the Ilesperides. I«v
Hecate he was the fatlier of Si-i//la.
PHO.-^l'HOKUS (Or. light bringer), a surname of
Arlfmi'.i, Eon, and Ilccate. 'I'liis was also the name
given by the Ctroek poets to the planet Venus when
it appeared in the morning before sunrise.
PHOSand I'H()T1S.\I.\ (Or. light and ilhnnina-
tion), the names generally applied in the aiu'ient
C/hrislian Chiu'ch to baptism, from Ihe great bless-
ings supposed to arise! from il.
PHOT.V JIacia), ihc H(,ly I.ighls, a term an-
ciently used lo doioto the festival of JSyj/yi^r/Hy, as
beioTr commemorative of our Saviour's baptism.
PIIOTINIANS, a heretical sect which arose in
the foiu'lh century, deriving its origin and name from
Photinus, bishop of Sirmiiiin, who taught the most
erroneous opinions concerning God. His views are
thus stated by Walch : " Photinus had (1.) erroneous
views of the Trinity. On this subject he tanglit
thus : — The Holy Scriptures speak indeed of the
Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit : but we are lo
understand by them only one person, who in Scrip-
ture is called the Father. What the Scriptures call
the Word of God is by no means a substance or a
person, si ill less is it a |)erson begotten by the Fa-
ther and therefore called the Son. For with God
there can be no generation, and of course he can
have no Son. \eilheris the Word that person who
made the world, but the AVord is properly the un-
derstanding of God, which comprehends the designs
of God in all his external operations and is therefore
called God. The Proly Spirit also is not a person
but an attribute of God. Hence followed (2.) er-
roneous ideas of the person of Christ. He main-
tained that Jesus Christ was a mere man, that before
his birth he had no existence except in the divine
foreknowledge, and that he began to be when he was
born of Mar)- by the Holy Sfiirit. Yet he received
the special influences of divine power whereby he
wrought mij'acles. This is the indwelling of the
word. On account of the.se excelh nt gil'is and his
perfect virtue, God took this man into the place of a
sou, and therefore he is called the Son of God and
also God. Therefore it must be said that the Son of
God had a beginning." The errors of Photinus and
his followers were condemned by the council of
Milan, and also by that of Sirmiuni, A. I>. 351. He
was in consequence deprived of ofiice and sent into
banishment ; whereupon he appealed to the emperor,
who allowed him to defend his doctrines imblicly.
Basil, bishop of Ancyra, was appointed to dispute
with him, and a formal discussion took place, when
the victory was decided to be on the side of Basil,
and the sentence pronounced upon Photinus was
conlirmed. He died in exile in k. D. 372.
PHOTISMA. See Pnos.
PHOTISTERION, a place of ilhnnination, being
a term frequently used in the ancient Christian
Church, to denote the Biiptislery as the place of bap-
tism, that ordiuanee being supposed to be attemled
with a divine illuminalion of the soul. This name
miglit also be used for anolher reason, namely,
because baptisteries were the places in which instruc-
tion was coinnnnn'caled previous to baptism, the cate-
chumens being there taught the creed and instructed
in the tirst rudiments of ihe Christian fiilh.
PIIOTIZOMKN'OI (Gr. enlightened), a term fre-
(piejuly used among the early Christians to denote
the baptized, as being instructed in the mysteries of
the Christian religion.
PIIUONTISTERl.V, a nanu' .-q.plied in ancirul
PHRYGIANS (Religion of the Ancient)— PHYLACTERY.
657
times to denote monasteries, as being places of edu-
cation and scliools of learning. Baptisteries were
also called occasionally by tliis name, the catechu-
mens being there educated in religious truth.
PHRYGIANS (Religion of the Ancient),
This people, who inhabited a province of Asia Minor,
were anciently reputed to have been the inventors of
augury, and other kinds of divination, and were re-
garded as the most superstitious of all the Asiatic
nations. They had many idols, but the goddess Cy-
bele seems to have been their principal deity, who was
regarded as the great mother of the gods. At stated
times they carried her image through the streets,
dancing round it, and after having, with violent ges-
ticulations, wrought themselves into a frenzied state,
they cut and wounded their bodies in commemora-
tion of the grief which Cyhelc felt on the death of
her beloved son Attis. The same event was cele-
brated aniuially by wrapping a pine-tree in wool,
and carrying it with gretit soleinnity tq the temple
of the goddess, the priests who conveyed it thither
being crowned with violets, which were supposed to
have sprung from the blood of Attis. The priests
were not allowed to drink wine, or to eat bread, and
after their death they were placed in a stone ten
cubits high. It seems quite plaiji, from the slight
sketch we have given of the worship of Cybele by
the Phrygians, that some elements of the worship of
Dionysiis had come to be mixed up with those of the
worship of the Phrygian mother of the gods. Cy-
bele is so generally found on the coins of Phrygia,
that her worship seems to have been universal in
that ooujitry. There were, doubtless, many other
deities worshipped in Phrygia, but these were re-
garded as completely subordinate to the great god-
dess of the earth.
PHTHA, or Ptaii, the supreme god of the an-
cient Egyptians, in tlie first four dynasties or sue
cessions of kings, extending to about 321 years.
This god, however, seems, in later times, to have
been degraded from his high position, and become a
secondary god. No image of this, nor indeed of any
other god or goddess, is found upon the most ancient
Egyptian monuments. The worship of Pltthah pass-
ed from Egypt into Greece, and was altered into
HcpluEstus. " When in later times," says Mr. Os-
burn, iu Ids ' Religions of the World,' " pictiu'es and
images of the gods made their appearance on the
remains of ancient Egypt, Ptah was represented as a
tall youth, with haud.sorae features and a green com-
plexion, denoting the swarthy, sallow hue which the
burning sun of Africa had already impressed upon
the skins of Phut and his descendants. He was
swathed in white linen like a mummy, to denote that
he had been dead, but his hands had biu'st through
the cerements, and grasped many symbols, to denote
that he has risen again. This god will be found the
son of many divine pareiiis, according to the later
fablings, both of the monuments and of the Greek
authors; inost of them [ironipted by political mo-
ll
tiNes; but on monuments of all epochs the im.age of
Ptah of Memphis is enclosed iu a shrine, to denote
that he claimed atfiiiity with no other god, and that
his real parentage was unknown or forgotten."
PHTHARTOLATR^E (Gr. phthctrtos, corrupti-
ble, and latreuo, to worship), a term of reproach ap-
plied to the Severians (which see), in the sixth
century, who maintained that Christ's body was cor-
ruptible of itself, but by reason of the Godhead
dwelling in it was never corrupted. See Cr,E.\Tl-
COLJD.
PHUNDAITES. See Bogo.miles.
PHYLACTERY. This word, which in Greek is
phylacterion, denotes literally a preservative or pro-
tection, and hence is used to denote an amulet, which
is supposed to preserve from unseen evils. Among
the Jews, however, the 2>^yl"'^>e>'y "'as a slip of
parclmient, in which was written some text of Scrip-
ture. This was, and is still, worn by the more de-
vout Jews on the forehead and left arm while at
prayer, in literal obedience to the command in Exod.
xiii. 16, " And it shall be for a token upon thine
hand, and for frontlets between thine eyes : for by
strength of hand the Lord brought us forth out oi
Egypt;" and Deut. vi. 6 — 9, "And these words,
which I command thee this day, shall be in thine
heart: and thou shalt teach them diligently unto thv
children, and shalt talk of them when thou sittest
in thiue house, and when thou walkest by the wav,
and when thou best down, and when thou risest up.
And thou shalt bind them for a sign upon thine
hand, and they shall be as frontlets between thine
eyes. And thou shalt write them upon the posts ot
thy house, and on thy gates." These passages are
explained by the Rabbles as requh-ing schedules with
some portions of Scripture to be affixed to the door-
posts, and certain signs, tokens, and frontlets, to be
fastened to the liand or arm, and between the eyes.
The phylacteries of the Jews, called in the Tal-
nuid TephiUin, are of two kinds, those designed for
the head and those for the hand or arm. Mr. Allen, in
his ' Modern Judaism,' thus describes both these spe-
cies of phylactery : " The TephiUin for the head are
made of a piece of skin, or le.ather manufactured
from the skin, of some clean animal ; well soaked and
stretched on a block cut for the purpose, sewed to-
gether while wet, and left on the block till it is dried
and stLTened into the requisite form. When taken
off, it forms a leathern box, of equal length and
breadth, and nearly equal de[)th; divided by parti-
tions into four compartments ; and having impressed
on one side of it, the letter shin, .tnd on the other
side a character resembling that letter, only having
four points or heads, as the letter ehin has three.
This box is sewed to a thick skin, broader than the
square of the box : of this skin is formed a loop,
through which passes a thong, with which the te-
phillin are fastened to the head.
" In the four compartments are enclosed four pas-
sages of tlie law, written on parchment, and carel'ullv
658
rUYLACrKKY.
folded. Tliese parclimeiits are commonly bound with
some pure and well- washed hairs of a c;ilf or cow,
generally pnlled from tlie tail ; and the ends come
out beyond the outer skin, to indicate tliat the sclie-
diiles within are rightly made. But tliat skin is
sewed and fastened togetlier with very fine and clean
strings or cords, made from the sinews of a calf, cow,
or bull ; or, if none of the.^e be at hand, with soft
and thin thongs or ligaments, cut out of a calfskin.
"Through the loop of the box passes a long lea-
ther strap, which ought to be black on the outside,
and inside of any colour except red. Witli this strap
the tephillin are bound to the head, so that the little
box, including the parchments, rests on the forehead,
below tlie hair, between the eyes, against the peri-
cranium ; that the disine precepts may be fixed in
the brain, wliicli is supposed to contain the organs of
tliouglit and to be the seat of the soul ; that tliere
may be more sanctity in prayer; and that the com-
mandments of God may at the same time be con-
firmed and better observed. The strap is fastened,
on the back part of the head, with a knot tied in such
a manner as is said to resemble the letter daleth :
the ends of the strap pass over the shoulders, and
hang down over each breast.
" Tlie Tephillin for tlie arm, or, as they are fre-
quently denominated, the Tephillin for the hand, are
made of a piece of skin or leallier, similar to that
used in the tephillin for tlie head, and fastened to-
gether in the same manner ; except that, being with-
out any partitions, it has only one cavity ; nor is the
letter shin impressed upon it. The same four pas-
.sages of iScripture are written on parchment, and en-
closed in a hollow piece of skin like the finger of a
glove, which is put into tlie box and sewed to the
thick leather of whicli it consists.
"This little box is placed on the left arm, near
the elbow, and fastened by a leather strap, with a
noose, to the naked skin, on the inner part of the
arm ; so that when the arm is bent, the tephillin may
toucli the flesh of it, and may also stand near the
heart, for the fultilmeiitof the precept, 'Ye .shall lay
up these words in your heart:' and that the heart,
looking upon tliem, may be abstracted from all cor-
rupt alVections and desires, and drawn out into greater
fervency of prayer. The straji is twisted several
times about the arm, ,iiid tlien three times round the
middle finger; by some, three times round three of
the fingers : and on the end of it is made the letter
jod."
The four sections or paragraphs of the law wriiti'U
on the phylacteries are as follows: (1.) Deut. vi. 4 — G.
(2.) Dent. xi. 1.3— 21. (3.) Exod. xiii. 1— 10. (4.)
Kxod. xiii. 11 — IG. These passages in the case of
phylacteries lor the liead are written on four separate
pieces of parchment, in the case of pliylacteries for
the arm they must be all mi one piece in four dis-
tinct columns. The ink used must be made of galls.
The letters must bedisiinct and separate; wriileii
with the right hand. Each section of Scriptin-e must
be written in four lines, and distinct regulations are
laid down as to the words with wliich the respective
lines are to begin. Before the schedules are put
into the box, they are to be carefully read three times
over. Every male Jew, wlien he reaches the age of
thirteen years and a day, is considered as now per-
sonally responsible for his actions, and for the first
time lie assumes the phylacteries. The mode in
which the Modern Jews put them on is thusdescnbed
by a writer on the customs and manners of that sin-
gular people : " They first take tlie phylactery for
the arm, and having placed it on that part of the
left arm which is opposite to the heart, say the fol-
lowing grace : ' Blessed art thou, O Lord, our God,
King of the Universe ! who hath sanctified us with
his commandments, and commanded us to say the
Tephillin.' They then instantly, by means of a lea-
ther thong which runs through a loop of the case
like a noose, fasten it on the arm that it may not slip
from thence-. They then take the pliylactery for
the head, and saying tlie following, ' Blessed art
thou, 0 Lord, our God, King of the Universe ! who
hath so sanctified us with his commandments, and
commanded us the commandment of the Tephillin,'
place the case on the forehead on that part where
the hair begins to grow, and fasten it by means of a
leather thong, which runs through the loop, is car-
ried round the head, and tied behind, where it re-
mains in that position ; observing also, at the same
time, that it is placed exactly between the eyes. All
this is understood liy the comniandnieiit in the Law :
'And thou slialt bind lliem for a signnpot»tliy h.and,
and they shall be as I'roiitlets between thine eyes.'"
Every Jew is bound, when reading the S/iema in
the morning, and saying the nineteen prayers, to put
on the phylacteries. He is not recinired to wear
them on the Sabbath and other festivals, the very
observance of these being regarded as a sufficient
sign in itself according to Exod. xxxi. 12, 13, "And
the Lord spake unto JVIoses, saying. Speak thou also
imto the children of Israel, saying. Verily my Sab-
baths ye .shall keep : for it is a sign between inc and
you throughout your generations : that ye may know
that 1 am the Lord that doth sanctify you." Leo
Modeiia says, that men ought continually to wear
the phylacteries for the head, but to avoid the scotTs
of the nations, among whom they live, and also he-
cause they regard these as holy things not to be
used on every trivial occasion, they put them on
oidy in the time of prayer.
Among the ancient Christians phylacteries were
used, not like those of the Jews, but simply amnlcls
made of ribands, with a text of Scripture written in
them, and hung about the neck to cure diseases and
ward ofi' dangers. This custom is severely censured
by the ancient canons and fathers. Thus the council
of Ijaodicea condemns cleigymen that pretended to
make such phylacteries, and orders those who wore
them to be cast out of the church. The council of
Trullo decrees six years' peuanco for such ofi'endern
niYLLOBOLIA— PIETISTIC CONTROVERSY.
659
Chryso-lom stamps the use of plivlactei'ies as gross
idoliUiy, uiid tlii-eateiis to exeoinmiiiiicate every one
who slioiikl practise it. Tlie cluircli, accordingly,
to root out this superstition, which was unhappily
too prevalent both among Jewish and Pagan con-
verts, required all candidates for baptism, who wore
phylacteries, to renounce the practice altogether.
PIIYLLOBOLIA (Gr. phuUon, a leaf, and haUo,
to throw), a custom wliich existed among the an-
cient Iieathen nations, of tlu-owing flowers and leaves
on the tombs of the dead. The Greek was placed
on his funeral bed as if asleep, wearing a white robe
and garland, the purple pall half hidden by number-
less chaplets, and so was carried out to liis burial
before the dawn of day. Tlie Romans, deriving the
custom from the Greeks, covered the bier and the
funeral pile with leaves and flowers. It is a not
nnfreqnent custom, in various parts of England at
this day, to spread flowers on and around the body
when committing it to the cofRu. In Wales, also,
wlieu the body is inferred, females hasten witli their
aprons ftdl of flowers to plant them on tlie grave.
The practice of connecting tlowers with the dead
seems to have been of great antiquity, for an Egyp-
tian of high rank was wont to be carried to his sepul-
chre in a sarcophagus adorned with tlie lotus, had
his tomb decked with wreaths, and his mummy case
painted with acacia leaves and flowers. Tlie use of
flowers on such occasions was, no doubt, connected
with the idea of a life after death.
PIARISTS, a Romish order of religious founded
in A. D. 1648, by Joseph Calasauza, a Spaniard, then
residing at Rome. Tiie monks of this order soon
became the rivals of the Jesuits as the fathei-s of
the religious schools.
PICARDS, a sect which arose in Flanders about
the beginning of the lifteenth century, deriving their
name from one Picard, who taught doctrines some-
what resembling those of the Ad.\mites (which
see). Tliis sect endeavoured to introduce among the
Hussites a paradisaic state of nature. They are said
to have held their meetings during the night. They
gathered a few disciples in Poland, Bohemia, Holland,
and even in England, but speedily became extinct.
PICTURE-WORSHIP. See I.maok-Wohsiiip.
PICUMN'US and PILUMNUS, two brothers in
tiie ancient Roman mythology, who presided as gods
over marriage. It was customary to prepare a
couch for these deities in any house in which there
was a new-born child. The tir.st-nientioned god be-
stowed upon the child healtli and success in life,
while the other warded olf all dangers from it dining
the tender ye.ars of childhood.
PIOUS, a deity among the ancient Romans who
was believed to be a son of Saturn and father of
Fauniis. According to some traditions he was the
first king of Italy. Failing to return the love of
Circe she changed him into a woodpecker, retaining
still the prophetic powers which he had po.ssessed
in his human shape.
PIE, the table ii.'^cd in England, before the Refor-
mation, to find out the service belonging to each day.
PIERIDES, a surname of the Muses, derived
from Pieria in Thrace, where they were worshipped.
ITETAS, a personification of affection and vener-
ation among the ancient Romans. She had a temple
dedicated to her by Atilius the Duumvir. This god-
dess is represented in the garb of a Roman matron
throwing incense upon an altar, and her symbol is a
stork feeding her young.
PIETISTIC CONTROVERSY, a very important
religions contention, which took [dace in Germany
towards the end of the seventeenth and the beginning
of the eighteenth centuries. It originated in the
theological writings and earnest ministerial labours
of Philip Jacob Spener, wlio, proceeding on the
principles of Christian experience rather than on
doctrinal refinements, and finding fault with the Pro-
testant Church of his time for its dead faith, know-
ledge without life, forms without spirit, sought ear-
nestly for the renovation of the church, and the
infusion of true spiritual life. To accomplish this
object which he had so much at lieart, he set up pri-
vate religions meetings first in his osvn house, and
afterwards in the church. These, which were termed
Colleges of Piety (which see), speedily led to an
extensive religious awakening. Siiener was joined
in his pious work by a distinguished lawyer. Christian
Thomasius, and devoting himself to the diligent
study of the Bible, was instrumental in a high degree
in giving a practical direction to tho theology of the
evangelical church. Fraiicke, also, by his devotional
lectures on the New Testament, which were attended
by large numbers of students and citizens, aided
powerfully the efforts of Spener and his associates.
The movement aroused a spirit of bitter hostility in
the hearts of multitudes, who branded its zealous
originators as Pietists, a term by which they meant
to denounce them as pious well meaning enthusiasts.
And not limiting their hatred to mere verbal re-
proaches, many both of the clergy and laity com-
menced an active persecution, which compelled
Spener and his t'riends to leave Leipsic in 1690, and
to repair to Halle, where the controversy assumed an
entirely new aspect. The almost exclusively practi-
cal form which the Pietistic theology assumed to the
neglect of abstract points of doctrine, roused many
opponents not only among the worldly, but even the
orthodox, who exclaimed against this new sect, as
they termed it, denouncing its theology as an apos-
tasy from the faith of the fathers.
The cardinal doctrine on which the Pietists were
considered as deviating from the Word of God, was
that of justification by faith, looking, as their op-
ponents alleged, to the subjective, and not at all to
the objective element of faith. In exhibiting a ten-
dency of this kind they showed themselves indilfer-
ent as to the objects of knowledge, the confession of
the church, and theological science. And even on
the subject of the order which the Spirit follows in
C60
PIETISTS (Catholic)— PILGRIMAGES.
the work of conversion, tliey weie also regarded as
having fallen into enor. Thus they asserted that
tlie process commences with a cliange in the voli-
tions of a man, while their theological opponents
maintained that the teachini,' both of Scripture and
the symbolical books of the church, declared the
illumination of the understanding to be the ihst step.
The cry of heresy now waxed louder and louder ;
the passions of the people were appealed to, and
even the civil courts were called upon to interpose
in order to put down the obnoxious Pietists. Tiieir
zeal, however, seemed only to gather strength from
opposition. They now asserted that none but con-
verted men should be allowed to undertake the min-
isterial office, and that religion must be regarded as
consisting rather in devotional feelings than in doc-
trinal belief.
In their expositions of Sacred Scripture they dwelt
much on the prospects which they believed to be
held out of a millennial kingdom, and some of them
seem even to have tanglit the doctrine of a final res-
toration of all mankind to the everlasting favour and
felIow.'iln|) of God. As time rolled on, the opposi-
tion offered to Pietistic theology became less violent,
and about 17"20 had almost lost its activity. But
the system itself was undergoing, at the same time,
a gradual deterioration, and at length appeared to be
merely a languid religion of feeling, and, in some
cases, a system of legality and ceremony. " Regis-
ters," says Dr. Hase, " were kept for souls, and
many idle persons supported thenisclve.s comfortably-
by using the new language respecting breaking into
the kingdom, and the sealing of believers, while
serious-minded persons were utterly unfitted for their
ordinary social duties, vmtil in despair they connnit-
ted suicide."
One of the cliief seats of Pietism in Germany,
throughout the eighteenth and the first half of the
nineteenth century, has always been Wiirtemberg.
The earlier loaders of this school were Bengel and Oe-
tinger, and the more recent preachers belonging to it
are the two Hofackers, KapfF, Knapp, and Bahrdt.
" These Pietists of Wiirtemberg," .says Dr. Schart',
'■ occupied, for a long time, a position in the Lutheran
Church similar to that of the early Methodists in
tlie Anglican comnumiou, and the government wisely
tolerated them. They held, and still hold, separate
prayer-meetings, mostly conducted by laymen (the
so-called fitvndenliaUer, a sort of class leaders, of
wliom the late Iloilinaim and KuUen, of Korn-
thal, were the most able and jjopular) ; but they
attended at the same time faitlilidly the public ser-
vices, received the sacraments at the hands of the
regularly ordained ministers, and, with the cxee])tion
of the congregations of Kornthal and M'ilhelmsdorf,
never seceded from the Establislicd (Church, prefer-
ring rather to remain in its bo.som as a wholesome
leaven. Thus they proved a blessing to it, and kept
the lamp of faith biu'ning in a period of spiritual
darkness. By and by, the church itself awoke from
the cold and dreary winter of.iiidid'erenlism and
rationalism, introduced a better hymn-book and litur-
gy, and began to take part in the benevolent opera-
tions of Christianity, heretofore carried on almost
exclusively by the Pietists, such as the domestic and
foreign missionary cause, the support of poor houses,
and orphan asylums. Since this revival of the
church, the Pietists have tliemselves become more
churcldy, and given up or modilied their former pe-
culiarities, but without falling in with the symboli-
cal Lutheranism, as it prevails now in the neighbour-
ing kingdom of Bavaria, and iji some psvrts of Xurlh-
ern Gennany."
PIETISTS (Catholic), a name which was ap-
plied to the Brethren and Sisters of the Pious and
Christian schools founded by Nicholas Barre in 1678.
They devoted themselves to the education of poor
children of both sexes.
PIKOLLOS, a deity among the ancient Wends
of Sclavonia, who was believed to preside over the
infernal regions and the realms of the dead. He
was represented as an old man with a pale counte-
nance, and having before him three deaths-heads.
He corresponded to Pluto of the ancient Romans,
and to Shiva of the Hindus. Like the latter he de-
sires human blood, ajid reigns at once over the mimes
or souls of the dead, and o\er the niclals in the
bowels of the earth.
PlLGRIMAGlvS, exercises of religious discipline
which consisted in journeying to some place of re-
puted sanctity, and frequently in discharge of a vow.
The idea of any peculiar sacredness being attached
to special localities under the Christian dispensation
was very strikingly rebuked by our blessed Lord in
his conver.sation with the woman of Samaria, as re-
corded in John iv. ; and nowhere is the principle on
this subject more plaiidy laid down than in the .state-
ments of Jesus on that occasion, ■' The hour coineth
wdien ye shall neither in this mountain, nor yet at
Jerusalem, worship the Father." " The hour Com-
eth, and now is, when the true worshippers shall
worship the Father in spirit and in truth: for the
Father seeketh such to worship hiin." In propor-
tion, however, as Christianity receded from the apos-
tolic age, it gradually lost sight of the simplicity and
spirituality which marked its primitive character,
and availed itself of carnal expedients for the pur-
pose of elevating the imagination, and kindling the
devotion of its votaries. Hence, in the fourth cen-
tury, many, encouraged by the example of the Em-
peror Constantine, whose superstitious tendencies
were strong, resorted to the scenes of our Savioiu-'s
life and ministry, as likely to thereby nourish and
invigorate their religious feelings and desires.
Helena, the mother of Constantine, set tlie first
exam))le of a pilgrimage to Palestine, which was soon
extensively imilaled ; partly, as in the case of Con-
stantine, with a desire to be baptized in the Jordan,
but still more from a veneration for the spots which
were associated with the events of the history of our
M
^
^ir.
PILf4RIMAGES.
m\ 1 1
Loi'il and his apostles. Tims a superstitious attach-
ment to the Holy Land increased so extensively,
that some of the most eminent teachers of ihe church,
as Jefome and Gregory of Nvssa, openly discouraged
these pilgrima:res. 'I'lie most frequent resort of pil-
grims was to Jerusalem, but to this were afterwards
added Rome, Tours, and Conipostella.
In the ^Middle Ages pilgrimages were regarded as
a mark of piety, but as miglit have been expected,
they gave rise to the most Hagrant abuses. We find,
accordingly. Pope Boniface, in a letter to Cntlibert,
archbishop of Canterbury, in the eighth century,
desiring that women and n\ms might be restrained
from their frequent pilgrimages to Rome. The sec-
ond council of Chalons, also, which was held in A. D.
813, denounces, in no measured terms, the false trust
reposed in pilgrimages to Rome and to the cliurch of
St. Martin at Tours. '• There are clergymen," com-
plains this ecclesiastical synod. '• who lead an idle
lite, .and trust thereby to be purified from sin, and to
fullil the duties of their calling ; and there are lay-
men who believe that tliey may sin, or have sinned,
witli impunity, because they undertake such pil-
grimages ; tliere are great men who, under this pre-
text, practise the grossest extortion among their peo-
ple ; and there are poor men who employ the same
excuse to render begging a more profitable employ-
jnent. Such are those who wander round about, and
falsely declare that they are on a pilgrimage ; while
.'here are others whose folly is so great, that tliey
believe that they become puritied from their sins by
the mere sight of holy pl.aces, forgetting the words
of St. Jerome, w!\o says, that there is nothing meri-
torious in seeing Jerusalem, but in leading a good
life there."
It was between the eleventh and the tliirteentli
centuries, however, that the rage for pilgrimages
came to its height. About the commencement of
the period now referred to, an idea extensively pre-
vailed throughout Europe, that the thousand years
mentioned in the Apocalypse were near their close,
and the end of the world was at hand. A general
consternation spread among all classes, and many in-
dividuals, parting with their property and abandon-
ing tlieir friends and families, set out for the Holy
Land, where they imagined that Christ would appear
to judge the world. While Palestine had been in
the hands of the caliphs^ pilgrimages to Jerusalem
had been encouraged as afTording them .an ample
source of revenue. But no sooner had Syria been
conquered bv the Turks, in the middle of the eleventh
century, than pilgrims to the Holy Laiid began to
be esposei! to everv species of insult. The minds of
men, in every part of Christendom, were now in-
flamed with indignation at the cruelties and oppres-
sions of the Mohammedan possessors of the holy
places ; and in sncli circumstances, Peter the Hermit
found little difficulty in originating the Cnisades,
which for two centuries p.oured vast armies of pil-
grims into tlie Holy Land. It was easier for the
Crusaders, liowever, to make their conquests than tc !
preserve them ; and, accordingly, before the thir-
teenth century had passed away, the Christians were
driven out of all their Asiatic possessions, and ihe
holy places fell anew into the hands of the Infidels.
In almost every country where Romanism pre-
vails, pilgrimages are common. In England, at
one time, the shrine of Thomas h, Becker, and in
Scotland that of St. Andrew, was the favourite re-
sort of devout pilgrims. But even down to the pre-
sent day there are various places in Ireland where
stations .and holy wells attract crowds of devout wor-
.shippers every year.
And not only in Romish, but in Mohammedan
countries, pilgrimages are much in vogue. But there
is one pilgrimage, that to Mecca, which is not only
expressly commanded in the Koran, but regarded by
the Arabian prophet as so indispensable to all his
followers, that, in his view, a believer neglecting this
dut)', if it were in his power to perform it, might as
well die a Christian or a Jew. (See MkC'C.a, Pil-
GRIM.\GE TO.) The Persians, however, instead of sub-
jecting themselves to a toilsome pilgrimage to Mecca,
look upon the country, of which Babylon formerly,
and now Bagdad is the chief city, as the holy land
in wliicli are deposited the ashes of AH and the rest
of their holy martyrs. And not only do the living
resort thither, but many bring along with them the
dp.ad bodies of their relatives, to lay I hem in the
s.aered earth. Pilgrimage is a duty binding upon all
Moslems, both men and women. Inability is the
only admitted ground of exemption, am! Jlohannnc-
dan casuists have determined that those who are in-
capable, must perform it by deputy and bear his
charges. The pilgrimage to Mecca was interrupted
for a quarter of a century by the CarmatMatis, und in
our own day it has been again ii;terrupted by the Wa-
liahees, ?ind these in turn have been defeated by Mo-
hammed Ali, who revived the pilgrimage and at-
tended with bis court.
Among some heathen nations, also, pilgrim.iges
are practised. In Japan, more especially, all the
ditlerent sects have their regular places of resort.
The pilgrimage which is esteemed by the Sintoists -Aii
Ihe most meritorious, is that of Isje, which all are
bound to make once a-year, or at least once in their
life. Another class of pilgrims are the Shinse, who
go to visit in i>ilgrimage the thirty-three principal
temples of Canon (which see), which are scattered
over the empire. Besides these regidar pilgrimages,
the Japanese also nndeitake occasional religious
journeys to visit certain temples in fulfilment of cer-
tain vows. These ])ilgrims travel alone, almost
always running, and, though generally very poor, re-
fuse to receive charity from others.
Hinduism has its pilgrimages on a grand scale.
Thousands and tens of thousands annually repair to
the temple of .Juggeniaiilh in Orissa. And equally
famed as the resort of multitudes of Hindu pilgrims
is th.e island of Ganga Sagor, where the holiest
662
PILGRIMS— PILLARS (Consecrated).
branch of tlie Ganges is lost in tlie wafers of tlie In-
dliin Ocean. To visit tliis sacred river hundreds of
tliousaiids annnally ahandon tlieir homes, and travel
for months amiil many liardsliips and dangers, and
slionld they reach tlie scene of their pilgrimage, it is
oidy in many cases that they may plunge themselves
and their unconscious babes into the troubled, but,
in their view, puril'ying waters, otiering themselves
and their little ones as voluntary victims to the holy
river. Among the numberless sacred spots in Hin-
dustan, may be mentioned Jumnoutri, a village on
the banks of the Jumna, which is so famed as a place
of pilgrimage that those who resort thither are con-
sidered as thereby almost entitled to divine honours.
The holy town of Hurdwar may also be noticed, to
which |)ilgrims resort from every corner of the East
where Hinduism is known ; and of such efficacy is
the water of the Ganges at this point, that even the
guiltiest may be cleansed from sin by a single ablu-
tion.
Tlie Budhists, though not so devoted to pilgrim-
ages as the Hindus, are not witliout their places of
sacred resort. One of the most noted is Adam's
Peak in Ceylon, where Gotama Biulha is supposed
to have left the impression of his foot. The summit
of the peak is aimually visited by great numbers of
pilgrims. The L-imaists of Thibet also make an an-
nual pilgrimage to Llia-Ssa for devotional purposes.
PILGRI.MS, those who make a journey to holy
places as a religious duty, to worship at the shrine of
some dead saint, or to pay homage to some sacred
relics. The word is derived fioni the Flemish ^W-
grim, or the Italian ^)f/(\7i'«H0, both of which may be
traced to the Latin /jor^r/nrfs, a stranger or traveller.
PILGRBIS (Poor,), a Romish order of religious,
which originated about A. D. 1500. They com-
menced in Italy, but passed into Germany, where
they wandered about as mendicants, barefooted and
barelieaded.
PILLAR-SAINTS, devotees wlio stood on the
tops of lofty iiillars for many years in fulfilment of
religious vows. The first who originated this prac-
tice was Simeon, a native of Sisan in Syria, who was
born about A. D. 390. In early youth he entered a
monastery near Antioch, where he devoted himself
to the most rigid exercises of mortilicalion and ab-
stinence. Having been expelled from the monastery
for his excessive austerities, he retired to the adja-
cent mountain, where he took up his residence first
in a cave, then in a little cell, where lie immured
himself for three years. Next he removed to the
top of a mountain, where he chained himself to a
rock for several years. His fame had now become
80 great, that crowds of visitors thronged to see him.
" Incommoded by the pressure of the crowd," we are
told, " he creeled a pillar on which he might stand,
elevated at first six cubits, and ending with forty.
The top of the pillar was three feet in diameter, and
siiiTomided with a liabistrade. Here be stood day
and night in all weathers. Through the uight and
till nine A. M. he was constantly in prayer, often
spreading forth his hands and bowing so low that his
forehead touched his toes. A by-stander once at-
tempted to count the number of these successive
prostrations, and he counted till they amounted to
1244. At nine o'clock A. M. he began to address
the admiring crowd below, to hear and answer their
questions, to send messages and write letters, &c. for
he took concern in the welfare of ail the churches,
and corresponded with bisliops and even witli emper-
ors. Towards evening he suspended his intercourse
with this world, and betook himself again to con-
verse with God till the following day. He generally
ate but once a week, never slept, wore a long sheep-
skin robe and a cap of tlie same. His beard was
very long, and his frame extremely emaciated. In
this manner he is reported to have spent thirty-seven
3'ears, and at last, in his sixty-ninth year, to have ex-
pired unobserved in a praying attitude, in which no
one ventured to disturb him till after three days,
when Antony, his disciple and biographer, mounting
the pillar, found that his spirit li.id departed, and his
holy body was emitting a delightful odour. His re-
mains were borne in great pomp to Antioch, in order
to be the safeguard of that unwallcd town, and innu-
merable miracles were performed .at his shrine. His
pillar also was so venerated that it was literally en-
closed with chiipels and monasteries for some ages.
Simeon was so averse from women that he never
allowed one to come within the sacred precincts of
his pillar. Even his own mother was debarred this
privilege till after her death, when her corpse was
brought to him, and he now restored her to life for a
short time, that she might see him and converse with
him a little before she ascended to heaven."
Another Simeon Stylites is mentioned by Eva-
grius as having lived in the sixth century. In his
childhood he inomited his pillar near Antioch, and
is said to have occupied it sixty-eight years. The
example of Simeon was afterwards followed, to a
certain extent at least, by many persons in Syria and
Palestine, and pillar-saints were found in the East,
even in the twelfth century, when the Sh/l/tes, as
they were termed by the Greeks, were abolished.
This order of saints never found a footing in the
West, and when one Wullilaieus attempted to com-
mence the practice in the German territory of Treves,
the neighbouring bishops destroyed his pillar, and
prevented hiin from carrying his purpose into efl'ect.
PILLARS (CONsr.cKATF.D). From the most re-
mote ages the practice has been found to prevail of
setting up stones of memorial to preserve the re-
membrance of important events. The first instance
mentioned in Scripture is that of the stone which
.Jacob set up at Bethel, and which he consecraled
by anointing it with oil to serve not oidy as a memo-
rial of the vision which he saw on that favoured
spot, but as a witness of the solemn engagement into
which he entered. We find a pillar and a heap of
stones made the memorials of a compact of peacti
PIMPLEIS-PIRIT.
603
r.'Uitiefl between Jacob aiirl Ijiiban. Moses, also, at
tlio foot of Mount Sinai, built an altar, and set up
twelve pillai's representing the twelve tribes of Is-
rael, in token of tlie covenant wliich tliey tliere made
with God. For a similar reason Josluia took a
great stone in Shechem, and " set it up under an
oak that w;vs by the sanctuary of the Ijord." This
pillar of stone was designed to be an en(Uu'ing monu-
ment of the great transaction in wliich ilie Israelites
had just been engaged.
Sometimes stone pillars were erected to mark the
burying-place of some rehitive, of whicli wo liave a
remarkable instance in the pillar which Jacob erect-
ed over the grave of his beloved Rachel. Among
the ancient Greeks and Romans the same custom
appears to have existed. Among the Sclavonic na-
tions of the Nortli such sepulchral stones, marking
the resting-place of the dead, are found in great
numbers. There are the rnugh-hewn memorial
stones or cromlechs of the northern hordes, an inter-
mediate link between the simple mound of earth and
the gorgeous mausoleum of more modern days. To
the rude stone pillars of earlier times succeeded the
sculptured obelisks of later ages. In Egypt, in In-
dia, in Persia, such indications of a higher civiliza-
tion have been found in great abundance. And what
are the towering stone pyramids of Egypt but only
gigantic mausoleums containing vaulted chambers, a
.sarcophagus, and mouldering bones?
The substitution of the rude for the scul[itured pil-
lar took place among the Israelites probably at the in-
troduction among them of the government of kings ;
and it is not unlikely that the monument by which
Saul commemorated his victory over the Anialekites
may have been a more polished and artistic structure
than the simple pillars of earlier times. Traces of
such refined monuments are still found chiefly in tlie
northern part of the Phoeincian territory. It has
been generally supposed that the Egyptian pillars
or obelisks were dedicated to the sun. " This, how-
ever," says Sir Jolm Gardner Wilkinson," is a mis-
conceptioti not difficult to explain. The first obelisks
removed from Egypt to Rome were said to ha\'e
come from Heliopolis, ' the city of the sun,' which
stood in Lower Egypt, a little to the south-east of
the Delta; and those of Heliopolis being dedicat-
ed to Re, the divinity of tlie [ilace, the Romans were
led to conclude that all others belonged to the same
god. But the obelisks of Thebes were ascribed to
Amun, the presiding deity of that city, and though
several of those at Rome came from Thebes, and
were therefore dedicated to Amun, the first impres-
sions were too strong to be removed, and the notion
of their exclusive appropriation to the sun conli-
nued, and has been repeated to the present day."
Consecrated pillars were probably the most an-
cient monuments of idolatry, and, accordingly, the
Isr.ielites were forbidden to set them up as objects
of worship. TIius they were enjoined in Lev. xxvi.
1, " Ye shall make you n) idols nor graven image.
neither rear you up a standing image, neither shall
ye set up any image of stone in your land, to bow
down unto it : for I am the Lord your God." Vos-
sius, in his erudite work, ' De Idololatria,' informs us,
that Jacob's stone-pillar was lield in great venera-
tion in after times, and was removed by the Jews to
Jerusalem. After the destruction of that city by
Titus, it is alleged that the Jews were permitted,
on a particular day, to anoint the stone with great
lamentations and expressions of sorrow. Bochart
asserts that the Plicc-nicians first woi^hijiped Jacob's
stone, and afterwards consecrated others, which they
called Batylia, in memory of Bethel, where Jacob
anointed the stone. See Stone- Worship.
PIMPLEIS, asuniame of the Muses derived from
Mount Pimplea in Bceotia, whicli was sacicd to
them.
PINARII, a family of hereditaiy priests of Her-
cules among the ancient Romans. They were infe-
rior to the Potitii, another family who were devoted
to the worship of the same god. The Pinarii are
mentioned as existing in the time of the kings.
PINCZOVIANS, a name which was given to the
SociNlANS (which see) in Poland in the sixteentli
century, derived from the town of Pinczow, where
the leaders of the sect resided.
PIRIT, a ceremony among the Biidhists o( Cey-
Ion, which consists in reading certain portions of the
Ban.v (which see), for the purpose of appeasing the
demons called yalcas, from whom all the afHiciions of
men are supposed to proceed. This ceremony, which
is the only one that professes to be sanctioned by
Goiama Bndha, is thus described by Mr. Spence
Hardy, in his 'Eastern Monachism:' " About sun-
set numbers of persons arrived from dilTerent quar-
ters, the greater proportion of whom were women,
bringing with them cocoannt shells and oil, to be
presented as offerings. As darkness came on, the
shells were placed in niches in the wall of the court '
by which the wiliara is surrounded ; and by the aid }
of the oil and a little cotton they were soon convert-
ed into lamps. The wall around the bd-trec was
similarly illuminated ; and as many of the people
had brought torches, coiriposed of cotton and resi-
nous substances, the whole of the sacred enclosure
was in a blaze of light. The gay attire and merry
countenances of the various groups that were seen
in every direction gave evidence, that however so-
lemn the professed olject for which they were assem-
bled together, it was regarded by all as a time of
relaxation and festivity. Indeed the grand cause of
the popularity of this and similar gatherings is, that
they are the only occasion, marriage festivals ex-
cepted, upon which tlie young people can see and be
seen, or upon which they can throw off the reserve
and restraint it is their custom to observe in the or-
dinary routine of social intercourse.
" The service continues during seven da3's, a pre
paratory ceremony being held on the evening of the
first day. The edifice in which it is conducted is the
Gijl
rniKE AVOTH— PITAKA.
.'.■line as tliat in wliicli tlie haiia is reaii upon other
occasions. A relic of liiidlia, enclosed in a casket,
is placed upon a plat form erected for the purpose ;
and tlie presence of this rehc is supposed to give the
same eflicacv to the proceedings as thougli the great
.sago were personally there. For the priests wlio are
to ofliciate anotlier plait'orin is jji-epared ; and at tlie
conclusion of tlie preparatory service a sacred thread
called the pirit luila is fastened round the interior of
the building, the end of which, after being fastened
to the reading platt'onn, is phiced near the relic.
At such limes as the whole of the priests who are
present engage in chauuting in chorus, the cord is
untwined, and each priest takes hold of it, thus mak-
ing the comminiication complete between each of the
oniciating priests, the relic, and the interior walls of
the building.
" From the commencement of the service on the
morning of the second day, until its conclusion on
the evening of the seventh day, the reading platform
is never to be vacated day or niglit. For this rea-
son, when the two officiating priests are to be re-
lieved by others, one contiiuies sitting and reading
whilst the other gives his seat to his successor, and
the second priest does not effect his exchange until
the new one has commeticed reading. In the same
wav. from the morning of the second day till the
morning of the seventh day, the reading is contiiuied
day and night, without intermission. Not fewer
than twelve, and in general twenty-four, priests are
in attendance, two of whom are constantly officiating.
As they are relieved every two hours, each priest
has to officiate two hours out of the twenty-four.
In addition to this, all the priests engaged in the
ceremony are collected three times in each day : viz.
at sunrise, at midday, and at sunset, when they
chaunt in chorus the three principal discourses of
the Pirit, called respectively Mangala, Ratana, and
Karaniya, with a short selection of verses from other
sources. After this the reading is continued till the
series of discourses has been read through, when
they are begun again, no other than those in the first
series being read until the sixth day, when a new
series is connnenced.
" On the morning of the .seventh day a grand pro-
cession is formed of arnu'd and unarmed men, and a
person is appointed to officiate as the dcwadiitay.i, or
messenger of the gods. This company, with a few
of the priests, jirocceds to some place where the
gods are supposed to reside, inviting them to attend
prior to the conclusitni of the service, that they may
partake of its benelils. Until the messenger and
his associates retiu'n,the ofllcialing pricls remain
seated, but the reading is suspended.
" At the festival I attended the mcssengi r was in-
troduced with great state, and sulphur was burnt be-
fore liim to make his appearance the more superna-
tural. One of the priests liaving proclaimed that
the various orders of gods and demons wore invited
lo be present, tlie messenger replied that he had
been deputed by such and such deities, repeating
their names, to say that they would attend. The
threefold protective formulary, which forms part of
the recitation, was spoken by all present, in grand
chorus. In the midst of much that is superstitious
in practice or utterly erroneous in doctrine, there are
some advices repeated of an excellent tendency ; but
the whole ceremony being conducted in a language
that the people do imt understand, no beneficial
result can be produced by its performance."
Such is the ceremony attending the reading of the
ritual of priestly exorcism. This ritual is called
Pinizodnd pota. It is written in the Pali language,
and consists of extracts frran the sacred books, the
recital of which, accompanied v.ith certain attendant
ceremonies, is intended to ward otV evil and to bring
prosperitv.
PIRKE AVOTH (Heb. the hedge of the law), a
name given by the Jewish Rabbis to the Masoka
(which see), from the circumstance, that it is intend-
ed to hedge in or secure the law from all manner of
change.
PISCICULT (Laf . little fishes), a name which the
early Christians sometimes assumed, to denote, as
Tertullian alleges, that thej' were born again into
Christianity by water, and could not be .saved but
by continuing therein. Perhaps it may have a re-
ference to the ICHTlll's (which see).
PISCINA (Lat. pkcis, a fish), a name sometimes
applied to tlie font in early Christian churches. Th.e
word is supposed by Optatus to have been u.sed in
allusion to our Saviotu''s technical name ICHTurs
(which see). But as piscina denoted among the
Latiu writers a bath or pool, it is on that account
alone an appropriate name for a font. In the Ro-
mis-li Church the word jnscina means the sink or
cesspool where the priest empties the water in
which he washes his hands, and where he pours out
all the consecrated waste stutf. In the Church of
England the piscina is explained by Dr. Hook to
mean " a perforation in the wall of the church through
which the water is poured away with which the cha-
lice is rinsed out after the celebration of the Holy
Eucharist."
PISCIS. See Ichtiris.
PISTOL See BisLiicvEiiS.
PISTOR (Lat. the baker), a surname o^ Jupiter at
Rome, derived from the circumstance. th:it while the
Gauls were besieging that city, the god suggested to
the Romans that by throwing loaves of bread among
the enemy they might lead thom to raise the siege,
under the impression that the besieged were possess-
ed of ample provisions to hold (Uit against them.
PISTIUS, a surname of Zcvs, as being the god of
faith and fidelity. It corresponds lo the Latin Fi-
diun.
PISTORES (Lat. bakers), a term of rejiroach ap-
plied to the early Christians in consequence of their
poverty and simplicity.
PITAKA, or Pjtakattayan (Pali, pikiLun, a
PITANATIS— PIUS IV. (Creed of).
665
basket, and fdyo, tliree), the sacred books of tlie
Budliists. Tlie text of tlie Pitaka is divided into
tliree great classes. Tlie instructions contained in
the first class, called Winaya, were addressed to the
priests; those in tlie second class, Sutra, to the
laity ; and those in the third class, Ahhidharmma, to
the dewas and brahinas of the celestial woi'lds. There
is a commentary called the Atthakatlui, which, inilil
recently, was regarded as of equal authority with
the text. The text, as we learn from Mr. Spence
Hardy, was orally preserved until the reign of the
Singlialese monarcli, Wattagamani, who reigned from
B. c. 104 to B. c. 76, wlien it was committed to
writing in the island of Ceylon. The Commentary
was written by Budliagosha in A. D. 420. To es-
tablish the text of the Pitakas, three several convo-
cations were held. The first met B. c. 543, when
the whole was rehearsed, every syllable being re-
peated with the ntmost precision, and an authentic
version established, lliough not committed to writing.
The second convocation was held in B. C. 443, when
the wliole was again rehearsed in consequence of cer-
tain usages having sprung up contrary to tlie teach-
ings of Budlia. The third convocation took place
B. c. 308, when the Pitakas were again rehearsed
without either retrenchment or addition. These
sacred books are of immense size, containing, along
with the Commentary, nearly 2,000,000 lines. See
H.\NA, BUDHIST.S.
PITANATIS, a surname of Artemis, deri\'ed from
Pitaiia ill Laconia, where slie was worshipped.
PIUS IV. (Creed of). This document, which
forms one of the authorized standards of the Church
of Rome, was prepared by Pope Pius IV. imme-
diately after the rising of the council of Trent, and
is understood to embody in substance the decisions
of that council. The Creed bears date November
1564, and was no sooner issued than it was imme-
diately received throughout the Romish Cluirch, and
since that time it lias been always considered as an
accurate summary of their faith. It is binding upon
all clergymen, doctors, teachers, heads of universi-
ties, and of monastic institutions, and military orders,
with all reconciled converis. This authoritative do-
cument, with the oath or promise appended, runs as
follows : — ■
" I. I most .steadfastly admit and embrace the
Apostolical and Ecclesiastical Traditions, and all
otlier observances and constitutions of the same
church.
" II. I also admit the Sacred Scriptures, accord-
ing to that sense which Holy Motlier Church has
held, and does hold, to whom it appertains to judge
of the true sense and interpretation of the Holy
Scriptures ; neither will I ever take and interpret
them otherwise th.an according to tlie unanimous
consent of the Fathers.
" III. I also profess that there are, truly and pro-
perly, seven Sacraments of the new law. instituted
by ,jesus Christ our Lord, and necessary for the sal-
vation of mankind, though not all for every one; to
wit, Baptism, Confirmation, Eucliarist, Penance, Ex-
treme Unction, Orders, and Matrimony, and tliat
they confer grace ; and that of these Baptism, Con-
firmation, and Orders, cannot be reiterated witliout
sacrilege ; and I also receive and admit the received
and approved ceremonies of the Catholic Church
used in the solemn administration of all the afore-
said Sacraments.
" IV. I embi'ace and receive all and every one of
the things winch have been defined and declared in
the Holy Council of Trent concerning original sin
and justifii:ition.
" V. I 1 rofess, likewise, that in the Mass there is
offered unto God a true, proper, and propitiatory
sacrifice for the living and the dead ; and tliat in the
most holy Sacrament of the Eucharist, there are
truly, really, and substantially the body and blood,
together with the soul and divinity, of our Lord
Jesus Christ ; and that there is made a conversion of
the whole substance of the bread into the body, and
of the whole substance of the wine into the blood ;
which conversion the Catholic Church calls Tran-
substantlation.
"VI. I also confess, that under either kind .alone,
Christ Is received wliole and entire, and a true Sacra-
ment.
'• VII. I constantly hold that there is a Purgatory,
and that the souls therein detained are helped by
the suffrages of the faithful.
"VIII. Likewise, that the saints, reigning toge-
ther with Clirist, are to be honoured and invocated ;
and that they olier prayers to God for us, and that
their Relics are to be venerated.
" IX. I most firmly assert that the Images of
Christ, and of the Mother of God, ever Virghi, and
also of other saints, are to be had and retained ; and
that due honour and veneration are to be given to
them.
" X. I also affirm that the power of Indulgences
was left by Christ in the church, and that the use of
them Is most wholesome to Christian people.
" XI. I acknowledge the Holy Catholic and Apos-
tolic Roman Church, to be the mother and misiie.ss
of all churches ; and I promise and swear true obe-
dience to the Bi-sliop of Rome, successor to St. Peter,
Prince of the Apostles, and Vicar of Jesus Clirlst.
" XII. I likewise undoubtedly receive and profess
all other things delivered, defined, and declared by
the sacred Canons and general Councils, and parti-
cularly by the holy Council of Trent ; and I cDn-
demn, reject, and auatliematlze all things contiary
thereto, and all heresies which the church has con-
demned, rejected, and anathematized.
" I, N. N., do at this present freely profess and
sincerely hold this true Catholic faith, out of which
no one can be saved; and I promise most constantly
to retain and confess the same entire and inviolate,
witli God's assistance, to the end of my life. And I
will take care, as fw as in me lies, that it shall be
6G6
PLACEBO— PLURALIST.
liulil, taught, and preaclii'(! by my subjects, oi- by
those, the care of wliom shall appertain to me in my
olliee ; this I vow, promise, and swear — so help me
God and these IIolv Gospels of God!"
PIX. See Pyx'
PLACEBO, an office or service in the Romish
Chnrch, performed for the health and good estate
of some soul or souls; so called from the word Pla-
cebo, being the lirst word of the oflice.
PLANET WORSHIP. See 'I'sarians.
PL.WETA, a gown, the same as tlie chasuble,
worn by the Romish priesthood ; a kind of cape open
onlv at the sides, worn at mass.
PLATONISTS. See Academics.
PLATONISTS (Nnw). See Alexandrian
School.
PLENARY INDULGEXCES, those indulgences
which, according to the Romish Church, release tlie
individual from all tlie pains and penalties incurred
by him on account of sin up to the time of receiving
llie boon. The exact date of tlie introduction of
tliese indulgences has not been ascertained ; but
Pope Urban IL, at the council of Clermont in A. D.
1095, declared that to every one who should join
the crusades for driving the Saracens out of Pales-
tine, liis doing so should be reckoned as a full dis-
charge of all the penances which he might have
incurred, and he should also acquire the remission
of all tlie punishment to which he might have be-
come subject by the sins of his whole life. AVhen
the crusades, however, had ceased, plenary indid-
gences by no means ceased with them, but the sys-
i tern came to be applied to other cases. If a bishop
wished any work to be accomplished, as, fur instance, a
church to be repaired, an episcopal palace to be built,
or the like, he simply proclaimed a plenary indul-
gence, and immcdi itely he found abundance of will-
ing labourers. The most trifling services were
often purchased with indulgences, and in this way
the ancient discijiline and sj-stem of penance was
com|jletely relaxed. The abuses which had thus
arisen called for some remedy, and. accordingly,
Gregory VII. and Urban II. pointed the attenlion
of the clergy to the distinction between true and
false penitence; while Innocent III., by a special
decree, endeavoured to restrain the bisliops from the
indiscreet granting of indulgences.
The system of plenary indulgences was no sooner
introduced than it was adopted by many successive
popes. Thus we find it resorted to by Calixtus II.
in a. d. 1122; by Eugenius III. in A. D. 1145; by
Pope Clement III. in A. D. 1195. Bonilace VIIL,
iti the Bull which announced the Jubilee of A. D.
1.300, granted not only a plenary and larger, but a
most plenary remission of sins to those who should
visit the churches of the apostles. "It is worth
while," says Dr. Stillingfleet, "to understand the
diirerenco between a plenary, larger, and most plen-
ary, indulgence; since Bellarmine tells us, that a
[denary indulgence takes away all the punishment
due to sin. But these were the fittest terms to let
the people know that they should have as much for
their money as was to be had ; and what could they
desire more? And although Bellarmine abhors the
name of selling indulgences, yet it comes all to one :
the popes give indulgences, and they give money ;
or they do it not by way of purchase, but by way of
alms. But commend me to the jilain honesty of
Boniface IX., wlio, being not satisfied with the ob-
lations of Rome, sent abroad hisjubilees to Cologne,
Magdeburg, and other cities, but also sent his collec-
tors to take his share of money that was gathered,
without wliich, as Gobelinus saith, no indulgences
were to be had ; who also informs us, that the
preachers of the indulgences told the people, in order
to encourage them to purchase, that they were not
only apcena, but a culpa, that is, they not only deli-
vered from temporal, but frcjin the fault itself which
deserved eternal, punishment. This made the peo-
ple look into thcin, and not finding those terms, but
only the words ' a most plenary remission,' they were
dissatisfied, because they were told that the fault
could be forgiven by God alone ; but if they could
but once find that the Pope would undertake to clear
all scores with God for them, they did not doubt but
they would be worth their money. Whereupon he
saith, those very terms were put into them. 'J'hen
the wiser men thought these were counterfeit, and
made only by tlie pardon-mongers; but, upon fur-
ther inquiry, they found it otherwise. How far this
trade of indulgences was improved afterward.s, the
Reformation, to which they gave rise, will be a last-
ing monument." Dr. Lingavd, the Roman Catholic
historian, endeavours to explain away these plen-
ary indulgences, by alleging them to be merely
exemptions from certain canonical penances to which
their sins would have otherwise exposed them. See
Indulgence.
PLENARY INSPIRATION, an expression used
to denote the full inspiration of the Sacred Writings,
as extending not only to the thouglits of the writers,
but even to the very words in which their thoughts
are expressed. See Inspihation.
PLOUGHING FESTIVAL. See AfiiacuLTUHE
(Festival of).
PLUNTERIA, a festival anciently celebrated at
Athens every year in honour of Atliena. It was be-
lieved to be an uiducky day, because the statue of
the goddess was covered over and carefully concealed
from the view of men. A procession was Iield on
this day, and a quantity of dried figs was carried
about. If any undertaking was commenced on the
day of the Plunteria, the belief was that it must cer-
tainly fail.
PLURALIST, an ecclesiastic who holds more than
one benefice with cure of souls. In (he early Chris-
tian Church the existence of pluralities was unknown.
St. Ambrose, ind(>ed, expressly declares, that it was
not lawful for a bishop to have two eliurches ; and al-
though, in some cases, the p.auciiy of ministers might
PLUTON— POLAND (Eastern Church of).
607
render it necessary for a presbyter or deacon to olTi-
ciafe in more than one parocliial cliurch, lie was not
on that account entitled to draw the revenues of
these churclies. Thus there might be in those early
a^es a plurality of offices in the same dioceses, but
there could not be a plurality of bejiefices yielding
separate sources of income to the same officialing
minister. The council of Chalcedon has a peremi)-
tory canon forbidding all such pluralities, not only in
the case of churches, but also in the case of monas-
teries. This rule continued in force long after the
council of Chalcedon, and was renewed in the sec-
ond council of Nice, as well as in other later coun-
cils.
The .system of ]iluralities wliich prevails so exten-
sively in the Church of England had its origin in an
o!)solete law which empowered a poor clergyman,
with the consent of his bishop, to hold two or more
livings under the nominal value of £8 sterling. By
the canon law no two livings could be held conjunctly,
if the distance between them exceeded thirty miles ;
but for a century past the distance has been regarded
as extending to forty-five miles. In consequence of
the operation of this system more than 2,000 parishes
in England have been deprived of the right of pos-
sessing resident incumbents.
Pluralities have seldom been permitted to any
great extent in Presbyterian churches. The only
form, indeed, in which the question ever came before
the General Assembly of the Clun-ch of Scotland, was
that of a professorship being joined to a parochial
charge near the seat <jf a University. In this shape
the subject was discussed in three successive Assem-
blies, conmiencing with that of 1824, and although a
majority decided in favour of the double office, the
University Commission having expressed their oppo-
sition to pluralities as injuriously affecting the inter-
ests of education, the system, without any express
enactment on the part of the church, has been drop-
ped, except in a very few cases of parish ministers at
University seats, who act as professors.
PLUTON, the deity among the ancient Greeks
who was believed to bestow wealth. It was also a
name given to the god of the infernal regions.
PLUTUS, the personification of riches among the
ancient Greeks, who had a legend that Zeus had
blinded him in order that he might give riches with-
out reganl to merit.
PLUVIUS, a surname of JupUer among the an-
cient Romans as the deity who sends rain, and hence
thev worshipped him specially in times of drouglit.
PNEUMATOi\IACHI, a name given to the Ma-
cedonians (which see), as denying the divinity of
the Holy Spirit.
PODONIPTyE, (Gr.^owR, porlo.i, a foot, and niptn,
to wash), a term used to designate a party of the
Mrnnonites (which see), because they believed
that it was imperative upon the disciples of Christ in
every age to wash the feet of their guests in token of
their love.
PCENA, a [lersonification of punishment among
the ancient Rouians, and allied to the Furies.
POLAND (Eastern Church of). The empire
of Lithnam'a in Poland, included from the thirteenth
century a large population which had been converted
to Christianity in connection with the Greek Church.
This po[iulation, inliabiting the Western Russian
principalities, had been added to the empire by con-
quest, and were allowed to retain the undisturbed
enjoyment of their religion, language, and local cus-
toms. The Lithuanian sovereigns appointed as gov-
ernors of these provinces princes of the reigning
family, who themselves became converts to the
Eastern or Greek Church. This was particularly the
case with the sons of Ghedimin in the fourteenth cen-
tuiy, who were intrusted with these provinces. Their
father remained throughout life a Pagan idolater,
but his son, Olgherd, who succeeded him, was bap-
tized into the Greek Church. He attended Christian
worship at Kiofi'and other towns of his Russian pos-
sessions, built churches and convents, and was prayed
for by his Christian subjects as a believer in tlie
orthodox faith ; and yet, with a strange inconsistency,
when at Wilna, the capital of Lithuania Proper, he '
sacrificed to the national idols, and adored the sacred
fn-e. Several of his sons were baptized and educated
in the tenets of the Greek Church, but Jaghellon,
his successor on tlie throne, was brought up in the
Pagan idolatry of his ancestors. He became a con-
vert, however, in 1386 to the creed of the Western
church, but Paganism lingered in Lithuania for a
considerable lime after the conversion of its sov-
ereign. This was particularly the case in Sauiogi-
tia, where the last sacred grove was not cut down,
and idolatry finally abolished, before 1420.
The union between the Eastern and Western
churches, which was completed at Florence in 14.^8,
was resisted by the Lithuanian churches, though it
was urged ujion them by several of their own pre-
lates. The difRcult task was intrusted to the Jesuits
of inducing the Eastern Church of Poland to submit
to the supremacy of Rome. To accomplish this
work they published various writings in favour of
the union of Florence, and used every efi'oit to gain
over to their cause the most influential of the clergv.
They found a ready tool to serve their purposes in a
Lithuanian noble, called Michael Rahoza, who, though
trained by themselves, had taken orders in the Greek
Church, and at their recommendation had been ap-
pointed archbishop of Kioff. This dignitary of the
Greek Church was supplied by the Jesuits with written
instructions how he was most elfectually to bring
about the desired union of his church with Rome.
Thus trained for his work the archbishop of Kioff, in
1590, convened a synod of his clergy at Brest in
Lithuania, and urged upon them, witli every argu-
ment he could command, the importance of submit-
ting to the Roman see. The clericy were strongly
impressed in favour of the proposal, but it met with
the .iiost strenuous opposition on the part of the
668
POLAXD (.Minor Reformed Church of).
laity. Anotlinr syiioil w:is convened at Brest in
1594, wliicli was attemled with greater success. Tlie
subject liaving been t'lilly discussed, the arolibisliop
and sevefal bisliops declared their agreement with
the union concluded at Florence in 1438, admitting
tlie procession of tlie Holy Ghost from the Fatlier
and tlie Son, the doctrine of purgatory, and the
supremacy of the Pope ; while they declared their
detennination to retain the use of the Slavonic lan-
guage in the celebration of public worship, and the
retention of the ritual, as well as the discipline of
tlie Eastern Cliurch. The only condition they made
was, tiiat in their worsliip they might retain the Sla-
vonic language, and observe the ceremonies of the
.Slavonic ritual. Tliis party received the name of
Uniates or United Greeks, and about 3,500,000 are
still to be found in the .Austrian dominions. The
announcement that the union had been accomplished
was received by Pope Clement VIII. with the high-
est satisfaction. Another synod was convened at
Brest by royal edict in 1596 for the purpose of
inaugurating the union. At this synod the event
was solemnly proclaimed, and all who had op-
pr^sed the union were excommunicated. The laity,
however, headed by Prince Ostrogki, palatine of
Kioff, declared against the measure, and a numer-
ous meeting took place of the clergy and laity
op[)o-^ed to Rome, at which the archbishop and those
bishops who had brought about the union were ex-
communicated. The party of the iiuioii, supported
by the king and the Jesuits, commenced an active
persecution against their opponents, depriving them
of numerous churches and convents. In conse-
quence of the union, the Cossajks of the Ukraine,
who were zealous friends of the Greek Church, be-
came irritated and disatVected, without, however,
exhibiting any very serious departure from their
wonted loyalty. The most important result of the
unii)ii, however, was, that the Eastern Cliurch of
I'oland was divided info two opposite and hostile
churches, one acknowledging the authority of the
Pope, and the other declining it. Those of the for-
nwr, who resided in Little Russia to the number of
2,000,000, returned to the Kusso-Greek Church.
POL.VND (Minor Rcformrd Church of), an
.\ntitrinitarian Church organized in 1565. The
peculiar opinions of the. sect, which chietly consisted
of a denial of the divinity of the Lord Jesus Christ,
began to be openly broached in Poland in a secret
society formed in 1546 for the discussion of religions
subjects. At one of its meetings a priest called Pas-
toris, a native of Belgium, attacked the mystery of the
Trinity as being inconsistent with the essential unity
of Goii. Tin's doctrine, new at that time in Poland,
was adopted by several members of the society, an<l
having spread among the jieople, by the circulation
01 the works of Servetiis, and the arrival of Liclius
Socinus in 1551, led to the formation of a regular
sect of Socinians. The same views were still further
promoted by the teaching of Siancari, a learned
Italian, who held the office of professor of Hebrew
ill the University of Cracow, and who ojienly main-
tained that the divine nature of Christ had no part
in his mediation. But the first individual in Poland
who reduced .\ntitrinitarian opinions to a system,
w,as Peter Gonesius or Gonioudzki, who had come
from Switzerland professing to adhere to the Calvin-
istic or Genevese Confession. This man, at a synod
held in 1556, rejected the doctrine of the Trinity as
it is usually understood, and maintained the exist-
ence of three distinct Gods, but that the true Godhead
belonged only to the Father. He still further de-
veloped his sentiments at the synod of Brest in
Lithuania in 1558. on which occasion he denied the
validity of infant baptism, adding that there were
other things which had crept from popery into the
church. The synod imposed silence on Gonesius,
threatening him with excommunication ; but he re-
fused obedience, and found a large number who
adhered to his opinions. Among these was John
Kiszka, commander-in-chief of the forces of Lithua-
nia, who, being possessed of both wealth and inlhi-
ence, lent material a-ssistance in the establishment of
churches, on what has sometimes been called the
Siihordinntioni-tt system, tli.at is, maintaining the
supremacy of the Father over the Son.
The followers of Gonesius soon increased in nuni
bers, drawing converts from the ranks of the wealthy
and the learned ; .and so rapid was the spread of the
Soeinian and Arian doctrines, that the Reformed
churches in which they originated were thereby
seriously endangered. But a goodly number of able
divines arose in the bosom of these churches, who
manfully contended in behalf of the proper divinity
of our bles-ied Lord. a-:;ainst many, even of the most
eminent of their brethren, who had unhappily em-
braced the Soeinian heresy. \t length a disruption
seemed iiievilabte, and though an earnest struggle
was made to prevent it, the breach was completed in
1562 ; .and in 1565 a Soeinian Church was set up in
Poland, which took to itself the name of the Minor
Reformed Church. It had its synods, churches,
schools, and a complete ecclesiastical organization.
T'his sect published a Confession of Faith in 1574,
in which they explicitly declared their peculiar tenets.
" God," they said, "made the Christ, that is, the
most perfect Prophet, the most sacred Priest, the
invincible King, by whom he created the new worlil.
This new world is the new birth which Christ li.is
preached, established, and performed. Christ amend-
ed the old order of things, and granted his elect eter-
nal life, that they might after God the Most High
believe in Him, The Holy Spirit is not God, but a
gift, the fulness of which the Father has granted
to his Son." These doctrines, which were com-
pletely subversive of the doctrine (pf the Trinity,
received a deiinile form from Faustns Si>einu.«, who
arrived in Poland in 1,579, and settled there, lie-
coming connected by marriage with some of the lirst
families in tlio laud. This eminent individu.d
POLAND (Minor IvKFOUMiiD Church of).
6G9
proveJ a most important accession to the Antitrini-
tarian clim'clies, over whose members he acquired an
exlraordinary influence. He was invited to assist
at their principal synods, and took a Iea<hng part in
them. At the synod of Wengrow in 158-1, he suc-
cessfidly maintained the doctrine that Jesns Clu'ist
oiiglit to be worsliipped. He also urged the rejec-
tion of millenarian doctrines which were held by
some of the Antitrinitarian divines. His influence,
however, reached its height at the .synod of Brest in
Lithuania in 1588, when he succeeded hi giving
unity to the doctrinal belief of their churches, by
moulding their to some extent discordant opinions
into one regular connected .system.
The Minor Keformed Cliurch of Poland maintained
the unlawfidness of oaths and of lawsuits among
Christians. The eliurch reserved to itself the exclu-
sive right of excommunicating refractory members.
Baptism they held was to be administered to adults,
and to be regarded as a sign of puritication, which
changes the old Adam into a heavenly one. ThSy
agreed with the church of Geneva as to the spiritual
l}reseiice of Christ in the sacrament of the Supper.
Great diversity of o,pinion prevailed among the
members of the clun-ch on various theological points,
hilt they all agreed in maintaining the Subordination
tlieory of the Trinity. Tlieir rules of morality were
e-vceedingly strict, and they endeavoured, like the
Pharisees of old, to observe many precepts of Scrip-
ture in the letter without any regard to the spirit.
Socinius himself taught the doctrines of passive obe-
dience and unconditional submission, and he con-
dennied the resistance made by the French Protest-
ants to tlieir oppressors. Such sentiments, however,
. were not held by the Polish Socinians generally ; on
tlie contrary, their synods of 1596 and 1598 sanc-
tioned the use of arms when required in self-defence.
Among the lower classes, indeed, there were not
a few Socinians who maintained passive resist-
ance to be a Cliristian duty ; and cliiefly through
tlieir influence the synod of 1605 declared that Chris-
tians ought i-ather to abandon their country than
kill an enemy who miglit happen to invade it. Such
a doctrine could not possibly be maintained by the
great mass of the Polish Socinians, Uiaiiy of whom
not only took up arms, but distinguislied themselves
by their valour in lighting the battles of their country.
The Socinian sect in Poland published an exposi-
tion of their religious principles in an authoritative
document well known by the name of tlie Racovian
Catechism. A smaller Catechism first appeared in
German in 1605, and a larger also in German in
1008. Both were exclusively composed by Smal-
cius. but tlie latter was translated into Latin by Mos-
korzewski, a learned and wealthy Polish nobleman.
The Socinian congregations in Pohind were never
numerous ; but they numbered among their members
many eminent scholars and authors, particularly on
points of theology. A collection of their divines,
under the name of the Bibliolheca Fratrum Polonor-
orwn, is found hi almost all theological libraries of
any extent.
One unhappy element in the history of the So-
cinian churches of Poland was tlie prevalence of
dissensions among them, which, instead of being
diminished, seemed rather to increase afier their or-
ganization into a regularl)' constituted church. Tiie
principal sects which branched off' from them were
the Budacmns and the Farnmiiaiis. Tlie former,
not contented with avowing Socinian doctrines, went
so far as to deny the inspiration and authority of
Sacred Scripture, and were on that account cast out
of the church. The latter, who were allowed to
leniain in connection with the church, held Arum
rather than Sucinian opinions, maintaining that, be-
fore the foundation of the world, Christ was either
begotten or produced out of nothing by the Supreme
God. Though treated with the utmost indulgence,
Farnovius or Farnowski left the Minor Reformed
Church in 1508, and attracted around him a large
party of adherents, distinguished both for influence
and learning. On the death of their leader in 1015,
the Farnovians quickly dispersed and became ex-
tinct.
The Socinian Church in Poland now rapidly de-
clined. It was viewed with the most virulent hatred
and jealousy both by Protestants and Roman Catho-
lics, but more especially by the latter body, who
embraced every opportunity of insulting and even
maltreating the Socinians. An incident occurred
which gave rise to open hostilities. In 1638 some
students of the Socinian College at Racow threw
down a wooden crucifix which stood at the entrance
of the town. The Roman Catholics, enraged at the
insult thus otiered to their religion, brought the mat-
ter before the courts of law, demanding that summary
punishment should be inflicted, not only upon the
oii'enders, but upon the whole church to which they
belonged. The vindictive proposal thus made by
the Romanists was listened to, notwithstanding the
strongest protestations of innocence on the part of
file Socinians, and by a decree of the diet of War-
saw, the College at Racow was destroyed, the pro-
fessors banished, the printing-ofHce belonging to the
Socinians was levelled with the ground, and their
churches closed. A train of persecutions followed,
and in every part of the country the Socinians were
subjected to insult and oppression. At length, in
1658, the diet of Warsaw decreed their summary
expulsion from the kingdom, and denounced capital
punishment against all who should in future embrace
their opinions, or give shelter and countenance to
those wdio did so. In fultihuent of this severe de-
cree the Socinians were ordered to leave Poland
within tliree years, but this term was afterwards
reduced to two years. This edict was repeated
in 1661, and forthwith the whole body was driven
from the kingdom, and scattered throughout dili'er-
eiit countries of Europe. Thus, in the course of lit-
tle more than a hundied years, the Socinians, with
070
rOLAND (Protestant Church of).
tlie exception of a few persons here and there who
secretly helil their principles, were rooted out of Po-
land.
POLAND (PROxr-.sTANT Church of). Poland
seems to have lirst received Christianity from Great
Moravia in tlie ninth centnry, and so rapidly did it
spread among all classes, that in the following cen-
tury it reached the palace ; and the sovereign, Miec-
zyslav the First, was baptized in A. D. 965, chiefly
throngh the influence of the native Cliristians of
Poland. About the same time he married Dam-
browska, a Christian Bohemian princess. Having
thus obtained a firm footing in the coiuitry, the cause
of Christianity received a consider.able impulse from
the arrival in Poland of a number of Clu-istian fugi-
tives from Moravia. The neighbouring churches
of Germany soon acquired a great influence over
the Poles, while priests and monks flocked from
Italy and Prance, but particularly from Germariy, to
Poland, crowding the convents, and occupying the
parochial churches, and at the same time using the
Komish ritual in opposition to the simple worship
of the Polish national churches, which, however,
maintained their ground till the fourteenth cen-
tury. The Hussites (which see), from Bohemia,
found a favourable field in Poland for the prop.aga-
tion of their peculiar tenets, and the Komi.sli clergy
iti consequence took active measures for the purpose
of checking the spread of the obnoxious doctrines.
Witli this view tlie parish priests were ordered to
seize ami bring before the bishops all who were
suspected of holding Hussite sentiments. Severe
enactments were passed for the punishment of the
heretics. But in the face of all opposition the new
doctrines were embraced by some of the most influ-
ential families in the land, and tlie reforming party,
indeed, was very numerous, when their leader was
slain on the field of battle. But although the doc-
trines of Huss had found many supporters in Poland,
tlie national feeling was still in favoin- of the domi-
nant church.
In the commencement of the fifteenth century a
powerful impulse was given to the cause of Polish
education and literature by tlie establishment of the
University of Cracow and the encouragement given
in that seminary to native scholars. Already a
goodly nmnber of accomplished literary men had
issued from the University of Pr.igne, some of whom
were chosen to fill the chairs at Cracow ; these
again were generally selected to supply the vacant
episcojial sees, and thus in a short time there were
found in the Poli^h Cliiirch not a few prelates dis-
tiiiguislied alike for their piety and learniri';. The
enlightened views which some of these ecclesiastical
dignitaries entertained were s|ieedily manifested in
various projects started for reforming the church.
Thus Martin Tromba, the primate of Poland, ordered
the liturgical book.s to be translated into the national
language, that they might be understood by the great
mass of tlie people. But the boldest step in the
direction of church reform at this period was taken
by Ostrorog, palatine of Posen, wlio presented to
the Polish diet of 1459 a propo-sal for introducing
improvements of such a vital character, that had
they been adopted, a separation of the Ciiurch of
Poland from Rome would liave been the immediate
result. "In this plan," says Count Krasinski, " of
reforming the Church of Poland he maintained that,
Christ having declared that his kingdom was not of
this world, the Po])e had no authority whatever over
the king of Poland, and should not be even address-
ed b)' the latter in humlile terms unbecoming his
dignity ; that Rome was drawing every year from
the country large sums under the pretence of reli-
gion, but, in fact, by means of superstition ; and
tliat the bishop of Rome was inventing most unjust
reasons for levying taxes, the proceeds of which were
employed, not for the real wants of the church, but
for tlie Pope's private interests ; that all the eccle-
siastical lawsuits should be decided in the coiuitry,
aiid not at Rome, which did not take ' any sheep
without wool;' 'that there were, indeed, amongst
the Poles people who respected the Roman scrib-
blings furnished with red seals and hempen strings,
and suspended on the door of a church ; but that it
was wrong to submit to these Italian deceits.' He
farther says — 'Is it not a deceit that the Pope im-
poses upon us, in spite of the king and the senate,
I don't know what, bulls called indulgences? He
gets money by assuring people that he absolves their
sin ; but God has said by his prophet — " My son,
give me thy heart, ami not money." The Pope
feigns that he employs his treasures for the erection
of churches ; but he does it, in fact, for enriching his
relations. I shall pass in silence things that are still
worse. There are monks who praise still such
fables. Tliere are a great number of preachers and
confessors who only think how to get the richest
harvest, and who indulge themselves, after having
plundered the poor people. He comiilains of the
great number of monks unfit for the clerical office,
saving, ' After having shaven his head and endowed
a cowl, a man thinks himself fit to correct the wliole
world. He cries, and almost bellows, in the pulpit,
because he sees no opponent. Learned men, and
even those who possess an inferior degree of know-
ledge, cannot listen without horror to the nonsense,
and almost blasphemy, uttered by such preachers.'"
Tliese sentiments avowed h y a Polisli senator in ilie
assembly of the states, plainly indicated that public
opinion, even in the fifteenth century, was prepared
for the great ecclesiastical reformation which cnm-
incnced a century later in (iermany and Switzerland.
And as if still further to pave the way for that impor-
tant movement, treatises were at every little inti'r\;d
issuing from the jiress in Poland containing opinions
which Rome has always been accustomed to brand as
heresies. One work, in jiarticular, was publisheil at
Cracow in 1515, which openly advocated the great
Protestant principle, that the Holy Scriiiturcs must
POLAND (Protestant Church of).
671
be believed, and all merely human ordinances may
be dispensed with. The date of the appearance of
this treatise was two years before Luther ptiblicly
avowed his opposition to Rome. No sooner, accord-
ingly, did tlie German Reformer commence liis war-
fare witli the Pope than he was joined by many
Poles, more especially belonging to the towns of
Polish Prussia ; and so rapidly did the principles of
the Reformation spread in Dantzic, tlie principality
of that province, that, in 1524, no fewer than five
churches were occupied by the disciples of the Wit-
tenberg Refonner. A very large part of the inliabit-
aiits of Dantzic, however, still adhered to tlie old
clmrch, and anxious to restore the ancient order of
things, they despatched a deputation to Sigismund
tlie First," who at that time occn|jied the throne of
Poland, imploring his interposilion. The monarch,
moved by the appeal made by the de|iutation, wlio
appeared before him dressed in deep mourning, pro-
ceeded ill person to Dantzic, restored the former
state of things, and either executed or banished the
principal leaders of the new movement. But while
for purely political reasons Sigismund in litis case
acted in the most tyrannical and oppressive manner,
he allowed the doctrines of Protestantism to sijread
in all the other parts of liis dominions williout per-
secuting those who embraced them. And even in
Dantzic itself, when Lutheranism, in the course of
a few years, began to be again preaclied within its
walls, he refused to take a single step to check its
progress, so that in the subsequent reign it became
the dominant creed of that city, without, however,
infringing upon the religious liberty of the Roman
Catholics.
The works of Luther found many readers, and
even .admirers, in Poland, and a secret society, com-
posed of both clergymen and laymen, met frequently
to discuss religious subjects, including those points
more especially which the rise of tlie Reformation
brought prominently before the public mind. It
was in connection with this society that Anti -Trini-
tarian opinions were first adopted as a creed by
several individuals, and the foundation laid in Poland
for that sect whose members were afterwards known
by tlie name of SociNl.\NS (wliich see). The spread
of this heresy, however, was limited to the upper
classes of society, while among the great mass of the
people the Scriptural views of the Reformers found
ready acceptance; a result, in no small degree owing
to the arrisal of Bohemian Brethren, to the num-
ber of about a thousand, who had been driven from
their own country, and found a home in the pro-
vince of Posen. This event happened in 1548, and
the public worship of the Brethren being conduct-
ed in the Bohemian language, which was intelli
gible to the inhabitants of Posen, attracted towards
them the sympathies of midtitudes. The Romish
bishop of Posen, aUrnied at the influence which
the Brethren were exercising over the people of
his dioce-se, applied for, and obtained, a royal edict
for their expidsion from the country. This order
they immediately obeyed, and proceeded to Prussia,
where they found full religions liberty. Next year,
liowever, some of them returned to Poland, where
they had formerly received so much kindness, and
continued their labours witliout being molested in
any form. Their congregations rapidly increased,
and in a short time they reached llie large number of
eighty in the province of Great Poland alone, while
many otliers were formed in difl'ereiit parts of the
country.
A circumstance occurred about this time which
was providentially overruled for llie still wider difl'u-
sion of Protestant principles in Poland. The students
of the University of Cracow, having t.aken offence
at some real or imagined afl'ront offered them by the
rector, repaired to foreign universities, but' particu-
larly to the newly erected University of Konigsberg,
from which the great majority of tliein returned
home imbued with Protestant principles. The Re-
formed doctrines now made exlraordinary progress,
particularly in the province of Cracow. In vain did
the Romish clergy denounce the growing here.sy ;
all their remonstrances were unavailing, and at
length they convened a general synod in 1551 to
consider the whole subject. On tliis occasion Ho-
sius, bishop of Ermeland, composed his celebrated
Confession, wliicli has been acknowdedged by the
Cliurch of Rome as a faithful exposition of its creed.
The synod not only decreed, that this creed should
be signed by the whole body of tlie clergy, but
petitioned the king that a royal mandate should be
issued ordering its subscription by the laity. It was
now resolved that a violent persecution should be
commenced against the heretics, and this determina-
tion was strengthened by an encyclical letter from
Rome, recommending the extirpation of heresy.
Several cases of bloody persecution occurred, but
the nobles, aroused to jealousy by the high-handed
measures of the clergy, openly declared their wish to
restrict the authority of the bishops, and the people
were unanimous in expressing a similar desire.
Such was the state of matters in Poland when the
diet of 1552 was convened ; and scarcely had its
deliberations been commenced, when a general hos-
tility was evinced by the members to episcopal juris-
diction. The result was, that, at this diet, religious
liberty for all confessions was virtually estabhshed
in Poland. At the diet of 1555 the king was ear-
nestly urged to convoke a nalioiial synod over which
he himself sliould preside, and wliich should reform
the church on the basis of the Holy Scriptures. It
was proposed, also, to invite to tliis assembly the
most distinguislied Reformers, such as Calvin, Beza,
Melancthon, and Vergerius. But the expectations
of the Protestants in Poland were chiefiy turned to-
wards John !l Lasco or Laski, who had been instru-
mental in promoting the cause of the Reformation
in Germany, Switzerland, and England. For a long
time he remained within the pale of the Romish
672
POLAND (Protestant Church of).
Cliurcli, in the hope that it would be possible to
elVect a Ueformation without secediug fVom her coui-
munion. In 1540 he ileclnred his adherence to the
Protestant Church on the i)rineiples of Zwingli.
The high reputation which Laski had already gained,
both as a scholar and a Christian, attracted tlie
marked attention of the Protestant princes in various
parts of Europe, several of whom invited him to take
up his residence in their dominions. The sovereign
of East Friesland. anxious to complete the reforma-
tion of the church in that country, prevailed upon
Ijaski to allow himself to be nominated superintend-
ent of all its cluirches. To carry out the object of
his appointment was a matter of no small dilii-
ctdty, considering the extreme reluctance which pre-
vailed to tlie entire abolition of Romish rites, but
by energy, perseverance, and uncomijromising firm-
ness, he succeeded, in the brief space of six years,
ill rooting out the last remains of Romanism, and
fully establisliing the Protestant religion through-
out the wliole of the churches of East Friesland. In
1548 Laski received an earnest invitation from Cran-
iner, archbishop of Canterbury, to join the distin-
guished Reformers, who had repaired to England
from all parts of the Continent, that they might
complete the Uefonnation of the church in that
country. Having accepted Cranmer's invitation,
tlie Polish Reformer left Friesland and went to Eng-
land, where he was appointed, on his arrival in 1550,
superintendent of the foreign Protestant congrega-
tion establi.shed at London. In this important
sphere he continued to labour with much comfort
and success until the demise of Edward the Sixth
and the accession of Mary arrested tlie progress of
the Reformation in England, and compelled Laski
with his congre;'atioii to leave the country. This
little band of exiles, headed by the Polish Reformer,
were driven by a storm upon the coast of Denmark,
where, on landing, they were received at first with
hospitality and kindness, but, through the influence
of the Lutheran divines, they were soon obliged to
seek an asylum elsewhere. The same hatred on the
part of the Lutheran clergy was shown to the con-
gregation of Laski at Lubeok, Hamburg, and Ros-
tock. At length the remnants of the congregation
found in Daiitzic a peaceful asylum, while Laski
himself retired to Friesland, where he was received
with every mark of respect and attachment. In a
short lime, however, finding his position by no means
so comforfalile as at first, he removed to Frankfort-
on-the- Maine, where he established a church for the
Belgian Protestant refugees, and made various at-
temjits, without success, to unite the Lutheran and
Protestant churches.
Throughout all his wanderings Laski's tlionglus
were habitually turned towards Puland, and he main-
tained a constant intercourse with his countrymen,
and also with his sovereign, Sigismund Augustus,
who entertained a high regard for him. He returned
to Poland in 1550. and no sooner did his arrival be-
come known than the Romish clergy, taking the
alarm, hastened to imi)lore the king to banish from
his dominions a man whom they described as an
outlawed heretic, and the source of troubles and
commotions wherever he went. To this representii
tion the king paid no regard ; and to the annoyance
of the bishops and the papal nuncio, Laski was soon
after intrusted with the superintendence of all the
Reformed cluirches of Little Poland. Through his
influence the tenets of the Swi.ss Reformers were
extensively adopted by the higher classes of Ins
countrymen. The chief objects, however, which lie
kept steadily in view were the union of all Protestant
sects, and the ultimate establishment of a Reformed
National Church modelled on the plan of the Church
of England, for which he had conceived a high
admiration. But his exertions in the cause of re-
form were much weakened by the rise of Aiititrini-
tarian sentiments in some of the churches which he
superintended. He struggled hard, and not without
success, to check the progress of these opinions. In
the public affairs of the church he took an active
part, and assisted in preparing the version of the
first Protestant Bible in Poland. In the midst of
his unwearied labours in the cause of the Polish
Reformation, Laski was cut off in 1560, before he
had an opiiortunity of fully maturing his great de-
signs.
One of the last objects on which tlie Polish Refor-
mer had set his heart, was the speedy convocation of
a national synod. This proposal, however, met
with violent opposiiion from Rome and its partizans.
The Pope, Paul IV., despatched a legate to Poland
with letters to the king, the senate, and the most
influential noblemen, jn'omisiiig to etfect all neces-
sary reforms, and to call a general council. Lippo-
niani, the papal legate, was an able man, and a de-
voted servant to the see of Rome. The Romish clergy
were much encouraged by the presence of this digni-
tary in the country, who endeavoured, but without
effect, to prevail upon the king to adopt violent mea-
sures for the extirpation of heresy. The crafty
emissary of the Pope succeeded also by his intrigues
in fomenting discord among the Protestants. He as-
sembled a .synod of the Poli.sh clergy, which, while it
lamented the dangers which threatened the church,
both from within and from without, passed nmiiy
resolutions for improving its condition, and coercing
the heretics. Tlie extent to which the synod, insti-
gated by Liiipoinani, pushed their jurisdiction may
be seen from their proceedings in a case of alleged
sacrilege recorded both by Romish and Protestant
writers. " Dorothy Lazecka, a poor girl, was accused
of having obtained from the Dominican monks of
Suchaczuw a host, feigning to receive communion.
It was said that she wrajipcd that host in her dollies,
and sold it to the Jews of a neighbouring village, by
whom she had been instigated to connnit this act ol
.sacrilege by the bribe of three dollars and a gown
embroidered with silk. This host was .said to have
POLAND (P!;OTEST.ANT Chukch of).
C73
been ciirried l)y the Jews to the syiiiigogue, where,
being pierced with needles, it emitted a quantity of
blood, wliicli was collected into a flaslc. The Jews
tried in vain to prove the absurdity of the charge,
arguing, that as their religion did not permit ttiem
to believe in the mystery of transubstantiation, tliey
never could be supposed to try a similar experiment
on the host, whi'jh they considered as a mere wafer.
The synod, influenced by Lippomani, condemned
them, as well as the unfortunate woman, to be burned
ahve. The iniqi\itous sentence could not, however,
be put into execution without the exequatur, or the
confirmation of the king, whicli could not be expected
to be obtained from tb.e enliglitened Sigismund
Augustus. The Bishop Przerembski, who was also
vice-chancellor of Poland, made a report to the king
of the above-mentioned case, which lie described in
expressions of pious horror, entreating tlie monarch
not to allow such a crime, committed against the
Divine Majesty, to go impunishod. Myszkowski, a
great dignitary of the crown, who was a Protestant,
became so indignant at this report, that he could not
restrain his anger, and was only prevented by the
presence of the king from using violence against the
prelate, the impiety and absurdity of whose accusa-
tion he exposed in strong language. The monarch
declared that he would not believe such absurdities,
! and sent an order to llie Starost (chief magistrate or
1 governor) of Sochaczew to release the accused par-
j ties; but the vice-chancellor forged the en-eqiuitiii:
[ by altaching the royal seal without tlie knowledge of
the mouiirch, and sent an order that the sentence of
the synod sliould be immediately carried into execu-
tion. The king, being informed of this nefarious act
of the bisliop, immediately despatched a messenger
to prevent its effects. It was, however, too late ;
and the judicial murder was perpetrated." This
atrocious affair excited, of course, a great sensation
throughout Poland, and awakened such feelings of
hatred against Lippomani, that he lost no time in
quiltiiig the country, a step which was absolutely
neces.sary, indeed, as his life was in danger.
Tlie Polish Reformation wont steadily forward in
spite of all the opposition of Rome and its emissaries.
In Lithuania particularly, it received a strong im-
pulse from the influence exerted in its favour by
Prince Radziwill, who had been intrusted by the
mou.arch with almost the sole government of that
province. Taking advantage of the facilities which
lie thus possessed for advancing the good work, he
succeeded in establishing the Reformed worship both
in the rural districts and in many towns. He built
also a splendid church and college in Vilna, the capi-
tal of Lithuania. To this enlightened and pious noble-
man, besides, is due the merit of having caused to be
translated and printed, at his own expense, the first
Protestant Bible in the Polish language. It was
published in 1504, and is usually known by the name
of the Radziwillian Bible. The death of Radzi-
will the Black, as he was termed, which happened in
II
1565, was a severe loss to the Protestant cause in
Lithuania ; but happily his cousin and successor,
Radziwill the Red, was also a zealous promoter of
the Reformed religion, and founded a number of Pro-
testant churches and scliools, which he endowed with
landed property for their permanent support.
The king of Poland was strongly urged, by a por-
tion of the clergy, to reform the church by means of a
national synod, but he was of too irresolute a character
to take a step so decided. He adopted, Iiowever, a
middle course, and addressed a letter to Pope Paul IV.
at the council of Trent, demanding the concession of
the five following points: (1.) The performance of
the mass in the national language. (2.) The dispen-
sation of the communion in both kinds. (3.) The
toleration of the marriage of priests. (4.) The abo-
lition of the annates or first fruits of benefices. (5.)
The convocation of a national council for the reform
of abuses, and the union of different sects. These
demands, of com-se, were rejected by his Holiness.
But the Protestants in Poland, far from being dis-
couraged by the conduct of the Pope, became bolder
every day in their opposition to the Romanists. At
the diet of 1559 a proposal was made to deprive the
bishops of all participation in the afi'uirs of the gov-
ernment, on the ground that they were the sworn
servants of a foreign potentate. This motion,
though strenuously urged upon the acceptance of
the diet, was not carried ; but a few years later, in
15G3, the diet agreed to convoke a general national
.';ynod, composed of representatives of all the reli-
gious parties in Poland — a measui'e which would, in
all probability, have been carried into effect had it
not been prevented by the dexterity and diplomatic
craft of Cardinal Commeudoni, who succeeded in
dissuading the king from assembling a national
council.
Tlie establishment of a Reformed Polish Church
was much impeded by the dissensions whicli divided
the Protestants amongst themselves. At that time,
in fact, no less than three parties existed in Poland,
each f dhering to its own separate Confession. Thus
the Bo'iemian or Waldensiau Confession had its
own ardent admirers, chiefly in Great Poland ;
the Geuevese or Calvinistic Confession in Lithuania
and Southern Poland; and the Lutheran or Augs-
burg Confession in towns inhabited by burghers of
(Jerman origin. Of these the Boliemian and the
Genevese Confessions were so completely agreed on
almost all points, that their respective supporters
found no difficulty in forming a union in 1555, not,
indeed, incorporating into one body, but holding
spiritual fellowship together, while each church retain-
ed its own separate hierarchy. This union being the
first which took place among Protestant churches
after the Reformation, caused great joy among the
Reformers in diii'erent parts of Europe. The two
clun-ches thus united wished to include the Lufbei-
ans also in the alliance, but the doctrine of the
Augsburg Confession on the subject of the eucharist
3l
674
I'OLAXD (PuoTicsTANT Church of).
seemed likely to prove an insuperable obstacle in
the way of any union witli tlie Lutheran churclies.
An attempt, however, was made to etrect so desira-
ble an object. Foi- this purpose a synod of the
Bohemian and Genevese churclies of Poland was
convoked in 1557, and presided over by John Laski.
At this synod overtures were made to the Luther-
aus to join the union, but to no eti'ect, and they still
continued to accuse the Bohemian chureh of heresy.
The obstacles thus thrown in the way of a union
among tlie Protestants of Poland, only roused the
Buhemians to exert themselves still more actively for
its attainment. They forwarded copies of their Con-
fession of Faitli to the Protestant princes of Germany,
and to the chief Reformers, both of that countiy and
of Switzerland, and received strong testimonials
of approval, so strong, indeeil, as to silence for a
time the objections of the Lutherans. Shortly, how-
ever, the good understanding whicli had begun was
interrupted by the unreasonable demands of some
Polish Lutheran divines, tli.at the other Protestant
denominations should subscribe the Confession of
Augsburg. The Bohemians, tlierefore, in 1568, sub-
mitted their Confession to the University of Wit-
tendierg, and received from that learned body a
strong expression of their approbation, which so
operated upoti the minds of the Lutherans that from
that time they ceased to charge the Bohemian Church
with lieresy.
The long-de.Mred union was at length etiVeted in
1570. A synod having assembled in the town of
Sandomir, in April of that year, finally concluded
and signed the terms of union under the name of
the Consensus of Sandkmiu (which see). This
important step excited the utmost alarm among the
Romanists, who endeavoured to bring it into discre-
dit. But the union itself was essentially hollow and
imperfect. The Confessions, between which a dog-
matic imio-n had been effected, differed on a point of
vital importance, — the presence of Christ in the
eucharist. The union, accordingly, was rather nond-
n,al than real ; and many Lutherans directed their
whole ell'orts towanis liringing about a disruption of
the alliance which had been cstablislied at Sando-
ndr. This hostility of the l..titherans to the other
Protestant Confessions was very injurious to the
interests of Protestantism in general, and a nundjer
of noble families, I'ollowed by thousands of the com-
mon peo|]le, disgusted with the bitter contentions
which raged among the Protestants of ditl'erent deno-
minations, renounced the lu'ineiples of the Kelornia-
tion, and returned to the Church of Rome. Another
circumstance which tended to weaken the Protestant
Church of Poland, was the rise aiui rapiil spread of a
party who denied the divinity of the Lord Jesus
Christ. Some learned divines of the Reformed
churclies combated these Antitrinitarian doctrines,
and at length, in 15(i5, the professors of these doctrines
seceded from their brethren, forming themselves into
a separate ecclesiastical orgainzaiion, called by its
members the Minor Refm-med CInirch nf Puhiml.
The arrival of Fanstus Socimis in Poland in 1579,
led to the tenets of the Antitrinitarians being thrown
into a definite form, and to the formation of Soei-
inan congregations, chiefly composed of nobles, among
whom there were many wealthy landowners.
When the Consensus of Sandomir was concluded
in 1570, Protestantism ir. Poland had reached its
highest state of prosperity. iVIany churches and
schools, belonging to Protestants of various denond-
nations, had been established; the Scriptures had
been translated and printed in the national language ;
and religious liberty was enjoyed in Poland to a de-
gree unknown in any other part of Europe. These
favoin-ablo circumstances attracted great nuinbers of
foreigners who sought an asylum from religious per-
secution. Among these, besides many Italian and
French refugees, there were also a great number of
Scotch families settled in different parts of Poland,
whose descendants are found there at this day.
At the period at which we have now arrived Ro-
manism had, to a great extent, lost its hold of the Po-
lish nation. The most influential portion of the nobi-
lity were on the side of Protestantism, whilst many
powerful families, and the population generally, of
the eastern provinces belonged to the Greek Church.
Nay, even within the national church itself, not only
was the |iriniate favourable to Reformed principles,
but many even of the inferior clergy, and a consider-
able proportion of the laity, would have welconu>d
any proposal to correct the flagrant abuses which
had in course of time crept iiUo the church. In the
senate, also, the great proportion of the members
were either Protestants or belonged to the Greek
Church ; and even the king himself showed a de-
cided leaning towards the adherents of the Protestant
faith. The Roman Catholic Chnrcli in Poland, in-
deed, was on the verge of utter ruin, but in this hour
of its extreinest danger, it was itiainly saved by the
exertions of Cardinal Hosius, one of the most remark-
able men of his age. This zealous Ronusli digidtary
had early made himself conspicuous by his hostility
to the Protestants, ami now that he had been nomi-
nated a cardinal, he used every effort to check the
progress of the Reformation in Poland. Finding,
however, that his own church was fast losing ground,
and that Reformed jirlnciplcs were almost certain
ere long to obtain the ascendency, he called to his
aid the iiewlj' established order of Jesuits, several of
whom arrived from Rome in 15(54, and by their in-
trigues and agitation the whole country was made
for a long period the scene of the most unseemly
commotions.
During the life of Sigismund Augustus, the Pro-
testants indulged the hope that, although luvturally
of a wavering and undecided character, he might
possibly decide on the establishment of a Reformed
National Church ; but the death of that monarch
without issue, in 1.572, put an end to all such expec-
tations. The Jaghellonian dynasty, which had gov-
POLAXD (PnoTESTANT Church of).
G76
enied Poland for two centuries, was now extinct.
An earnest stnii^gle commenced, tlierefofe, between
the Pi-ote-stants and Romani.sts, each paily being
anxious tliat the vacant throne should be tilled by a
zealous supporter of their church. The Romanists,
headed by Cardinal Commendoni, were anxious to
confer the crown upon the Archduke Ernest, son of
the Kmperor Maximilian the Second, and were even
really to seciu-e their object by force. Coligny and
the French Protestants liad for some time, even be-
fore the death of Sigismund Augustus, entertained
the project of placing Henry of Va.lois, duke of
Anjou, on the Polish throne; and Catharine de
Medicis, the mother of the duke, eagerly lent her
approbation to the proposal.
Tlie diet of convocation assembled at War.snw in
January 1573, for the purpose of taking steps forllie
maintenance of the peace and sal'ety of the country
diu-ing the interregnum. At this diet, notwithstand-
ing the opposition of tlie Kondsli bishops, instigated
by Commendoni, a law was jiassed establishing a per-
fect equality of rights among all the Christian Con-
fessions of Poland, guaranteeing the digidties and
jirivileges of tlie Roman Catholic bishops, but abo-
lishing the obligation of church patrons to bestow
the benelices in their gift exclusively on Roman Ca-
tholic clergymen. The election of a new monarch
was arranged to take place on the 7th April at Ka-
mien, near Warsaw. The principal competitors for
the throne of Poland were the two princes already
mentioned-; and although meanwhile tlie horrid mas-
sacre of St. Bartholomew had rendered the Polish
Protestants somewhat afraid to commit their interests
to a French prince, yet being unwilling to involve
their country in a civil war, they accepted Henry,
Duke of Anjou, who was accordingly elected king of
Poland.
A deputation of twelve noblemen were imme-
diately despatched to Paris, to announce to Henry
his election, and on tlie 10th September 157.3 the
ceremony of presenting the diploma of election took
jilace in the church of Notre Dame. The circum-
stances attending the presentation are interesting as
manifesting the intolerant spirit of the Polish Ro-
manists. " The Bishop Karnkowski, a member of
the Polish embas.sy, at the beginning of the cere-
mony, entered a protest against the clause for secur-
ing religious liberty, inserted in tlie oath which the
new monarch was to take on that occasion. This act
produced some confusion, the Protestant Zl.iorowski
having interrupted the solemnity with the following
words, addressed to Montluc : ' Had you not accepted,
ill the name of the duke, the conditions of religious
liberty, our opposition would have prevented this
duke from being elected our monarch.' Henry
feigned to be astonislied, as if he did not understand
the subject in dispute ; but Zborowski addressed
him, saying, ' I repeat, sire, that if your ambassadors
had not accepted the condition of liberty to the con-
teniling religious persuasions, our opposition would
have [irevented you from being elected king ; and
that if you do not confirm these conditions, you shall
not be our king.' Afler this, the members of the
embassy surrounded tlieir new monarch, and Her
hurt, a Roman Catholic, read the formula of the
oath prescribed by the electing diet, which Henry
repeated without any opposition. The Bishop Karn-
kow.ski, who had stood aside, approached the king
after be liad sworn, and protested that the religious
liberty, secured by the royal oath, was not to injure
the authority of the Church of Rome ; and the king
gave him a written testimony in favour of that pro-
test."
Henry set out for Poland, but after what had
passed, the fears of the Protestants were far from
being allayed, and they resolved carefully to watch
the conduct of the new monarch at bis coronation.
Firley, the leader of the Protestant party, insisted
that on that solemn occasion, the oath taken at
Paris should be repeated ; and even in the midst of
the ceremony, wlien the crown was about to be placed
on Henry's head, Firley boldly ad\anced forward and
interrupted the proceedings, declaring in name of
the Protestants of Poland, that unless the Parisian
oath was taken the coronation would not be allowed to
go forward. The scroll of the oalh was put into the
king's hand as he knelt on the steps of the altar, and
Firley, taking the crown, said to Henry with a loud
voice, " If you will not swear, you shall not reign."
The intrepid conduct of the Protestant leader struck
the whole assembly with awe, and the king had no
alternative but to repeat the oath. Thus the reli-
gious liberties of Poland were saved from utter over-
throw, and the nation delivered from an impending
civil war.
The Polish Protestants were naturally suspicious
of their new king, knowing that having taken the
oath by coinpulsion, he was not likely to respect
their rights. The Romish bishops, on tlie other
hand, supported by the favour of the monarch,
formed projects for extending their influence, and an
impression rapidly spread through the country, that
Henry had become a ready tool in the hands of the
priests. This feeling, combined with disgust at his
profligacy, rendered him so unpopular, and his sub-
jects so discontented, that the country would un-
doubtedly have been speedily plunged into a civil
war, had not the king fortunately disa[ipeared, having
secretly left Polaiul for France on learning that the
death of his brother, Charles IX., had opened the
way for bis succession to the throne of France. The
crown of Poland was now conferred upon Stephen
Batory, prince of Transylvania, wlio had earned so
high a reputation, that although an avowed Pro-
testant, his election met with no opposition from the
Romish clergy. The delegation which announced
to Stephen his election to the throne, was composed o(
thirteen members, only one of whom was a Romanist,
but this man, Solikowski by name. Succeeded in per
siuuling the new monarch, tliat if he would secure
070
POLAND (Protestant Ciiuiicii of).
himself on the tliroiie, he must profess tlie Koman
Catliohc reli.i;ioii. Next day, accordingly, to the-
disniay of the Protestant delegates, Steplien was seen
devoutly kneeling at mass. During his reign, which
lasted ten years, he maintained inviolate the rights
uf the Anti-Uonianist Confessions, while, at tlie same
time, tluMugli tlie intluence of his queen, who was a
bigoted Komanist, he openly encouraged and patron-
ized the Jesuits, by founding and endowing various
educational institutions in connection with their
order.
Stephen Batory died in 1580, and was succeeded
by Sigismund 111., in whose reign the Romish party
acquired much strength, while many of the Protest-
ants had become dissatisiied with the general Con-
fession, and sought to renew the former controver-
sies which had so much weakened their influence in
the country. Poland was unhappily subjected to the
rule of this infatuated monarch from 1587 to 1632,
and tliroughout the whole of that long [leriod his po-
licy was uiuformly directed towards tlie promotion of
the supremacy of Rome. The Jesuits exercised an
uidiiiiited influence over the government ; and all tlie
oilices of state and posts of honour were exclusively
bestowed upon Romanists, and more especially upon
proselytes, who, from motives of interest, had re-
nounced the principles of the Reformation. The
whole country was covered with Jesuit colleges and
scliools, thus enabling the disciples of Loyola most
effectually to exercise dominion over all classes of
the people. "The melancholy effects of their edu-
cation," says Coimt Krasinski, " soon became mani-
fest. By the close of Sigismund the Third's reign,
when the Jesuits had become almost exclusive mas-
ters of public scliools, national literature had declined
as rapidly as it had advanced during the preceding
century. It is remarkable, indeed, that Poland,
which, from the middle of the sixteenth century to
tlie end of the reign of Sigismund the Third (1632),
had produced many sjdendid works on did'erent
branches of human knowledge, in the national as
well as in the Latin language, can boast of but very
few works of merit from that epoch to the second
part of the eighteenth century, the period of the un-
limited sway of the Jesuits over the national educa-
tion. The Polish language, which had obtained a
high degree of perfection durhig the sixteenth cen-
tury, was soon corrupted by an absurd admixture of
Latin ; and a barbarous style, called Macaronic, dis-
(igiu'cd Polish literature for more than a centurv.
As the chief object of the Jesuits was to combat the
Anti-Romanists, the principal subject of tlieir in-
struction was polemical divinity; and tlie most
talented of their students, instead of acquiring sound
knowledge, by which they might become useful
members of society, wasted tlieir time in dialectic
.sublilties and quibbles. The disciples of Loyola
knew well, tliat of all the weaknesses to which hu-
man nature is subject, vanity is the most accessible;
and tliey were as prodigal of praise to partizans as
they were of abuse to antagonists. Thus the bene-
factors of their order became the objects of the nio.'^t
fulsome adulation, which nothing but the corrupted
taste acquired in their schools could have rendered
palatable. Their bombastic panegyrics, lavished up-
on the most unimportant persons, became, towards
the end of the seventeenth century, almost the only
literature of the country — proof sufficient of the de-
graded state of the public to which such productions
could be acceptable. An additional proof of the
retrocession of the national intellect, and the corrup-
tion of taste, under the withering uifluence of the
Jesuits, is that the most classical productions of the
sixteenth century, — the Augustan era of the Polish
literature, — were not reprinted for more than a cen-
tury, although, after the revival of learning in Poland,
in the second half of the eightecntii century, they
went through many editions, and still continue to be
reprinted. It is almost superfluous to add, that this
deplorable condition of the national intellect pro-
duced the mo>t pernicious efi'ects on the political as
well as social state of the country. The enlightened
statesmen who had appeared during the reign of
Sigismund the Third, — the Zamoyskis, the Sajiiehas,
the Zalkiewskis, whose eflbrts counterbalanced for a
time the baneful effects of that fatal reign, as well as
some excellent authors who wrote during the same pe-
riod,— were educated under another .system ; for that
of the Je.suits coidd not produce any political or liter-
ary character with enlarged views. Some exceptions
tiiere were to this general rule ; but the views of
enlightened men could not be but utterly lost on
a public which, instead of advancing in the paths of
knowledge, were trained to forget the science and
wisdom of its ancestors. It was, therefore, no won-
der that sound notions of law and right became
obscured, and gave way to absurd prejudices of pri-
vilege and caste, by which liberty degenerated into
licentiousness; whilst the state of the peasantry was
degraded into that of predial servitude."
Not contented with secretly imbuing the minds of
the peo|ile with Romanist priucijiles, the Jesuits
connived at the ill-treatment to which many Pro-
testants were subjected, and the courts of justice be-
ing wholly under Jesuit influence, it was vain for the
injured to look for legal redress. Riotous mobs with
complete impunity destroyed the Protestant cluirclies
in Cracow, Posen, Vihia, and other places. The
natural residt of the adverse circnmstances in which
Protestants were placed under this long but disas-
trous reign was, that their numbers were daily dim-
inished, and what was pcrhap.s more melancholy still,
those who held fast to Reformed principles were
divided into contending factions, and although the
Consensus of Sanduuiir maintained an apparent union
for a time, that covenant even was linally dissolved
by the Lutherans. An attempt was m.-ide witlniut
ert'ect to arrange a union between the Protestants
and the Greek Church at a meeting convened .-ii
Vilna in 151)9, and although a confederation loi
POLAND (Protestant Church of).
077
mutual deft nee was concluded, it led to no practical
results.
At tlie close of tlie long reign of Sigismund III.
tlie cause of Protestantism was in a state of tlie
deepest depression. But his sou and successor, Vla-
dislav IV., was a person of a very diii'erent charac-
ter, and so opposed to tlie Jesuits, that he would not
allow a single meniber of that order to be near his
court. He distributed offices and rewards solely
according to merit, and being naturally of a mild
disposition, he discountenanced all persecution on
account of religion. He endeavoured in vain to
efl'ect a general reconciliation, or, at least, a mutual
understanding, between the contending parties, by
means of a religious discussion held at Thorn in
1644. But the early deatli of this benevolent mon-
arch changed the wliole aspect of aft'airs. His
brother, .Tohn Casimir, who succeeded him, had been
a Jesuit and a cardinal ; but the Pope had relieved
him from his vows on his election to the throne.
From a monarch, who had formerly been a Romish
eccle-iastic, the Protestants had every thing to fear,
and little to expect. The consequence was, that the
utmost discontent began to prevail among all classes,
and the country Iiaving been invaded by Charles
Gustavus, king of Sweden, the people were disposed
to place him upon the throne of Poland. Elated,
liowever, by the success of his arms, that liauglity
monarch declined to accept the sovereignty in any
otiier mode than by conquest, whereupon I he Poles,
rising as one man, drove him I'roin the country. Peace
was restored by the treaty of Oliva in 1660; but
not until the Protestants had suffered much dur-
ing the war. The king had taken refuge in Silesia
during the Swedish invasion, and on his return to
Poland, he committed him-elf to the special care of
the Virgin Mary, vowing that he would convert the
heretics by force if necessary. A considerable num-
ber of Protestants still remained after all the perse-
cutions to which they had been exposed, and among
them were several influential families, who. besides,
were supported by the interest of the Protestant
Iirinces throughout Europe. Tlie king, tlierefore,
judged it best to direct the whole force of his perse-
cution against the Sociiiians, whom he banished from
the kingdom, declaring it to be henceforth a capital
crime to propagate, or even profess Socinianism, in
Poland.
The ranks of the Protestants were now completely
broken, and the Roman clergy acquired and exer-
cised nearly uncontrolled power. John Sobieski,
during his .short reign, endeavoured to put an end
to religious persecution ; but lie found liiinself una-
ble to maintain the laws which still acknowledged a
perfect equality of religious confessions. Augus-
tus n., also, wlio succeeded to the throne in 1696,
confirmed, in the usual manner, the rights and liber-
ties of the Protestants, but with the addition of a
new cnndiiion, that he should never grant thein sena-
torial or any other important dignities and offices.
This monarch had renoiuiced Lutheranism in oidir
to obtain the crown of Poland, and now that he had
secured his object, he allowed the Romish bishops
to treat the heretics as they chose. Augustus hav-
ing been expelled by Cliarles XIl. of Sweden,
Stanislaus Leszczj'uiski was elected in 1704, and
the accession of this enlightened monarch revived
the hopes of the Protestants. The treaty of alliance
concluded between Stanislaus and the Swedish sov-
ereign guaranteed to the Protestants of Poland the
rights and liberties secured to them by the laws of
their country, abolishing all the restrictions imposed
in later times. But such favourable circumstances
were of short continuance. Stanislaus was driven
from his throne by Peter, the Czar of Russia, and
Augustus II. again restored to his kingdom. Civil
commotions now arose, which were only terminated
by the mediation of Peter the Great, who concluded
a treaty at Warsaw in 1716, into which the Roman-
ists had sufficient influence to get a clause inserted
to the following efi'ect, — " That all the Protestant
churches which had been btiilt since 1032 should be
demolished, ami that the Protestants sliouUl not be
permitted, except in places where they had cluu'ches
pi-eviously to the above-mentioned time, to have
any public or private meetings for the purpose of
preaching or singing. A breach of this regulation
w.as to be punished, for the first time by a tine, for
the second by imprisonment, for the third by ban-
ishment. Foreign ministers were allowed to have
divine service in their dwellings, but the natives who
should assist at it were to be subjected to the above-
mentioned penalties."
The terms of this treaty excited feelings of dis-
content and alarm, not only in the minds of the Pro-
testants, but also of the more enlightened portion of
the Roman Catholics. Protests poured in from all
quarters against the measiu'e. But all remonstrance
was vain ; the Romanists continued to prosecute the
Protestants with inveterate rancour, in some cases
even to Idood. The Protestant powers of Europe,
from time to time, made representations in favour of
the Polish Protestants ; but instead of alleviating
their persecutions, these remonstrances only in-
creased their severity. In 1733, an act was passed
excluding them from the general diet, and from all
public offices, but declaring, at the same time, their
peace, their persons, and their proiierty inviohd>le,
and that they might hold military rank and occupy
the crown-lands.
During the reign of Augustus 111., which lasted
from 1733 to 1764, the condition of the Polish Pro-
testants was melancholy in the extreme, and de.spair-
iug of relief from every other quarter, they threw
themselves under the protection of foreign powers,
by whose interference they were admitted, in 1767,
to equal rights with the Roman Catholics. This
was followed by the abolition of the order of Jesuits
in 1773. Augustus had throughout his reign kept
Poland in a state of subserviency to Russia, and
r,T8
POI.IAS— POLYGAMY.
tliat jiower placed liis successor Poniatowskj on the
tlii-oiie. Wlien CiUliariiie II., empress of Russia,
obtained possession of the l^olish Russian provinces,
part of tlic people hecanie members of the United
Greek Clun-ch, and part joined the Russian Cluirch.
And even the most bigoted Romanists were gained
over in course of time, so that at the synod ofPolot.sk,
in ISoS, the higher clergy of Litluiania and White
Russia, declared the readiness of their people to
join the Rnsso-Greek Chin-ch, and, accordingly,
these Uniates or United Greeks, to the number of
2,01)0,000, were received back into the Muscovite
biancli of the Eastern Church on their solemn dis-
avowal of the Pope's supremacy, and declaration of
their belief in the sole Pleadsliip of Christ over his
Church. Pope Gregory XVI., after condemning
the Polish insurrection in 1831, now beheld the
schools in Poland closed against all ecclesiastical
influence, the confiscated property of the cluirch
given to the Greek nobility, and all intercourse be-
tween the bishops and Rome strictly prohibited.
It is computed that tlie Protestant Poles amount in
round numbers to 442,000, the great majority of whom
are found in Prussia Proper and Silesia. There is
a considerable number of Protestants in Poland it-
self, but these are chiefly German settlers. In that
part of Poland which was annexed to Russia by the
treaty of Viemia, it was calcidated in 1845, that, in
a population of 4,857,250 souls, there were 252,009
Lutherans, 3,790 Reformed, and 54G Mora\ians.
In Prussian Poland, according to the census of 1846,
there were in the provinces of ancient Poli>h Prus-
sia, in a population of 1,019.105 souls, 502,148 Pro-
testants; and in that of Posen, in a population of
1,304,399 soids, there were 41G,G48 Protestants. As
the Prussian government is anxious to use all means
of Germanizing its Slavonic subjects, the worship, in
almost all the cburches of Prussian Poland, is con-
ducted in the German language, and the service in
Polish is diecouraged as much as possible.
POLIAS, a surname given by the Athenians to
Athena, as being the goddess wiu) protected the city.
P0L1EL\, a festival anciently observed at Thebes
in Greece, in lionour of Apollo, when a bull was
wont to be sacriticed.
POLIEUS, a surname of Zeus, imder which he
was worshipped at Athens, as the protector of the
city. The god had an altar on the Acropolis, on
which a bull was sacriticed.
POLIIICIIOS, a surname of several deities among
the ancient Greeks, who were believed to be the
guardians of cities.
POLLIXCl'ORES, an appellation given by the
ancient Romans to tljose who wa-shed and anointed
the dead preparatory to burial. See 1)i;ai) (Ritks
OK Tilt:).
POLLUX. See DiobCUki.
POLYGAMY, the practice of havhig more than
one wife at the same time. This evil was tolerated
among the ancient patriarchs and Hebrews. Hut it
was uiidouliledly a [lerversion of the original institu-
tion of marriage, which was limited to the union ot
one man with one woman. " For this cause," said
He vvho created them male and female, "shall a man
leave his father and mother and cleave unto his wile,
and they twain shall be one flesh. Whom God
therefore hatli joined together, let not man put
asunder." Thus God, in instituting the marriage
relation, united two, namely, one man and one wo-
man. Any deviation from this arrangement, there-
fore, is in distinct opposition to God's aiipointment.
The only instance of polygamy recorded in the
Scri|itures during the first two thousand years after
the institution of marriage, was that of Lanieeh,
and this appears to have been considered by him-
self, and those around him, as sinful. We find
Abraham afterwards taking to himself concubines,
or secondary wives, and his example was follow-
ed by the otlier patriarchs. Polygamy prevailed
to a great extent among the Hebrews in the time
of Moses, and a satisfactory explanation of it was
given by our blessed Lord when speaking on the sub-
ject of divorce : " Moses because of the hard-
ness of your hearts suffered you to put away your
wives: but from the beginning it was not so." It
was a permission, not a connnand. It was a posi-
tive temporary regulation of Moses a.s a political
governor, not of God as a moral ruler. The Jews had
become hardened in their hearts ; they were harsh
and severe even to their own flesh. Their nearest
relatives they treated with cruelly and injustice. Un-
til the people couhl be brought into such a state that
they coidd luiderstand and feel the force of law, it
was necess,iry inr tlieir rulers mcanwliile to devise
pnulential regulalions for the purpose of checking
their lawlessness. '• All the e\ ils," says Dr. Gardiner
Spring, " of tliat early and idolatrous age cf the
world could not be remedied in a moment. And
sucli was the state of society, that not even until the
advent of the Saviour was tlie institution of marriage
restored to its primeval integrity by revoking the
permission of polygamy and divorce. Experience
has abundantly and painfully proved that polygamy
debitscs and brutalizes both the body and the ndnd,
and renders society incapable of -those generous and
refilled affections, which, if didy cultivated, would be
found to be the inheritance even of our fallen na-
ture. Where is an instance in which polygamy
has not been the source of many and bitter calami-
ties in the domestic circle ami to the state? Where
lias it reared a virtuous, heaven-taught progeny 'i
Where has it been distinguished for any of the
moral virtues; or rather, where has it not been dis-
tinguislied for the most fearful degeneracy of man-
ners? Where has it even been found friendly to
population? It has been reckoned that the number
of male infants exceeds that of females, in the pro-
portion of nineteen to eighteen, the excess of the
males scarcely providing for their greater consuni])-
tinn by war, seafaring, and other dangerous iind
POLYHYMNIA— POLY.VlirflANS (Religiox of the).
G7D
imlieahliy occupations. It seems to have been tlie
■ order of nature tliat one woman slioukl be assigned
to one man.' And vvliere bas polygamy ever been
friendly to the physical and intellectual character of
the population ? The Turks are polygainists, ami
so are the Asiatics; but how inferior a [luople to the
ancient Greeks and Romans !"
The practice of polygamy has sometiiiies been al-
leged to originate in tlie influence of climate, but
the fact cannot be denied, that in the coldest as well
as in tlie warmest climates it is found to exist. And
though it must be admitted to prevail more exten-
sively in regions situated towards the soutli, the more
probable cause of this peculiarity will be found in an-
cient usage orreligion. ThatMosesprohibitedpolyga-
my is usually proved by a reference to Lev. xviii. 18,
" Neitlier slialt thou take a wife to her sister, to vex
her, to uncover her nakedness, besides the other in
her life-time ; " or as it is in the margin, " Thou shalt
not take one wife to anotlier." But the precise
meaning of this passage is much disputed, and Micha-
elis, following the Talmud, alleges that tlie Mosaic
law does not prohibit more than one wife, althougli
he admits that it does not sanction a man having as
many wives as lie jileased. Selden, in his learned
work De Uxors Hrhraicn, ' On the Hebrew Wife,'
informs us, that the Jewisii Rabbis held the prohibi-
tion of Moses to extend only beyond four wives.
And Moliammed, following as he did in many cases
the Rabbinical interpretations, fixes upon four as
the number of wives to be allowed to the faithful,
and commands that that number should not be ex-
ceeded.
Among the ancient heathen nations a plurality of
wives was positively forbidden. Thus in the Code
of .Justinian there occurs an edict of Diocletian,
which declares that no Roman was allowed to liave
two wives at once, but was liable to be punished
before a competent judge. Sallust tells us that the
Roman.s were wont to deride polygamy in the bar-
barians, and though Julius Caesar, according to Sue-
tonius, attempted to pass a law in favour of the
practice of polygamy, he was unable to eflect it.
Plutarch remarks, that Mark Antony was tlie first
among the Romans who had two wives. Among
the Scandinavian nations polygamy, if it prevailed,
as has sometimes been alleged, at an early period of
their history, must have fallen into disuse about the
ninth and tenth centuries. At all events no men-
tion is made of this custom in any of the Sagas
relating to Iceland.
Polygamy is retained at this day in all Moham-
medan countries, .and througliout the whole Eastern
world; but in Western nations it is universally pro-
hibited. The only exception to this last remark
occurs among the Mormoivi in the valley of the
Great Salt Lake in the far interior of North America.
This strange sect teaches that the use and foundation
of matrimony is to raise up a peculiar holy peojile
for the kingdom of God the Son, that at the Mil-
lennimn they may be rai.sed to reign with him, and
the glory of the man will be in proportion to the
size of his household of children, wives, and ser-
vants. Quoting the Scripture, that " the man is not
without the woman, nor the woman without the
man," they affirm that it is the duty of every man to
many at least once, and that a woman cannot enter
into the heavenly kingdom without a husband to in-
troduce her as belonging to himself. The addition
of wives after the first to a man's family is called a
"sealing to him," a process which constitutes a rela-
tion with all the rights and sanctions of matrimony.
The introduction and continuance of the baneful and
immoral practice of polygamy is likely, sooner or
later, to prove destructive to the whole system of
Mormonism. See i\lAltRl.\GE.
POLYHYMNIA, a daughter of Zeus, and one of
the nine Muses (which see). She presided over
lyric poetry, and was believed to liave invented the
lyre.
POLYNESIANS (Religion of the). The term
" Polynesia," or many islands, is applied to the nu-
merous groups of islands in the South Pacific Ocean.
Previous to the introduction of Cliristianit\' among
them in the end of the last and beginning of the pre-
sent century, the Polynesians were involved in gross
heatlien darkness and superstition. Their objects
of worsliip were of three kinds — their deilied ances-
tors, their idols, and tlieir Etus (which see). Their
ancestors were converted into divinities on account
of the benelits which tliey had conferred upon
mankind. Thus one of their progenitors was be-
lieved to have created the sun, moon, and stars.
" Another tradition," .says Mr. Williams, in his ' Nar-
rative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea
Islands,' " stated that the heavens were originally so
close to the earth that men could not walk, but were
compelled to crawl. This was a serious evil ; but,
at length, an individual conceived the sublime idea of
elevating the heavens to a more convenient height.
For this purpose, he put forth his utmost energy;
and, by the first etVort, raised them to the top of a
tender plant, called tece, about four feet high. There
he deposited them until lie was refreshed ; when, by
a second effort, lie lifted them to the height of a
tree called kaiiariLi, which is as large as the syca-
more. By the third attempt he carried them to the
summits of the mountains ; and, after a long interval
of repose, and by a most prodigious eftbrt, he ele-
vated them to their present situation. This va.st
undertaking, however, was greatly facilitated by
myriads of dragon flies, which, with their wings,
sf\ eied the cords that confliied the heavens to llie
enrth. Now this individual was deilied ; and up to
the moment tliat Christianity was embraced, tlie de-
luded inhabitants worshipped liim as ' tlie Elevator
of the lieavens.' " The Polynesians had various other
gods who were deified men. The chief of these deities,
to whom motliers dedicated their children, were
I/ii-o, the god of tliieves, and Oro, the god of war
G80
POLYNESIANS (Riu.igion of the).
The idols woi'sliipped were dl;rei'eut in almost every
island and district. Tlie Etii has been already de-
scribed in a separate article. Besides the numerous
objects of adoration, the islanders generally, and the
Samoans in p.irticular, hail a vague idea of a S.ii)reme
Being, to whom they gave the name of Tangaroa.
Tiie mode in which these gods were adjred is ilius
described by Mr. Williams : •' The worship presented
to these deities consisted in prayers, incantations,
and otFerings of pigs, tish. vegetable food, native
cloth, canoes, and other s-aluable property. To these
must be added, human sacrilices, which, at some of
the islands, were fearfully common. An idea may
be formed of their addresses to the gods from the
.sentence with which they invariably concluded,
iriving presented the gift, the priest would say,
' Now, if you are a god of mercy, come this way, and
be propitious to this offering ; but, if you are a god
of anger, go outside the world, you shall neither have
temples, o.fferings, nor worshippers here.' The in-
rtietion of injuries upon theniselve.s, was anotlier
mode in which they worshipped their gods. It was
a frequent practice with the Sandwich islanders, in
performing some of their rites, to knock out their
front teeth ; and the Friendly islanders, to cut off
one or two of the bones of tlieir little lingers. This,
indeed, was so common, that scarce an adult could
be found who had not in this way mutilated his
hands. On one occasion, the daughter of a chief, a
line young woman about eighteen years of age, was
standing by ?ny side, and as I .saw by the slate of
the wound that she had recently |)erformed the cere-
mony, I took her hand, and asked her why she had
cut o:l' her linger? Her a!Vecting reply was, that
her mother was ill, and that, fearful lest her mother
should die, she had done this to induce the gods to
save her. ' Well,' .said I, ' how did you do it ?' 'Oh,'
she replied, ' I took a sharp shell, and worked it
about till the joint was separated, and then I allowed
the blood to stream from it. This was my oti'eriiig
to persuade the gods to restore my mother.' When,
at a future period, another ollering is reiiuired, they
sever the secoml joint of the same linger; and when
M third or fourth is demanded, they amputate the
same bones of the other little linger; and when they
have no more joints which they can conveniently
spare, they rub the stumps of their mutilated lingers
with rough stones, until the blood again streams from
the wound. Thus ' are their sorrows multiplied who
hasten after other gods.'"
The most atecting of the religious observanees of
the Polynesians was the sacrilice of humni victims.
Tois horrid custom did not prevail at the Naviga-
tor Islamls ; but it was carried to a fearful e.'iteut
at the Harvey group, and still more at the Tahitian
and .Society Islands. At one ceremony, called the
Feast of Ilestoralion, no I'ewer than seven human
beings were 0 I'ered in sacriiice. On the eve of w.ar,
also, it w IS customary to otfer human victims. It
may be interesting to notice the circumstances in
which the last sjicritice of this kind was ofiered at
Tahiti. " Pomare was about to tight a battle, which
wonld conlinn him in, or deprive him of, his domi-
nions. To propitiate the gods, therefore, by the
most valuable offerings he could command, was with
him an object of the highest concern. For this pur-
pose, rolls of native cloth, pigs, fish, and immense
quantities of other food, were presented at the mar-
aes ; but still a atba, or sacrifice was demanded.
Pomare, therefore, sent two of his messengers to the
house of the victim, whom he had marked for the
occasion. On reaching the place, they inquired of
the wife where her husband was. ,She replied, that
he was in snch a place, planting b.ananas. ' Well,'
they continueil, ' we are thirsty ; give us some cocoa-
nut water.' She told them that she had no inits in
the house, but that they were at liberty to climb the
tree^, and take as many as they desired. They then
requested her to lend them the o, which is a piece
of iron-wood, about four feet long, and an inch and
a-half in diameter, with which the natives open the
cocoa-nut. She cheerfully complied with their wishes,
little imagining that she w.as giving them the instru-
ment which, in a few moments, was to inflict a fatal
blow upon the hearl of her husband. Upon receiving
the 0, the men left the house, and went in search of
their victim ; and the woman having become rather
suspicious, followed them shortly after, and reJiched
the [ilace just in time to see the blow indicted and
her husband fall. She rushed forward to give vent
to her agonized feelings, and lake a last embrace ;
but she was immediately seized, .and bound hand and
foot, while the boily of her murdered husband was
placed in a long basket made of cocoa-nut leaves,
and borne from her sight. It appears that they
were always exceedingly careful to prevent the wit'e,
or daughter, or any female relative from touching
the corpse, for so polluted were females considered,
th.at a victim would have been desecrated, by a wo-
man's touch or breath, to such a degree as to have
rendered it nnfit for an oft'ering to the gods. While
the men were carrying their victim to the marae, he
recovered from the stnuning elVect of the blow, and,
bound as he was in ihe cocoa-nut leaf basket, he said
to his murderers, ' Friends, I know what you intend
to do with me — you are about to kill me, and offer
me as a tabu to your savage gods; and I also know
that it is useless for me to beg for mercy, for you
will not sp.are my life. You may kill my body ; but
you cnnnot hurt my soul ; for I have begun to pray
to .lesus, the knowledge of whom the missionaries
have brought to our island : you may kill my body,
but you cannot hurt my soul.' Instead of being
moved to compassion by his atl'oi'ting address, they
lai<l him down upon the ground, |)laced a stone under
his head, and with another, beat it to pieces. In this
state tluiy carried him to their ' savage goils.'" This
was the last .sacrifice offered to the gods of Tahiti ; for
soon after Christianity was embraced, and the altars
of their gods ceasi'd to be stained with hunnn blood
POLYSTAURION— POMPA.
681
Tlie Polviiesians, in their heatlien state, had very
peculiar oiiiiiions on the subject of a future world.
The Taliitiaus believed that there were two places
for departed spirits. Among the Rarotongans, para-
dise was a very long house encircled with beautiful
shrubs and flowers, which never lost their bloom or
fragrance. The inmates, enjoying perpetual youth
aud beauty, spent their days in dancing, festivity,
and merriment. The hell of the Rarotong.ans con-
sisted in being compelled to crawl roimd this house,
witnessing the enjoyment of its inmates witliout I he
possibility of sharing it. The terms on which any
one could tiiid an entrance into paradise, as Mr. Wil-
liams informs us, were these : '■ In order to secure
tlie admission of a departed spirit to future joys, the
corpse was dressed in the best attire the relatives
could provide, the head was wreathed with flowers,
a.'id other decorations were added. A pig was then
baked whole, and placed upon the body of the de-
ceased, surrounded by a pile of vegetable food.
After this, supposing the departed person to have
been a son, the father would thus address the corpse;
' My son, when you were alive I treated you with
kindness, and when you were taken ill I did my best to
restore you to health ; and now you are dead, there's
your moniae o, or property of admission. Go, my
son, and with that gain an entrance into the palace
of Tiki,' (the name of the god of this paradise.) 'and
do not come to this world again to disturb and alarm
us.' The whole would then be buried ; and, if they
received no intimation to the contrary within a few
days of the interment, the relatives believed that the
pig and the other f lod had obtained for him the desir-
ed admittance. If, however, a cricket was heard on
the premises, it was considered an ill omen ; and
they would immediately utter the most dismal bowl-
ings, aud such expressions as the following : — ' Oh,
our brother! his spirit has not entered the paradise ;
he is sulfering from hunger — he is shivering with
cold!' Forthwith the grave would be opened, and
the offering repeated. This was generally success-
ful,"
The Maori of New Zealand form a branch of the
Polynesian family, and as they seem to have been
preserved uncontaminated by intercourse with other
nations, we may discover in their superstitions some
of the primitive notions of the great m.ass of the
islanders of tlie Pacific Ocean. They regarded the
origin of ,all things as Xight and Nothingnes,s, and
even the older gods themselves were supposed to
have sprung from Night. Another series of divini-
ties are gods of light, and occupy the highest and
most glorious of the ten heavens. The JStu of the
other districts of Polynesia, was called Alua in the
language of New Zealand, and instead of being wor-
shipped like the Et>t, was simidy regarded as a
powerful adversary, skilled in supernatural arts, and
rendered proof against all ordinary worship. Hence
arose the charms and incantalions which form the
chief element in Maori worship. The sonls of their
11.
departed ancestors were i-anked among the Atucs.
Mr, Hardwick, in Ids ' Christ and other Master.s,
describes a very remarkable ceremony observed by
the Maori, which seems to bear no very remote ana-
logy to Christian baptism : " Soon after the birth ot
a child, the custom was to carry it to the priest, who,
at the close of some preliminary forms, recited a long
list of names belonging to the ancestors of the child,
and ended by selecting one of them for it. As he
pronounced this name he solemnly sprinkled the
child with a small branch of the karamu (coprosma
lucida) : while in other districts of the island, where
a somewhat different rite prevailed, the ceremony
was always conducted near a running stream in
which the child, when i( received its name, was not
unfrequently immersed."
An institution, which is common to the Maori and
to all the Polynesian tribes, is the Tahoo, which is ap-
plied botli to sacred things aud persons. Among the
Maori the bead-chief being sacred almost to divinity,
his house, his garments, aud all that belonged to
him was Taboo, his spiritual essence having been
supposed to be communicated to everything that he
touched. The religion of the Sandwich Islanders,
before they embraced Christianity, w.as almost en-
tirely a Tahoo system, that is, a .system of religious
prohibitions, which had extended itself very widely,
arid been used by their priests and kings to enlarge
their own power and influence. Temples or j^aj'oes ex-
isted in the South Sea Islands, but neither temples nor
altars existed in New Zealand, nor in the Samoas nor
Navigators Islands. The t'orm of superstition most
prevalent at the Samoas was the worship of the Etn,
which consisted of some bird, tish, or reptile, in
which they supposed that a spirit resided. Reli-
gious ceremonies were connected with almost every
event of their lives. They presented their first-fruits
to their gods, and at the close of the year observed
a festival as an expression of thanksgiving to the
gods, for the mercies of the past year.
POLYSTAURION (Gr. polus, many, and stanros,
a cross), a name given sometimes to the Phelonion
(which see), or cloak worn by the Greek patriarchs.
It is so called on account of the numerous crosses
which are embroidered upon it,
POLYTHEISM. See Idols, iMytiiology.
POMONA, a female deity among the ancient
Romans who presided over fruit-trees. Her worship
was under the superintendence of a special priest,
POMORYANS, a sect of dissenters from the
Russo- Ch-cek Church, who believe that Antichrist
has already come, is reigning spiritually in the
church, and destroying its purity, both in doctrine
and discipline. This sect zealously oppo.se the in-
novations of Nikon with regard to the church books,
and prefer a life of solitude and celibacy. They re-
baptize those who join them from other sects.
POMPA, a solemn procession among the ancient
heathens, on the occasion of a .«acrcd festival, a
funeral, a triumph, or for any special reasons.
3 m'*
682
Pu.M I'A CIKCENSIS— PONTIFEX.
POMPA CIKCENSIS, tlie sacred procession with
wliicli the Circeiiisiaii Games were introduced. On
tliis occasion the statues of the gods, placed on
wooden platforms, were borne upon the shoulders of
men, anil when very heavy they were drawn along
upon wheeled c;irriages.
POMPAIOI, certain gods among the ancient
Greeks, who received this name as being conductors
by the way, but what gods are specially referred to
is uncertain, unless Mercui-y be meant, whose office
it was to conduct souls to Hades. On certain days
called Apopo.mp^ (which see), sacrifices were
ori'ered to the Pompaioi.
POilPS, a term used in the form of solemn re-
nunciation which preceded baptism in the ancient
Christian church. The form referred to is given by
the author of the Ajiostolical Constitutions in these
words, " I renounce Satan and his works, and hh pomps.
anl his service, and his angels, and bis inventions, and
all things that belong to him or that are subject to
him." By the pomps of the devil appear to have
been meant the shows and games of heathen idolatry.
And even after idolatry was in a great measure
destroyed, and the public games and shows in honour
of the guds were discontinued, the expression pomps
was still used in the form of renunciation, to indicate
the vanity, lewdness, and profanenes.s, which so ex-
tensively prevailed. Some have attempted to trace
this renunciation back to apostolic times, found-
ing it on the e.xhortation of Paid to Timothy, " Lay
hold on eternal life, whereunto thou art also called,
and hast profe.-^sed a good profe.<sion before many
witnesses." Others again are content lo derive it
from ancient tradition. That it existed from a re-
mote period in the history of the Christian church,
is admitted on all bands; and such was the import-
ance attached to this renunciation, that as soon as
bajjtisteries were built, a place was assigned peculiarly
to this service, the porch or ante-room being set apart
tor this purpose. The catechumens, on entering, were
placed with their faces to tl)e west, and then com-
manded to renounce Satan and all his pomps, with
some gesture and rite expressing indignation, as by
stretching out their liands, or folding them, or strik-
ing them together; and sometimes by exsufflation,
or spitting at him as if he were present. In this
ceremony the faces of the catechumens were turned
towards the west, as being the jilace of darkness,
and therefore suitable for the renunciation of him
who i.s the prince of darknes.'. The fonn of re-
nunciation was repeated three time.s, either because
there were three things which were renounced in
their baptism, the devil, his pomps, and the worid;
or to signify the three Persons of the Trinity, by
wlioni they were adopted as sons upon renouncing
Satan; or because it was usual in cases of civil
adojuion and emancipation of slaves, for the master
to yield up his right l)y a triple renunciation. See
Baptism.
PONGOI,. a IIIikIu festival in hoimur of the Sun,
which is celebrated annually on the ninth of Jaimarv.
The high-caste Brahmans look upon this as a lucky
and propitious day, but the Sudras hold it as sacreii,
and visit one anotherwith presents. They boil rice on
this day with milk outside the house in some place ex-
posed to the sun's rays, and when that luminary with-
draws, they ciy out Poiigol, and repeal it four times.
The rice thus boiled is regarded as very holy, and
kept as long as possible. The day after the Fongul,
the cows and bull'aloes are led out early into the
country, having their heads adorned with crowns and
cakes. See SuN-woi!SHiP.
PONTIFTjX, a priest among the ancient Romans.
Considerable doubt exists as to the origin of the
name, some deriving it from }>ons, a bridge, and
facere, to make, because they were believed to have
been the first who built the Sublician bridge in
Rome, and had the duty committed to them of keep-
ing it in repair; others deriving it from pons, a
bridge, and/ocere, in the sense of to otl'er or sacrifice,
referring to the sacrifices anciently offered on the
Sublician bridge. At the first institution of the
pontifices by Niiina, the number was limited to four,
who were constantly chosen out of the nobility till
the year of the city 454, when five more were added,
while the augurs received the same addition. The
pontifices, like the augurs, were formed into a
college, which Sylla increased by the addition of
seven; the first eight being called Pontljifas Mojores,
greater priests, and the rest Pontifices Minores, lesser
priests. At the head of the college was the PoNTl-
Fiix Maximus (which see). Julius Ciesar added
one to the nnndjer of Ponlificei. Their number
varied during the empire, but the general number
was fifteen, and they held their office for life. If
one of the number died, the members of the ecillege
elected a successor. This mode of election continued
until B. c. 104, when the right was transferred by
law to the peo|)le, at least in so far as concerned the
nomination of the candidate, who was (o be elected
by the college of priests. This lex Domitia, as it
was called, was repealed by Sulla the dictator, and
the earlier mode of election restored so far, that in
case of a vacancy the college received the power of
nonniiating two candidates, of which the people
elected one. Mark Antony restored the right of the
college of Pontifices in its fidl extent.
All matters of religion whatever were tinder the
exclusive superintendence of the college of priests,
and they were reipiired to regulate everything con-
nected with the worshiji of the gods, and to take the
direction of the priests and their attendants, while
they themselves were resjionsible neither to the
senate nor the people. The functions and duties
of l\ie ponlifiiTs were miinitelv detailed in the Ponti-
fiial books which had been received from Numa.
'I'liey were not priests of any particular divinity, but
of the worship of the gods generally, including all re-
ligious cerenujnies public and private. Mo decision
of the pontiffs was valid unless it had the sanction
PONTIFEX MAXIMUS— PONTIFrCAL (Roman)
683
of tliree members of tlie college. The punisliment
wliicli tliey inflicted upon offenders seldom exceeded
a line, but in tlie case of incest it could extend to
capital punishment.
The pontifices liad the honour of wearing the to(ia
prairxta, but they made use only of the common
purple. They wore a cap called the galcrns. which
was composed of the skin of the beasts oft'ered in
sacrilice, and was of a conical shape. The college
of priests met in the curia regia on the Via Sacra,
and adjoining to this building was the house in which
the chief-priest dwelt. This college of Pontifices
continued to exist until paganism had given place to
Christianity. Cicero speaks of three individuals
bearing the title of Pontifices Minores, but in all
probability they were simply secretaries of the
pontifical college.
PONTIFEX MAXIMUS, the head of the col-
lege of priests ainong the ancient Komans. From
the institution of the order by Numa, the Pontifex
Maxiinus was uniformly a patrician until B. c. 254,
when, for the first time, a plebeian was invested with
the office. For some time before this change took
place, the election of this high dignitary was intrust-
ed to the people, but afterwards it was vested in the
college of priests themselves. The Pontifex Marimns
presided over the college, and was regarded as the
head of all the sacerdotal orders of the country. Plu-
tarch, in speaking of him, says, " He is the interpreter
of all sacred rites, or rather a superintendent of re-
ligion, having the care not only of public sacrifices,
but even of private rites and olTerings, forbidding the
people to depart from the stated ceremonies, and
teaching them how to honour and propitiate the
god.s." His was one of the most honourable offices
in the commonwealth. It was the duty of the chief
pontiff to appoint the vestal virgins and the Fhmens.
He was also required to be present at ever)' marriage
which was celebrated by Conf.\rreatio (which
see). In diginty he was generally on a footing with
the reigning sovereign, and in the estimation of the
people he was his superior. Indeed, the priestly and
the regal offices were often combined in the same per-
son. Numa Pompilius, who in.stituted tlie order,
assumed the office, as Plutarch informs us, though
Livv alleges, that at that time there were two difl'er-
ent persons bearing the same name, the one fulfilling
the roval, and the other the priestly functions. Fes-
tus defines the office of Pontifex JIaximus to be the
jtidge and arbiter of divine and huni.an atl'airs. All the
emperors, after the example of Julius Cajsar and Au-
gustus, were either really or nonfinally high-priests.
Constantine, and several of the Christian emiierors
who succeeded him, retained ainong their other titles
that of Pontifex Maximum. Gratian was the first
who declined it, and after the time of Theodosius,
the emperors ceased to be, and even to call them-
selves, pontiffs.
The title of Pontifex Mascimns came to be used in
the Christian Church at an early period of its his-
tory. When bishops, instead of being simple pas-
tors of congregations, were invested with the autho-
rity of superintendents of the clergy of a diocese,
this imposing title was sometimes bestowed upon
them. Tertulli.an applies it to the bishop of Rome
as it was applied to all other bishops.
PONTIFF (Ro^f.^^'). See Popk.
PONTIFICAL, BOOKS, the name given to the
books which contained a detailed account of the du-
ties and functions belonging to the pontifices or priests
of ancient Rome. They arc said to have been drawn
up in the reign of Numa Pompilius and to have re-
ceived the sanction of Ancus Martins. These book.s
contained the names of the gods, and the various
regidations for their worship, as well as a detailed
description of the functions, rights, and privileges of
the priests. Additions were made to these books in
course of time by the decrees of the pontilTs. It has
been alleged that the original laws and regidations, in
regard to sacred worship, were communicated orally
bv Numa to the pontiffs, and that he had buried the
written books in a stone chest in the Janicidum ;
that they were afterwards found in B. r. 181, and
given to the city prsetor, who ordered one half of
them to be burnt, and the other half to be carefully
preserved. There was also a series of documents
kept bv the Pontifex Maximns at Rome containing
an account of eclipses, prodigies, and other matters.
These annals or commentaries, as they were called,
were written on a white board, which was suspended
in a conspicuous place in the chief pontiff's house,
and formed the oiilv historical documents which the
Romans possessed before the time of Quintus F;i-
bius Pictor. who lived during the second Punic war,
and wrote the history of Rome from its foundation
to his own time. Hence the uncertainty, as Niebuhr
affirms, of the early period of Roman history.
PONTIFICAl'(Roman), the book of the bishops
in the Romish Church. It consists of three parts.
The first part, which is devoted to sacred persons,
treats of the administration of the sacraments of
confirmation, and of the sacred orders, the benedic-
tion of abbots and abbesses, the consecration of vir-
gins, and of kings and queens at coronations, and
the benediction of soldiers. The second part is de-
dicated to the consecration of sacred things, as ot
churches, altars, cemeteries, patens, cups, priestly and
episcopal robes, crosses, images, sacred vessels, relics,
bells, arm.s, and other warlike instruments. The
third part of the Pontifical treats of sacred occasions,
as, for example, the publication of the moveable
feasts, the expulsion and reconciliation of penitents,
the preparation of the feast of Ccena Domini, the pre-
paration of the sacred oils, the mode of conducting
synods, of degrading, suspending, and excommuni-
cating the various orders of the church, reconciling
apostates, schismatics or heretics, and a multitude of
other arrangements, that bisho|)S may be guided in
every part of their functions. At what date the
Pontifical was first commenced we have not been
684
PONTIFICALIA— POPK (Tin:).
able to ascertain ; but it seems to liave gradually
grown up witli the ailvauciu'^ progress of the Romish
hierarchy. Pope Clement VIII., in a bull dated
1596, .speaks of the incM-edible anxiety, a.ssiduoiis and
unwearied care, and daily labour of the most learned
and skilful, in all liturgical matters with wliich the
Pontifical had been prepared, " cutting off whatever
was useless, i-estoring what was necessary, amending
errors, and correcting irregularities," until it had
reached the state in which he was enabled to pre-
sent it to the Roman Church. His Holiness further
enacts, that former Pontiticals be suppressed and
abolished, and his own restored and reformed Ponti-
fical bo used in its stead. Urban VHI., in 1G44, is-
sued a new and revised edition of the Pontifical,
declaring, that •' in tl\e course of time it was found
tliat many errors had crept in, either througli the
ignorance or carelessness of printers, or from other
causes;" and .so late as 1748 another edition was
published with alterations and additions.
PONTIFICALIA, the peculiar badges of a pon-
tilf's or bishop"s office, though the term is sometimes
used to denote any ecclesiastical dress.
PONTIFICATE, the state or dignity of a pontiff
or high-priest ; but more generally used in our day j
to denote the reign of a pope.
PONTUS, a personification of the sea among the
ancient Greeks.
POOR MEN OF LYON.S. See Wm,i)p:nsi.\ns.
POPA. See Cultrariu.s.
POPK (The), a title claimed exclusively by the
bishop of Rome as the supreme earthly head of the
Roman Catliolic, Church. The name Pope is derived
(rom papa, fallier, as Christian bishops were anciently
styled. Cyprian, Epiphanius, and Athanasius, were
called Papie or Popes. Hingham, in his ' Christian
Antiquities,' adduces a number of instances to prove
that every bishop was formerly called I'npa or Pope.
Baryiiius, a Romish historian, admits that the name
Papa continued common to all bishops for BiiO years,
till Hildebrand, in a council at Rome lield in the
year 107.'?, decreed that there shoidd be but one
Pope in the whole world. From that period the
title was exclusively appropriated by the bishop of
Rome, wlio is usually addressed as Most Holy Fa-
tlier.
The mode of election of the bishop of Rome in
the present day is very ditTerent from the practice
of ancient times. He was not chosen by a general
synod of prelates, or by delegates sent froin various
parts of Christendom ; but by the clergy and people
of Rome. Afterwards the emperors assinned to
themselves the right of in)minalion or election.
Rut at the Lateran council, in .\. u. 1050, Nicho-
las II. passed a .special law, that the Pope should
be chosen by the cardinal bishops and priests, wiih
the concurrence of the rest of the Rom;m clergy and
the Roman people, " save with the respect due to
the emperor," words which have been dilVerently in-
terpreted at dilTerent times. I$ut thougli the elec-
tion of the Pope was thus wrested I'roni the emperors,
a keen contest was afterwards carried on for its
recovery by the princes of the German States, more
especially those of Saxony and the house of Holien-
staufen. These contests, however, nniforndy ter-
minated in favour of the Popes, who, encouraged by
success, deprived the emperors of all power of in-
terference in papal elections. This bold stej) was
taken by Aleximder IIP in 1179, who decreed that
the election of the Pope by a college of cardinals
was valid in itself, without the sanction of the em-
peror; and similar decrees were passed by Inno-
cent III. in 1215, and by Innocent IV. in 1254.
At last the conclave of cardinals, as it exists at the
present day, was finally established by Gregory X.
in 1274.
In the election of a Pope there are three modes,
which are equally canonical. The first is by occhi-
Illation, a mode which is said to have been followed
in the case of the election of St. Fabian in A. n. 238,
on whose head a dove descended, and he was there-
upon elected Pope by acclamation. Gregory VII.
also, is said to have been elected in 107.3 in the same
manner. The second mode of election is by comj>ro-
mv!e, that is, when the cardinals cannot agree, they
niaj' depute their right of election to one, two, or
more of their number, and the person nominated by
the deiiuties is acknowdedged as lawful Pope. This
was the mode followed in the election of Gregory X.
in 1271. The third and almost invariable mode of
election in later times is by scfiiliin/, which is done
by means of printed schedules, the blanks of which
are filled up by each cardinal, with his own name,
and that of the person for whom he votes. If two-
thirds of the number of votes are in favour of one
individual, he is forthwith declared to be duly elected.
If there be not two-thirds in favour of any one, the
civrdiniils proceed to a second vote by AcCESSUS
(which see), which is still done by means of printed
schedules ; but in this case the cardinals can accede
only to one who was voted for in the preceding scru-
tiny, and they are not obliged to arreile. to any one.
AVhen at length a majority of two-thirds is obtained
in favour of an individual, the guns of St. Angelo are
fired to give notice of the election. A formal pro-
clamation is now read from a balcony above the
principal entrance to the Quirinal palace. As soon
as the newly-elected Pope has consented to accejit
the oflice, he takes a new name in conformity with
the example of St. Peter, who is alleged by Ronfish
writers to have changed his name when he became
bishop of Rome, from Simon to Peter.
On the day following the election of the Pope, or
as soon thereafter as possible, his formal installation
takes place. The ceremony is thus described by an
eye-witness of undoidifed credibility, Mr. Thomson
of Banchory : " About eleven o'clock the procession
began to arrive from the Quirinal palace. It was
immensely long. The cardinids were in their state
carriages, and each nas accompanied by several car-
II if E^mant IpumitirlF.
/r%. wj
POPE (The).
685
riages full of attendants. The senator and governor
of Rome formed partof tlie train. The Pope was in
a state coacli, drawn by six black horses, and pre-
ceded by a priest riding on a wliiie nude and bearing
a large crncitix. The procession went roinid by the
back of St. Peter's, and the Pope went up to the Sis-
tine cliapel, wliere varions ceremonies were performed
wliich I did not see. In about half an honr the pro-
cession entered the centre door of St. Peter's. In
all these processions tlie lower orders of the clergy
come first, then bishops, archbishops, cardinals, and
lastly the Pope. He was borne aloft on his throne,
carried by twelve bearers, the clioir singing Ecce sa-
cerdos magmis — ' Behold the great priest.' At the
chapel of the Santi.ssimo he stopped and adored the
host. He was then borne forward to the high altar,
and, passing by the north side of it, alighled in a
sp.ace enclosed for the use of the Pope and cardinals
on the east side. He w;dked up to the altar, prayed
at the foot of it, ascended the steps, and seated him-
self on the middle of the altar, on the very spot
where tlie ciboriuni or pyx, containing the host,
usually stands. The cardinals in succession went
through the ceremony of adorntion ; this ceremony
is performed three times : first, before quitting the
conclave ; secondly, in the Sistine chapel, before the
procession came into St. Peter's ; and now for the
third time. Each cardinal prostrated himself before
the Pope, then kissed his toe, or rather his shpper,
next kissed his hand, whicli was not bare, but cov-
ered by the cape of his robes ; and, lastly, the Pope
embraced each twice, and when all had gone through
this ceremony, the Pope rose and bestowed his
Dlessingon the people present, and retired in a sedan
chair, on the back of which there is embroidered in
gold a dove, to represent the Holy Spirit."
On the Sunday after his installation, his Holiness
is crowned and celebrates his first mass. This scene
i.s represented as gorgeous and imposing in the ex-
treme, and as the splendid procession passes into
St. Peter's, and advances towards the high altar, a
small quantity of flax is three times kindled by an
attendant who precedes the pontill", while a master
of ceremonies each time exclaims in Latin, " Holy
Father, thus passes the glorj' of the world;" thus
reminding the newly-elected Pope of the transitory
nature of all earthly things. The altar at which he
is for the first time to perform mass as supreme pon-
tiff, is decorated with great magnificence, and all the
vessels are either of solid gold, or of silver-gilt richly
ornamented with precious stones. After part of the
mass has been performed, the oldest cardinal-deacon
invests him with the pontifical mantle, pinning it
with three gold pins, each adorned by an emerald
set with brilliants, in memory of tlie three nails
wherewith our Saviour was nailed to the cross. In
performing this ceremony, the officiating ecclesiastic
addresses the Pope in these words, "Receive the holy
mantle, the plenitude of the pontifical office, to the
honour of Almighty God, and of the most glorious
Virgin Mary bis mother, and of the blessed apostles
Peter and Paul, and of the Holy Roman Church."
After his Holiness has concluded the service of the
mass and taken the communion, not drinking the
wine, however, immediately from the chalice, but
through a silver pipe, the ceremony of coronation
commences. The Pope is carried, with a view to this
ceremony, to the external balcony above the centre
door of St. Peter, the choir singing, "a golden crown
upon his head." As soon as he has taken his seat
ujion a throne prepared for the purpose, an appro-
priate prayer is recited ove»' him. The second
cardinal-deacon then takes off the Pope's mitre, and
the oldest cardinal-deacon places the triple crown
upon his head, addressing him in these words, " Re-
ceive the tiara adorned with three crowns, and know
that thou art the father of princes and kings, the
governor of the world, on earth vicar of our Saviour
Jesus Christ, to whom is honoiu' and glory for ever
and ever. Amen." The Pope then pronoimces the
following benediction: "May the holy apostles
Peter and Paul, in whose power and authority we
confide, intercede for us with the Lord. By the
prayers and merits of the blessed Mary, always a
Virgin, of the blessed Michael the archangel, of the
blessed John the Baptist, and the holy apostles
Peter and Paul, and all the saints, may Almighty
God have mercy upon you, and may Jesus Christ,
having remitted all your sins, lead you to life ever-
lasting. Amen.
" May the Almighty and merciful Lord grant yon
indulgence, absolution, and remission of all your sins,
space for true and fruitful repentance, a heart always
penitent, and amendment of life, the grace and con-
solation of the Holy Spirit, and final perseverance in
good works."
Then rising and making the triple sign of the
cross, he bestows the usual blessing: — "And m.i.y
the blessing of Almighty God the Father, the Son,
and the Holy Spirit, descend upon and abide with
yon for ever. Amen." Another ceremony is
afterwards performed, that of presenting the Pope
with two keys, one of gold and the other of
silver.
The origin and gradual progress of the power of
the popes, both as spiritual and temporal rulers, has
been already iuWy considered under the article
Papacy. The formal establishment of the suprem-
acy of the Pope may be dated from A. D. COO, when
the Bishop of Rome assumed the title of Universal
Bishop and supreme head of the church. This title
was ratified by Phocas the Greek Emperor, who
issued an edict, revoking the decree of the council
of Constantinople A. D. 588, which entailed the title of
Univeisal Bishop on the prelates of Constantinople,
and transferring it from them to Boniface and his
successors. The Bishop of Rome was now de-
clared the head of the whole Catholic church. The
spiritual supremacy of the Pope led to the accession
of temporal power. This was accomplished in the
G83
POPE (The)— PORTERS OF THE TEMPLE.
eiglith century, by tlie real or pretended gi-ants of
Pepiu and Cliarlemagne.
In the view of Kojnan Calliolics, tlie following
prerogatives belong to the Pope. '•(!.) That the
Pope alone has power to call or convene general
councils. (2.) That he only, in person ov by his
legates, can preside in and moderate general
councils. (3.) That he alone can confirm the de-
crees of a general council. (4.) That the will of
the Pojie, declared by way of precept or proclama-
tion, concerning the sanction, abrogation, or dis-
pensation of laws, is of sovereign authority in the
universal church. (5.) That the Pope is tlie foun-
tain of all jurisdiction, and all other bishops, pre-
lates, and clergy, derive their authority from his
mandate or connnission, and act as his deputies or
commissioners. (6.) Tliat the Pope has universal
jurisdiction over tlie clergy, demanding submission
and obedience from them, requiring all cases of
weight to be referred to him, citing them to his bar,
examining and deciding their causes, &c. (7.) That
the Pope, by virtue of the foregoing prerogatives,
has the choice or election of bishops and pastors,
the confirmation of elections, the ordination or con-
secration of the persons to office, by which their
character or authority is recognised, and the jurisdic-
tion under which tliey discharge their several duties.
(8.) That it belongs to the Pope to censure, suspend,
or depose bishops or pastors. (9.) That the bishop
of Rome can restore censured, suspended, or deposed
prelates. (10.) That he possesses the right of re-
ceiving appeals froin all interior judicatories, for the
final determination of causes. (11.) That the Pope
c.'innot be called to an account, judged, or deposed.
(12.) That he can decide controversies in faith, morals,
aiul disclidine. (13.) That he is above a council.
(14.) That he is infallible. (15.) That he has
supreme power over civil magistrates, kingdoms,
and states, both in temporal and spiritual matters,
by divine right. (16.) That the Pope is lawfully a
temporal or civil prince." So far have the popes
sometimes asserted their authority to reach, that
Gregory VII. maintained that lie was rightful
sovereign of the whole universe, as well in civil as
in spiritual concerns. It is oidy right to state that
the Gallican church, and all who are opposed to
Ultramontane prhicl])les, deny the personal in-
fallibility of the Pope, and believe that he may fall
into heresy and be lawfully deposed.
Every llomlsh priest, at his ordination, declares on
oath his adherence to and belief In the Creed of Pojie
Plus IV., in the elevcnlh article of which these
words occur, " I promise and swear true obedience
to the Bishop of Rome, successor to St. Peter, Prince
of the Apostles, and Vicar of Jesus Christ." The
Douay Catechism teaches generally In regard to the
whole of mankind, " lie who Is not in due connexion
and subordination to the Pojie and general councils,
must needs be dead, .and cainiot be accounted a
member of the church." The theory of the Pope
then, as held by the Roman Catholic chin-ch. niav be
expressed in the words of Benedict XIV.: "The
Pope is the head of all heads, and the prince moder-
ator and pastor of tlie whole Church of Christ which
Is under heaven."
POPERY. See Papacy, and Rome fCnrp.rii
of';.
I'OPLICANI, a naine sometiines applied to the
Alhigensks (which see), in the twelfth centm-v.
POPOVSHCHINS, one of the two great branches
into which the Ruskolniks, or dissenters from the
Ru.iso- Greelc Church, are divided. They are dis-
tinguished from the other branch by having priests,
and admitting the national priests that apostatize to
them to officiate still as priests without re-ordina-
tlon. Dr. Pinkerton enumerates five sects compre-
hended under this one branch of dissenters, who
differ froiTi each other on n\inor points, but par-
ticularly on outward ceremonies. The five sects re-
ferred to are the Starohrechi or Old Ceremonlallsts;
the Diacotwftschins ; the Peremayannft'chiiis ; the
Eppfanoftxchins ; and the Tschernahnltui .
POPULOXIA, a surname of Juno ainong the
ancient Romans, as being the protectress of the
whole Roman people.
PORCH. See Pkofyl^um.
PORPHYRIAXS, a rejiroachful name which was
ordered by Constantino the Great to be given to the
Arians (which see), as being, like Porphyry,
enemies to Christianitv.
PORRETAXI, the followers of Gilbert de la
Porr^e, bishop of Poictlers, a metaphysical divine of
the twelfth century, who attempted to distinguish
the divine essence froin the Deity, and the properties
of the three Divine persons from the persons them-
selves, not in reality but by abstraction. In con-
sequence of these distinctions he denied the incarna-
tion of the Divine nature. Gilbert was accused by
two of his clergy of teaching blasphemy, and .at their
Instigation St. Bernard brought the matter before
Eugene 111., the iiontift", who was then in France.
The case was discussed, first in the council of Paris
in A. D. 1147, and then in the council of Rheinis,
which was held In the following year. To put an
end to the contest, Gilbert yielded liis own judgment
to that of the council aiul the Pope.
PORTERS OF THE TEMPLE, oflicers fre-
quently mentioned in the Old Testament Scriptures,
as keeping the g.ites of the Jewish temple, and
having charge of the treasure and ofi'erings. These
men were Lcritcs, to whose care the different gales
were appointed bv lot. Their business was to ojien
and shut the gates, to watch by day that no strangers,
or excoinnnuilcaled, or unclean persons should cuter
the holy court, and also to keep guard by night
about the temple and its courts. Hence we find in
Psalm cxxxlv. those exhorted to praise God, "who
by night stand in the house of the Lord." The
porters of the temple are said to have been twenty-
four In luunber, among whom were throe priests.
P0RTE3SE— POSITIVISTS.
687
According to Maimoiiides, tliey were presided over
by ail officer, who received tlie iimiie of " tlie man of
tlie mountain of the house," wliose duty it was to
see that all were at their posts. See Temple
(Jewish).
rOUTESSE, a breviary, a portable book of
prayers.
PURTIO COXGRUA, the name given in tlie
canon law to tlie suitable salary which was anciently
allotted to the priest or minister of a parisli.
POUT- ROYALISTS. See Jansenists.
PORl'U.MNALIA, a festival celebrated among
the ancient Romans in honour of Portamnus, the
god of harbours. It was kept ou the 17ih day before
tlie Kalends of September.
PORTDMNUS (from Lat., partus, a harbour), tlie
deity supposed among the ancient Romans to pre-
side over harbours. A teiiifile was erected in honour
of him at the port of the Tiber, and he was usually
invoked by those who undertook voyages.
POSEIDON, tlie god wlio was considered among
tlie ancient Greeks as presiding over the sea. He
was the son of Chronoa and Rhea, and had his palace
at the bottom of the sea, where the monsters of the
deep play around liis dwelling. This deity was be-
lieved to be the author of storms, and to shake the
earth with his trident or tliree-pronged spear. His
wife was Ainphitrite. Herodotus affirms that the
Greeks derived the worship o( Poseidon from Libya,
but from wliatever quarter it was received, it spread
over all Greece and Southern Italy. It prevailed
more especially in the Peloponnesus. Tiie usual
sacriiices oti'ered to this god were black and white
bulls, and also wild boars and rams. At Corinth
horse and chariot-races were held in liis honour.
The Paiiionia, or festival of all the loiiians, was
celebrated also in honour of Poseidon. The Romans
identified him with their own sea-god Neptune.
POSEIDOXIA, a festival celebrated annually
among the ancient Greeks in honour of Poseidon.
It was kept chiefly in the island of YEgiiia.
POSmVISTS, a name applied to those who
follow the philosophical system of M. Auguste
Cointe, — a system which applies both to scientific
and religious truth. This bold iiilidel thinker pub-
lished, 1830-1842, a large work entitled, " Cours de
Philosophic Positive," whicli resolves all science
into a series of palpable facts or phenomena, said to
occur ill a chain of necessary development, and to
need no dogma of a Divine Providence to account
for them. The investigation of nature by man, ac-
cording to M. Cointe, is limited simply to plieiiomena
and their laws, and every attempt to introduce even
the slightest reference to a First Cause, only be-
trays the weakness of the huniaii mind, and retards
its im|)rovcnieiit. He lays down as the grand
thought which lies at the foundation of his sy;>tem,
tliat there are but three phases of intellectual de-
velopment for the individual as well as for llie mass,
- — the theological or supernatural, the metaphysi-
cal and the positive. " In the supernatural phase,"
says Mr. Lewes, in his exposition of the .system,
" the mind seeks causes ; it aspires to know the
essences of things, and the how and why of their
operation. It regards all eftects as the productions
of supernatural agents. Unusual phenomena are
interpreted as the signs of the pleasure or displeasure
of some god. In the metaphysical phase, a modifica-
tion takes place; the supernatural agents are set
aside for abstract forces or entities supposed to in-
here in various substances, and capable of engender-
ing phenomena. In the positive phase the mind,
convinced of the futility of all inquiry into causes
and essences, restricts itself to the observation and
classiliciitiim of phenomena, and to the discovery of
the invariable relations of succession and similitude
wliicli things bear to each otiier : in a word, to the
discovery of the laws of phenomena."
The highest stage of human perfection, then, .M.
Comte and his followers allege, is to throw aside all
reference to a Divine cause, or a supernatural power,
and to confine our attention to mere natural causes
and mechanical laws. This is to be the new faith
which, if we are to believe the advocates of this
Universal Religion, will supersede all other faiths.
" What Europe wants," says Mr. Lewes, ''is a doc-
trine which will embrace the whole .system of our
conceptions, wliich will satisfactorily answer the
questions of science, life, and religion ; teaching us
our relations to the world, to duty, and to God. A
mere glance at the present state of Europe will de-
tect the want of unity, caused by the absence of any
one doctrine general enough to embrace the variety
of questions, and positive enough to carry with it
irresistible conviction. This last reservation is made
because Catholicism has the requisite generality, but
fails in convincing Protestants. The existence of
sects is enough to prove, if proof were needed,
that none of the religions are competent to their
mission of binding together all men under one faith.
As with religion, so with philosophy : no one doc-
trine is universal ; there are almost as many philoso-
phies as philosophers. Tlie dogmas of Germany are
laughed at in England and Scotland; the psycho-
logy of Scotland is scorned in Germany, and neglect-
ed in England. Besides these sectarian divisions,
we see religion and philosophy more or less avowed-
ly opposed to each other.
" This, then, is the fact with respect to general
doctrines: — Religions are opposed to religions, phi-
losophies are opposed to philosophies; while reli-
gion and philosophy are essentially opposed to each
other."
Religion, as defined by Comte, is not this or that
form of creed, but the harmony proper to human ex-
istence, individual and collective, gathering into its
bosom all the tendencies of our nature, active, af-
fectionate, and intelligent. The Positive Religion
claims to have a superiority over all other reli-
gions, in being a religion of demonstration. Its
G88
POSTILS— POVERTY (Voluntary).
belief is founded on tlie demonstrative truths of
Positive Science, and tints we are furnished, it is
thonglit, with a solid basis for religion, in precise
and coherent views of physical phenomena. We are
all of US subject to certain physical influences, clie-
inical, astroiiomicjil, vital laws. lint we are still
further acted upon by numberless social conditions
arising from the connection of hidividuals and their
dependence upon tlie great collective mass which con-
stitutes humanity. Humanity, or the collective life,
is with Cornte the Supreme Being, the only one we
can know, and, therefore, the only one we can wor-
ship. Religion is thus limited to the relations in
which we stand towards one another and towards hu-
manity, without reference to the Divine Being, in
whom " we live, and move, and have our being."
The origin of the Development theory, of which
Positivism is the consummation, is probably to be
traced to tlie speculations of the late Sir William
Herschell, on the nebulous matter dift'used through-
out space. Grounding his theory on these observa-
tions. La Place suggested a hypothetical explana-
tion of the way in which the production of the
planets and their satellites might be accounted for.
This hypothesis of La Place has been attempted to
be verified by M. Comte. A still bolder flight has
been taken by t)ie anonymous author of the ' Vesti-
ges of the Natural History of Creation,' who endea-
vours to account for tlie origin both of suns and of
solar systems, by the agency of natural laws ; and
for the origin of organic beings, by asj-stem of pro-
gressive organization, or by a change or transmuta-
tion of species resulting from the agency of natural
causes. Thus natural law is substituted in this
theory for supernatural interposition both in provi-
dence and creation ; and God is elfeetually excluded
from all real, active, and direct connection with his
works.
The theory of Development, however, was not
limited to the field of the material creation; it has
been carried by M. Comte into the wide field of
morals and religion. The mind of man is gradually
developed, passing through the three jirogres-sive
stages to wliich we have already adverted. In his
religious history, also, the human being is subject to
a law of development, comineiicing with Fetishism,
thence passing to I'/ili/tJieium, afterwards to Moim-
tlinism, and terminating at length in Positivism, which
is nothing short of absolute and universal Atheism,
inasmuch as it prcjfesscs to be exclusively a science
of facts and their laws, and refuses all reference to
causes etlicient or final. " Is it not strange," .says
John Foster, " to observe how carel'uUy some philo-
sophers, who deplore the condition of the world, and
profess to expect its melioration, keej) their spcciila-
ti.ins clear of every idea of Divine inler|]Osition ? No
builders of houses or cities were ever more attentive
to guard against the access of flood or fire. If He
should but touch thiir prospective theorii'S of im-
provenu'iit, they wnnld reiionnce them, as defiled niul
fit only for vulgar fanaticism. Their system of Pro-
vidence would be profaned by the intrusion of the
Almighty. Man is to effect an apotheosis for him-
self, by the hopeful process of exhausting his cor-
ruption. And should it take a long series of ages,
vices, and woes, to reach this glorious attainment,
patience may sustain itself the while by the thought
that when it is realized, it will be burdened with no
duty of religious gratitude. No time is too long to
wait, no cost too deep to incur, for the triumph of
proving that we have no need of a Divinity, regard-
ed as possessing that one attribute which makes it
delightful to acknowledge such a Being, the benevo-
lence that would make us hapjiy. But even if this
noble self sufficiency cannot be realized, the iiule-
peiidence of spirit whicli has laboured for it must not
sink at last into piety. This afflicted world, ' this
poor terrestrial citadel of man,' is to lock its gates,
and keep its miseries, rather than admit the degrada-
tion of receiving help from God."
POSSESSION (DicMONiACAi,). See Demonian-
ISTS.
POSTILS, a name anciently used to denote ser-
mons or homilies.
POST-MILLENNIALISTS, the name applied to
the large body of Christians belonging to all deno-
minations, who believe that tJie second coming of
Christ will not precede, as the Pre-3Ii!!enni<i!ists
allege, but follow after the Millennium. See Mil-
LKN'AIilANS.
POSTVORTA, a surname of the Roman goddess
Carmenta, indicating her knowledge of the jiast, just
as Avtfrorta denotes her knowledge of tlie future.
POTIIOS, a persoiiiticalion among the ancient
Greeks of love or desire, and usually reg;irded as a
companion of Aplirodite.
POTITII, one of the most distinguished families
among the ancient Romans, who are said to have
received llrrciilejt when he came into Italy, and
treated him hospitably on the very S])ot whore Rome
was afterwards built. They were in return invested
with the honour of being in all fulure time the here-
ditary priests of the god. They contimied, accord-
ingly, to enjoy this privilege until B. C. .S12, when
they sold their knowledge of the sacred rites for
50,000 i>ounds of copper. For this remuner.ation
they instructed public slaves in the worship of Her-
cules; on which the deity was so enraged, that the
whole family of the Potilii perished within thirty
days.
POVERTY (VoLUNTAltv), one of the three
evangelical counsels or vows of a monk in the Ro-
mish Church. To a certain extent this obligation
was recognized even from the first origin of Monnsti-
m'sm ; but it was enforced with far greater strictness
than before by the two great Mendicant Orders, the
Fraiici^^ciiits and Doininicans, which took their rise
in the beginning of the thirteenth century ; one of
the fundamental rules of these orders being that their
menibiM's must possess no property, but be wholly
I'OYA— I'liyK-ADAMilES.
U8S
ilepeudent on alms for tlieir support. Until tlie rise
of the Mendicants, the indiviilual nienibers of the
various monastic orders were held bound to deny
themselves tlie enjoyment of personal property, but
the community lo which they belonged might possess
ample revenues. Kveu the Dominicans, though im
der a strict vow of pov-erty, allowed their consents
to enjoy in common small rents in money. But St.
Francis prohibited his monks from possessing either
an individual or a collective revenue, and enforced a
Vow of absolute poverty. When asked wliicli of all
the virtues he thotight was the most agreeable to
God, he replied, " Poverty is the way to salvation, the
nurse of humility and the root of perfection. Its
fruits are hidden, but they multiply themselves in
ways that are inlinite." In accordance with this
view of the importance and value of poverty, the
Franciscan monks for a tiiiie adhered strictly to the
rule of their founder, but ere long a division broke
out among them as to the precise interpretation of
the rule, and in consequence a relaxation of its strict-
ness was made lirst by Gregory IX. in 1231, and
then by Imiocent IV. in 1245. About a century
afterwards a dispute arose between the Franciscans
and Dominicans in regard to the poverty of Christ
and his apostles; the Franciscans alleging that they
possessed neither private pro|ierty nor a common
treasure, while the Dominicans asserted the contrary
opinion. The Pope decided in favour of the fol-
lowers of Dominic, and many of the Franciscans,
still adhering to their opinions, were committed to
the Hanies.
The vow of poverty is regarded by the Romish
Church as an obligation resting upon all who enter
upon a monastic life, and the regulations on this
point are of the strictest kind, as may be seen from the
■following quotations from a Komish writer: " Kegu-
lars of either sex cannot in anything, either by
licence, or by dispensation of the superior, have any
private property. Nay, sucli a licence, though it
may be obtained from the generals of the orders
themselves, who profess that the}' can concede it,
eaimot excuse the monks or nuns from the fatdt and
sin imposed by the council of Trent." "A regidar
who is found in the article of death to have any
wealth, ought to have it buried with him in the earth
without the monastery, in a dunghill, as a sign of his
perdition and eternal damnation, because he ilied in
mortal sin." " No regulars, whether superiors or iii-
feriors, can make a will; and the reason is, that on
account of the vows of obedience and poverty, they
deprive themselves of all liberty and property, so
that they can no more have any power to choose or
refuse, {iiec velle, nee nolle), by which they could dis-
pose of it." " Nay, it is not permitted to professed
regulars to modify, by way of declaration, the testa-
ment that was made by them before their pro-
fession."
The Faquirs and Dervishes of Mohammedan
countries are under a vow of poverty, and go about
It.
asking alms in the name of God, being wholly de
pendent for their support upon the charity of the
faithful. Tlie Mohannnedan monks trace their
origin to the lirst year of the Hegira; and it is said
that there are no fewer than thirty-two diii'erent
orders existing in the Turkish empire, all of them
grounding their preference of the ascetic life upon a
saying of i\Iohanmied, " poverty is my glory." Tlie
monks of the Kast, [larticularly those of Budha, are
not allowed to partake of a single morsel of food not
received by them in alms, unless it be water or some
substance used for the purpose of cleaning the teeth.
Hence the Btidhist monk is seen daily carrying his
alms-bowl from liotise to house in the village near
which lie may happen to reside. The Ayyrtai. of the
ancient Greeks were mendicant priests of Cyhele, and
their origin is supposed to have been eastern. The
same priests among the Romans went their daily
rounds to receive alms with the sisfrurn in their hands.
The institutes of Manu lay down explicit rules for the
Brahman meiulicant : " Every day nuist a Brahman
student receive his food by begging, with due care,
from the hotises of persons renowned for discharging
their duties. If none of those houses can be found,
let him go begging through the whole district round
the village, keeping his organs in subjection, and re-
maining silent; but let him tm-n away from such as
have committed any deadly sin. . . . Let the
student persist constantly in such begging, but let
him not eat the food of one person only ; the sub
sistence of a student by begging is held equal to
fasting in religious merit. . . . This duty of the
wise is ordained for a Brahman oidy ; but no such
act is appointed for a warrior or a merchant." In
the same sacred book the householder is enjoined to
make gifts according to his ability to the religious
mendicant, whatever may be his opinions.
POYA, the day on which the moon changes,
which is held sacred among the Budhists. They
reckoned fotir pdya days in eacli month. 1. The
day of the new moon. 2. The eighth day from the
time of the new moon. 3. The day of the full moon.
4. The eighth day from the time of the full moon.
It is said by Professor II. Wilson, that the days of
the full and new moon are sacred with all sects of
the Hindtis; but according to the institutes of Manu,
the sacred books are not to be read upon these days.
I'RiE-ADAMITES, a Christian sect which
originated in the seventeenth century,' having been
founded by Isaac la Peyrere, who [)ublished two
small treatises in 1665, the chief object of which was
to show that Moses has not recorded the origin of
the hinnan race, but only of the Jewish n.ition; and
that other nations of men inhabited our world long
before Adam. I'eyrere was at iirst successful in
gaining a considerable ntunber of followers, but the
progress of his opinions was soon checked by the
publication of an able refutation of them, from the
pen of M. Desmarefs, professor of theology at
(Jroniiigen. At length the author of the Prai-
3 f<
690
PK^ECO-PRAN N APHIS.
Adiunite heresy wiis seizui] ami iiniiiisoned iU Brus-
sels, wlieii, to save liis lij'c, lie reiioiniced tlie reformed
opinions and became a Roman Catliolic, at tlie same
time retracting liis Prcc-Adnmite views. The fol-
lowing is the train of argmiient b_y whicli this singn-
lar heresy was siipiiortcd: "The ai)Ostle says, 'Sin
was in the world till the law;' meaning the law
given 10 .\dam. But sin, it is evident, was not im-
puted, thougli it might have been committed before
his time; for 'sin is not impnted where there is ik)
law.' 2. Th€ nation of the Jews began at Adam,
who is called their father, or founder; God is also
their Failier originally, and in an especial sense;
these he called Adamites; but the Gentiles are only
adopted children, as being I'rse- Adamites. 3. Men,
in the plural nmiiber, are said to liave been created
at first. (Gen. i. 26. 'IT.) — ' Let them have domin
ion, — male and female create<l he them;' which is
before the formation of Adam and Kve is distinctly
stated; (Gen, ii. 7. 18. &e.), whereas Adam is intro-
duced in the second chapter as tlie workmansliip of
God's own lunula, and as created apart from other men.
4. Cain, having killed his brother, was afraid of be-
ing killed liimself. By whom ? He mariied : yet
what wife could he get ? He built a town : what
workmen did he employ ? The answer to all these
questions they give in one word, Prse-Adamites.
5. The deluge only overflowed the country inhabited
by Adam's posteiity, to punis.h tlieni for joining in
marriage witli the Prse-Adamites, as they suppose,
and following their evil courses. 6. The jwogress
and improvements in arts, sciences, &c. could not,
tliev think, have made such advances towards ]ier-
fection, as it is represented iliey dlil between Adam
and Moses, mdess they had been cultivated before.
Lastly, The histories of the Chaldeans, Egyptians,
and Chinese, whose chronology, as said to be found-
ed on astronomical calcidations. Is snppo.sed infallibly
to demonstrate the existence of men before Adam."
PRyECO (Lat., a herald), a name sometimes
applied in the ancient Christian church to the
Deacon, from the circumstance tliat he dictated to
the people the usual forms of prayer in which they
were to join, and acted as llwir director and guide In
all (he other parts of Divine service.
Pl{.iEFlCyE, mourning woinen who were hireil
by the ancient Romans to attend funerals, in order
to lament and sing the praises of the deceased.
PR/EMIINIRK, a writ in law which receives
its name from Its commencing words pra;nuiiiire
facias, and is chiefly known from the n.se made
of it in the statute' of 28 Henry VIII., which enacts
that if the dean and chapter re'fuse to elect the \vr-
son nominated to a vacant bishojiric, or if any ar<'h-
blslioi) or bishop refuse tocontirju or consecrate him,
they shall incur the penalties of the statutes of /m/-
rnuntri'. These penalties are as I'ollows : From the
moment of conviction, the defendant is out of the
king's protection ; his body remains in prison dm--
iiig the king's pleasure, and all his goods, real or
l)ersonal, are forfeited to the crown : he can bring
no action nor recover damages for the most atrocious
injuries, and no man can safely give him comfort,
aid, or relief.
Plw'EXESTINA, a surname of the Rcjman god-
dess Fortwiii, from having been worshipped at
Pr;eiieste.
PR/EPOSITUS. It was a custom In Sjiain in
the time of the Gothic kings, about the end of the
flftli century, for parents to dedicate their children
Ht a very early age to the service of the duirch; in
which case they were taken into the bishop's family,
and educate<l under \\\in by a presbyter whom the
bishop deputed lor that purpose, and set over thein
by the name of prccpasitiis, or superintendent, his
chief business being to lns|iect their behasiour, and
inslntct them in the rules and discipline of the
church. The name i^riipositu-i was sometimes given
to the bishop, as being superintendent or overseer of
his ch.'irge, and in the same way, also, it was occasion-
ally applied to presbyteis. Augustine gave one of
his clergy the title of Prctposihi>: Donms, whose
office It was to take chaige of the revenues of the
church.
pragmatic; SAXCTIOX, the declsHHi of an
assem-bly of divines convened at Bourges by Cliarles
VII., king of France, whicli secured special privi-
leges to the Gali.ican Ciiukch (which see).
PR.\ISE. See Music (Sacricd).
PR.^KRITI, Nature in the system of Hindu cos-
mogony, being the primeval female on whom, in con-
junction with Piirush, the primeval male, was de-
volved the task of giving existence to the celebrated
Mnudanc E;/;/. Prakriii, then, is the divine energy
u( Bralim separated from his essence.
PRAN NATIIIS, a sect among the Hindu-, whicli
was originated by Pran Xath, who, l>eing versed in
Mohammedan as well :u> Hijulu learning, endeavoured
to reconcile the two religions. With this view he
composed a work called the Mahitariyal, in which
texts tVom the Koran and the Vedas are brought lo-
getlier, and shown not to be issentially dili'erent
from each other. Bundelkund is the chief seat ot
the sect, and in Puniia they have a building, in one
apartment of which, on a taljle covered with gold
cloth, lies the volume of the founder. " As a test ot
the disciple's consent," says Professor H. H. ^^'ll-
s(]n, " to the real identity of the essence of the
Hindu and .Mohannnedaii creeds, the ceremony ui
initiation, consists of ealmg in the society of nuiu
bers of both communions: with this excepticui, aiul
the admission of the general jirinciple, it does not
appear that the two classes confound their civil or
even religious distinctions : they contiiuie to observe
the practices and rilutil of their lorcl'athcrs, whether
Mussulman or Hindu, and the union, beyond that of
comnnniity of eating, is no more than any rational
indivlilual of either sect is fully prejiared for, or the
admission, that the (-Jod of both, and of all religions,
Is oiu' and the same."
PKANZFMAS— PRAYER.
6;»i
PRANZIMAS, ilcstiny among the ancient Litliiia-
nians, wliicli, aocoidiiig to iiiuniitable laws, directs
tlie gods, nature, and men, and wliose power knows
no limits.
PItAXK.-VNS. See .MoNAitciii.^NS.
PUAXIDICE, a surname of Persephone among
tlie Orphic poets, but at a later period she was ac-
comiled a goddess who was concerned in tlie distri-
bution ot'justice to the human family. The daugh-
ters of Ogyges received the name of Praxidicw, and
were worshipped under tlie figure of heads, the only
.sicriiices offered to them being tlie heads of animals.
PR.WER, a sacred exercise which is thus accu-
rately defined in the Larger Catechism of the West
minster Assembly : '■ Prayer is an offering up of our
desires unto God in the name of Christ by the help
of his Spirit ; with confassioji of our sins, and thank-
ful acknowledgment of bis mercies." Prayer may
be considered as a duty which naturally arises out
of the relation existing between the creature and
the Creator. It is simply an acknowledgment of
entire dependence upon the Almighty Disposer of
all events. Hence even in lioatlien religions it is
regarded as an obligation resting upon every man lo
o.Ter prayers and supplications to tlie gods ; and in
the writings of Greek and Roman authors passages
on the subject of devotion are frequently to be met
with of great excellence and beauty. But in no re-
ligion does prayer occupy a more prominent place
than in that of the Bible. Throughout both the Old
and New Testaments it is set forward as a duty of
paramount, of essential importance. Prayer is view-
ed, indeed, by the Christian as at once a duty, a privi-
lege, a pleasure, and a benefit; and no surer proof
can any man give that he has not yet become a
Christian than his habitual omission or careless
performance of this solemn duty. And how does
the Lord himself prove to Ananias the reality of the
conversion of Saul, but by this indication, " Behold he
prayeth." The first act of spiritual life is the prayer
of faitli, '■ O Lord, 1 beseech thee, deliver my soul."
Prayer is well described as an " offering up of the
desires of the heart," and it is not until a man has
had spiritual desires implanted within him, that lie
will really pray. He may have often bowed the
knee, he may have honoured God with his lips, but
he has hitherto been far from (iod. And, accord-
ingly, the Redeemer draws an important distinction
between true, acceptable prayer and the prayer of
the hypocrite, which, as coming from a wicked heart,
is an abomination in the sight of (iod. " Be not,"
says He, " as the hypocrites are, for they love to
jiray standing in the synagogues, and in the corners
of the streets, that they may be seen of men. Verily
I say unto yon. They have their reward." An
exercise of this kind is destitute of that which
is the es.sential peculiarity of prayer, and, indeed,
of all the operations of the Christian life— an ex-
clusive dealing with God. The hypocrite and the
formalist love to perform their religious duties in the
most public places and in the most open manner,
because they have no higher aim than to be seen of
men. AVlien the believer prays he stands afar off,
as it were, from men, his eyes are towards heaven.
And how is his heart engaged at that interesting mo-
ment? He feels his entire, his absolute dependence
upon God; his desires are towards Him; his high-
est delight is in His presence, he is pouring out his
heart before Him. The hypocrite desires the pre-
sence of man, that he nuiy exhibit before him the
ap[iarent fervency of his devotions, but the Chris-
tian loves to be alone with his God. And onr Lord,
to express the folly of the hypocrite's conduct, uses
these emphatic words, " Verily I say unto you, they
have their reward." The Lord gives them their
hearts' de.sire, but He gives it in wrath.
A very erroneous notion connected with the sub-
ject of prayer has been found to prevail among un-
enlightened nations in all ages of the world, the
notion, namely, that prayer is in itself meritorious in
the sight of God. This erroneous idea was strongly
rebtiked by our Lord in his sermon on the Mount.
Thus, Matth. vi. 7, 8, "But when ye pray, use not
vain repetitions, as the heallicii do: for they think
that they shall be heard for their much speaking.
Be not ye therefure like unto them; for your Father
knoweth what things ye have need^of before ye ask
him." We find a remarkable example of the prac-
tice here referred to in 1 Kings xviii. 25 — 29, "And
ICIijah said unto the prophets of Baal, Choose you
one bullock for yourselves, and dress, it first ; for ye
are many; and call on the name of your gods, but
juit no fire under. And they look ihe bullock which
was given them, and they dressed it, and called on
the name of Baal from morning even until noon,
saying, O Baal, hear us. But there was no voice,
nor any that answered. And they leaped upon the
altar which was made. And it came to pass at
noon, that Elijah mocked them, and .said, Cry aloud :
for he is a god ; either lie is talking, or he is pursu-
ing, or he is in a journey, or poradventure he sleep-
etli, and must be awaked. .'\nd they cried aloud,
and cut themselves after their manner with knives
and lancets, till the blood gushed out upon them.
Audit came to pass, when midday was past, and they
prophesied until the time of the oH'ering of the even-
ing sacrifice, that there was neither voice, nor any to
answer, nor ariy that regarded." The word here
translated " use not vain repetitions," is a very pecu-
liar one, indicating empty words, unmeaning repeti-
tions. All repetitions in prayer are not to be under-
stood as discountenanced by the Saviour, for on some
occasions they manifest simply an intense earnest-
ness of spirit, as in the case of the Redeemer himself,
when, in his agony in the garden, he retired to a lit-
tle distance and prayed, using the same words. Nei-
ther are we to understand the Redeemer as discoun-
fenaiicing on every occasion long prayers. These
also, as every experienced believer knows, are fre-
([uently an indication of the anient lnugings of the
C<91
I'UAYKIt.
soul. Tlie |)rayer offei'ed up by Solomon at llie de-
dication of tlie temple, is an instance of a long prayer
on a special occasion ; and it is remarkable, that He
who dictated to the disciples the sliortest and most
comprehensive prayer which the Bible contains, is
dei'lared to have spent a whole night in secret, soli-
tary praver. Wln'ii the believer is admitted into
vcrv close, conliilential communication with his hea-
venly Father, and the tlame of heaven-enkindled
devotion bin-ns with peculiar brightness, the moments
glide Kwiftlv away; and hours are found lo have
been spent in the closet, while the soul has been so
enwrapped as to be imconscious of the passing of
time. It is not to such protracted seasons of delight-
ful converse with the Falherof our spirits tliat Jesus
refers. He reproves " vain repetitions," as well as the
foolish imagination that the acceptableness of prayer
depends upon the number or the copiousness of its
expressions. The sigh heaved from the bosom of a
contrite one, which may never liave found vent in
words, is a powerful prayej'. The silent tear which
steals secretlv down the clieek of the burdened sin-
ner is an effectual prayer, wliich rends the heavens,
and brings down the Spirit's influences in a copious
dood U|ion the sold. It is notour mucli speaking,
but oiu' earnest longing, that will ol)tain an answer.
Ft is the inwrought, fervent prayer of the righteous
man, — the waslied, aiul justilied, and .sanctified be-
liever— that availeth much. It enters into the ears
of the Lord of sahaiith. lie receives it as the prayer
of a cho.sen one. and he opens the windows of heaven
and showers down copious blessings upon the long-
ing, praying soul.
Among the ancient Jews pravers were either pub-
lic or private, or they were offered at certain appoint-
ed times. The stated hours of daily prayer were
the third, answering to our nine o'clock morning,
and the ninth, answering to our three o'clock after-
noon, being the times <if morning and evening .sacri-
fice. The more devout Jews, however, observed
more frequent seasons of prayer. 'I'hus David and
Daniel are faid to have prayed three times a day,
and Peter, we are informed in Acts x. 0, went upon
the house-top to ]u'ay about the sixth hour, th.at is
about noon. It was an invariable Jewish custom in
ancient times to wash their hands before engaging
in prayer. From Dan. vi. 10. it would ajipear that
when at a distance from the Temple, a Jew turned
towards it when he prayed.
The various attitudes observed in prayer among
the Jews have beei; already ni^ticed under the article
Ado1!.\tion. They held tjiat |irayer was imavailing
unless expressed aloud in words. Christianily, on
the other haiul, teaches that the desires of the be-
liever's heart are prayers, though they mav never
have found utterance in words. Aceordinglv, in the
early Christian Cbiu'ch, no prescribed time or [jlaee
for prayer was required ; nor was any rule given
re«|iecting the direction of the eye, the bending of
the knees, or the position of the hands. Neither
was there any established form of prayer for general
use. With the single exception of the instructions
given in the Apostoljcal Constitnlions for the pri-
vate use of the- Lord's Prayer, there is no instance
of any synodical decree respecting forms of praver
imtil the sixth and seventh centuries. A distinction
was early made between audible and silent prayei-.
"Silent prayer," .says Mr. Coleman, " was restricted to
the mental recital of the Lord's Prayer, wdn'eli neither
the catechumens nor the profane of any description
were allowed to repeat. Professing Christians re-
peated it ill the presence of such, not audiblv, but
silently. But at the communion, when withdrauu
from such persons, they re]ieated it aloud, at the call
of the deacon.
" There was another species of silent prayer, which
consisted in pious ejaculations offered by the devout
Christian on entering upon public wor.ship. 'I'his
commendable custom is still observed in many
Protestant churches. According to the Council of
Laodicea, prayer was ofl'ered, immediately after
the sermon, for catechumens, then for penitents;
then, after the imposition of hands and the benedic-
tion, followed the prayers of ihe believers — the tirst
in silence, the second and third audibly. They then
exchanged the kiss of charity, during which rime
their ofi'erings were brought to the altar. The as-
sembly were then dismissed with the benediction,
lie ill pace — fro in peace.
"The primitive Church never chanted their pray-
ers, as was the custom of the Jews, and still is of the
Mohammedans; but reverently addressed the throne
of grace in an easy, natural, and subdued tone of
voice."
Among the modern Jews there are various forms
of prayer prescribed for the worship of the syna-
gogue, and for domestic and private use. They are
all appointed to be repeated in Hebrew, but of late
years the prayers are sometimes printed on one page,
and a Iranslation on the opposite Jiage. Mo.st of the
prayers in use are saiil to be of high antiquity, but
those which they regard as most inquirlant are the
Sheiiifmeh Esreli, or the eighteen prayers. These
are alleged by ilie Rabbis to have been composed
by Kzra and the men of the great synagogue, while
an addiiioiial prayer against apostates and herelics
is attributed to Uabbi Gamaliel, who lived a short
lime before the destruction of the second Temple.
Though the prayer thus added renders the munber
nineleen, they still retain the name of the S/ieiiioiir!i
Ksrcli, or the eighteen prayers. These prayers ai'e
retpured lo be said by all Isracliles that are of age,
without exce|itioii, either imblicly in the .synagogue,
or privately at their own houses, or wherever they
may happen to be, three times every day; founding
this practice on the example of David, wdio declares,
I's. Iv. 17, " Kvetiing. and morning, and at noon, will
I pray, and cry aloud : and he shall hear my voice ;"
and also of Daniel, who "went into his house; and
his windows being ojieii in his (chamber toward Jerii-
rUli.VCHKRS (Local)— PREACil 1 XG.
Gl)3
siilt'in, lie kneeled iijioii liis knees lliree times a-flay,
and prayed, and gave tliaiiks before liis God, as lie
ilid at'oretiine."
There are also iiiimeroiis short prayers and bene-
dictions wliicli every Jew is expected to repeat daily.
The members of tlie synagogue are reqnired to re-
]ieat at least a Inmdred benedictions or ascriptions of
praise every day. A son who survives his father is
enjoined by the Rabbis to attend the synagogue
every day for a year after, and there to repeat the
prayer called the Kodexh, which he is asMn-ed will
deliver his father from hell. The Jews chant their
prayers in tlie synagogues instead of reading them.
The Moliammedans regard prayer as the key of
Paradise ; bnt tlie prophet, having declared that
" Ablution is the half of prayer," the exercise of de-
votion is uniformly accompanied with washings of
various kinds. The most important of the stated
prayers is the Kliotheh, which Mohainmed himself
was accustomed to reciie, and in which example he
was followed by bis successors. In the mosque or
place of public prayer, ilie congregation, without any
distinction of rank, range themselves round the Imdin,
who is a guiiie to them in the performance of the
nine attitudes of prayer, which are no less requisite
than the recitations. These postures resolve them-
selves into four — standing, bowing, prostration or
adoration, and sitting, wdiich were not introduced by
Mohammed, but had long been in use. These atti-
tudes commence witli reverential standing; the wor-
shipper then bows, and afterwards stands again ; he
next prostrates liimself, then sits, prostrates himself
again, stands, and last of all closes with sitting.
The Mohammedans have a tradition that Jloliam-
med was connnamleil by God to impose upon his fol-
lowers fifty prayers daily ; but at the instigation of
Moses he sought and obtained a reduction of the
number to five, which are reckoned indispensable,
namely, at daybreak, noon, afternoon, evening, and
the first watch of the night. These prayers are
thought to be of Divine obligation, and it is believed
that the first prayer was introduced by Adam, the
second by Abraham, the third by Jonah, the fourth
by Jesus, and the fifth by Moses. 'J'lie seasons of
prayer are amioiinced by the muezzhis, in a loud
voice, from a minaret or tower of the mosques. The
five prayers must be repeated afterwards, if the be-
liever is unavoidably prevented at the appointed
lio'irs. Travellers and the sick are allowed, if neces-
sary, to shorten I hem.
'I'lie introduction of forms of prayer into Chri.sfian
warship, more es|)ecially when combined, as in the
Cliurch of Rome, with a complicated ritual, led in
the course of time to the adoption of measures of the
most que.-tionable description. Of this character,
undoubtedly, is the Rosary, an implement of devo-
tion which, consisting of a string of beads, enables
the worshipper to count the number of his prayers.
'I'he precise date of the origin of the Rosary it is
difficult to ascertain ; but, at all events, it was not
in general use before the twelfth century, when the
Dominicans, according to their own statement,
brought it into notice. The Jlohammedans adopted
the practice from the Hindus ; and the Spaniards, to
whom Doniinio belonged, probably learned it from
the Jloors. The Romish Rosaries are divided into
lii'leen decades of smaller beads for the Ave-Marid,
with a larger one between each ten for the Pater-
noster.
'l"he Greeks perl'orm their devotions with their
faces turned towards tlie east, and the forms of pray-
er in public worship are performed in a sort of re-
citative. They use beads also to enable them to
count the prayers. The Russo-Greuk Church much
resembles the Greek Church in the Ibrni and mode
of conducting its devotions. One of the strangest
devices known for the rapid rejietition of prayers is
the Tchu-Clior, or prayer-cylinder, which is used by
the r>udliist priests in Tartary. This machine, which
consists of a small cylinder fixed upon the upper end
of a short staff or handle, is held in the right hand,
and kept in perpetual revolution, ihn Lamas thereby
acquiring the merit of the repetition of all the
prayers written on all the papers at esery revolu-
tion of the barrel.
PREACHERS (Loc.\l), a class of officers in con-
nection with the Wesleyan Methodist body. They
are laymen, and are considered as such, and their
services are perfectly gratuitous. They do not ad-
minister the .sacraments, and only preach or exliort
within the circuit to which they are appointed. As
they receive no remuneration for their spiritual la-
bours, they generally derive their subsistence from
some secular employment. They supply the pulpit
in the absence of the regular preacher, and conduct
religious services in remote parts of the district. So
important is this oflice regariled, tliat no one can be
admitted into the regular minislry who has not pre-
viously officiated as a local preaclier. Since the erec-
tion of Wesleyan Methodist academies or colleges
the students are emjiloyed to i)reach in the surround-
ing villages on the Lord's day, and thus do the work
of local iireachers, Ibongli not bearing the name. The
local preachers' meeting is held quarterly, when the
superintendent enquires into ihe moral and religious
character of the local preachers, their soundne.ss in
their faith, and their attention to their duties. No
one can be placed by the siqierintendent upon the
Plan as an accredited local preacher without the
ap|n-obatioii of the meeting, and the meeting, on the
other band, cannot compel him to admit any one
against his will. In regard to every jiuint connected
with their official conduct, the local preachers are
responsible to their own meeting; but in all that
regards their personal character and conduct they
are amenable to the Leaders' Meeting.
PREACIIIXG, discoursing in public on religious
subjects. This practice must have been of remote
antiipiity ; but no evidence occurs in Sacred Scripture
of its having been reduced to method in the early
694
PKKACHIXG.
history of the world. From tlie Epistle of Jiiile,
V. 14, 15, we leani tliat Enoch, tlie seventli in descent
from Adam, prophesied of tlie second comiiiq of our
Lord. The Apostle Peter, also, csdls Noidi " a
preacher of righteousness," and Paid, in Heb. xi. 7,
alludes to the warning as to the approaching deluge
wliich Noah gave to his contem[)oraries, in which
employment lie acted under the spirit of prophecy.
The government of the patriarchal age appears to
have been of a domestic character, each head of a
family being cluthed with priestly functions, and
instructing his household in the things of God. In
the faithful discharge of this important duty Abra-
ham received the Divine testimony of approval.
Gen. xviii. 19. "For I know him, that he will com-
mand his children and his househohl after him, and
they shall keep the way of the I^ord, to do justice
and judgment; that the Lord may bring upon .\lira-
ham that which he hath spoken of him." When the
family of Jacob fell into idolatry, we find that pa-
triarch exhorting them to put away strange gods,
and to go up with him to Bethel. Both Moses and
Aaron appear to have preached to the Israelites
with power and ert'oct.
There is no evidence tlmt preaching was a duty
imperative upon the Jewish priesthood under the
law. Their functions were numerous and deeply
responsible, but preaeliing was not one of them. And,
accordingly, the people were often solemnly addres.s-
ed by persons not belonging to tlio tribe of Levi.
Jiisliua, who was an Ephraiinite, assembled the peo-
]ile at Sliechem, and discour.-ed to thein on Divine
things. Solomon, who was a prince of the Inuise
of Jndah, and Amos, a herdsman of Tekoa, were
both of them preachers. At a laier period we find
schools of the prophets established at Bethel, Naioth,
and Jericho, in which the peoi)le a.ssenibled, espe-
cially on sabbaths and new moons, for worship and
religious instruction. These afterwards became ee-
ininaries for training Jewish youths who were intend-
ed for the sacred office. In the reign of Asa it is
said, that Israel had long been " without the true
(iod, and wiihout a teaching priest." In the reign
of Jehoshaphal, who succeeded Asa, a large number
of princes, priests, and Levites were sent out as
itinerant preacher.s, " who taught in .ludah, and had
the book of the law with them, and went aboLit
throughout all the cities of Judali, and taught tlie
people." Thus tlio great work of preaching, though
committed by Moses to no separate class of men,
was actively gone about whenever and wherever re-
ligion flourished.
After the return of the .lews t'rom the Balivlonisli
captivity, when the sacred books of the Old Testa-
ment were collected into one volume, the employment
of religious teaching and iireaching became to some
extent a separate and learned profession. In Neh.
viii. we find a minute and interesting account of the
preaching of Ezra to an audience of nearly 50,000
people. The vast assemblage met in a public street
in Jeru.salein, and the scribe with the book of the
law before him stood on an elevated pulpit of wood,
attended on his right and left by a large number of
preachers. When the preacher commenced the ser-
vice by opening the sacred book, all the people
immediately stood up. ami remained standing during
the whole service, wliicli lasted from morning till
mid day. The preachers in succession "read in the
book in the law of (iod distinctly, and gave the
sense, and caused them to understand the reading."
When Jewish synagogues were established it was
customary, after the lessons from the law and the
prophets had been read, for the ruler of the syna-
gogue to invite persons of distinctiori, giving the
preference to strangers, to adiiress the people. From
the institution of .'Synagogues imtil the coming of
Christ, pidjlic preaching was univer.sally pracli.-ed ;
the nimiber of synagogues increased, and a stafV of
regular instructors was attached to them as an essen-
tial part of the institution.
The most celebrated preacher that ajipcared be-
fore the advent of Christ was John the Baptist, who
came in the spirit and power of Elijah. Our Lord
proclaimed John to be the most distinguished of all
the prophets. He was the first that was honoured
to preach plainly and without a figiu"e forgiveness
through the blood of the Lamb. But infinitely in-
ferior was the preaching of John and all the Old
Testament prophets to that of Jesus. He was em-
phatically ihe Prince of preachers, the most power-
ful and etlVctive of all the religious instructors that
have ever apjieared. His disciuirses are the finest
models of public teaching that are any where to be
found. In their addresses the apostles, combining
simiilicity with inajcsty, sought to imitate their Di-
vine Master. But no sooner had these founders of
the jirimitive Christian churches ceased from their
labours, than we miss in the discourses of their suc-
cessors the noble simplicity and genuine power
which characterized their preaching. No doubt
many of the early Christian fathers were burning
and shining lights, and throughout the first five cen-
turies many preachers of great eminence appeared
both in the Greek and Latin churches. In the for-
mer it is enough to menlion Basil, Chrvsostom, and
Gregory Nazianzen ; and in the latter, Jerome and
Augustine. For some time the perl'orinaucc of the
iluty of publicly addressing the congregalion was
limited to no particuliu- oflicer in the Christian
Church. " The reading of the Scriptures," says
Neander, " was followed, as in the Jewish syna-
gogues, by short, and originally V(u-y simple a<iilrcss(s,
in familiar language, such as the heart prompted at
the inonient, which contained the exposition and
application of what had been read. On this point
Justin Martyr expresses himself as follows: 'The
presiding officer of Ihe church gives a word of exhor-
tation, and incites the |ieople to exemplify in iheir
lives the good things they had listened lo.' It was
among the Greeks, who were more given to the eul-
PREACH rxr4.
695
tiire of rhetoric, tliat tlie sei-inoii tir.-it bp.gjm to take
a wider scope, and to assiime an important place in
tlie acts of worsliip."
Among the early Christians religious services were
for a time conducted in private lionscs, in tlie streets,
or in the fields. 15ut as soon as circumstances per-
mitted, buildings were erected exclubi\ely designed
for public worship, and these in course of time re-
ceived tlie name of cl>niThes. In these ancient places
of assembly the preacher addressed the [leople from
an elevated platform, called the amho, or as it is
often termed by the ancient fathers, "the preacher's
throne." Thus Gregoiy Nazianzen says, " I seemed
to myself to be ]daced on aii elevated throne ; lip-
on lower seats on each side .-^at presbyters; but the
deacons in white vestments, stood, spreading around
them an angelic splendour." In large cities the cus-
tom long prevailed of mingling preaching with the
daily public prayers. Origeu and Augustine ob-
served this practice. The number of services on the
Lord's day varied in dift'erent places. Basil coni-
inonly preached twice on the Christian Sabbath.
The Apo4iHiml Coiidilittioiin, speaking of Ihe Chris
tiaii Sablvith, say, '• On which day we deliver three
sermons in commemoration of him who rose again after
three days." There is a division of opinion among
writers of the ancient cluircli, whether the usual pos-
ture of the preacher was sitiing or slanding. "The
scribes and Pliari>ees," it is said, "sat in Moses'
seat." Our Iiord, having read a passage from the
prophet Isaiah, " sat down to teach the people." " He
sat down and taught the people out of the ship."
" He sat and taught his disciples in the mountain ;"
and to his enemies he said, " I sat daily with you,
teaching in the temple." Augustine, also, as well as
Justin, Origen, Athaiiasius, and Chrysostom, appear
to have sat while engaged in preaching, so that in
all probability it was the posture generally observed
by the ancient preachers. The peojile also sat dur-
ing the sermon, according to the testimony of Justin
Martyr; but in the African cliurches it was strictly
enjoined that the sermon should be listened to in a
standing posture, the indulgence of sitting being
allowed only to the aged and iiitirin.
From the fifih century to the days of Charle-
magne preaching had almost fallen into disuse, and
the clergy were so ignorant that ihey were in most
cases, especially in the I..atin or Western Church,
utterly unable to instruct the people. About the
eiglilh centurv, liowever, the attention of the synods
of the church began to be directed towards the ne-
cessity of an improvement in both the intellectual
and moral character of the clergy. The council held
at Cloveshove made it ini[]erative upon the bishops,
in the course of their visitations, to preach to the
people, alleging as a reason for the injunction, that
they bad little opportunity, except on such occasions,
of hearing the Word of God expounded. In the
rule of Chrodegaiig. bishop of Metz. it was stated
that the word of salvation should be preaLlied twice
in the month. Charlemagne, by the ad\iceofAl-
cuin, archbishop of Canterbury, called upon the clergy
to engage earnestly in the great work of preaching
the Gospel. This enlightened i)relate, to whose ad-
vice the emperor lent great weight, maintained that
preaching ought not to be held as a duty resting
only upon bishops, but as belonging also to jjriesls
and deacons. In sujiport of this view he adduced
Rev. XX. 17, " Let him that is athirst come. And
whosoever will, let him take tlie water of life freely ;"
from which passage he inferred, that the water of
life ought to be ottered to all by the preaching of the
clergy. And it was the earnest anxiety of this ex-
cellent mail, that not the clergy only, but the laity
also, should labour for the promotion of the kingdom
of God. Following the advice of such men as Al-
cuiii, the emperor urged earnestly upon the bishops
to attend to the instruction of the people ; and,
accordingly, the synods held during his reign devoted
much of their attention to this important subject.
"The Council of Mainz, in the year 813," to quote
from Neander, " ordained that if the bishop himself
was not at home, or was sick, or otherwise hindered,
there .should always be some one in his place who
might be able to preach the Word of God to ihe
people oil Sundays, and otlier festival days, in a lit
and intelligible manner. .And in the same year the
sixth Council of Aries directed, that the priests
should preach not in all cities only, but in all par-
ishes. Among those who laboiu-ed most diligently
in promoting religious instruction, Tlieodulf, arch-
bishop of Orleans, was conspicuous. The charges
which he addressed to his clergy afl'ord a lively proof
of his zeal and wisdom in the administration of the
pastoral otBce. He admonishes the ministers under
his charge that they ought to be prepared to instruct
their congregations; that lie who understood the
Holy Scriptures well should expound the Holy
Scriptures; that he who did not thus understand them,
should state only that which was most familiar to
him ; that they all should avoid evil and do good.
No one ought to attempt to excuse himself by
asserting that he wanted language to edify others.
As soon as they .saw one taking a wrong course, it
was their duty instantly to do what they might to
bring him back. When they met the bishop in a
synod, each minister should be prepared to give him
an account of the result of his labours, and the
bishop, on his side, should be ready to aftbrd them
such support as they might need."
It was at this period that, in order to aid the
clergy in the work of preaching, a IloiniUarlum, or
collecticm of discourses for Sundays and festivals
from the ancient fathers, was prepared by Paul
Warnefrid, with the imperial sanction. This pro-
duction, while it was no doubt advantageous in
some cases, tended to encourage sloth in not a few
of the clergy. One great object which the emperor
had in view, was to make the Romish form of wor-
ship the common form of all the Latins. The Ho
r.ao
PREACIIIXG.
iiiilianum of Cliarleiiiagiie led to the compilation,
dining the eightli and ninth centniies, of other works
of a similar kind, which liad the undoubted effect of
excusing iniiltitudes of the clergy from cultivating
the art of preaching. The consequence was, tliat
for centuries tins noble art sliared largely in the
degeneracy wliich prevailed thronghout the dark
ages.
The rise of the Albiijenses, in the begiiniing of the
twelfth century, l)roke up the apathy of tlie Church
of Rome. It was quite apparent to many, tliat if
active steps were not taken to check the progress of
the new opinions, their rapid spread, not in France
alone, but in other countries, would alienate multi-
tudes from the Romish faith. Hence originated the
Domiincans, or Preaching Friars, sanctioned by Pope
Innocent III., whose chief duty it was to preach, and
thus to supply a want which was sensibly felt on ac-
count of the prevailing ignorance and indolence of
llie clergy. This society, which was essentially
spiritual in its design, was confirtned by Ilono-
riiis III. in 1216, uiuler the name of the Order of
Preachers, or the Preaching Brothers. From this
time an impulse was given to the work of preaching,
and the Mendicaut Friars, botli Dominicans and
Franciscans, authorized by the Roman pontiffs to
preach publicly everywhere without license from the
bishops, traversed every country in Europe, preach-
ing the doctrines of Romanism, and dispensing its
rites among all classes of the people. Thus they
rapidly acquii'ed enormous influence, which brought
upon them the hatred of the bishops and priests.
Every kingdom was convulsed with the contentions
and discord which now raged with extraordinary
violence. The Mendicants were active and unwearied
in preaching, but it was with no higher view than to
promote the interests of their order.
It has been uniformly one of the leading objects
of all who have aimed at the thorough reformation
of the Romish Church, to restore the work of preach-
ing to its due importance. "Wicklili'e, accordingly,
gave the sermon a prominent place in the improve-
ments wliich he introduced into public worship. In
an unpublished tract against the inoid<s, he says,
" 'The highest service that men can arrive at on earth
is to preach Ih.e word of God. Tins service falls
peculiarly to priests, and therefore God morestraitly
demands it of them. Hereby should they produce
children to God, and that is the end for which God
lias wedded the church. Lovely it might be, to
have a son that were lord of this world, but fairer
much it were to have a son in God, who, as a mem-
ber of holy church, shall ascend to heaven! And
for this cause Jesus Christ left other works, and
occupied himself mostly in preaching; and thus did
his apostles, and i"or this God loved them.' He cites
ill proof the words of Christ, Luke xi. 28. In a
treatise on the Feigned Contemplative Life, he de-
scribes it as a temptation of the great adversary,
when men .-illow themselves to be drawn o:Vby zeal
for the contemplative life, from the office of preach-
ing. ' Before air — says he — • we are bound to fol-
low Christ ; yet Christ preached the Gospel and
charged his disciples to do the same. All the pro-
jdiets and John the Ba|itist were constrained by love
to forsake the desert, renounce the contemplative
life, and to preach. Prayer' — he remarks — ' is good '
but not so good as preaching; and accordingly, in
preaching, and also in praying, in the giving of sacra-
ments, the learning of the law of God. and the ren-
dering of a good example by purity of life, in these
slioulil stand the life of a priest.'"
Animated by an earnest desire to promote the
spiritual goodof men, he formed a society of pious per-
sons who called themselves " poor-priests," and were
subsequently called Lollarck, who went about bare-
foot, in long rubes of a russet colour, preaching the
Word of God, and exposing the erroneous doctrines
inculcated by the begging monks. The followers of
Hnss, also, the Bohemian relonner, laid it down as
one of the four articles to which they resolved to
adhere in all their negotiations, both with the gov-
ernment and the church, that "the AVord of God is
to be freely preached by Christian lu'iesis throughout
the kingdom of Bohemia, and the margraviate of
Moravia,"
The doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church on
the subject of preaching is, that it belongs not to
the priests, but to the bi.shops to iireach ; and that
]u-iests only have power to sacrilice the body of
Christ. When a Romish priest, therefore, under-
takes the ollice of preaching, he ctiii only do so with
the license and under the control of the bishop. This
important part, indeed, of the duty of a Christian
pastor has been to a great extent neglected by the
Romish Church. At the council of Tietit debates
of the most violent and disorderly character took
place on the stdiject of preaching. The bishops
claimed the sole prerogative to provide for the wants
of the church in this respect, and complained bitterly
of the usurpations of the Regulars, especially of the
Mendicant Orders. On the other side, it was niaiii-
tained that the Regidars had only taken upon them-
selves the duties of public instruction in consequence
of the ignorance and indolence of the bi.<hops ; that
they had enjoyed the liberty of preaching for three
hundred years, and were rather to be commended
than blamed for discharging a duty which had
been so -shamefully neglected by those to whom it
originally belonged. The council had great diffi-
culty ill arriving at a sati.--factory conclusion. But
after an angry debate, it was at length decided, that
the Regulars were to be prohibited from preaching
in churches not belonging to their Older without a
bishop's license; in their own churches the license
of their superior would sullice, which, however, was
to be presented to the bishop, whose blessing they
were directed to ask, and who was empowered to
proceed against them if they preached heresy, or
acted in a disorderly manner. But to this privilego
PUECESTOK-riii: EXISTENTS.
G97
was appended a clause, enacting tliat the bisliojis
exercised llieir power as delegates of tlie Holy See.
Tlie ti-iitli is, that pi-eaeliing tlie Gospel forms a very
small part of the duties of the clergy of the Cliiirch
iif Rome. And yet from lime to time preachers of
great power have appeared within her pale, more es-
pecially in coimection with the Gallican Church. It
is surticient to mention the names of IJossuet, Jlas-
.silloii, and Bourdaloiie, who occupy a very high place
in the catalogue of eloquent preachers. Tlicbe, how-
ever, are exeepiions, tiie great mass of the clergy
of tlie Ilumish Church being by no means entitled to
be regarded as a preaching clergy.
Tlie Reformation of the sixteenth century, indeed,
was the restilt of preacliiiig, and the consequent
spread of religious knowledge among tlie peoiile.
All the church reformers, both before and at tlie
Reformation, attached the utmost importance to this
great duty, and all the revivals of religion which
have occurred since the Reformation are to be traced,
under God, to the I'aithful tuid powerful preaching uf
the Word. On this iioint all Protestant churches
are agreed, and, accordingly, in their public worship,
preaching occupies a prominent place. They bear
ill mind the apostolical declaration, that "It liatli
pleased God, by tlie foolishness of preaching to save
them that believe."
PREACHING FRI.\RS. See Dominic.\ns.
PREBENDARIES. See Canons of ACATtii:-
DR.'ir,.
PRECENTOR, tlie leader of a choir in England,
and the leader of the psalmody of a congregation in
Scotland.
PREDESTIN.VRI.VNS, or Pkeui:stinati.\n.s,
names applied generally to all who hold strictly the
doctrines of Augustine, and latterly of Calvin, on the
subject of predestination. But these appellations were
more especially given to the followers of Gottschalk,
in the ninth century, who taught, what he termed, a
double predestination, that is, a predestination of some
from all eternity to everlasting life, and of others to
everlasting death. On promulgating this doctrine in
Italy, Giittschalk was tharged liy Rabaiius Mauriis
with heresy, and theretipon hastened to Gerinimy to
vindicate his principles. A council, accordingly,
assembled at Mentz. in A. D. 848, when Maiiriis pro-
cured liis condemnation, and his transmission as a
)irisoiier to Ilincmar, archbishop of Rlieims, to whose
jurisdiction lie properly brlonged. On the arrival of
Goltselialk, Hiucmar sinmnoned a council at Cliier-
sev in A. D. 849, when, although his priiici[jles were
defended by the learned Ratrainmis, as well as by
Remigins, archbishop of Lyons, he was deprived of
his priestly office, ordered to be wliipped, and after-
wards imprisoned. Worn out witli this cruel treat-
ment, and. after languishing for some years in the
solitude of a prison, this learned and thoughtful
man died under excommunication, but niaiiilaiiiing
his opinions to the very last.
While Gottschalk was shut up within the narniv;
walls of a prison, his doctrines were the subject of a
keen and bitter controversy in the Latin Cluircii.
Ratramiius and Remigins on the one side, and Sco-
tns ErigeiKi on tlie oilier, conducted the argument
with gretit ability. The contention was every day
increasing in violence, and Charles the Bald found
it necessary to summon another council at Chiersey
in A. u. 85.3, when, through the intlnenee of Hincmar,
tlie decision of the former council was repeated, and
Gottschalk again condemned as a heretic. But in
A. 1). 855 the three provinces of Lyons, Vienna, and
.'\rles met in council at Valence, under the presi-
dency of Remigins, when the opinions of Gottschalk
were ajiiiroved, and the decisions of the two councils
of Chiersey reversed. Of the twenty-three canons of
the council of Valence, five contain the doctrhial views
of the friends and defenders of Gottschalk. Thus, in
the third canon they declare, '-We confidently pro-
fess a predestination of the elect unto life, and a pre-
destination of the wicked unto death. But in the elec-
tion of those to be saved, the mercy of God precedes
their good deserts; and in the condemnation of those
who are to ])erisli, their ill deserts precede the right-
eous judgment of God. Ill his predestination Gud
only determined what he himself would do, either in
his gratuitous mercy, or in his righteous judgment."
" In the wicked he fure.saw their wickedness, be-
cause it is from themselves ; he did not predestine
it because it is not from him. The punishment, in-
deed, consequent upon their ill desert he furesaw, be-
ing a God who foresees all things ; and also predes-
tined, because he is a just God, wiih whom, as St.
Augustine says, there is both a fixed purpose, and a
certain foreknowledge in regard to all things what-
ever." " But that some are predestinaled to wicked-
ness by a divine power, so that they cannot be of
another character, we not only do not believe, but
if there are those who will believe so great a wrong,
we, as well as the council of Orange, with all de-
testation declare them anaihema."
The five doctrinal canons of the council of Va-
lence were adopted without alteration by the council
of Langres in A. D. 8.59. and again by the council of
Toul in A. D. 860, which last council was composed
of the bishops of fourteen provinces. But on the
death of Gottschalk, which happened in A. D. 868,
the contention terminated, Romanists are still divid-
ed on the subject of the predestiiiarian controversy.
The Benedictines, Aiie/Kntinians; and Janenists ha\e
adojited the opinions of Gottscludk, while ihe Jc-in its
bitterlv oppose them.
PREDESTINATION. See Ar.mimans, Auous-
TINIANS. CaLVINII^TSI.
PRE-EXISTENTS. a name given to those, in the
second century, who adopted the opinions of Origen
as to the existence of the human soul before the
creation of Moses, if not I'rom all eternity. He be-
lieved that all souls were fallen heavenly beings,
originallv the same in kind with all higlier sjurils ;
and that it is their destination, after having become
6?8
PRE EXISTENTS.
]iurirted, to rise once iiioi-e to tliat life wliicli consists
in tiie i)iire iinniediiite intuitioji of llie Divine Being.
This system, wliicii is opposed to that of tlie Crea-
tionists as well as of the Traducianisis, is evidently
derived fi-oin the dociiines of the PytluiLrorean and
Plutonic schools, as well as those of the later Jewish
theology. Nemesiiis as a [ihilosopher, and Pniden
tius as a poet, seem to have been llie only defendefs
of this theory, which was fomially condemned in
the council of Constantinople in A. v>. 540. The
doctrine of the pre-existence of souls lias Ijeen em-
braced by Mystics generally, both in ancient ami
in modern times. It is generally received by the
tiTodeni Jews, and is frequently taught in the writings
of the Rabbis. One declares that " the soul of man
had an existence anterior to the formation of tlie
heavens, they being nothing but tire and water."
The same author asserts, that " the human soul is a
particle of the Deity from above, and is eternal like
tiie heavenly natures." A similar doctrine is be-
lieved by the Persian Sufis.
PRE-EXISTEN'TS, a term used sonieiimes to
denote those who mainiain the pre-existence < f
Chri.--t, that is, his existence before he was born of
the Virgin Mary. The fact that Jesus Christ ex-
isted with the Father before his birth might lie
proved by numerous passages of the New Testa-
ment. Thus he i- spoken of as " having come down
from heaven," "having come from above," "having
come from the Father, and come into the world."
And he liimself dciclared to the Jews, John vi. G2,
" What and if ye sliall see the Son of man asceiul
up where he was before?" Besides, he is said "to
come in the tlesli," an expression which plainly im-
]dies that he existed before he thus came. The same
doctrine is plainly taught in John i. 1, 2, " In tlie
begiiming was the Word, and the Word was with
God, and the Word was God. The same was in the
beginning with God." It is said also in John xvii.
■>, " And now, 0 Father, glorify thou me with thine
own self with the glory which I had with thee before
the world was." The doctrine of the pro-existence
of Christ, then, is a true scriptural doctrine, but a
variety of explanations have been given as to the
mode of bis pre-existence.
It is admitted by Aviinis that Christ existed before
his nnmifolatioii in human nature, but they do not
admit that he is God in the proper sense of the term.
The doctrine of Arius himself was, that there was a
time when Christ was not, and that he was created
before all worlds. And not the Arians only, but
the iSemi JnV»M also maintain the [ire-existence of
Christ, but deny his proper divinity. Dr. Samuel
Clarke, in the last century, endeavoured to form a
theory holding an intermediate jilace between the
Arian and the orthodox system, neither allowing the
Son of God to be called a creature, nor admitting his
eipiality with the Father. He held that from the
beginning there existed along with the Father a sec-
ond Person, called llie Word or Son, who iic.rived
his being, attributes, and powers from the Father.
Dr. Price, whose opinions approached nearer to
Socinianism than to .4n'anism, strenuously contended
for our Lord's pre-existeiice.
The hypotliesis known l)y the name of the I.v-
DWELLINfl ScmaiE (which see), alleged the pre- ex-
istence of Christ's human soul in union with the Deity.
The pre-existence of the Messiah has been uniformly
maintained by the Jews. Bishop Fowler and Dr.
Thomas Goodwin were both able siijiiiorters of this
niiinion. Bui Dr. Isaac Watts has more especially
defended it, and adduced various arguments in its
favour. The most imiiortant of these may be men-
tioned, that the reader may know by what reason-
ing the Pre-Existents have argued in favour of the
existence of Ciirist's huiuan soul previous to his in-
carnation.
" 1. Christ is represented as his Father's messengei,
or angel, being distinct from and sent by his Father,
long before his incarnation, to perform actions which
seem to be too low for the dignity of Deity. The
appearances of Christ to the patriarchs are described
like the appearances of an angel, or man, really dis-
tinct from God ; yet such a one, in whom Jehovah
had a peculiar indwelling, or with whom the divine
nature had a personal union.
"2. Christ, when he came into the world, is said,
in several passages of Scripture, to base divested
himself of .some glory which he had before his incar-
nation. (John xvii. 4, 5; 2 Cor. viii. 9.) Now. if
he had existed hitherto in his divine nature only,
that divine nature could not jiroperly di\est itself of
its glory.
"3. It seems needful, that tiie soul of Christ should
pre- exist that it might have opportunity to gi\e its
previous actual consent to the great and painful
undertaking of atonement for our sins. The divine
nature is incapable of sufl'ering, and consequently
could not undertake it ; and it seems unreasonable
to suppose the man Jesus bound to such extreme
suft'crings, by a stipulation to which he was not a
party, if no constituent part of huuian nature then
existed.
"4. The covenant of redemption between the Father
and the Son is represented as being made before
the foundation of the world. To suppose that the
divine essence, which is the same in all the three
personalities, should make a covenant with itself,
seems highly inconsistent.
" 5. Christ is the angel to whom God was in a pecu-
liar manner united, and who, in this union, made all
the divine appearances related in the Old Testament.
— See Gen. iii. 8; xvii. 1; xxviii. 12; xxxii. 24
Exod. ii. 2, and a variety of other passages.
" 6. The Lord Jehovah, when he came down to
visit men, carried some ensign of divine majesty : he
w!is surrounded with some splendid ajipearance ;
such as often was seen at the door of the tabernacle,
and fixed its abode between the cherubim. It was
by the Jews called ihe shccliiiioli ; i. e. the habitation
PREFACKS— PUliSBY I'KRIA.XISM.
G99
of God. Hence lie is described as ' dwelling in liglu,
and clothed with liglit as with a gafnient.' In the
midst of this hi'iglitness there seems to have been
sometimes a human t'orni : it was probably of this
glory that Christ divested himself when he was made
He-h. Willi this he was covered at bis transtigiira-
tion ill tlie Mount, when his 'garments were white
as the light ;' and at his ascension into heaven, when
a bright clond received him, and when he appeared
to Jolm (Rev. i. 13.) ; and it was with this glory he
prayed that his Father wonld glorify him, after his
sufterings should be acciim|ilislied.
"7. When the blessed (lod appeared in ihe form of
a man, or angel, it is evident that the true Ciod re-
sided in this man, or angel ; becanse he assumes the
mcst exalted names and characters of Grodhead. And
the spectators, and sacred historians, it is evident,
considered him as truly God, and paid him the
highest worship and obedience. He is properly
styled ' the angel of God's presence,' and of the cove-
nant.— Isa. Ixiii. J[al. iii. 1.
'' 8. This same angel of llif I^ord was the God and
King of Israel. It was be who made a covenant
with the patriarchs, who appeared to Moses in the
burning bush, who redeemed the Israelites from
Egypt, who conducted them through the wilderness,
who gave the law at Sinai, and afterwards resided in
the Holy of Holies.
'• 9. The angels who have appeared since our
blessed Saviour became incarnate, have never as-
sumed the names, titles, characters, or worship be-
longing to God. Hence we infer, that the angel,
who, mider the Old Testament, assumed such titles,
and accepted such worship, was that angel in whom
God resided, or who was united to the Godhead in a
peculiar manner; even the pre- existent soul of Christ
himself.
" 10. Christ represents himself as one with the
Father (.Joliii x. 30; xiv. 10,11.). 'I'liere is, we
may hence infer, such a peculiar union between God
and the man Christ Jesus, both in his pre-existeiit
and incarnate state, that he may properly be called
the God-Man, in one complex |)ersoii."
The Kev. Noah Worcester, an American divine,
has advanced an hypothesis on the |ire-existence of
the Imniaii soul of Christ, dili'ering in various parti-
culars from tlie hypothesis of Dr. Watts. His theory
is founded on the title, " Son of God," which is so
frequently applied to Christ in the New Testament,
and which he alleges must import that Jesus Clir st
is the Son of the Father as truly as Isaac was the
son of Abraham ; not that he is a created iiuelligent
being, but a being who properly derived his exist-
ence and nature from God. ilr. Worcester thus
maintains, that Jesus Christ is not a self-existent
being, for it is impossible even for God to produce
a self-existent son ; but as Christ derived his exist-
ence and nature from the Father, he is as truly the
image of the invisible God as Seth was the likeness
of Adam. He is, therefore, a person of Divine dig-
nity, constituted the Creator of the world, the angel
of God's presence, or the medium by which God
manit'ested himself to the ancient patriarch^. Ac-
cording to this theory the Son of God became man,
or the Son of man, by becoming the soul of a human
body.
PREFACES, certain short occasional forms in
the Conmnmion Service of ihe Church of England,
which are introduced in particular festivals, more
especially Christmas. Easter, Ascension, and seven
days after; al.-o Whitsunday, and six days after;
together with Trinity Sunday.
PRELATE, an ecclesiastic having jurisdiction
over other ecclesiastics. The term is generally ap-
plied to a bishop or an archbishop. Before the
Keforination abbots were called prelates. The Epis-
copal system is prelatical in its nature, maintaining,
as it does, tliat there is a gradation of ranks in the
Christian ministry, and by this peculiarity it is dis-
tinguished from the Presbyterian and Congregation-
alist s\-sieHis lit' church government.
PREMUNSTUATENSIANS, a Romish order of
monks founded in the twelfth century at Premontre
in the Isle of France. It was founded by Noibert, a
G-erman, and subsequently archbishop of Magdeburg,
wiih a view to restore the discipline of the regular
canons, which had been much deteriorated. It fol-
hnved tlie rule of St. Augustine. At their tirst foun-
daiioii in A. D. H21. the rnonks of this order were
remarkable for their poverty. Put so rapidly did
they increase in pojnil.arity and wealth, that in the
course of thirty ye.'irs from their foundation they had
above a hundred abbeys in France and Gerinauy ;
and subsequently so far did they spread, that tliey
had monasteries in all parts of Christendom, ainoiint-
ing to 1,000 abbeys, 300 provostsbips, a vast number
of priories, and 500 nunneries. This number is now
much diminished, and of the 65 abbeys which they
formerly bad in Italy, there is not one now remain-
ing. The Prenionstratensians came inio England in
A. D. 1140, and settled in Lincolnshire, whence the/
spread, and in the reign of Edward I. they had '27
monasteries throughout ditl'erent parts of the coun-
try. They were commonly known by the name nf
the While Friars. They had six monasteries in
Scotland, tour in Galloway, one at Dryburgh, and
one at Feme in Ross-shire. This order had also
several houses in Ireland.
PRESBYTEliS. See Elders (Chhistian).
PRESBYTERESSES, frequently mentioned in
the ancient writers as female ofHce-bearers in the
Christian Church. They were probably the wi\es
of presbyters, or perhaps pious women who were
appointed to instruct and train the younger persons
of their own sex. In the fourth century fem.ile
presbyters disappeared, and the ordination of Dea-
conesses (which see) began to be looked upon as
a Montanistio custom, which led, in the fifth century,
to the abolilion of that oHice in the West.
PKESBYTERIANISM, that form of church gov-
700
PUliSBYTEUIAX CliUKCH OF AMERICA.
oniineiu in wliioli tlie cluu-cli is governed by pres-
bylers, or teacliijig and ruling elders, wlio, altliougli
cliosen by the people, are considered as deriving
tlieir power from Clirist. These piesljyters meet in
presbyteries to regidate the ail'airs of individual con-
gregations, of several congregations in the neighbour-
hood of each other, or of all the congregations in a
province or a nation. .\cei>rding to the principles
of Presbyterianism, particular congregations, instead
of being separate and complete churches as they are
regarded by Congregationalists, form only a part of
the chinxli, which is composed of many congrega-
tions. Presbyterianism, instead of recognizing, like
E(iisc()pacy, a bishop as different tVom and superior
to ». prenbi/ta; and maintaining a distinction of ranks
among the ministers of religion, holds, on the con-
trary, that both in Scripture and the constitution of
the primitive clmrch, bishop and preibyter are con-
vertible terms, and that there is complete equality
in point of office and authority among those who
preach and administer the sacraments, however ihey
may dilTer in age, abilities or acquirements. The
argument as between tlie Presbijterlans and EpUai-
palians, is fully slated under the article BlsilOP; ;v,:A
as between tlie Presbyterians and Cotiyre.ijatioiHilists
or Imlepetide.ntt, under the articles Ei.DKKS (Ciiins-
TIAN) and ()rdin.\tion. According to the views of
Presbyterians, there ought to be three classes of
oflicers in every completely organized churcli, name-
ly, at least one teaching elder, bishop, or pastor — a
body of ruling elders and deacons. The first is de-
signed to minister in word and doctrine, and to dis-
pense the sacraments; the second to assist in the
inspection and government of llic church; and the
third to manage the financial afi'airs of the church.
Though Presbyterian churches hold the doctrine
of a parity of minister.s, tliey have, when fully or-
ganized, a gradation of church courts for the exercise
of governjiient and discipline. These courts are the
kirk-session, the ju-esbytery. the provincial synod,
and if the church be so large as to require it, the
General .Asscniblv.
PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH OF AMERICA.
The early founders of this church were principally
Scotch aiul Irish Presbyterians, wlio settled in the
American colonies about the end of the seventeenlh
and the beginning of the eighteenth centuries. We
learn that in IflilO two ministers, the Rev. Francis
MKemieand ihe Rev. John Hampton, llie formcran
Irishman, ami tlie hitler a Scotchman, setlled on the
eastern shore of Virginia, near the borders of Mary-
land, where they diligently employed themselves in
preaching the Gospel througliout the surrounding
I owns and villages. The first regularly organized
Presbyterian Church in the United States was eslab-
lished at Philadel|)hia about the year 1703, and at
the same time four or live addiiional churches were
formed on the eastern .shore of the Chesapeake Bay.
The tiivt jircsln-tpr)', consisting of .seven ministers,
was organized in I'hiladelphia in 170,0. From this
date the cause made rapid progress, and as early as 171 C
a .synod was constituted consisting of four ]U'esbyte-
ries. A short time before this step was taken, sev-
eral Congregationalist churches, with their ministers,
in East and West Jersey and on Long Island, had
joined the Presbyterian Church.
The body now went on increasing by the constant
influx of emigrants from almost every country in
Europe, who happened to favour the Presbylerian
form of worship and government. "The conse-
quences," says Dr. Miller of Princeton, " of the min-
isters, and others composing this denomination, com-
ing from so many different countries, and being bred
up in so many various habits, while the body was
thereby enlarged, tended greatly to diminish its
harmony. It soon became apparent that entire unity
of sentiment did not prevail among them. respecting
the examination of candidates for the ministry on
experimental religion, and also respecting strict ad-
herence to presbyterial order, and tlie requisite
amount of learning in those who sought the minisie-
rial office. Freipient conflicts on these subjecis
occuri-ed in different presbyteries. Parties were
formed. Those who were most zealous for strict
orthodox}', for adherence to presbyterial order, and
for a learned ininistty, were called the ' old side;'
while those who laid a greater stress on vital jiietv
than on any other qualitication, and who undervalued
ecclesiastical order and learning, were called the
' new side,' or ' new lights.' And although, in 1729,
the whole body ado]iied the AVestminster Confession
of Faith and Catechisms as the st.andards of the
church, still it was found tliat a faithful and miiform
adherence to these sland.ards could not be in all cases
secured. The [larties, in the progress of collision,
became more excited and ardent ; prejudices were
indulged ; misrepresentations took place ; and eveiy
thing threatened the approach of serious alienation,
if not of a total rupture. While things were in this
state of uidiappy excitement, Mr. Whittield, in 1739,
paid his second visit to America. The extensive
and glorious revival of religion which took (dace un-
der his ministry, and that of his friends and coadju-
tors, is well known. Among the ministers of the
Presbyterian Church, as well as among those of New
England, this revival was dili'erently viewed ; the
'old side' men, looking too much at some censurable
irregularities which mingled themselves with the
genuine work of God, were too ready to [n'onounce
the whole a delusion; while the 'new side' men
with zeal and ardour declared in favour of the min
istry of AVhittield and the revival. This brought on
the crisis. Undue warmth of feeling and speech,
and improper inferences, were admitted on both sides.
One act of violence led to anollier, until, at length,
in 1741, the synod was rent asunder ; and the ,synod
of New York, composed of • new side' men, was set
up in opposition to that of Philadelphia, which re-
laiiied ihe original name, and comprehended all Ihe
'old side' men who belonged to ihe general bodv."'
I'KKSBYTERIAN CHURCH OF AMKIUCA.
701
For seventeen years tliese synods retained eaeli of
tliem a separate and indejjenflent posiiion, but at
lengtli, after several years spent in negotiations, tlie
two synods were united in 1758, under tlie title of
"the Synod of New York and Philadelphia," a
name which they retained till 1788, when they
divided themselves into four synods. This was follow-
ed in 1789 by the formation of a General Assembly,
the number of ministers being at that time 188, with
419 congregations, of wliich 204 were destitute of a.
stated ministry. The Westminster Standards were
ini(v solemnly adopted as a summary of the Faith of
the Presbyterian Church, not, however, without the
introduction into the Confession of Faitli of certain
moditications on the subject of civil establishments of
religion, and also on the right of the ci\ il magistrate
to interfere in the affairs of the. church. From the
formation of tlie General Assembly tlie churcli made
steady progress. In 1834 it embraced no fewer than
22 synods. 111 presbyteries, .about 1,900 ordained
ministers, about 250 licentiates, with the same nnni-
ber of candidates for license under llie care of pres-
byteries, considerably above 2.30,000 coninumicanis,
and 500 or 600 vacant churches.
The questions which for many years agitated the
.American Presbyterian Church concerned marriage
and slavery. Tlie points connected with the matri-
monial relation which formed the subjects of keen
polemical discussion in the ecclesiastical courts ueie
as to the legality of marriiige witli a brother's or
sister's widow, and with a deceased wife's sister.
Slavery has also been a prolitio source of contention.
Thu.s, in the synod of I'liiladelphia, it was discussed
in the form of two (]uestions, " Whether the children
of slaves held by church members should be bap-
tized?" and "Whether the children of Christian
lu'ofessors ensl.aved by irreligious men ought to be
baptized?" The synod decided both questions in
the affirm.ative. In the year 1787 a direct testimony
against slavery was given forth by the .synod, and
an urgent recommendation to all their people to pro-
cure its abolition in America. This was repeated in
179.*!, and again the synod in 1795 continued the
same decision, and denounced, in the strongest terms,
ail traffic in slaves. At that period a note w.as
authoritatively appended to the 142d question of tlic
Larger Cateohisni, in wliich was contained a delini-
tion of " man-stealing," with Scripture proofs. For
many years that note appears to have beeno\er-
looked ; but in 1815 the snijject of slavery was
brought before the General Assembly, wheti the for-
mer declarations of the body against the jiractice
were reiterated. P>nt in the fullowing year the views
of the clinrch ha 1 evidently undergone a sudden
change, for we lind an order issued by the General
Assemblv to omit from all future editions of the Con-
fession, "the note connected with tlie Scripture
Dfoofs in answer to the question in the Larger Ca-
techism, ' What is forbidden in the eighth command-
ment ?' in which tlie orinie of man-stealing .and
slavery is dilated uiioii." The subject was discussed
at several sessions of the General Assembly in 18IG,
1817, and 1818, and the result was, that a long de-
claration was issued entitled 'A full Expression of
the Assembly's views of Slavery.' From that time
down to 18.37, when the church was split np into two
sections, the question of slavery was earefidly avoid-
ed in all the deliberations of the eccle.-iastical courts.
The American Kevolution which, after a |ir(>tract-
eil war with the mother country, terminated in the
proclamation of indejiendence, conld not fail to re-
tard the progress of the Presbyterian as well as of
the other churches. It is not to be wondered at,
therefore, that we slionld lind Dr. Hodge writing
thus: "The effects of the Revolutionary war on the
state of our church were extensively and variou.sly
disastrous. The young men were called from the
seclusion of their homes to the demoralizing atmo-
S|)hero of a camp, (.juiigregations were broken up.
Churches were burned, and pastors were murdered.
The usual ministerial intercourse and efforts for the
dissemination of the Gospel were, in a great mea-
sure, suspended, anil public morals in various respects
dcleriurated. From these efi'ects it took the church
a cimsiderable lime to recover; but she shared,
tiiroiigh the blessing of God, in the returning pros-
[leritv of the coimlry, and has since grown with the
growth, and strengthened witli the strength, of our
highly favoured nation."
The returning pros|^erily of America alter the war
of Independence was nowliere more vividly mani-
fested than among the Presbyterians. Their system
of church polity was somehow identified more than any
other with political freedom, and they rajiidly in-
creased both in mimbers and influence. The Pres-
byterian Church became a powerful body, and its
liberal spirit showed it.self in the close Christian in-
tercourse which it maintained with other churches.
Its great object w;is to combine the various eccle-
siasticiil bodies of the United States in a closer fra-
ternity, that they might more cordially and more
efficiently unite in advancing the progress of the
Redeeirier's kingdom both .it home and abroad. In
prosecution of tliis most desirable object, a Plan of
Union was adopted in 1801 between Presbyterians
and Congregationalists in the new settlements.
■' l!y that compact," says Dr. Krebs, " a Presbyte-
rian Church might call a Congregational minister,
and vice veisa. If one body of Presbyterians and
another of Congregationalists chose to unite as one
church and settle a minister, each party was allowed
to exercise discipline, and regulate its church aniiirs
according to its own views, under the general man-
agement of a joint standing committee; and one of
that committee, if chosen fm- that purpose, had 'the
same right to sit and act in the presbytery, as a rul-
ing elder of the Presbyterian Church.' Under tlie
operation of that 'Plan of Union,' lumdreds of
churches were furmed in the Stales of New York and
Ohio, during the [eriod from 1801 to 1837.'
702
PRESBYTERIAN CMUKCH OF AMERICA.
From the commencement of the present century,
or ratlier, we may say, throiiglioiit tlie whole In'story
of the American churches, rem.ukable revivals of reli-
j^ion have tVeqiiently occurred. To these rehgioiis
awakenings the I'resbyterians, in common with otlier
churches, have lx>en largely indebted for the rapid
increase of their numbers. On sucli occasions new
congregations liave often been formed with tlie most
encouraging rapidity. A case of this kind, wliicli
occm'rod in Kentucky and Tennessee in 1797, led to
a demanil for a greater number of Presbyterian min-
isters than could be met by a supply of regularly
ordained pastors. In these circumstances the plan
was proposed and adopted in the Transylvania pres-
bytery of employing pious laymen in immediate min-
isterial work, without sulijecting them to a lengthened
course of college education. A difference of opiidon
arose on tliis subject, which led to tlie formation of
a separate body, which is well known by the name
of the Cumberland Puicstiyterians (wliich see).
But wliile the church thus lost a small body boili of
ministers and people, whose secession has turned
out manifestly to the furtherance of tlie Gospel, it
received in 1822 an accession to its numbers, the
general synod of the Associate Reformed Church
ha^ing resolved, l)y a small majority, though in oppo-
siiioii to tlie express will of a majority of its presby-
teries, to unite itself with the General Assembly of
the Presbyterian Church of North America.
The most iuiportaut event which has occurred
in connexion wiih tlie liistory of the American
Presbyterian Churcli, is its disruption in 1838.
The controversy which led to (he separation of
the churcli into two great parties, each of them
claiming to be the genuine integral body wliich
had been subdivided, involved chiedy two points,
one of them belonging to tlie doctrines of theology,
and the other to the government and discipline
of tlie church. For some time previous several
presbyteries had exhibited considerable laxity in the
admission of ministers, thus rendering the standards
of the churcli of little avail in preserving uniformity
in point of doclrine. This evil of itself was sutiicient,
sooner or later, to destroy the harmony and peace of
the clnirch. But the circumstance which nlliniately
brought about the disruption, was the case of the Rev.
Albert Barnes. This eminent ininisler, who was first
located at Morristowii, received a call to bo minister
of the first Presbyterian church of Philadelphia.
The call was lairl upon ilie table of the presbytery of
Philadelphia al their meeting in April 18,'iO, when ob-
jections were made to .Mr. Barnes as being unsound
ill iloctrine. The olijections were founded on a pub-
lished sermon, enlilled 'The Way of Salvation.'
The call, however, was sustained by the presbytery
of ]'hila<lelpliia, and the translation of Mr. Barnes
was effected, not, however, without a protest signed
by twelve ministers, who complained to the synod of
Philadelphia. The mailer was fully considered by
the synod, which, by a decided majority, referred the
examination of the sermon with the cognate tojiics Kj
the presbytery. Tliat body complied wiili the direc-
tion of the synod, and having formally recorded their
disapprobation of the doctrines promulgated in the
sermon, appointed a committee to confer with Mr.
Barnes on rhe subject. Meanwhile, another subject
of dispute arose, in regard to admission of jiersous
into tlie presbytery of Philadel|iliia.
The progress of the conlrovcrsy, which raged fof-
several years in the courts of the I'resbyterian church,
is thus detailed by Dr. Krebs: — "To accommodate
Mr. Barnes, and those who sustained him, the As-
sembly constituted the second iireshylery of Phila-
delphia; which act the synod resisteil as unconsli-
tutional, and refused to enrol the members as part nf
the synod at their next meeting; which produced
new 'complaints, protests, and remonstrances,' for
review by the General Assembly of 1833.
"The General Assembly of that year reversed
the proceedings of the synod of Philadelphia, by
confirming the acts of the previous year; which
brought up the whole controversy before the synod
at their annual meeting. In tlie interim, a new
priiicijile of presbylerial consociation had been an-
nounced and acted on, by a departure from the usual
geograjihical limits for presbyteries. It was di!-
nominated, in polemic technology, 'elective affinity.'
The synod annnlled the jiroceeding of the Assembly,
and having dissolved the then second presbytery of
Philadelphia, and combined the members with their
old associates, proceeded lo sever the whole original
presbytery by a geographical line, drawn from east
to west through Market Street, in the city of Phila-
delpliia. At the same meeting of the synod a ' Pro-
test and Complaint ' against the rule respecting the
examination of ministers or licentiates, desiring ad-
mission into the presbytery of Philadelphia, and I he
synodical virtual approbation of that rule, were re-
corded for transmission to the General Assembly of
18,3-1. The synod, however, li,ad introduced aiiollier
subject of conflict, by the formation of llieir new
presbytery; so that there existed the second presby-
tery of Philadelphia, organized by the General As-
sembly, and the second presbylery constituted by the
synod. About the same time the .synods of Cincin-
nati and Pillsburg formally interfered in the collision,
by imiuigiiing the proceedings of the General
As.sembly i i reference to the iiresliyteiy of Pliila
del|iliia.
"The vacillating course of the General Assembly
diu'ing some years, with the various allemiils to com-
promise, as either of the parties seemed lo acquire
the jireponderance, — for the actual division among
the ministers and churches was avowed, — coustanily
augmeuicd the strife in pungency and ami)litude.
To place the matter in a form which coidd not be
evaded. Dr. Juiikin, of the presbylery of Newton,
directly charged Mr. Barnes with holding erroneous
opini<ins, as declared especially in his 'Notes on the
Komaiis.' The case occupied the second presbylery
PRESBYTERrAX CHURCH OF AMERICA.
703
of Pliiladelpliia for some days, wlieii tliat ecclesi-
astical body acquitted Mr. Barnes of ' liaviiig tauglit
any dangerous errors or heresies contrary to tlie
Word of God,' and the Confession of Failh and Caie-
cliisms. From tliat decision Dr. Jinikin appealed to
the synod of Pliiladelpliia who met in 1835. Prior
to that period, the synod of Delaware, which had
been erected by the A-ssenibly to include the second
presbytery of Philadel|)liia, was dissolved, and ihat
presbytery was re-incorporated with the synod of
Philadelphia.
" When Dr. Junkin's appeal came before (lie synod,
according to the constitutional rule, the record of tlie
case made by tlie presbytery a|>pealed from, was re-
quired. They refused to submit the original copy
of the proceedings of the synod. The synod, how-
ever, proceeded with the iincsligation upon the
proofs that the detail of tlie charges, evidence, and
proceedings laid before them, was an anthentic cojiy
of the presbyterial record. Mr. Barnes refused to
appear in his own defence, upon the plea that as
the presbytery to which he belonged, and who had
acijuitted him, would not produce tlieir 'attested
record' of the proceedings in his case, the trial,
' whatever might be the issue,' nnist be unconsti-
tutional. After nearly three days' discussion, the
synod reversed the decision of the second presbytery
in the case of Mr. Barnes, 'as contrary lo truth and
righteousness,' aiid declared, that the errors alleged
were contrary to the doctrines of the Presbyterian
Church, and that they contravened the system of
truth set forth in the word of God; and they sus-
pended Mr. Barnes from the functions of the gospel
ministry. Against which decision, Mr. Barnes
entered his complaint and appejil to the General
Assembly of 1836.
"The synod then dissolved the second presbytery
of Pliiladelpliia, which had been organized by the
General Assembly, and also the presbytery of Wil-
mington.
"The General Assembly met in 183G, and those
various 'appeals,' ' complaints,' and ' protests,' were
discussed. That body rescinded all the ads of the
synod of Philadelphia, — they ab.solvcd Mr. Barnes
from the censure and suspension pronounced by the
synod of Philadelphia. Tliey erected their former
second presbytery anew, as the third presbytery
of Philadelphia — they restored the presbytery of
Wilmington — and they virtually proclaimed, that the
positions avowed by Mr. Barnes are evangelical, and
consistent with the Presbyterian Confession of Failh
and Catechisms."
The controversy had now reached its height, and
there was every probability that a decisive struggle
between the two conflicting parties would take place
at the ineeting of the General Assembly in 1837.
Those who were opposed to the opinions of Mr.
Barnes, believing them to be contrary to the stand-
ards of the cliurch, had for some years been in a
minority in the Assembly, and feeling that Ihcir
position was one of deep solemnity, they invited a
convention to meet in Pliilailelphiaa week before the
opening of the General Assembly. The convention
included 124 members, most of whom were delegates
to the .-\ssemblv, and they continued to hold their
meelings for several days, in the course of which
they drew nil a "Testimony and Memorial," to be
laid before the Assembly. In regard to the doctrinal
errors against which they testified, the convention
thus declared: — '-We hereby set forth in order
some of the doctrinal errors, against which we bear
testimony,
" I. God would have been gla<l to prevent the ex-
istence of sin in our world, but was not able, without
destroying the moral agency of miui; or, that for
aught which appears in the Bible to the contrary, sin
is incidental to any wi.se moral system.
'Ml. Election to eternal life is founded on a fore-
sight of faith and obedience,
"III. We have no more to do wilh the tirst sin of
Adam, than with the sins of any oilier parent.
"IV. Infants come into tlie world as free from
moral dertlenu'iit, as was Adam, when he was
created.
"V, Infants sustain the same relation to the
moral government of God in this world as Ijnite
animals, and their siiti'erings and death are to be ac-
eoiinted for, on the .same principle ae those of brutes,
and not by any means to be considered as penal.
"VI. There is no other original sin than llie fact
that all the posterity of Adam, though by nature
innocent, or possessed of no moral character, will
alwavs begin to sin when ihey begin to exercise
moral agencv. Original sin does not include a sinful
bias of the human mind, and a just exposure to penal
snH'ering. There is no evidence in scripture, that in-
fants, in order to salvation, do need redemption by
the blood of Christ, and regeneration by the Holy
Ghost.
" Vll. The doctrine of imputation, whether of the
guilt of Adam's sin, or of the righteousness of Christ,
has no foundation in the word of God, and is bolh
unjust and absurd.
"VIII. The sufi'erings and death of Christ were
not truly vicarious and penal, but .symbolical,
governmental, and instructive only.
" IX. The impenitent sinner by nature, and inde-
jiendently of the renewing influence or almighty
energy of ihe Holy Spirit, is in full po.«session of all
the ability necessary to a full ci>nipliance wilh all Ihe
commands of God.
" X, Christ never intercedes for any but those
who are actually united to him by failh; or Christ
does not intercede for the elect until after their re-
generation,
"XI. Saving faith is the mere belief of tlie word
of God, and not a grace of the Holy Spirit.
"XII. Regeneration is the act of Ihe sinner him-
self, and it consists in a change of his governing pur-
pose, which be himself must produce, and which is
704
PRKSBYTKiilAX ClIUKCII OF AMKUICA.
tlie result, not ot' any direct iiifltience of tlie Holy
Spirit on tlie lieiirt, bnt cliieHy of a [lersuasive ex-
hibition of the tniili, analogous to tlie influence
wliich one man exerts over llie inimi of aiiotlier; or
regeneration is not an instantaneous act, but a pro-
gressive work.
"XIII. God lias done all lliat lie can do for
llie salvaliun of all nion, and man liimself iiuisl
do the rest.
•'XIV. God cannot exert such influence on the
minds of men, as shall make it certain tliat they will
choose and act in a particular manner, wiihout im-
pairing their moral agency.
"XV. The rigliteousiicss of Christ is not the sole
ground of the sinner's accejitaiice with God: and in
no sense does the righteousness of Christ liecome
ours.
'■XVI. The reason whv .•■oine differ from others
in regard to their reception of the gospel is, that they
make themselves to dili'er.
" The convention pronounced these ' errors un-
scriptural, radical, and highly dangerous,' which in
' their ultimate tendency, subvert the foundation of
Christian hope, and destroy the souls of men.'
"The coiivenlion, on church order and discipline,
particularly specitied as practices of which they com-
plained: The formation of presbyteries founded on
doctrinal reptdsions as affinities; the refusal of
presbyteries to examine their ministers; the licens-
ing and ordination of men unfit for want of qualifica-
tion, and who deny fundamental principles of truth;
the needless ordinalion of evangeh.-ts without any
pastoral relation; the want of discipline respecting
gross acknowledged errors; the number of minis-
ters abandoning their duties for secular employments,
in violation of their vows; the disorderly meetings
of members and others, thereby exciting discord and
contention among the chuichcs."
The General Assembly of 18iJ7 met, and the ad-
herents of the convention being in a decided maju-
rity, several important changes were made by that
venerable court. For instance, they abrogated the
Plan of Union between I'resbyterians and Coiigre-
gationalists, and in accordance with tliis decision
they cut off four synods from the communion of tlie
church, as not ob>erving the order and principles of
the Presbyterian Church. They discontinued the
American Home Mission and American Kducation
Societies, and they dissohed the third presbytery of
Philadelphia.
It was now plain that a disniplioii was fast ap-
proaching, and American Christians generally looked
forward to the meeting of the General Assembly of
1838 as likely to bring the tierce contention, which
bad so long been agitating the church, to a solemn
crisis. Tlie eventful period came, and the Assem-
bly liaving met and been constituted, the commis-
sions from presbyteries were read. The clerks
oniitled all reference to the delegates from the pres-
iiyteries compri.-ed in the four synods wliicli had
been expunged from the roll by the Assembly of the
[irevious year. This omission gave rise to a keen
discussion, conducted in a very disorderly manner,
and at length the dissentients from tlie acts of the
Assembly of 1837, di.sclaiming the authority of the
moderator, elected another moderator and clerks,
and immediately withdrew in a body to the building
cicciipied by the First Presbyterian Church of Phi-
ladeljihia, where they formed themselves into the
Constitutional Preshijlerian Cliitrch of America, or as
it is generally called, ibe Neio School Presbyterian
Church. The majorily of the Assembly retained
their seats until the dissenlienls had left, when they
proceeded to business according to the customary
fdriiis, and hence they are generally known as the
Ohl School Presbyterian Church. The Di-ruption of
the Presbyterian Clinrch of America being thus con-
summated, legal questions naturally arose as to pro-
perty, which were decided in the law courts of Penn-
sylvania, ill the first inslanee, in favour of the Old
School, but when the case was taken before the court,
with all the judges present, that decision was re-
versed, and the way left open for the New School
-Assembly to renew the suit if they should think
proper. The Old School Assembly was left, how-
ever, in possession of the succession, and in the
management of the seminaries, and the suit with-
drawn.
The Presbyterian Churcli in America lias been
ihroughoul its whole history essentially a mission-
ary church, actively engaged in fulfilling, as far as
its means and opportunities allowed, our Lord's last
commission, " Go ye inio all the world, and jo'eacb
the gosjiel to every creature." The Society for
Propagating Christian Knowledge, which was formed
in Scotland in 1709, early directed its efl'orts towards
the conversion of the North American Indians, and in
iliis great work it recei\ed efficient assistance from
the American Presbyterians. The well-known Da
vid Brainerd, and his brother .John, both of whom
laboured most successfully among the Indians, were
under the direction of the Presbyterian Church,
though they eonslaiilly maintained a correspondence
with the parent Society in Scotland, and derived a
portion of their support from that country. Mission
work among the Indians was iiroseculed by the
Presbyterian Chuicli from 1741 to 1780, when, in
consequence of the Revolutionary war, the foreign
iiii>sionary work was, for several years, to a certain
extent abandoned. In 179G it was resumed in the
formation of the New York Jlissioiiary Soeiely,
which, though indejiendent of presbyterial su|iervi-
sion, was chiefly composed of Preshylerians. In lie
following year the Norlhern Missionary Society w.'is
established, and prosecuted missions among the In-
dians with great activity and success for several years.
At length, in the year 1800, the General Aasemlily
of the Presbyterian Church took up the work oi
foreign missions in a systematic manner, and in
180'2 they issued a circular to all the presbyteries
PKESBYTERIAN CHURCH OF AMERICA (New Suiool).
705
iiiitlev tUeif care, urging collections tbi-tlie support of
missions. It was not, lunvever, till 1805, lliat tlieir
arrajigemeiits were suiliciently matured, and in that
iveai' they commenced missionary operations among
the Cherokee Indians. Missions were carried on
among the Indians with some encouraging results
till 1818, when an Independent Society was formed,
uniting the etibrls of the Presbyterian, Reformed
Dutcli, and Associate Reformed cliurclies. This new
body, accordingly, was called " The United Foreign
Missionary Society." This Society was in active
operation for six or seven years, when it ceased its
work, and became merged in the Ajnerican Board of
Connnissionei's for Foreign Missions, which had been
busily engaged in the missionary enterprise since
1811. Many Presbyterians, however, wished that
their own denominations should as such prosecute
foreign missions, and, according!)', in 1831, the
synod of Pittsburg formed the Western Foreign
Missionary Society, which prosecuted its operations
with varied success for six years, wlien, in June
1837, a Board of Foreign Missions was established
by the General Assembly. TliO Board has, since
that time, assumed a very flourishing a^pect, and
conducts no lewer than eiglit missions, viz. to the
North American Indians, Western Africa, India,
Siam, China, the Jews, and the Romanists in France,
Belgiiun, and otlier European coiniiries.
PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH OF AMERICA
(Ni:w Scuool). This branch of the American
Presbyterian Clun'ch assumed its separate position
in 1838, uiuier circumstances and for reasons wliicli
have been fully noticed in the previous article. The
denomination now under consider.ition adopted the
name of the Constitutional Presbyterian Church.
They bad all along been favourable to the Plan of
Union, between the Presbyterians and the Congre-
gationalists in the New Settlements, which had
been adopted in 1801. The operation of tliis Plan
led to the formation of numerous cluu-ches of a
mixed character, and in 1837 the CJeneral Assem-
lily of the Presbyterian Churcli cut oft" four sy-
nods from their conmiunion, simply on the ground
that they partook more of the Congregatioualist
than the Presbyterian character. The Presbyte-
rian element was believed by the majority of the
Assembly to be altogether inconsistent with the
Congregatioualist element. Tlie minority which
af'terwards formed the New School Presbyterian
Churcli saw no such inconsistency, but, on the con-
trary, they believed that the Plan of Union, instead
of deserving to be abrogated, had accomplished the
work for which it was designed, and had moulded
the mixed mass into a comparatively homogeneous
Presbyterian counnunity. Having such impressions
they were decidedly opposed to the abrogation of
the Plan, and rel'used to carry out the enactment of
the Assembly of 1837, which cut oft' the four synods
connected with the Plan. There were also doctrinal
differences, howeser, of a very serious nature, which
ir.
were probably the fundamental causes of the separa-
tion of the New School. Tiiere had always been a
strictly Cal\inistic party in the Church, whicli was
equally strict in its support of the Presbyterian form
of church government. This was often termed the
Scotch party, as being mainly composed of Scotch
imniigi'ants. Another party existed in the church
whose principles were Arminian in doctrine and
Congregatioualist in ecclesiastical polity. This was
often termed the Puritan Jiarty, as being mainly com-
posed of English Piuilan innnigrauts. The charac-
teristic features of the two parlies are thus described
by Dr. Joel Parker of the New School party, or as
he terms it, the Puritan party.
'■ The difl'erences of these two parties in their na-
tive characteristics are pretty well understood. The
Ptiritan is satisfied with maintaining the great lead-
ing truths of the Calvinistic faith, and is ready to
waive minor difierences, and to co-operate with all
Christian people in diffusing evangelical piety.
Hence, though the mass of our Puritan people pre-
ferred Congregational government, they looked calm-
ly on, while hundreds of their ministers, and thou-
sands of their church menibers were becoming
thorough Presbyterians. The Scotch, on the con-
trary, were of a more inflexible character. They too
loved Calvinistic doctrines, and if they had less zeal
than the Puritans in dift'using our religion, and in
••icting for the regeneration of our country and the
world, they were second to mj other people on earth
in these respects.
" The dil^erenccs in doctrine between tlie two had
respect mainly to three points of explanation of
great facts in the Calvinistic system. They both
agi'eed that the whole race of Adam were sinners by
nature. Many of the Scotch school maintained that
sin was literally infused into the human soul prior
to any moral agency of the subject.
" j\[any of the Puritan party alleged that this was
not the mode by which all men became sinners, but
that it was enough to saj- that there were certain
native propensities in every descendant of Adam,
which naturally and cerlaijily induced sinful action
with tlie commencement of moral agency.
" Many of the Scotch party maintained that the
atonement of Christ is intended as a provision for
the elect alone. The Puritan party asserted that
the atonement is made for the race as a whole, so
that it may be truly said to every lost sinner, after
he shall be shut up in the eternal prison, 'You might
have had salvation ; Christ purchased it for you, and
proffered it to you in all sincerity.'
"The Scotch party maintained, that unconverled
sinners were perfectly unable, in every sense, to com-
jily with the requirements of the gospel. The other
parly alleged, that 'God hath endued the will of
man with that natural liberty, that it is neither
forced, nor by any absolute necessity of nature, de-
termined to good or evil.' Many individuals were
found, on both sides, that pushed these views to an
3o
706
PRi:SBYTERIAN CHURCH IN EXGLAXD.
extreme; but t'ai- tlie greater portion of tlie clergy,
ill cacli party, were content to preacli the gospel
t'aitlifiilly to their respective Hocks, with so little of
the controversial spirit, tiiat the greater i)arl of their
intelligent hearers iliil not Linderstand that there was
any perceptible ditleri'nce in tlie theology of the two
scliools."
From this statement l)y one of tliemselves, the
Puritan, or \ew ScIkjoI party, which now forms a
separate chiircli, can scarcely he considered as agree-
ing in doctrine witfi the Westminster Confession
of Faith, to wliicli, nevertlieless, tliey profess to
adhere. This cliiirch holds the meetings of its
(ieneral Assembly not annually like the Old School,
hilt every three years. This arrangement was
made in 1840, and to render the business of their
supreme court more simple and easy, they enact-
ed thai all appeals from the decisions of a church
session sliall not, in tlie case of lay members, be
carried beyond the presbytery, nor in the case of
ministers beyond the synod. This cliurch numbered
in 1853, 1,.570 ministers, l,(i'2G churches, and 140,452
members. '• The New School," says Dr. Seliaff, " is
composed of quite heterogeneous material, and by
the perpetual agitation of the slavery question, and
other points of dilference, is threatened almost every
year with a new division, which it can hardly long
escape ; while some of its members have already re-
turned into the bosom of the Old Scliool."
PUKSBVTERIAN CHURCH OF A.MICKICA
(Old School). This is the largest and most n-
fluential of the two sections intowliicli the American
Presbyterian Church was divided in IStlB. Its
members profess to maintain a complete identity
both in doctrine and government with the Presby-
terian Cliurcli before its disruption. They hold
strictly by the Westminster Standards as the sym-
bols of their faith and order. Tlie General Assem-
bly holds its meeiiugs annually. So rapidly did this
body advance, after it existed in a separate state, as
ap|)oars from their statistical returns, that in six
years after 18.38, they increased nearly one-third in
actual numbers. In 1843 this church consisled of
1,434 minisiers, 2,092 churclies, and 1.50,137 mem-
bers. During the ten years wliidi followed this
date it continued to make rapid progress, so that in
18.53 we tind it numbering 2,139 ministers, 2.879
churches, and 210,2(')3 menibers. 'I'lie Old School
I'resbyterians have conducted their Home Missions
and their Presbyterian Hoard of Foreign Missions
with the most remarkable elliciencv.
PRESIiYTKItlANS (Cii.Misr.iii.AMi). See Citm-
iii;ia,ANi) I'nrsnvn'.iiiAN'.*.
I'RESHVri-:UIAN CHURCH l\ K.XOL.WD.
The earliest I're.-byterians in England were the Pu-
ritans, who dilVered from tlic Eslal)lislied Church not
exclusively, as many have supposed, on the subject
of clerical vestments, whieli, no doubt, formed a pro-
minent ]ioint in the conlrover.sy, but on the subject
also of the assumed superiority of bisliops over pres-
byters, and the claim which tliey arrogated, of alone
possessing the right of ordination, discipline, and gov-
ernment. The Puritans inainiained the perfect parit}-,
if not identity, of bishojis and presbyters, and were,'
in fact, essentially Presbyterian in their views of
church governinent. Accordingly, no sooner did
they separate from the Eslablishment, tli.an despair-
ing of all hope of legislative aid in procuring re-
form, they, or at least a party of them in London
and its neighbourhood, resolved to form ihemselvcs
into a presbytery to be held at Wandsworth in
Surrey, a village on the banks of the Thame.s, about
five miles from the city. This important step was
taken on tlie 20ili November 1572, when about fif-
teen ministers met, and eleven elders were chosen
to form menibers of the court, thus eonsiiinting the
pre.sbylery of Wandsworlh, which was the com-
mencement of the Presbyterian Church in England.
A movement of iliis kind was looked upon hy ilie
bishops as fraught with danger, and, therefore, ex-
erting llicir influence wiih Queen Elizabelh, who was
herself keenly opposed to the Puritans, ihey easily
persuaded her to i.ssue a royal proclamation for en-
forcing the Act of Uiiifonnity : and yet, nolwith-
sfanding the active opposiiion of the government, not
only did the newly-fornied presbytery continue its
labours, but other presbyteries also were organized in
the neighbouring counties. In process of lime the
Puritans became decidedly favourable to Presbyte-
rianism, and all hough a portion embraced the liide-
])eiident or Congregationalist system of church gov-
ernment, yet when the Westminster Assembly was
convened in 1643, the inclination of the great ma-
jority of that convention of divines was to establish
presbj'tery in England. Accordingly, we find Dr.
Hetlierington, in his ' History of that Assembly,'
declaring, " There can be no doubt that the close
alliance which ilie English parliament sought wiih
Scotland, and the ground taken by the Scottish Con-
vention of Estates and (Jeueral Assembly, in re(|nir-
ing not only an internalional league. Init also a reli
gious covenant, tended greally to direct the niiiid
of the English statesmen and divines towards the
Presbyterian form of clinrcli government, and exer-
cised a powerful infiuence in the deliberations of the
Westminster Assembly. But let it be also remem-
bered, that in every one of the reformed continental
churebes, either the Presbyterian furin, or one very
closely resembling it, had been adojited ; and that
the I'nrilans had already formed themselves into
presbyieries. held presbyterial meetings, and endea-
voured to exercise Presbyterian discipline in the
reception, suspensioTi, and rejection of members.
lioth the example of other churches, therefore, and
their own already begun practice, had led them so
far onward to tlie Presbyterian model, that tlicy
would almost inevitably have assumed it allogelher
apart from the iiiHiience of Scotland. In triilli, that
influence was exerted and I'elt almost solely in the
way of instruction, from a church already formed, to
PRESBYTliRIAN CliUllCII IN ENGLAND.
707
niie ill tlie process of funnatioii ; and none would
luive been more ready than tlie Scotti.sli commission-
ers themselves to liave repudiated tlie very idea of
any other kind of inrtiienco. It may be said, there-
fore, with the most strict propriety, tliat the native
aim and tendency of the Westminster Assembly was
to establish the Presbyterian form of church govern-
ment in England, the great body of English Puritans
having gradually become I'resbyleriaus."
In the Englisli ])arlianient the Presbyterians had
a powerful party, and the great mass, not only of the
Puritan dissenters, but of the Established c:lergy, had
adopted Presbyterian princiiiles. To such an ex-
tent was this the case, that on the restoration of
Charles II. no fewer than 2,000 ministers, most of
whom had been previously Episcopalian, were in one
day ejected iVom their benelices for nonconformity.
At the instig.ation of the Westm'nster Assendjly,
an<l in consequence of petitions from all parts of the
country, the p;irliameiit in llj4(j partially established
presbytery. England was now parcelled out into
provinces, in each of which a provincial assembly
was appointed to be held, composed of representatives
from the several presbyteries, or classes, as they were
called, which were included within the province. A
supreme ecclesiastical court was instituted under the
name of a National Assembly, which was formed of
deputies from the various provincial assemblies. The
only districts in which this arrangement was fully
carried out, in the form of presbyteries and synods,
were London and Lancashire, the former of which
was divided into twelve presbyteries ; but in various
other counties the ministers, to a certain extent,
adopted the plan, though without the .sanction of the
civil authorities. So nearly, indeed, had Presbyle-
rianism become the Established form of religion in
England, that the greater number of the benetices,
and the principal chairs of the universities, were
occupied by Presbvterian ministers. '■ Tiiere was
now no positive obstruction," says Dr. lielhering-
ton, "to the regular and tinal organization of Pres-
byterian Church government, except the still pend-
ing treaties between the king and the parliament.
Knowing the king's attachment to prelacy and his
.strong dislike to presbytery, the parliament did not
wish to make a (iiial and permanent establishment of
the latter form of church government till they should
have endeavoured to persuade bis majesty to con-
sent, so that it might be engrossed in the treaty, and
thereby obtain the conclusive ratitication of the royal
signature. But after the army had for a time over-
awed the parliament, wlien the houses again reco-
vered something like the free exercise of their legis-
lative functions, they voted, 'That the king be
desired to give his sanctimi to such acts as shall be
presented to him, for settling the Presbyterian gov-
ernment for three years, with a provision that no
jierson shall be liable to any question oi penalty,
only for non-conformity to the said govermnent, or
to the form of divine services appointed in the ordi-
nances. And that such as sliall not voluntarily con-
Ibrin to the said form of government and divine
service, shall have liberty to meet for the service and
worship of God, and for exercise of religious duties
and ordinances, in a fit and convenient i)lace, so as
nothing be done by them to the disturbance of the
peace of the kingdom. And provided that this ex-
tend not to any toleration of the popish religion, nor
to an}' penalties imjiosed upon popish recusants, nor
to tolerate the )u-actice of any thing contrary to the
principles of Cln-isiian religion, contained in the
apostles' creed, as it is expounded in the Articles of
the Church of England. Nor to any thing coiitrary
to the point of faith, for the ignorance whereof men
are to be kept from the Lord's Supper; nor to ex-
cuse any from the penalties for not coming to hear
the Word of God on the Lord's day in any church
or chapel, mdess lie can show a reasonable cause, or
was hearing the Word of God preached or expound-
ed elsewhere.' These were the votes of the Lords;
and to these the Commons added, ' That the Pres-
byterian government be established till the end of
the next session of parliament, which was to be a
year after that date. That the tenths and main-
tenance belonging to any church shall be only to
such as can submit to the Presbyterian govern-
ment, and to none other. That liberty of conscience
granted shall extend to none that sliall preach, print,
or publish any thing contrary to the iirst fifteen of
the Thirty-nine Articles, except the eighth. That
it extend not to-popisli recusants, or taking away
any penal laws against them. That the indtil-
gence to tender consciences shall not extend to toler-
ate the Common Prayer.' These votes were passed
on the 13tli day of October 1647, and may be re-
garded as the tinal settlement of the Presbyterian
Church government, so far as that was done by the
long parliament, in accordance wiili the advice of
the Westminster Assembly of divines."
The grand object which the Presbyterians now
aimed at was to prevail upon ])arliament to lend the
civil sanction to the Presbyterian form of church
government. Not that they believed all the details
to be of divine appointment ; they simply held that
the essential principles of presbyterj' were in ac-
cordance with the Word of God. Nay, so liberal
were the views of many Presbyterians on this head,
that they would have willingly submitted to a mo-
derate Episcopacy rather than continue the stale of
confusion and disorder which then existed in all
ecclesiastical matters. The parliament, however,
knew that spiriiual independence was an essemial
principle of Presbyterianism, and to sanction such a
[irinciple would be to divest themselves of all control
over the church. It was necessary, therefore, in
their opinion, strenuously to resist .all attempts to
establish presbytery .as the state religion.
A loud cry has been raised against the English
Presbyterians, on the alleged ground that, at thi.s
period of their history, their whole efforts were
708
PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IX ENGLAND.
directed towards tlie attainment of cliurcli power.
" Now wliat was tliis cluircli power," siys the younger
M'Crie, " wliicli the I'resbyterians were so anxious
to secure, and wliich Neal would represent as 'a
civil autlioritv over men's persons and properties?'
Will it be believed, that it was neitlier more nor le.>-s
than the power of keeping back scandalous and un-
worthy persons from the ordinances of Ijaptism and
the Lord's Supper? Tliis wa.s, in fact, the great
point in dispute between them and tlie parliament ;
for the parliament liad insisted on having the supreme
]iower in ecclesiastical matters, and had passed a law
to the effect, that if any person was refused admission
to sealing ordinances by the church courts, lie miglit
appeal to parliament, which might, by virtue of its
authority, compel the clnu'ch courts to receive him,
whatever his character might be. The Pre.sbyte-
rians, as Neal himself admits, ' were dis.satistied with
the men in power, because they would not leave the
church iiuiepeudeut on tlie state.' And would Mr.
Neal, himself an Independent, have had tlie clnu'ch
to be dependent on the state ? Would he have had
the Presbyterians tamely submit to see the royal
prerogatives of Christ assumed by a parliament, after
they had succeeded in wresting them out of the hands
of a monarch, against whom, for this very reason,
the nation had long been engaged in a bloody war?"
One of the chief hindrances in the way of the
full establishment of presbytery in England, was
the rapid growth of errors and heresies of every kind,
which had .sprung out of the Civil .War. Edwards,
in Ids " Uangraina," enumerates no fewer than 176
heresies which arose in these troublous times, and
prevented anything like a common agreement on the
great points of religion. Li such a state of matters,
which seriously threatened to disturb the peace and
good order of society, the Presbyterians called u[ioii
the parliament to issue a formal and authoritative con-
demnation of these numerous errors, and more especi-
ally to set up ail efficient ecclesiastical frame-work,
that discipline might be exercised upon all heretics
according to the laws of Christ. This application was
not only refused, through the iiiliiience of the Inde-
pendents, but its immediate effect was, that all parties
united to oppose the Presbyterians, and to maintain.
as they pretended, the great principles of toleration
and liberty of conscience. But it unfortunately
happened that the motley mass, who had tlius rallied
round the banner of toleration, diti'ered as to the ex-
tent to which liberty of conscience ought to be jier-
mitted. Some wished to limit it to what they called
the fundamentals of religion, while others would go
60 far as to allow the propagation of all opinions of
whatever kind. The Presbyterians, in their anxiety
to avoid giving the slightest countenance to the
latter view of toleration, which they considered sub-
versive of all religion, rushed some of them to the
opposite extreme, maintaining that discipline ought
to be exercised upon heretics at the jioint of the
Kword; while other.<, more temperate in their views,
"contented themselves with protesting against the
government giving a positive and judicial sauctiun
to the prevailing heresies." These disputes on the
subject of toleraticui )iroved disastrous to the cause
of the Presbyterian [larty, det'eating all the attempts
which they made to promote unity and peace by
procm'ing the eslablishnient of a uniform system of
worship, discipline, and g<j\eriinient in the three
kingdoms.
It has been already mentioned that Loudon and
its neighbourhood had been I'ormed into twelve pres-
byteries. These constituted the provincial synod of
Loudon, which continued to hold regidar half-yearly
meetings till the year 16.55, when they ceased to
meet as a synod, probably in consequence of the dis-
couragement which they received from Cromwell;
but they continued to meet in a presbyterial capa
city, and to preserve as far as possible every other
point of Pre.-byteriau Church government and disci-
pline. About tliis time Cromwell, without formally
abolishing the Presbyterian Church governmeiii,
quietly, but etifictually. superseded it by establish-
ing a committee, couinionly called Triers, for the
purpose of examining and approving all who should
be presented, nominated, chosen, or appointed to any
benelice, with cure of .soids, or to any jiublic settled
lecture in England or Wales. This committee con-
sisted of thirty-eight jiersons, some of whom were
Presbyterians, but the larger number were Indepen-
dents, and a very few were Baptists, while nine were
laymen. The institution of this committee of Triers
destroyed, of course, the authority of provincial sy-
nods, and introduced a new form of mixed govern-
ment, which gave satisfaction to no jiarty. The
committee, however, continued to act till the death
of the Protector in 1658.
The whole policy of Cromwell, while he openly
favoured the Independents, was to bring all eccle-
siastical matters under the direct control of the civil
government. With this view, besides instituting
the committee of Triers, to which we have already-
referred, he appointed commissioners, chieHy lay-
men, for every county, with power to eject scandal-
ous, ignorant, and insullicient ministers and school-
masters. These arranxemenis were early broken u|i
by the death of Cromwell, and the succession of his
son Richard, who being utterly incapable of govern-
ing, abdicated his autliority and retired into pri-
vate life. Soon after followed the Restoration of
Charles II., when Prelacy was restored to its former
supremacy. The monarch afl'ected for a time to
treat the Presbyterian miinsters with kindnes.s, and
lield out prospects of some accommodation between
the two great contending parlies. A conference was
at length arranged to be held at the Savoy, between
twelve bishops and nine assistants on the part of the
Episcopalians, and an equal number of ministers on
the part of the Presbyterians. This confeicnce com-
menced on the 15lli of April 1601, and continued
with intermissions till the 25th of July, when it came
PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN ENGLAND.
709
to a close witliout leading to niiy satisliictory re-
sult.
Cliai'les now re.solveil to put forth the strong li.and
of power, and to effect by compnlsion what he failed
to accampli.sh by gentler means. 'I'he Ad of Uni-
formity, accordingly, was framed, which, having
passed both houses of parliament by small majorities,
received the royal assent on the 19tli of May 1662.
Tlie terms of conformity were as follows : •' 1. Re-
ordination, if they had not been episcopally ordained.
2. A declaration of inifeigned assent and consent to
all and everything prescribed and contained in the
Book of Conunon Prayer, and admiiii.stralion of
sacraments and other rites and ceremonies of the
Churcli of England, together witli the psalter, and
the form and manner of making, ordaining, and con-
secrating of bi.shops, priests, and deacons. 3. To
take the oath of canonical obedience. 4. To abjnre
the Solemn League and Covenant. 5. To abjure the
lawfulness of taking arms against the king, or any
commissioned by him, on any pretence whatsoever."
This act came into force on the 24th of August
following its enactment, and on that fatal day alioiit
2,000 Non-conformist ministers resigned their bene-
fices, and all their church preferments, and threw
themselves upon a cold and clieerless world for their
Master's sake. Of the ejected ministers nine-tenths
were Presbyterian.s ; and from tliat date, accordingly,
the English Presbyterians became one of tlie three
divisions of Protestant Dissenters which have be-
come a powerful body in the nation. Li the reigns
of the second Charles and his successor Jame.s, the
Presbyterians, in common witli the other Non-con-
formists, were exposed to severe persecution, but
the Revolution of 1688 brought tliem relief, and the
Toleration Act placed their assemblies nnder the
protection of the state. Presbyterian churches were
now multiplied all over the kingdom, and numerous
presbyteries organized. In a quarter of a century
from this date there were no fewer than 800 presby-
teriaii cinirclies in England, .and the entire body
constituted, at least, two-tliirds of the Non-contbr-
mists.
The Presbyterians and Congregationalist.s, which
were the two principal sections of the Protestant
Dissenters, having shared in the disabilities as well
as cruel treatment to which all Non-conformists
were subjected for a considerable period before the
Revolution, had not only been led to sympathize with
one another in their common grievances, but even to
approximate in church poUty, the Presbyterians be-
ing compelled, by peculiar circumstances, to act
upon the principles of Lidependency. In 1691,
accordingly, the Presbyterian and Congregationalist
ministers of London agreed to merge their difi'er-
ences, and to reduce all distinguishing names to that
of United Bretlwen. A Profession of Faitli was
now drawn up, and given forth to the public nnder
the title of " Heads of .\greement assented to by the
United Ministers in and about London, formerlv
called Presbyterian and Congregational." This im-
portant document was subscribed at the very outset
bv upwards of eighty ministers ; and the union was
cordially assented to by ministers of both denomina-
tions in all parts of the country.
Towards the close of the seventeenth century a
controversy arose in England on the subject of jus-
tification, in conseciuence of the repuljlicatioti of the
works of Dr. Tobias Crisp, a noted Aiuinomian.
(See Crispites.) To satisfy the i)iiblic as to their
views on the disputed i)oints, the United Ministers
published a tract, entitled ' The Agreement in Doc-
trine amtmg llie Dissenting Ministers in London, sub-
scribed Dec. 16, 1692.' Seventeen names were sub-
scribed to the tract, and subsequently it received
the unanimous sanction of the whole body. The
thorough orthodoxy of the LTnited Ministers is
strongly attested also by Dr. Calamy in 1717. in his
' Brief but True Account of the Protestant Dissent-
ers in England.' Their views on all doctrinal points
appear, at that period of their In'story, to have been
in harmony with the Thirty-Nine Articles of the
Church of England, the Westminster Confession, and
the Savoy Confession, as well as with the opinions of
tlie Calviiiislic divines of the .synod of Dort.
It was specifically required by the provisions of
the Toleration Act, that all Di.ssenting ministers
should qualify for the exercise of their ministerial
functions, by subscribing to the Tliirty-Niue Arti-
cles, witli some particular exceptions. Such a require
nient wa.-, of course, felt to be not in the least bur-
densome, so long a.s the opinions of the English
Presbyterians continued to adhere to the doctrines
of the Articles; but it unfortunately liajipeiied, that
a most melancholy declension from sound Scriptural
doctrine began to nianitest itself among them a few
yeans after Dr. Calamy had so strongly testified to
their orthodoxy. One of the earliest avowed Ar-
miiiians among the English Presbyterians was the
celebrated Dr. George Benson, who was ordained at
Abingdon in 1723, and afterwards became jiastor of a
congregation inSoiithwark in 1729. It was not, how-
ever, till Dr. Taylor of Norwich published his ' Scrip
ture Doctrine of .\tonement' in 17.'J1. that Socinian
tenets began to be openly broached in the English
Presbyterian Cluirch. 'I'lie causes of the rapid inriux
of heresy into the body throughout the last century
are thus sketched in a Pastoral letter issued by them
selves in 1840: "Time would fail to enumerate all
the steps, and to set in order the causes, by which
this sore evil arose. Suffice it, for ]uirposes of warn-
ing, to state, that one cause of this declension lay in
the neglect into which our excellent standards were
permitted to fall. No pled;;e was required of those
entering the church, as ministers, that their teaching
would be in accordance with that form of sound
words; and little care was taken tliat those entering
the church, as members, possessed a competent
knowledge of their Scriptural contents. Another
cause of declension lay in the early neglect, and gra-
710
PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH I\ KXOI-AXI).
dual i-enoiiiiceineiit, of tlie piiiieiples and provisions
of tlie Presbvtcnaii polity. The eldersliip fell into
decay ; sessions into disnse ; and presbyteries into
oblivion ; wliile tliere existed no supreme court wliieb
might inspei-t, remedy, and control. In proportion
as these Scriptural forms evanislied, Scripture truths
were lost. Deprived of tliosc, and possessed of no
otlier securities, congregations, when they ceased to
be I'resbvlerian in government, ceased to be Pres-
bvterian in doctrijie : when the liedge was taken
awav, tlie boar iVom the forest entered, and wasted
the vineyard at his [ileasure. Sociniaiiism. mournful
to tell, has for a time usurped tbe pleasant places —
unfairly arrogating to itself the Presbyterian name;
while all that the name implies it lias trodden under
foot. Ichabod is written on its walls: for the glory
is departed."
The result of tlie united operaticm of these dele-
terious iiidueiices was, that English Presbyterianism
in doctrine, discipline, and government was found in
the last century to have almost disappeared in many
places where it had once been flourishing and influ-
ential ; and even in tliose districts where it still ex-
isted, it was utterly feeble and inefficient. But this
extensive decay was not the worst evil which had
befallen Presbyterianism in England. Other deno-
minations liad taken possession of its churches and
its endowments, and Unitarians had, in many cases,
taken the name of Presbyterians, to give them a pre-
tence in law for seizing and retaining endowments
whicli had been left by godly Presbyterians for the
maintenance of the gospel. To such an extent,
indeed, had the evil grown, that until lately, to the
south of the Tees, Socinianii'' . and Presbyterianism
were too often regarded as convertible terms.
Along with this extensive deviati(m from sound
doctrine among the English Presbyterians there arose
a strong feeling of discontent with the compulsory
subscription of the Thirty-Nine Articles which the
Toleration Act required from all Dissenters. The
suliject was discussed in various pamphlets, and at
length, constrained by the force of public opinion,
government passed an act in 1779, by which every
preacher or leaclier of any cimgregation, who scru-
pled to declare and subscribe his assent to any of
the articles, was allowed to make and subscribe in-
stead thereof, the declaration of Protestant belief,,
and was thereby entitled to similar exemptions. A
subsequent statute renders (pialifying in the case of
Dissenters for the exercise of ministerial functions
iiiiiiecessary, except in obedience to a legal requisi-
tion. But although forced subscription to the Ar-
ticles was no longer required, the Protestant Di.s-
seiiters, including the Presbyterians, still retained
their own symbolic books which coincided in doctrine
with the Tliirty-Nine Articles. Up to this time
both Presbyterians and Coiigregationalists were in
»he habit of requiring confessions of faith at ordina-
tions, and on such occasions ministersof botli denomi-
iialioiis frequently lonk part in the religiou,s services.
It is a gratifying fact that the Presbyterians of
England have, witliin the last forty years, been ena-
bled, in a great measure, to throw oil' the spiritual
lethargy and death in winch they were involved
during the last century. In the course of tlial
time, they have not only manifested a strong vita-
lily, but asserted a denominational existence se-
parate from Episcopacy on the one hand, and
Congregationalism on the other. There are now
about IGO orthodox Presbyterian places of worship,
in various parts of England, but chiefly in the north-
ern counties ; many of them claiming for themselves
a remote antiquity, even before the Revolution,
and some as far back as the passing of the Act
of Uniformity in 1G62. "The spiritual death," says
the younger M'Crie, " tnider which in-esbytery lay
under during tlie last century, has been followed of
late years with a blessed resurrection. Our Presby
terian Church in England is the native fruit of the
revival of the spirit and the theology of the Refor-
mation, whicli again was the revival of primitive
Christianity. With Christianity as with its Author,
' one day is as a thousand years, and a thousand years
as one day.' We make nothing of the thousand
years that prec-eded the era of the Reformation. We
claim an earlier antiquity than that which dates from
the fifth century ; and on the true princi[ile of apos-
tolic succession, which is to be traced, not by a line
of dying men. but by the line of living light, flowing
from ' the Word of (iod which liveth and aliideth for
ever,' ami flashing from time to time on the church,
even during the Dark Ages, we claim to be a gen-
uine branch of the apostolic Church of Christ."
The cause of presbytery in England had, for a num-
ber of years, been making rapid progress, and in
18.'!6 unity was given to the body by the organiza-
tion of " The Synod of the Presbyterian Church in
England in connection with the Church of Scotland."
Soon after this important step had been taken an
application was made by the Presbyterian Church in
England to the General Assembly of the Church of
Scotland, wishing to be legally connected with that
body. It was found, however, that no such union
could bo elVected, it being impossible that the juris-
diction of the Established Church of Scotland could
be extended to England, where Eiii.scopacy is by
law established. The subject was carefully dis-
cussed ill several Assemblies, and at length an act
was passed, " That they could not go beyond an
interchange of friendly communications ; at the same
time assuring the synod in England of the warm and
brotherly afl'ectioii wherewith their clim-ch regards
it, and the earnest desire entertained by the Church
of Scotland to co-operate to the utmost of their
power in promoting tlie interest of the Presbyterian
Church in England, to which they are bound alike
by present ties, and by the grateful recollections of
former days."
The eventful disruption which occurred in Scot-
land in 184,'J, extendeil its influence across the
PKESBYTERIAM SYXOD OF SECRnKRS IN IRELAND.
rii
Twcefl, (lud ii division took [.ilace amciii<; tlie Eiig-
lisli P[-cshyleiians also, a small minority adlier-
ing to the l'>tabli.slieri Cluircli of Scotland, while the
great majority, both of ministers and churches,
were disjiosed to favour the principles of the Free
Churcli of Scotland. The synod of the English
Presbyterians, however, felt that the time bad now
come when it was their duly to assert their inde-
pendence of all other churches whatever, and to
maintain their position as a separate and independent
section of the Church of Christ. In 1844, according-
ly, a resolution was passed by the synod, that "in
all acts of intercour.se with another branch or other
branches of the Churcli of Cln-ist, or in forming or
maintaining a friendly relation wiili them, this
church shall assert, provide for, and maintain its own
freedom and independence in all matters s|)iritual."
In the overtm-e on independence passed at this time,
the name or style of the body was changed from
"The Synod of the Presbyterian Church in Eng-
land, in connexion with the Church of Scotland." to
that of "The Presbyterian Church in England."
While the synod judged it right to issue a de-
claration of independence, they have uniformly since
tlie disruption fraternized with the Free Church.
A Theological College wa.s also instituted in 1844,
for training young men for the holy ministry in con-
nection with the English Presbyterian Church. This
seminary has received a oonsidenible impidse, and no
sm.-dl prestige by the appointment, in 1856, of Dr.
Thomas M'Crie to the chair of systematic theology
and ecclesiastical history. The year 1844, which
forms a memorable era in the history of the Presby-
terian Church in England, saw the scheme for foreign
missions instituted, which has been so signally blessed.
The first mi.ssion-rield selected for their operations
was China, and Mr. W. C. Burns was ordained and
set a])art in 1847 as their first missionary. The
laboms of this devoted herald of the cross have been
eminently successful, and three other missionaiies of
kindred spirit liave been sent to laboiu- in China.
A mission has also been established at Corfu. The
question as to the introduction of insiruinental mu-
sic into Pre.sbyterian churches has receiuly been dis-
cussed in the synod, as well as in some of the pres-
bvteries, and a decision has been adopted prohibiting
the use of the organ in any congregation without the
express .sanction of the supreme court of the church.
Besides the seveti presbyteries of the English Pres-
Dyterian synod, which holds an independent posi-
tion, not being ecclesiastically connected with, or in
any degree dependent upon, any other church, there
are five presbyteries in England contaiidng seventy-
six congregations belonging to the United Presbyte-
rian Churcli ; and the Established Church of Scot-
land has three presbyteries in England, — that of Lon-
don, containing five congregations ; that of Liverpool
and Manchester, containing five congregations ; and
that of the North of England, containing five congre-
gations.
PRESBYTERIAN SYNOD OF SECEDEKS
IN IRELAND. This denomination of Christians
was formed by a union, which was efiected in 1818,
between the two sections of the Secession Chiu'ch in
Ireland, the Burghers and Antiburghers. From the
conuneiicement of the present century negotiations
had been carried on with a view to the accom-
plishment of this most desirable object ; but such
negotiations had uniformly failed, from the circum-
stance that the Antiburghers, who were subject to
the general .synod in Scotland, had been (irevented
by that court from taking efl'ective steps in the mat-
ter. At length, however, they resolved to act in-
dependently of the Scottish judicatory, and the two
synods of Seceders in Ireland, having agreed upon a
basis of union, met at Cookstown on the 9th of July
1818. and formed themselves into one body mider
the designation of "The Presbylerian Synod of Ire-
land, distinguished by the name Seceders." 'I'lie
ministers of the iniited synod at this period amoimt-
ed in number to 97. The basis on which the imion
rested consisted of the six following points : —
" 1. To declare their constant and inviolable at-
tachment to their already appro\ ed and recognized
standards, namely, the Westminster Confession of
Faith, Larger and Shorter Calechi.sms, Directory for
Worship, and Form of Presbyteiian Church govern-
ment, with the Original Secession Testimony.
"2. That, as they imite under the bamier of a
testimony, they are determined, in all times coming,
as their forefathers have set them the example, to
assert the truth when it is injured or ojiposed, and (o
condemn and testify against error and immorality
whenever the}' may seem to prevail.
"3. To cancel the name of Burgher and Anti-
burgher for ever, and to unite the two svnods into
one, to be known by the name 'The Presbyterian Sy-
nod of Ireland, distinguished by the name Seceders.'
" 4. To declare their iusubordination to any other
ecclesiastical court, while, at the same time, they do
hereby signify their hearty inclination to hold a cor-
respondence with their sister Church in Scotland or
elsewhere, for their mutual edification ; but think it
expedient not to lay themselves under any restric-
tions as to the manner of said correspondence.
" 5. To allow all the presbyteries and congrega-
tions in their connection to bear the same name, and,
in the meantiine, stand as they were befoie the
coalescence.
" 6. Carefully to preserve all the public records ot
the two .synods tVom their formation in this kingdom
till the present day."
This union was the means of imparting considera-
ble strength and vigour to the Secession Church in
Ireland. A home mission was now commenced, and
the cause of Presbyterianism began to flourish in
various towns and \ illages where it had been hitherto
unknown. The whole proceedings of this church
were characterized by a high regard to purilv of
doctrine, and theadvancement of vital religion. The
712
PRESBYTERY— PRESENTATION OP THE VIRGIN.
Irisli Presbvleriiiii Chiircli, on tlie contrary, lijid
long been liindered in its iirogress by the preva-
lence of Ariiin and Socinian doctrines, botli among
its ministers and people. By the Divine bles^sing,
however, they were at length eiialjled to rid tliem-
selves of tlie New Light party; and to secure uni-
formity of teaching in the church, they passed
iu overture requiring absolute subscription to the
Confession of Failli. Tlie general synod was now,
in almost all respects, a'^similated to the Irish Se-
cession Cluirch, and the proposal of a union be-
tween the two was seriously entertained. And an
arrangement in regard to the Regium Dotunn made
in 1838, paved the way for its completion, govern-
ment having in tliat year agreed to equalise the
bounty, and on certain conditions to grant £75, late
Irish currency, per annum, to every minister con-
nected witli the two synods. Being tluis placed on
an equal footing by the government, and being now
agreed both in doctrine and clunxli polity, the great
obstacles to a complete incorporation of the two
churches were thus removed.
The first movement towards imion liad taken place
among the theological students of both churches
attending tlie Belfast Academical Institution, who
had estabh'shed among themselves a united prayer-
moeting. Tlie desire for union, and a strong feeling
of its propriety, rapidly spread both among ministers
and people. JFemorials on the subject, accordingly,
were presented to the synod of Ulster, and the Se-
cession synod, at their respective meetings in 1839.
Committees were appointed by the two synods, and
the matter having been fully considered and preli-
minaries adjusted, the final act of incorporation took
place at Belfast on the 10th of July 1840, the united
body takiiig to itself the tiame of tlie Preshytericm
Church ill Irehmd. See IlllSir Phi^sbyterian
Cnuufii.
PRESBYTEUIAX CHURCH (United). See
UxiTEIl PltESDYTERI.VN Clll'liCII.
PRESBYTERY, an ecclesiaslical court in Pres-
byterian churches in Great Britain, Ireland, and
America. In the Reformed churches on the Con-
tinent, it generally receives the name of Cliissis. A
presbytery consists of all the ministers within the
bcHuids of a iiarticul.-ir district, and of representatives
from the kirk-sessions or consistories in the district.
Every kirk -session is entitled to send one elder, and
tlie roll of the presbytery is made up every half-
year, at the first meeting after tlie provincial .«ynod,
when new elders are returned, and the extracts of
tlieir election are produced. A new moderator of
presbytery is then also chosen, who must be a min-
ister, and he is generally elected according to a svs-
lem of regular rotation. It is the province of a
presbytery to judge in all references for advice, and
all coni[ilainls and a[ipeals that come from the kirk-
sessions within the bounds. Besides being a court
of appeal from the inferior judicatory, it is bound to
inspect carefully the personal conduct and pastoral
labours of every minister within its boynds, and
when neces.'-ary to admonish, suspend, or even de-
pose. It belongs to presbyteries to grant licenses
to preach tlie gospel, and to examine and judge o(
the qualifications of those who apply for them ; to
take cognizance of all preachers resident within their
bounds, and to give them certificates of character
when proposing to reside within the bounds of an-
other presbytery. When a minislerial charge be-
comes vacant by the death, resignation, or removal
to another charge of its regular pastor, it devolves
upon the presbytery to supply religious ordinances
during the vacancy ; and before the charge can be
permanently filled up, the individual appointed or
elected must be tested as to his qualifications b\' the
presbytery, and must receive from them ordination if
previuusly unordained, or induction and admission if
previously ordained. The presbytery holds frequent
and stated meetings, according as circumstances may
require, and each meeting is opened and closed with
prayer. In any emergency it is in the power of the
moderator, on his own responsibility, or on receiving
a written requisition from several members, to call a
pro re iiota meeting of presbytery. In Presbyterian
cliurches, where the supreme coin't consists of dele-
gates, it belongs to each presbytery to elect ministers
and elders to represent them in that court. All the
proceedings of the presbytery must be duly minuted
by the clerk, and are subject to the review of the
provincial svnod.
PRESENCE (liitEAD or the). See Shew-
Bre.\d.
PRESENTATION, the act of a patron iinminat-
ing an individual to be instituted by the ecclesiastical
authorities to a benefice in his gift. The greatest
jiart of the benefices in England are presentative.
The presentation must be put into the hands of the
bisliop within 182 days after the living is vacant,
and if lie fails to do so the riglit of ])resentation
lapses to the bishop ; if the bishop fails to collate
within half a-year more, it lapses to the archbishop,
and failing him to the sovereign, who, however, is
not restricted to a limited time. With the exception
of a very few the parish chnrohes in Scotland are
presentative. Six months are alhuved the patron by
law to make his selection, and if he fails to present
within the prescribed time the right of presentation
falls tmiqiiam jure dernhito into the hands of the
presbytery. A patron, in order to present to a
vacant parish, must qualify to government, and an
extract of his having dune so must bo laid on the
table of the prcsbyterv along with the presentation.
PRESENTATION OF THE VIRGIN, a festi-
val observed by the Romish Church on the 21st of
November, in commemoration of the presentation of
the Virgin Mary in the Temple by her parents to be
educated. This festival appears to have been insti-
tuted somewhere about the twelfih century. It is
observed alsci bv the Greek Church.
PRESIDENTS. See OvEitSEEiis (Jewish).
PRE'TAS— PRIESTS (Romish).
713
PRE'TAS, sprites ov hobgoblins ainoiiL; tin' Bud-
/(/s/s in Ceylon. Tliey ai'e believed to inlmbit a liell,
called Lilikantarika. In appearance they are ex-
ti-einely attenuated like a dry leaf. There are some
pi-ctfis that haunt the places near which they once
lived as men ; they are also found in the stibnrbs of
cities, and in places where four ways ineet. Their
bodies are represented as being twelve miles high,
and tliey liave very large nails. On the top of the
liead there is a mouth about the size of a needle's
eye. They continually think with sorrow on their
fate, fnjin not having acquired merit in former births ;
they are now tormented without ceasing by hunger
and thirst, and have not ihe power of obtaining merit.
PREVENTION, a term used in the caiuni law to
denote the right which the Pope cl.aims of settnig
aside the rights of ordinary collators, and appointing
to their benefices himself. Romish divines allege
that his IlDliiiess, being the source of all ecclesiastical
authority, may lawfully resume the right of collation
whenever he chooses.
PRIAPUS, a god wor-hipped in later times among
the Greeks, more especially at Lampsacus, on the
Ilellespout, as the god of fertility. He is said to
have beeji the son of Dionysus, or as others think, of
Adonis ami Aphrodite. This god corresponds to the
Linrja of the Hindus, and was worshipped with ot^'er-
ings of the first-fruits of gardens, vineyards, and
fields.
PRIEST, a sacred officer to wlmni it belongs to
olTer sacrifices ami preside over the did'erent rites
and ceremonies of religion. In the earliest ages the
firstborn of every family, the fathers, tlie princes,
and kings were priests. When the Israelites departed
from Egypt, however, the priesthood was confined
to one tribe, that of I^evi ; and it consisted of three
orders, the high-priest, the priests, and the I^evites.
The higli-priest and the ordinary priests were chosen
exclusively from the family of Aaron. It was the
duty of the priests to serve at the altar, preparing the
victims for .sacrifice, and offering them up on the
altar ; they kept the fire on the altar of hurnt-ofFering
contiimally burning, and the lamps of the golden
candlestick perpetually lighted; they baked the
shew-bread, and changed the loaves every Sabbath-
day. A priest came into the sanctu.ary every morn-
ing and evening cai-rving a smoking censer, which he
set upon the golden table.
The priests, in the times of David, Solomon, and
the succeeding kings, till the Rabylonish captivity,
were divided into twenty-four classes; and though
only four cl.asses returued from Babylon, these were
again divided into twenty-four classes, one of which
went up to Jerusalem every week to discharge the
duties of the priesthood, and they succeeded one
another regularly on the Sabbath-day. An entire
family was appointed to olTer daily sacrifices, and as
each family consisted of a nimiher of priests, they
drew lots for the dilferent offices which they were to
perform.
Till' Jewish priesthood being confined to certain
families, each one was required to establish his line
of descent, and hence the genealogius of the priests
were carefully preserved in the Temple. It was
indispensable for every one who aspired to the oflire
of a priest, that he should be of unblemished charac-
ter, and free from any bodily defect. The prescribed
age for entering upon the priesthood in the early
period of the Jewish polity, was thirty years of age,
but in later times it was twenty years. No other
ceremony seems to ha\e been performed at their
consecration than what is termed, "tilling their
bauds," that is, simply making them engage in their
sacred duties. When employed in the service of
the altar they were clothed in a peculiar dress,
consisting of a cojit. a girdle, and a mitre. In the
case of Hebrew, as well as Egyptian priests, the
feet were uncovered in token of deep humility and
reverence. The Jewish priests were wont to be
consulted as interpreters of the law, and also as
judges in cases of controversy. In times of war they
accompanied the army, bearing the ark of the cove-
nant, .sounding the sacred trumpets, and encouraging
the soldiers to deeds of bravery. That they might
devote themselves wholly to their sacred duties,
they were not allowed to engage in secular employ-
ment, and fur them, as well as the Levites, a regular
maintenance was provided. Thirteen Leviticai cities,
with their suburbs, were set apart as a residence for
the priests, while their maintenance was derived
" from the tithes," as we are told, " offered by the Le-
vites out of the tithes by. them received from the first
fruits, from the first clip of wool when the sheep
were shoni, from the offerings made in the Temple,
and from their share of the sin-otierings, and thauks-
giving-oSerings sacrificed in the Temple, of wliich cer-
tain parts wereappropriatedtothe priests. Thus in the
peace-offerings, they had the shoulder and the breast,
(Lev. vii. 33, 34;) in the sin-offerings they burnt on
the altar the fat that covered certain parts of the vic-
tim sacrificed, but the rest belonged to the priests.
(Lev. vii. 6, 10.) To theTU also was ap[)ropriated
the skin or fleece of every victim ; and when an Is-
raelite killed an am'mal for his own use, there were
certain parts assigned to the priests. (Deut. xviii.
3.) All the first-born also, whether of man or beast,
were dedicated to God, and by virtue of that devo-
tion belonged to the priests. The men were re-
deemed for five sliekels (Numb, xviii. 15.16); the
first-born of impure animals were redeemed or ex-
changed, but tlie clean animals were not redeemed.
They were .sacrificed to the Lord ; their blood was
sprinkled about the altar, and the rest belonged to
the priests; who also had the first-fnnis of trees,
tliat is, those of the fourth year, (Numb, xviii. 13;
Lev. xix. 2.3, 24,) as well as a share of the spoils
taken in war."
PRIEST (High). See High-Priest.
PRIESTS (Romish). It is generally regarded by
Protestant churches as derogatory to the honour of
_,j
ri4
PRIMATES (Christian)— PUISCILLIAXISI'S.
Clirist as llie sole Priest and Mediator of tlie Cliris-
tiaii dispensation, (o nviiiitaiii tliat any man is in-
vested with tlie priestly office, and performs its pro-
per work. Siicli an aivpellatioii, applied as it some-
times has been, and si ill is, to Christian minislers.
seems to implv lliat Christ did not fully accoinpHsh
the design of his office, and destroys the analogy l>e-
tween him and Melchisedek. (See MELCiiiSKi>iiK,
OuDER OF.) Yet a few of the ancient Cln'istian
writers, particularly Optatiis, gives hisliops, presby-
ters, and deacons, tlie title of priests, chieHy on the
grinnid that they ministered pnblicly by God's ap-
jiointment in holy tilings. The Chnrch of Ron>e,
however, calls her ministers priests, and affirms that
thev perform the proper woik of the priestliood by
offering sacrifices to God. Thus Dens defines the
priesthood, " A sacred order and sacrament, in which
l)Ower is conferred of consecrating the body of Christ,
of remitting sins, and of administering certain other
sacraments." The council of Trent declares the
priest to be the generic term under which are con-
tained priests of the first and second order, namely,
bishops and presbyter.s.
The ordination of a Romish priest is thus sum-
marily described by Mr. Lewis from the,Pontiticale
Romanum : " The bishop lays both his liands on his
head ; the other priests ju'eseut, doing the same, of
whom three are, or .should be, present in their robes
called planets. Raising his hands, and stretching
tliem over the candidate, he offers the ordination
])rayer. He (hen invests him with the stole in the
form of a cross, and with the chasuble. The hymn.
' Veni Creator Spiritiis,' — ' Come Creator S[iirit,'
is Sling, when the bishop, dipping his thumb in the
sacred oil. anoints each hand with its joints after the
manner of a cross!, saying, ' Vouchsafe, O Lord, to
consecrate and .sanctify these hands by this unction,
and b}' our benediction ; and whatever he shall bless,
may it be blessed ; and whatever he shall consecrate,
may it be consecrated and sanctified.' The chalice,
with the wine, and water, and paten upon it, and a
liost, are then delivered to him, saying, ' Receive
power to offer the sacrifice of God, and to celebrate
mass for the living and the dead.' The priest then
kisses the hand of the bishop, and receives from him
the host; the bishop saying, ' May the body of our
Lord Jesus Christ preserve you to eternal lile.'
The apostles' creed is now repeated, after which the
bishop again puts Ixith bis hands on his bead, .say-
ing, ' Receive the Holy Spiril. whosesoever sins ye
remit, they are remitted ; and whosesoever sins ye
retain, they are retained.' Then he is invested with
I he cliasnble, and km;eling before the bishop, he
places his folded hands Iwtwcon the hands of the
bishop, who says, ' l)(jst thou promise to me, and to
my successors, reverence and obedience?' to which
the in'iest replies, ' I promise.'"
The duties to which the Romish priest is thus so-
lemnly set apart are these : (1.) To administer the
sacrament of the eucharist, and to celebrate ma.ss.
(2.) To bless both persons and things, and to prav
for others. (3.) To preside over and govern under
the control of the bishop, the inferior clergy and
people. (4.) To preach. (5.) To baptize and to
administer the other sacraments, except confirmation
and ordination. (6.) To remit and retain sins in the
sacrament of penance.
PRl.M.Vl'KS (Chki.stian). In the ancient church
bishops venerable tor age, or personal dignity, some-
times received the name of primates. The distinc-
tion, however, between honorary primates and pri-
mates in power, was very early made. In Africa
the .senior bishop and the bishop of Carthage were
each respectively styled primate of all Africa. The
term jn-imate was often the same in signification as
arc/Mshop. metropotitiin. and patvlordi. In the eight h
and ninth centuries the chief dignitaries of a province
or empire were generally termed primates. The
division of England, in the twelfth century, into two
ecclesiastical provinces, led to the introduction of
primacies into that country. The archbishop of
Canterbury receives the title of primate of all Eng-
land, and the archbishop of Armagh, primate of
all Ireland. See Metropolitans, Patriarch
(Christian).
PRIMATES (Jewish). The patriarchal iligniiy,
as we have already found in the article Patiian-h
{Jewish), was abolished among the western Jews
in the fifth century. To the patriarchs succeeded
the primates, with a somewhat difi'erent jurisdiction
and authority. The patriarchs were hereditary, but
the primates were elective, being chosen by the
votes of the people. These primates appear to have
been appropriated to the government of a particular
province. Each province supported its own primate
by means of the ancient tribute-money, which the
patriarchs had been accustomed to receive. But by
an edict of Theodosius the younger, thiit tribute was
consigned to the imperial treasury of Rome, and col-
lected by the Roman officers. Thus the office of
primate among the Jews came to an end.
PRIME. See Canonical Hours.
PRIMIGENIA, a surname of FartHtia, mi(kr
which she was wor.-hipped at Prsneste, and on tlie
Qnirinal at Rome.
I'UIMIXISTS. See DoNATisTS.
PKIMITIVE METHODISTS. See Mkthoi)-
IST (Primitive) Connexion.
PRIOR, the head or superior of a /H'/or?/. He is
inferior in dignity to an AnnoT (which see). Where
there are several priors there is one who is superior
to the rest, .and is termed (/ntiK/prior.
PRIOUV, a convent inferior in dignity to an .\i!-
BEY (which see).
PRISCILLIANISTS, a .sect which arose in the
fourth century In Spain, deriving its name from its
founder, Priscilliaii, whose eloquence and austere
habits procured lor him inimeroiis followers, includ-
ing .some bishops. The doctrines of the sect, which
in many respects resembled those of the Mam-
PRIVATE JUDGMENT.
715
CHEANS (wliicli see), were condeniiied hy a synod
wliich assembled at Sarai;ossa A. D. 380. The per-
secution to wliicli tlie Priscillianists were in conse-
quence exposed OTily roused tliem to adopt more
decisive measures for establisliing tlieir party. Tlie
secular power was now called in to repress tlioni,
and an imperial rescript was procured condenniing
Pri.scillian aiul all liis adlierents to exile. Tliey were
afterwards accused A. n. 384 before the Emperor
Maximus, when Priscillian and se\eral of his follow-
ers were condemned and executed at Treves, this
being the tirst instance of a heretic being punished
with deatli by the solemn forms of law. Notwith-
.standing tlie loss of their founder, the Prisciliianists
actively propagated their opinions in Spain and Gaid,
and even in the sixth century remnants of the sect
were found in these countries. The general object
of the Priscillianist system is described by Dr.
Hase, as having been "by unusual self-denials and
efforts to release the spirit from its natural life." It
is difficidt to ascertain the real doctrines of the sect,
which, however, consisted probably of a mixture of
Gnostic and Manichean errors. They seem to have
lield the eternity of matter, and (hat the soul is a
l)article of tlie divine nature separated from the sidi-
stance of God ; that the human body was the work
of the devil, and tliat all the changes in the material
universe originated from the evil spirits. They de
nied the reality of the birth and incarnation of Christ,
as well as the personal distinction of the three Per-
sons in the Godhead. They disbelieved the resur-
rection of the body. Notwithstanding these and
otlier errors, their conduct was strictly moral, and
their manners austere.
PRIVATE JUDGMENT, the right which Pro-
testants claim of each man reading the Bible for
himself, and forming his own judgment of its mean-
ing. In tlieir view he is not only allowed, but is bound
to exercise his own judgment as to the interpretation
of the statements of Scripture, looking for the guid-
ance of the Holy Sjjirit, who is the infallible teacher
of all true believers, and who is promised to "guide
tliem into all truth." The Romish Church denies
the right of any man to exercise his private judgment
even as to the sense of Scripture. On this point
the council of Trent thus decrees, " In order to re-
strain petulant minds the council farther decrees, that
ill matters of faith and morals, and whatever relates
to the maintenance of Christian doctrine, no one,
confiding in liis own judgment, sliall dare to wrest
the Sacred Scriptures to his own sense of them, con-
trary to that which liaih been held, and still is held,
by holy mother church, whose right it is to judge of
the true meaning and interpretation of Sacred Writ,
or contrary to the unanimous consent of the fathers,
even though such interpretation sliould never be
published. If any disobey let them be denounced by
the ordinaries, and punished according to law."
From the terms of this decree, it is plain that Ro-
manists liold that their church alone is entitled to
judge of the true meaning and interpretation of
Sacred Scripture. And to the same efl'ect the creed
of Pope Pius IV. declares, "I also admit the Holy
Scriptures according to that sense wliich our holy
mother the church has lield, and does hold, to which
it belongs to judge of tlie true sense and interpreia-
li(ui of the Scriptures. Neither will I ever take and
interpret them otherwise than according to ihe unani-
mous consent of the fathers." In opposition to such
doctrines as these the Word of God explicitly teaches,
that every man is bmind to judge for himself of the
true meaning of Scripture. Thus 1 Thess. v. 21,
" Prove all things ; hold fast that which is good."
Acts xvii. 11, "These were more noble tlian those
in Thessalonica, in that they received the word with
all readiness of mind, and searched the scriptures
daily, whether those things were so." Mark xii. 24,
"And Jesus answering said unto them, Do ye not
therefore err, because ye know not Ihe scriptures,
neiiher the power of God ?" Luke xvi. 29, " Abra-
ham saitli unto hiui, They have Moses and the pro-
phets ; let them hear them." Is. viii. 20, "To the
law and to the testimony : if they s]ieak not accord-
ing to tliis word, it is because there is no light in
them."
The |iopish theory goes to destroy iiidi\idMal
responsibility, but in alleging herself to be the ap-
pointed interpreter of Scripture, the C'hurch of Rome
is obliged to concede the right of private judgment
so far as to enable us to determine for ourselves from
the Di\ine Word that we are bound to submit our
understandings to her guidance in spiritual things.
And the misfortune is, that if she concedes tlie right
and the duty, nay, even the necessity of the exercise
of private judgment to any extent wliatever, her
theory falls to the ground. Dr. Whately shows this
in a very striking manner in a passage which we
extract from his 'Cautions for the Times :' " A man
who resolves to place himself under a certain guide
to be implicitly followed, and decides that such and
such a church is the appointed infallible guide, does
decide, on his own private judgment, that one most
imporlant point, which includes in it all other deci-
sions relative to religion. And if, by his own show-
ing, he is unfit to judge at all, he can have no ground
for confidence that he has decided rightly in that.
And if, accordingly, he will not trust himself to
judge even on this point, but resolves to consult his
priest, or some other friends, and be led entirely by
their judgment thereui)on, still he does in tints re-
solving, exercise his own judgment as to the C(uin-
sellors he so relies on. The responsibility of form-
ing some judgment is one which, however unfit we
may deem ourselves to bear it, we cannot possibly
get rid of, in any matter about which we really feel
an anxious care. It is laid ujion us by God, and we
cannot shake it ofl^'. Before a man can rationally
judge that he shotdd submit his judgment in other
things to the Church of Rome, he must first have
judged, 1. That there is a God ; 2. That Christianity
716
PROCESSES— PROEDROSIA.
comes from God; 3. Tliat Clirist lias promised to
give an infallible aiitlidrity in the chnrcli ; 4. That
such authority resides in the Church of Rome. Now,
to say that men who are competent to form sound
jiid^'ments upon these points are quite incompetent
to form sound judgments about any other matters in
religion, is very like saying, that men may have
sound judgments of their own before they enter the
Churcli of Rome, but that they lose all sound judg
ment entirely from the moment thev enter it."
PR015ABILTSTS and PROBABILIORISTS.
See Casuists.
PROCESSES, the formal acts, instruments, bidls,
and edicts of canonhntion in the Romisli Church.
PROCESSION (The) OF THE HOLY GHOST,
the relation of the Holy Spirit to the Father, ac-
cording to the Greek Church, or to ihe Father
and the Son, according to the Latin C'mrch. The
term is founded upon the.se words of Christ, John xv.
26, "But when the Comforter is come, whom I will
send mito you from the Father, even the Spirit of
truth, wliich proceed 'tli from the Father, he shall
testify of me." Like the expression, " the genera-
tion of the Son," the analogous expression, " the
procession of the Holy Spirit." implies, that he has
received his essence from tlie Father. 'I'his mode of
expression is common in the writings of the fathers,
and as while the Scripture speaks of the Spirit pro-
ceeding from the Father, it nowhere speaks of the
Spirit proceeding from the Son, the Greek fathers
refused to recognize the double procession, and pre-
ferred to adhere strictly to the Language of Scripture.
After Macedoniiis had broached his here.sy denving
the Divinity of the Holy Ghost, the council of Con-
stantinople, A. I). .381, made an addition to the
article of the Nioene creed, " I believe in the Holy
Ghost ;" enlarging it thus, " I believe in the Holy
Ghost, the Ijord. the Author of life, who proceeds
from the Fatlier." This creed was accepted by the
Catholic Church, and it was afterwards enacted by
the council of Ephesus, that no addition should be
made to it. But in course of time the question be-
gan to be discussed in the West, whether the Holy
Gliost proceeded from the Son as well as from the Fa-
tlier, and the Latin Church having decided in favour of
the double procession, a new article was inserted in
the creed. " We believe in the Holy S|iirit proceed-
ing from the Father and the Son." A violent con-
troversy, accordingly, arose between the Greek ami
Latin churches, whieli at length terminati'd in their
open separation from each other's communion. See
Fii.inQur;, Hoi>y (iiiosT.
PUOCESSIONS. sacred ceremonies in whicli
clergy and laity march in regular order to some place
of worship. The practice of religious processions
is of PiigaTi origin, being generally observed both
among the ancient Greeks and Romans in honour of
some god. On occasions of public calamitv or of
public rejoicing, it was customary among the Ro-
mans to order solemn processions to be made to I he
temples in order to invoke the assistance of the gods,
or to thank them for blessings received. The first
processions mentioned in the history of the Chris i.an
Church are those which were originated at Constan-
tinople by Chrysostom. The Arians being obliged
to hold their meetings for public wor.-^hip outside the
town, were in the habit of walking thither in com-
pany, morning and evening, singing hymns. To
outdo the heretics, Cln-y.-ostom instituted solemn
processions, in which tlie clergy and people march-
ed by night carrying crosses and torches, ami
chanting prayers and hymns. From this period the
custom of religious processions was introduced first
among the Greeks, and afterwards among the Latins.
In the Greek Church processions are not unfrequent
in which images of the Virgin or other saints are
carried. But in Romish countries such processions
abound, one of the most solemn being the procession
of the host or holy sacrament, on Corpus Chrl^fi
day, when the consecrated wafer is carried about in
procession to be adored by the multitude. SeeCoit-
pus CHKfSTi (Festival of).
PROCLIAXITES, a branch of the Montanists
(which see), the name being derived from tl eir
leader, Proclus. or Prociilus.
PROCTORS, tlie representati\es of the clergy of
the Ciiurch of England in convocaHuv. These are
elected by the clergy of the several archdeaconries
before the meeting of parliament.
PRODICIANS, a heretical sect of the second cen-
tury, named from their leader, Prodicus. "Thev
maintained," says Neander, "they were sons of the
Supreme God, a royal race ; and therefore bound to
no lav/, since kings were imder none. Tliey we e
the lords of the Sabbatli, the lords overall ordinances.
They made the whole worship of God to consist,
probably, in the inner contemplation of divine things.
They rejected prayer, and perhaps all external wor
ship, as suited to those limited tninds only wliicli
were still held in bondage under the Demiurge ; and
they were in the habit of appealing to the authority
of certain a])Ocryphal books which were attributed
to Zoroaster." Prodicus is placed by Baronius in
A. D. 120, before Valentinus. His followers are
sometimes confounded with the Adamites, and some-
times with llip Oriyenists.
PRODIGIES, wonderful appearances which were
supposed among the ancient heathens to betoken
some impending misfortune or calamity. Thc^e be-
ing regarded as marks of the anger of the gods, they
were coiisidered as calling for jirayers and sacrifices.
Whenever prodigies were seen the 2)oiiti[fici'i or
priests proceeded to perform certain public rites by
way of expiation. The fall of meteoric stones was
accounted a ]iroiligy, anil almost all the others might
he explained by peculiar natural phenomena, winch
in those ancient limes were not understood.
PHOEDKOSIA, .sacrifices, or as some allege, .i
festival olfered to Demeler at seed-linie, with the
view of securing a bountiful harvest.
PRO IIEGOUMENOS— PROPHET.
717
PROGNOSTICS. Sue Auspices.
PRO-HEGOUMENOS, tlie e.\-sui)ei-iui- of a
Gi'efk cuiiveiit, wlio lias coinpleted liis term of officf,
whicli is two years, and retires divested of nothiiig
Lrnt his power and authority.
PROl^OCUTOU, the ehairmau or president of
coiirocntioii in ICngland.
PRO.MACIKJRMA, a surname of Al/uma.
PROMEl'llElA, a festival andeiitly celebrated
at Athens in honour of Prometheus. It was one of
the five Attic festivals in which tliere was a torch-
race, connnencing from the ahar of Promelliens in
ihe Ceramicns to the city.
PRON..EA, a surname of Athena, under which she
was worshipped at Delphi.
PROX.A.US, a surname of Hirmea.
PRONE, the name given in old writers to the ho-
mily or sernuni in the Romish Church.
PRONO, an idol of the ancient Sclavouians, wor-
shipped at Aldenbnrgli in Germany. It was a sta-
tue erected on a colnnni, holding in one hand a
ploughshare, and in the oflieraspear and a standard.
Its head was crowned, its ears prominent, and under
one of its feet was suspended a liltle bell. Gerold,
Christian bishop of Aldeuburgh, destroyed lliis idol
with his own hand, and cut down the grove in which
it was worshipped.
PRONUli.A., a surname of Juno among the an-
cient Romans, as being the goddess who presided
over marriage.
PROPAGANDA. See Coi.li:gk w. Pi!op.\-
GANDA Fide, CONG.tEGATION DE PuOI'AGANDA
Fide.
PROPHE.SYIXGS, religious exerci.ses inslitnted
by some of ihe pious clergy in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, for the pnrjiose of advancing the know-
ledge of divine truth, and promoting the interests of
vital religion. The ilesigiialiwu was taken from
1 Cor. xiv. 31, " For ye may all iirop!ie.sy one by
one, that all may learn, and all may be comforted."
In these propliesyings one presided, and a text pre-
viously selected was explained by one of the ministers
to whom it had been assigned. At the close of his
exposition each iu turn gave his view of the [lassage :
and the whole exercise was summed up by the presi-
dent, who concluded by exhorting all to iidelity and
diligence in the discharge of their sacred functions.
These nsefid exercises were looked upon with jeal-
ousy and suspicion by the bishops, at who.se instiga-
tion they were suppressed by the (|ueen.
PROPHET, one who under the influence of divine
inspiration predicts future events. The word first
occurs in Scripture in Gen. xx. 7, where God says
to Abimelech, " Restore the man his wife, for he is a
prophet." From this passage it is plain, that Abi-
melech must lune previously knosvn the word, and
Ids people having been of Egyptian origin, there can
be no doubt that the term "prophet" must have had
the same origin. In Egypt the superior priests were
called prophets, in consequence of their privileged
iiitercotu'se with the gods. It is not improbable that
in this extended sense Abimelech is called upon to
regard Abraham ; and in the same sense the Lord
said to Jloses, "Aaron thy brother shall be thy pro-
phet," or, as it is rendered in the Chaldee, " thine
interpreter," that i.s, thy mouth to reveal the mys-
teries of God made known to thee. The more
restricted meaidng of the word, liowe\er, is that iu
which it usually occurs in tlie Sacred Writings,
namely, as <ine inspired to foretell future events.
Among these the Hebrew prophets occupied a very
high place, and their wiitings constitute a very im-
portant portion of the Old Testament. They form an
unbroken line of holy and inspired men, extending
throngli a period of more than a tliou.sand years,
coimting from Moses to Malachi. '• Prophecy," says
the Aposlle Poler, " came not of old time by the will
of Jiian ; but holy men of God spake as they were
moved by the Holy Ghost." The prophets in an-
cient times either proclaimed their sacred predictions
in some public place in the aiulience of the people,
or posted lliem up in a written form on some exposed
place, as, for example, on the gates of the temple,
tliat all who passed by might have it in their powei
to peruse them. They adopted also various external
euddems to arouse the attention of the public, and
impress suleuui triuhs upon their nnnds. Thus,
when calling the people to repentance, they woidd
appear clothed in sackcloth, and wearing an aspect
of deep humiliatiou. On one occasion we find Jere-
miah with a j'oke upon his neck; Isaiah walking
abroad without his iirophetic mantle, and with his
feet unshod; Jerennah breaking the potter's vessel,
and Ezekiel removing his household stuff from the
city, — all intended to indicate, by outward s\'mbols,
national calamities about to be inflicted by an aiiOTy
God.
The ordinary duties of (he [irophets may be learn-
ed from various passages of the Old Testament.
" Samuel was accustomed to pray for the people,
(1 Sam. xii. 23,) and to guide their devotions at
sacrilicial feasts, (ix. 13;) and he was also accus-
tomed to instruct them. (1 Sam. xii. 2.3.) But there
is a pas.sage in the history of Elisha v/hich throws
farther light upon this. The Shuuamniiie said to
her husband, ' Send me, I pray thee, one of the young
men, ami one of the asses, that I may run to the
man of God. and come again. And he said, Where-
fore wilt thou go to him to-day ? it is neither new-
moon nor Sabbath,' 2 Kings iv. 22, 23. Had it
been either new moon or Sabbath, there wotdd liave
been nothing in her going; and why? The only
good reason seems to be that, on these days, the
people were to as.^emblein ' holy convocation.' And
this makes it probable that the projihets, as well as
the priests and Levites, were accustomed to instruct
the people on these days. There were also some, it
will be recollected, who were employed as ilie si)irit-
ual in.-tructors ami advisers of men in authority. It
was thus that Nathan and Gad waited upon David.
71«
iMioi'in:Ti;ss ^pit()s[<:LYTi':s.
— broiiglit messages from the Loni ; and tliey appeal-
also to luive written his life; and in a similar capa-
city also Isaiah acted, especially dining the reign of
HczeUiah. But lliat which constituted their main
and leading cliaracfer was, that they acted as the
messengers of the Lord of hosts, rebuking on ac-
coinit of .sin, exhorting to repentance, and revealing
mercy. And no individual passages can so well
illnstrate their character in this respect as their re-
corded mes.sages ; and the whole collection of pro-
phelical wrilings may he cited to this effect. For
while they are intermixed with much that concerned
after ages, they are mainly made up with addresses
immediately applicable to the existing circumstances
of Israel. And then as to tlieir number, which is
the only point remaining, it may be judged of from
the following facts : First, that during the persecu-
tion of Jezebel, Obadiah, Ahab's governor, hid one
lumdred of them, putting them by fifties in so many
caves. (1 Kings xviii. 1.3.) And secondly, that
towards the end of the reign of Ahab, that monarch
called together about foiu' hundred (xxii. C}."
It was not unusual in ancient Israel for indivi-
duals to consult the prophets in cases of domestic
anxiety or national distress ; and in doing so they
invariably brought a present along wiili them accord-
ing to their i-ank ami wealth. Thus the prophet
Abijah received from Jeroboam, by his wife, a pre-
sent of ten loaves, and cracknels and a crn.se of
honey. The dress of the ancient prophets was siin-
ple and unostentatious. Elijah was clothed with
skins, and wore a leathern girdle about liis loins.
And their food also was frugal and plain, consisting
generally of bread, friuts, and honey. A false jiro-
jdnit was punished capilally, being stoned to death.
The extraordinary jirophets, of whom sixteen have
left us wrilings in the Old Testament, speak of
themselves as specially called of God, and preface
their nie-sase by a " Tlius saith the Lord."
I'ROPIIKTKS.S, a female prophet or seer, who
was so called, not because slie was able to predict
future events, but because she was divinely inspired.
Hence l^eborah, Iluldah, and Anna were made, in
some degree, tlie organs of divine communications.
In Nmnb. xii. 2, Aaron and Miriam are rein'osentcd
as saying, both <if them together, "llath the Lord
indeed spoken only by Moses? hatli he not spoken
also by us?" Some regard the term prophetess as
denoting a woman eminently skilled in sacred mu-
sic, vocal and instrumental. In the Kast prophet-
esses have always been few in nundj(!r, compared
with the prophets. J5nt il has uniformly been other-
wise among the northern nations. The ancient
Germans, for example, as well as the Ganls, had ten
]n'0|ihelosses I'or one prophet. " Hence also it was,"
says Mr. Mallet, in his ' Norlhcrn Anti(pnlies, " thai
nolhing was formerly more counnon in the north
th.ari to meet with women who delivered oracular
informalions, cured the most inveterate maladies,
JXHBiimcd whatever shape they pleased, raised storms,
chained up the winds, travelled through the air, and,
in one word, performed every function of the fairy
art. Thus endowed with supernatural powers, these
prophetesses being converted as it were into fairies
or demons, intluenced the events they had predicted,
and all nature became subject to their connnand.
Tacitus puts this beyond a dispute when he ^;iys,
'The Germans suppose some divine and prophetic
quality resident in their women, andare careful neither
to disregard their admonitions nor lo neglect their an-
swers.' Nor can it be doubted but that the same
notions prevailed among the Scandinavians. Strabo
relates that the Cimbri were accompanied by vener-
able and Itoary-headed prophetesses, apparelled in
lorn; linen robes most splendidly white."
PROPHETS (Frunch). See Ca.misauds.
PROPHETS (Schools of the), colleges or
schools for the training of such as were designed l<u-
the prophetical office, as well as for those who were
already prophets. The first institution of this kind
is generally supposed to have been presided over
by Samuel. It was at Raniah in Jlount Ephraim,
the place of SamueFs ordinary residence, or perhaps
rather at Gibeali, a place in the neiglibonrhood.
Whether such schools continued dLn'ing the reign of
David and his immediate successors, iloes not a]ipear,
as no particular notice of them occur^j till the time
of Elijah, when, if ever they had been discontinued,
they seem to have been renewed. At the translation
of Elijah three such institutions existed, one at Gil-
gal, one at Bethel, and one at Jericho. The first
appears to have been under the special care of Elisha
after his master had been removed. Froin the com-
parison of several jiassages we learn that these
schools of the prophets were seminaries of consider-
able extent, in which (hose who were under training
for the prophetical office were carefully educated by
men of piety and experience.
PROPll'I.^TORY. See Mk1!(V-Sjc.\t.
PROSELYTES, literally strangers or foreigners,
and when used in the Jewish sense, denoting those
who, not being born Jews, were led to embracer the
Jewish religion. Those who wei'e Jews bj- birlh. de
scent, or language, were termed Hebrews of the He-
brews, wliile those who were admitted as proselytes
were uniformly held in inferior estimation. In the
time of om' Lord, ihe Jews, and more especially the
Pharisees, wei'e remarkably zealous in making prose-
lytes to iheir religion. From various imperial edicis
upon the subject, it is plain that theremust have been
a considerable nmnber of ]iroselytes. Sonic merely
received the doctrines of Judaism without conform-
ing to its rites, and even in particular cases retained
the practice of Pagan worship; these were called
proselyles of the gale. Others renoimccd wholly
iheir ancient failh, and strictly observed circumcision
and the ceremonial law ; these were called jirosclytes
ofjusiice or righteousness. The dislinclion between
these two classes of proselytes is generally aihnilled
by the learned ; but both Dr. Larduer and Dr. Dod-
PROSES— PROSKUCH^.
ri!»
(li'idgc iiiaiiitaiii, tliat there was (inly one kind of
proselytes, aTiil tlie forniei' wriier states tliat tlie
notion of two sorts of pi-oselytes is not to be found
in any commentator before the fonrteeuth centLiry.
Proselvtes of justice or of the covenant, as tliey we«'e
sometimes termed, were usually admitted by circum-
cision, baptism, and sacritice, if they were males, and
by baptism and sacrilice slmjily if fenuiles. Prose-
lytes of the gate were not bound to observe circuui
cisiou or the other Mosaic rites, but merely ilio
seven Noachic PiiECKPTS (which see). These pro-
selytes were not permitted like the others to worship
in tlie same court of the temple with the Jews, but
could only enter the court of the (icntiles, neither
were they allowed to dwell in Jerusalem. They
were mLich more nnmerous in all parts of the Roman
Kmpire than the other proselytes, and were more
easily persuaded to embrace Christianity.
I'ROSERPIN.V. See PiciiSicrnoNi:.
PROSES, hymns in the Rorn.m Catholic Church,
which are sung after the GradiKil or Tiilroi'fs, and
are characterized by an absence of all attention to
the law of measure and quantity. To this class
belongs the ifnlMif main: Tlie use of proses was
introduced, according to Dr. ISuruey, in the latter
end of the ninth century.
PROSEIICILE, oratories or places of prayer
among the ancient Jews. They were generally
mere enclosures, in seine retired spot, open above,
and frequently shaded with trees. If connected
with cities, as in the ca.se of "the oratory of Philip-
pi, Acts xvi. 13, they were often situated by a
river side, or on tlie sea-shore. "Questions have
been raised," says the late Dr. Macfarlan of Ren-
frew, "as to the origin of these, and their being
or not being the same with the .synagogue. Philo
and Josephus certainly speak of them and the syna-
gogues as if they were substantially one. The for-
mer expressly declares that they were jilaces of
instruction. ' The [ilaoes dedicated to devotion,' .says
he, ' and which are commonly called proseucliie,
what are they but schools in which prudence, forti-
tude, temperance, righteousness, piety, holiness, and
every virtue are taught, — every thing necessary for
the discharge of duty, whether liuman or divine.'
As the writer's observations were chiefly contined to
the Jews of Alexandria and other jiaris of Egypt,
this description will chiefly ap|ily to these. But
there is no doubt, on the other hand, that where
synagogues existed, and especially in Judea, they
did, to some extent, difi'er. And we are, therel'ore,
very much disposed to concur in the opinion, that
the oratory was substantially and in el^'ect a syna-
gogue. But the latter was the more perfect form,
and reijuired, for its erection and support, special
means. There was in every synagogue a local
court, deriving its authority, at least in Judea, from
the Sanhedrim ; and there were otlice bearers to be
maintained; whereas, in the oratory, there does not
Beem to have been any very fixed m- necessary form
of procedure. These might, for ought that ajipears,
have been all or substantially all which belonged to
the synagogue, or it might be little more than what
we would call a praj-er- meeting. And hence, per-
haps, the reason of the prevalence of the one — the
.synagogue — in Judea, and of the other, in Egj'pt
and other countries not subject to Jewish laws."
It is highly probable that prosciidiw existed long
before .syiia^'ogues. "It is remarkable," continues
Dr. Macfarlan, •' that the only places where Diniiel
is .said to have been favoured with visions, during the
day, were by tlie sides of rivers, (viii. 2 — 16; also
X. 4, xii. 5 — 7, and ix. 21.) the very places where
luaturies were wont to be. Ezekiel also received
his commission by one of the ri\ers of Babylon, and
when 'among the captives' of Israel, (Ezek. i. 1.)
And he afterwards mentions his having received
visions in the same circumstances, (iii. 15, IC.) And
Ezra also, when leading back Israel to the laud of
their fathers, proclaimed and observed a fast with
them by the way; and as if to keep up the .same tender
associations, he assembled them by the river Ahava, 1
where they remained three days, (Ezra viii. 15 — 32.)
But the very finest illustration which occurs is that
contained in the hundred and thirty-seventh Psalm
— 'By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down;
yea, we we|)t, when we remembered Zion. "We
hanged onr liarjis upon the willows in the midst
thereof. For there they that carried us away cap-
tive re(iuired of us a song; and they that wasted ns,
reijuired of us mirth, saying. Sing us one of the songs
of Zion,' 1 — 3. The people of Israel were accus-
tomed, in afler-tinies, to make choice of the banks of
ri\eis for their oratories, and this point of agree-
ment is one of the grounds on which we are ))roceed-
ing. But it will hold equally good, whether the
Israelitish captives followed, in this, the example of
their fathers, or whether, as is more probable, their
circunislances in ISaliylon led to this choice. And
it is not unlikely that this led to a simil.ar choice in
after-times, and particularly in foreign countries.
The poor captives of Babylon had, perhaps, no other
covering or even enclosure than the willows of the
brook ; and thus may they have been driven, when
seeking to worship the (iod of their fathers, into
the woody margins of Babylon's many rivers. And
meeting in such places, as they hail been accnstomed
to do in the oratories of their native land, it is not
wonderful that many lender associations should be
renewed."
After the return of the Jews from the U.-ibyloni-sh
eaptii ity, synagogue worship was much enlarged and
improved, while oratories gradually diminished in
number and importance. Hence, in later times, ora-
tories were chiefly found in countries beyond the
land of Israel. Under the Roman government, syna-
gogues were discountenanced, but oratories, or places
of meeting for devotional exercises, were generally
permitted all over the empire. Dr. Larilner thinks
that the synagogue mentioned in .\cts vi. 0, was
720
PROSPHO'UA— PROTOPAPAS.
really an oratoi y ; and Joseplius speaks of a very
lai-ge one in the city of Tiberias. But it was cliiefly
in foreign parts that 2"'0'euch(is in later times were
fnuMfl. Josepluis, in detailing the decree passed in
favonr of the Jews at Ilalicarnassus, sa)S, " We
have decreed that as many men and women of the
Jews, as are willing so to do, may celebrate their
Sabb.-iths, and perform their holy offices according to
the Jewi.^h laws ; and may make their j'roseuchai at
the .sea-side according to the custom of their fore-
fatliers." Pliilo also speaks pariiciilarly of such
erections in Egypt.
PKOSPIIO'R.\, or oblation in the eiicliarist, as
dispensed in the Greek Church. This loaf is made
in a circidar form, anrl is intended to represent the
pence which Judas received for betraying his Lord
and Master.
PRCSTITUTIOX (SACKf.n). It is lamentable
to observe to what extent iminoralily and ijidecency
have characterized the religions rites of heathen na-
tions botli in ancient and modern times. This pain-
ful feature can be traced even among the Phoenicians,
Babvlonians, and other people of remote antiquity,
who were in the habit of erecting tents adjoining the
temples of their gods as residences for courtezans,
who were supposed to be pleasing to their deities.
Slrabo states, that no fewer than 1,000 of these
abandoned females were attached to I lie temple of
Aphrodite in Corinth, and considered as an indispen-
sable part of the retinue of the goddess. A com-
mand is u'iven to the Israelites in Lev. xix. 29, which
P)i.-liop Patrick interprets of these religious prosti-
tutions. The existence of companies of these wicked
persons in the sacred groves and high places of tlie
ancient Jews, may serve to account for the rendering
which the Septuaglnt gives of the expression "high
places" in Ezek.xvi. 39, by a term which in Greek de-
notes a place of indecent resort. The Snccolli-henoth,
literally "tabernacles of daughters," which the men
of Babylon are mentioned in 2 Kings xvii. 30, as hav-
ing made, are i)robably places of the same kind,
being haunts of wickedness. The abominable prac-
tice of combining immorality with the worship of
the gods appears to have continued down to the days
of Constautine, as is evident from a passage in his
life, written by Kusebiiis, where be mentions it in
connection with the teni[ile of Venus at Aphaca on
Mount Liljanns. Sacred prostitution formsan essen-
tial pari of the religious wor.-hip [jaid to several of
the Hindu deities, more particularly to S/u'i-a, inider
difiVrent forms. See LiNUA-Wousiiir.
PR(yrBSTAXT.'^, a name given to the adherents
of the doctrines of the Reformation in the sixteenth
century, derived from the famotis protest tendered at
the diet of Spires on the 19th April 1529. By the
appointment of the Emperor Charles V. a diet had
been assembled at that place, when a resolution was
pa.ssed enjoining those states of the emjiire, which
had hitherto obeyed the decree issueil again.st Luther
at Worms in 1524, to persevere in the observation
of it, and to prohibit the other states from attempting
any farther innovation in religion, jiarticularly from
abolishing the mass, before the meeting of a general
council. The elector of Saxony, the Marquis of
B|;andeidjurg, the Landgrave of Husse, the Dukes of
Lunenburg, the Prince of Anhalt, together with the
deputies of fourteen imperial or free cities, entered a
solemn protest against this decree as unjust and im-
pious. On that account they were distinguislied by
tiie name of Protestants, an a|]pellatioii which is
now used in a much wider sense, to denote all tliose
numerous churches and sects svliich protest on [uin-
ciple against the doctrines, rites, ajid ceremom'es of
the Church, of Rome. The Protestants in this ex-
tensive signification of the term, include the Protest-
ant Lutheran Churches holding the Confession of
Aug.ibm-g; the Protestant Churches holding the (hd-
lic, Helvetic, and Belgic Confessions; the Pro-
testant Episcopal Churches liolding the Thirty-Nine
Articles of the Church of England; tlie Protest-
ant churches, most of them Presbyterian, adhering
to the Westminster Contession, ami the Congrega-
tionalist Churches to the Savoy Confession. Be
sides these there are other bodies of Protestants, such
as the Society of Friends, the Methodists, and the
Socinians or Unitarians, which cannot be cla.ssed
under any of the aliove-mentioned clnu'ches.
PROTES'l'AXT EPISCOPAL CHURCH
OF AMERICA. See Episcopal (Puoti:sta.nt)
CnuucH OP Amehtca.
PROTESTANT METHODIST CHURCH
OF A.MERICA. See Metiiodi.st Protestant
Church of America.
PROTESTORS, a name given to the uncompro-
mising adherents of the Solemn League and Cove-
nant in Scotland in the days of Charles II. See
C0VENANTi:ii.-<.
PROTESTORS, a small l)udy of minitters and
laymen who protested against the union formed n
1820, between the Burgher and Antiburgher sections
of tlie Secession Church in Scotland, on the ground
that it did not afford sufficient security for the main-
tenance of the public cause of the Secession. Having
refused to acquiesce in the union, they formed them-
selves into a separate denonunation under the name
of the Associate [Ayitihnrrjhei') Si/iwd, commonly call-
ed Protestors. In 1827 they foruied a union with
tlie Constitutional Associate Prenhitcry, thus consti-
tuting tlie Associate Synod of Oriijinal Seccders.
See OiiiGtNAt. SEciaiERS (Associate Synod of).
PROTHESIS, a small altar in the (ireek churches.
It stands on the left side of the grand altar, at the
door of the sanctuary. To this ahar the deacon
conveys the bread and wine, placing the patiri on
the right side, and the chalice on the left. Then
both the priest and the deacon make three profound
reverences before the^woMcsis.
I'ROTOPAPAS, the arch-priest in the Greek
Church wlio stands on the left hand of the patriarch.
His dignity is entirely ecclesiastical ; he administers
PUOTOPSALTES— PURGATORY.
721
tlie lioly sacrament to tlie patriarcli at all high and
solemn masses, and receives it from him. He is the
head ecclesiastical dignitary not only witli respect to
his peculiar privileges, but to his riglit and title to
precedence.
PROTOPSALTES, the cliief singer or master of
tlie choir in Greek chnrches.
PR0T03YNCELLUS, the vicar or assistant of
a Greek patriarcli, wlio generally resides along with
him in his palace.
PliOVINCIAL SYNODS. See Svnods (Pro-
vincial).
PROZY.VriTES (Gr. ;;ra, for, and :;«»!«, leaven),
a name applied by the Latin Cluircli in the eleventh
century to tlie adherents of tlie Greek Chnrcli, be-
cause tliey contended for the use of leavened or com
inon bread in the eiicharist. See Azy.viites, Buead
(EUCHARrSTIC).
PUYTANEIUiM, the common hon.se of an an-
cient Greek city or slate in wliich a sacred tire was
kept constantl)' burning in boiionr of Fftsta. It was
an appropriate building, where, in the name of the
city or state, the magistrates, known as the Pry-
tanes, brouglit suitable offerings to the venerated
goddess. The fire-service observed in honour of
VeMu was distinguished by the name of Prijtanktis .
The temple, which was called Prylaneium, was of a
round form, in order, as some have supposed, to
represent the figure of the earth, and according
to othei's, to represent the centre of the universe.
Plutarch thus speaks on the subject : " It is also
said that Numa built the temple of Vesta where the
perpetual flre was to be kept, in an orbicular form, not
intending to represent the figiu-e of the earth, as if
that was meant by Vesta, but the frame of the uni-
verse, in the centre of which the Pytliagoreans place
the element of fire, and give it the name of Vesta
and Unity. Tlie earth tliey suppose not to be with-
out motion, nor situated in the centre of the world,
but to make its revolution round the sphere of fire,
being neither one of the most valuable nor principal
parts of the great machine. Plato, too, in his old
age, is reported to have been of the same opinion,
assigning the earth a different situation from tlie
centre, and leaving that as the place of honour, to a
nobler element." If the sacred fire in the Pryfanei-
um was accidentally extinguished, or even if it con-
tinued burning, the ve.stal virgins invariably renewed
it every year on the kalends of Marcli, by collecting
the solar rays in a concave vessel of brass. From
the fire whicli was kept burning in the Prytaneium
of the parent state, the sacred fire was supplied to
each of its colonies or dependent states. Thucydides
states, that before the time of Theseus, a Prytaneium
was to be found in every city or state of Attica.
The Prytaneium of Athens was originally built on
the Acropolis, but afterwards it stood near the luiom
or forum.
PS.ALMTST.E, the sing(>rs, an order of the clergy
in the primitive Christian Chnrcii. They appear to
ir.
have been instituted about the beginning of llie
fourth century, for the purpose of regulating and
encouraging the ancient psalmody of the church.
They were generally called canonical singers, be-
cause their names were enrolled in the canon or
catalogue of the clergy; and liom a canon of the
council of Laodicea, we learn that they went up into
the Amdo (which see), and sung out of a book. The
PsnlinishB were not set apart to their office by im-
position of hands or solemn consecration, but simply
by the use of this form of words as it is in the canon
of the fourth council of Carthage : " See that thou
believe in thy heart wliat thou singest with thy
month, and approve in thy works what thou believest
ill thv heart."
PSALMODY. See Music (Sacri-.d).
PSALTER, the book in whicli the Psalms are
arranged for the service of the Church of England.
PS.A.THYRI.\NS, a party of Arians, wlio, in a
council held A. D. 360, maintained tliat the Son was
created out of nothing.
PTOLOMAITES,"a branch of the Valenthuans
in tiie second century, wdio differed from Valentinus
as to the number and nature of the yEoiis.
PUCCI.A.NITES, the followers of one Piiccius,
who publislied a work in 1592, dedicated to Pope
Clement VIII., in which he taught, that through tlie
merits of the atonement of Christ man may be saved
with only natural religion without fiiiih in the pcciir
liar doctrines of the gospel.
PURGATORY, a place in whicli, accoi-ding to the
Romish Church, souls are inirged by fire from carnal
impurities after death before they are received into
heaven. The word is derived from a Latin verb signi-
fying to cleanse or purify, and the doctrine itself is
tluis defined in the creed of Pope Pius IV., " I con-
stantly hold that there is a pnr^'alory, and that the
souls therein contained are lielped by the suffrages
of the faithful." The council of Trent states the
iiKilter more fully, " Since the Catholic Church, in-
structed by the Holy Spirit from tlie Sacred Writ-
ings, and the ancient traditions of the fatliers, hath
taught in holy councils, and lastly in tliis ecumeni-
cal council, that there is a purgatory, and that the
souls detained there are assisted by the suffrages of
the faitliful, but especially by the accejitable sacrifice
of the mass, tliis holy council commands all bishops
diligently to endeavour that the wliolesome doctrine
concerning purgatory delivered unto us by venerable
fathers and sacred councils be believed, held, tanglit,
and every where preached by Christ's faithful." The
belief of Romanists is, that the souls of just men alone
are admitted into purgatory, that they may be
cleansed from the remains of what are called venial
sins. Accordingly, the Catechism of tlie council of
Trent says, " In the fire of purgatory the souls of
just men are cleansed by a temporary ]iunishmeiit,
in order to be admitted into tlieir eternal country,
into which nothing that defileth enteretli." Giestler
asserts, that the doctrine 'jf purgatory w:is first s ig-
3p
722
PURGATOKY.
gested by Aii,s;"''''"e, tlie bishop of Hippo, towards
tlie close of tlie fourth ceiitiiry. But tlie opinions
of tliis eminent divine seem, on this particnlrtr sub-
ject, loIiHve been vngne and uncertain, and he tlu'ows
out tlie notion as a niere hypothetical s|iecnIation,
that fire may, as a temporary purilication, be applied
to some in the interval between death ami the gen-
eral judcjment. From the hesitation and doubt with
wliicli Augustine sjieaks in regard to purgatory, it
seems plain that, in the beginning of the fifth cen-
tury, no such doctrine was held to be a settled theo-
logical dogma. It must be admitted that several,
both of the Greek and Latin fathers, held the doc-
trine of a miildle state, in which the soul exists be-
tween death and the resurrection, and a similar
doctrine was prevalent among the ancient heathens.
But not until the days of Gregory the Great does
"the existence of a purgatorial fire for certain light
transgressions," come to be stated as a formal article
of faith. Its belief, however, obtained no general
e.-^tabiisliment for ages after the pontificate of Gre-
gory. The doctriTie that papal indulgence extended
over purgatory was first maintained by Alexander
Ilalesius and 'I'lioiuas Aipiinas. The -council of
Florence decreed, in A. D. 1439, that " the .souls of
the vii'hleoHS receive a perfect crown in heaven, so far
as they are spirits; that tliose of sinners endure im-
alterable pimislunent ; and that those Ijetween the
two are in a place of torment ; but whether it be fire,
or storm, or anything else, we do not dispute." The
gener.al opinion of Romish writers is, that the pun-
ishment of purgatory is inflicted by material fire of
the same nature with our elementary fin', and this
punishment is believed to be a satisfaction to the
justice of God. In short, the Komish doctrine of
pm%'atory is, that it is a place, ami not merely a
state of suffering : that it is not merely a stale of
internal compunction or remorse, but a place in which
is endured actual and outward sniVcring; that it is
a prison ; that in if there is a real fire; that souls
there detained are tortin-ed as well as cleanse',
ami that the soids of the pious only — tridy i)enitent
and juslifietl siimcrs — enter that temporary but dread-
ful abode.
This Romish dogma is attempted to be support-
ed by a variety of Scripture passages. The chief
prop, however, upon which the advocates of pur-
gatorial punishmeut rely, is a text in the Apocry-
pha, 2 Mac, xii. 32 — iC), where we find an aocoimt
of the conduct of Judas Maccabeus, after his victory
over (torgias, the governor of Idumea. Besides,
however, the book from which tliis text is taken
being uninspired, and not even pretending to in-
spiration, there is nothing in the text itself which
can fairly be considered as favouring the existence
of the Romisli pin'gatory. There are, however, sev-
eral texfa in the in.spired Word of (Jod, which are
woi\t to be adduced In support of the doctrine of pur-
gatorial fire. Dr. Blakeuey cpiotesaiid comments u|i-
uii some of the most important as follows : (1.) JIattli.
V. 25, 26, " Agree with thine adversary quickly,
whiles thou art in the way with him ; lest at any
time the adversary deliver thee to the judge, and the
judge deliver thee to the officer, and thou be cji-st in-
to prison. Verily I say ujito thee. Thou slialt by no
means come out thence, till thou hast paid the utter-
most farthing." "If tins refer to spiritual matters
at all, it proves that the sinner is a debtor to God —
the creditor. He is cast into prison till he pay the
lUtermo.st farthing, — which is forever; because he
has nothing to pay. The use of the word ' till,' does
not necessarily-imply a definite or temporaiy con-
finement ; for tlie Douay Bible, in its comment on
Mattli. i. 25, quotes various texts to show that it
refers to ' what is done, without any regard to the
future.' For instance, ' 1 am till you grow old.
Who dare infer,' says the Poiiay Bible, ' that God
.should then cease to be ?'
" Besides, the Romanist cannot consistently prove
anytliiug by tliis passage, for the fathers disagree in
tlieir views of it. Where is the 'unanimous con-
sent'of the fathers ? Where the infallible sense of
the' church ?
" ' 2. And whosoever speaketh a word against the
Son of man. it shall bo forgiven him : but whosoevei
speaketh against the Holy Ghost, it shall not be for-
given him, neither in this woiid. neither in the woilil
to come.' (Matth. xii. .32.)
" Tlie parallel ]iassages, however, in ^lark iii. 29,
and Luke xii. 10. show that the expression, ' neither
in this world, nor the world to come,' in Matthew, is
a strong mode of staling the truth, that he hath
never forgiveness. ]5ut again, if, according to his
passage, sins are forgiven in purgatory, how, accord-
ing to Mattli. V. 25, 26, is the uttermost farthing
paid? If the debt be paid, it cannot be forgiven,
" ' Every man's work shall be made manifest : for
the day shall declare it. because it shall be revealed
by fire ; and the fire shall try every man's work of
what sort it is.'
"' If any man's work abiiie whirli he halh built
thereupon, he shall receive a reward.'
"' If any man's work shall be burnt, he sh:ill suf-
fer loss : but he himself shall be saved ; vet .so as by
fire.' (1 Cor. iii. 13, 14, 15.)
" 1. Tliis text cannot refer to purgatory. The fire,
spoken of, tries ; purgatory purifies. 2. It is said
that ' every man's work shall be tried,' (ver. 13.) If
this refeiTcd to purgatory, it would prove that every
man must go there, wliich is not the doctrine of the
Church of Rome, else .saints might be in purgatory
even when invoked. 3. The apostle refers ,alone to
the work of ministers as builders of the Lord's visi-
ble temple, (ver.ses 5, 9, 10,) not to the work of
Cliristians in general. 4. The fire of tribulation, and
the fiery ordeal of judgment at last, (2Tliess. i. 7, 8,)
shall prove whether ministers have built upon the
foundation, either wood, hay, and stubble — unbe-
lievers; or gold, silver, and precious stones — belie-
vers. 5. If the minister's work abide, he shall
a
1^"
^
<i=^
PIIRANAS— PURITANS.
m
Tfi^-tfive a reward, ' the joy and cro«ii of njoiciiig.'
If not, lie shall siifier loss in mucli of his aiilicipated
joy, tliougl\ he himself shall be saved. 6. The fa-
thers are disagreed on this passage. Where is ' their
unanimous consent ?' Where is the infallible sense
of the church ?
'• ' For Christ also hath once sulTered for sins, the
just for the unjust, that he might bring us to God,
bei)ig put to death in the tlt-sh, but quickened by the
Spirit :'
'"By which also he went and preaclied unto the
spirits in prison ?'
" ' Wliich sometime were disobedient, wlien once
the long-suffering of God waited in the days of Noah,
while the ark was a preparing, wherein few, that is,
eight souls, were saved by water.' (1 Pet. iii. 18,
19, 20.)
" 1. This can liave no reference to tlie supposed
pris(in of purgatory. Those who are guilty of mor-
tal sin, do not go to piu'gatory. But those to whom
Noah preached, were guilty of mortal sin, for they
were incredulous, according to the Douay version of
the passage ; therefore they did not go to purgatory.
'2. Christ preached by the Holy Spirit to the antedi-
luvians, 'Quickened by the Spirit, by which also he
went and preached,' &c. This implies that He did
not preacli in person. 3. Ife preached by the Spirit
in Noah, who is therefore called ' a preacher of riglit-
eousness.' 4. The prison must mean either the
prison of sin in which they were confined when alive,
or the prison of hell, in which, being incredulous, the
antediluvians were when Peter wrote. These texts
alleged in favour of purgatory, are so little to the
point, that some Roman Catholics endeavour to
prove the dogma by the autliority of the Church
alone."
Considerable doubts are enterlained by Pioniish
writers as to the actual site of purgatory, but the
prevailing opinion is that of Dens, that it is mider
the earth ami adjoining to hell. Out of the doctrine
of pin-gatorial torment arises the p.ractice of praying
for the dead, and that of the sacrifice of the nia.ss as
av.-iilable both for the living ami the dead. Hence
also the doctrine of InduUienc.es, which the Pope
claims the power of dispensing, in order to mitigate
the pains of purgatory.
The doctrine of purgatory, which forms so promi-
nent an article of the Tridentine creed, was condemned
l)y the second council of Constantinople, and is re-
jected by the Eastern Church; although it is a well-
known fact, that the Greeks pray for the dead. The
,\bvssinian church has no distinct idea of a separate
purgatory, but it teaches that almost all men go to
hell at <leath, and that from time to time the arch-
angel Michael descends into the place of torment to
rescue some of the soids conlined there and to trans-
fer them to paradise, either for the sake of some
good works they have done while on earth, or for the
prayers, good works, and especially fastings of tlieir
relaiives aiul the priests. Tlie doctrine of purgatory
is not acknowledged by name in the Armenian
church, but it is substantially held, ))rayers and
masses being .said continually for tlie dead. These
prayers are frequently .<aid and incense burned over
the graves of the deceased, particularly on Saturday
evening, which is the special season for remembering
the dead in prayers and alms. Mass is said among
the Armenians for the souls of the departed on the
day of burial, on the seventh, the fifteenth, and the
fortieth days, and at the end of the first j-ear. Alms
are also given by the surviving relatives to the I'oor
in the name of the deceased person, in the hope that
the merit of it will be put down to their account.
See Rome (Chdrch of).
PURAN,\S. sacred poems of the Hindus, eighteen
in number, believed to have been written by the
divine sage, Vyasa. These treat of cosmogony and
chronology, of geography and astronomy, of tlie
genealogies and exploits of gods, demigods and
heroes, of virtue and good works, of the nature of
the soul and the means of final emancipation. The
Puranas are embraced in the first of the four Uj>-
angiis, and are chiefiy valued by the worshippers of
Vlslimi..
PURIFICATION. See LusTR.iTioN.
PURIM, a feast of the Jews, introduced by Mor-
decai, to conimeniorate the remarkable deliverance
of that people from the cruel plot of Haman. This
festival, which was celebrated on the 14th or 15th day
of Adar, the last month of the ecclesiastical year,
derived its name of Piiriin or lots from the circum-
stance that Haman had ascertained by lot the day on
which the Jews were to be destroyed. In ancient
times the Jews were accustomed to erect crosses on
this day on their houses, from a tradition that Hainan
was crucified, not hanged, but these were afterwards
interdicted, and are no longer in use. During the
festival of Puriin, which is observed to this day,
the book of Esther is solemly read in the syna-
gogue; and whenever the name of Haman occurs,
the whole congregalion clap their hands, stamp
with their feet, and cry out, " Let his name
and memory be blotted out." "The name of
the wicked shall rot." It is also customary for
the children to knock against the wall with little
wooden hammers, as a token that they should en
deavour to destroy the whole seed of Amalek.
Prayers for the deliveiance of the Jewish nation
are mingled with curses on Haman and his
wife, and blessings on Mordecai and Esther. The
season at which tlie festival of Purim occurs is a
time of peculiar gaiety. Alms are given to the jioor;
presents are sent to relations and friends; iheir
tables are loaded with the most luxurious viands;
and they indulge largely in wine in memory of
Esther's banquet, at which she succeeded in defeat-
ing the designs of Haman.
PURITANS, a name given to a large party in llie
reign of Queen Elizabeth, wlio complained that the
Ueforniation in England was left in an iniperfecl state.
JU
PURITA^fS.
iimny abuses both in woi'sliip aiifl fliscipline being still
retained. It was not to be expected fVom bis eliar-
acter, that Henry VIII., tlioiigli lie rescued tlie king-
dom from the papal yoke, would proceed very far in
reforming the religion of the country. His successor,
however, Edward VI., a young prince of earnest piety,
was Hkely, had Iiis valuable life been spared, to have
carried out a real reform, whicli would liave rendered
the Church of England uKJie simpl^e in lier ritual and
more strict in her discipline than she has ever had it in
her power to be. The accession of Elizabeth, after the
brief but bloody reign of Mary, revived the hopes of
those who had been longing for a day of more com-
plete reformation. But it soon became quite appa-
rent that the queen, though opposed in principle to
popery, was resolved notwithstanding to letain as
much show and pomp in religious matters as nn'ght
be possible. A meeting of convocation was held in
the beginning of the year 1.562, at which the proposal
for a further reformation was seriously discussed.
Six alterations in particidar were suggested, — the
abrogation of all holidays except Sabbaths and those
relating to Christ, — that in prayer the minister
shoulii turn his face to the people, — that the signing
of the cross in baptism should be omitted, — that the
sick and aged should not be compelled lo kneel at the
comminiion, — that the partial use of the surplice
should be suflicient, and that tlie nse of organs should
be laid aside. By a majority of one, am) that the
proxy of an absent person, these proposed alterations
were rejected.
From tills time the court party and the reformers,
as they may be termed, became more decidedly
opposed to each other. The difl'erence in their
views is well described by Dr. lletheriugton in his
' History of the Westminster ,\sseuibly.' " The
main question," says he, " on whicli they were
divided may be thus stated, whether it were lawful
and expedient to retain in the external aspect of
religion a close resemblance to what had prevailed
in the times of popery, or not? The court divines
argued, that this process would l«id llie people more
easily to the reeeplion of the real doctrinal changes,
when tliey saw outward appearances so little altered,
so that tliis method seemeil to be rsconimended by
e.^pcdioncy. The reformers replied, that this tended
to perpetuate in ihe people their inclination to their
former supersliiions, led them to think there was,
after all, little dilfercnce between the reformed and
the papal churches, and consequently, that if it made
them quit popery the more readily at jiresent, it
would leave them at least equally ready to return to
it should an opporlunily offer; and for this reason
they thought it best to leave as few traces of popery
remaining as possible. It was urged by the court
party, that every sovereign had authority to correct
all abuses of doctrine and worship within his own
dominions: this, (hey asserled, was the true meaning
of the act of supremacy, and consequently the source
of the refonnalion in England. The hue reformers
admitted the act of supremacy, in the sense of the
(pieen's explanation given in the injunctions; but
could not admit that the conscience and the religion
of the whole nation was subject to the arbitraiy dis-
posal of the sovereign. The court party recognised
the Church of Rome as a true church, though corrupt
in some points of doctrine and government; and this
view it was thought necessary to maintain, for with-
out this the English bishops could not trace their
succession from the apostles. But the decided re-
formers affirmed tlie pope to be antichrist, and the
Church of Rome to be no true church; nor would
they risk the validity of their ordinations on the idea
of a succession through such a channel. Neither
]iarfy denied that the Bible was a perfect rule of
faith; but the court parly did not admit it to be a
standard of church government and disci|iline, assert-
ing that it had been left to the judgment of the civil
magistrate in Christian countries, to accommodate the
government of the church to the policy of the Slate.
The reformers maintained the Scriptures to be the
standard of church government and discipline, as well
as doctrine; to the e,\tent, at the very least, that no-
thing should be imposed as necessary which was not
expressly contained in, or derived from, I hem l.iy neces-
sary consequence; adding, that if any discretionary
power in minor matters were necessary, it must be
vested, not in the civil magistrate, but in the spiritual
office-bearersof the church itself The court reformers
held that the practice of the primitive church for the
four or five earliest centuries was a proper standard
of church government and discipline, even lietler
suited to the dignity of a national establishment than
the times of the apostles; and that, therefore, no-
thing more was needed than merely lo remove the
more modern innovations of popery. The true re-
formers wished to keep close to the scripture model,
and to admit neither office-bearers, ceremonies, nor
ordinances, but such as were therein appointed or
sanctioned. The court party affirmed, that things lii
their own nature indifl'ereiit, such as rites, ceremonies,
and vestmenls, might be appointed and made neces-
sary by the command of ihe civil magistrates; and
that then it was the bounden duty of all subjects to
obev. But the reformers maintained, that what
Christ had left indirterent, no human laws ought lo
make necessary; and besides, lliat such rites and
ceremonies as had been abused to idolatry, and
tended to lead men back to popery and supcrstilion,
were no longer inditVcrent, but were to be rejected as
nnlawfid. Pinally, the court party lield that there
must be a .standard of uniformity, which standard
was the queen's supremacy, and tlie laws of the
land. The reformers regarded ihe JSible as the only
standard, but ihoughl compliance was due to the
decrees of provincial ami nalional synods, which
might be approved and ent'orced by civil authority.'
From this contrast between the opinions of the
two parties it is plain that, though the use of the
sacerdotal vestmenls formed the rallying point of ti.e
PUllITAXS.
725
wliole controversy, its fouiidatiou lay ileeper tliaii
any mere outward forms. Tlie queen gave strict
orders to tlie archbisliop of Canterbury, tliat exact
order and uniformity slioidd be maintained in all ex-
ternal rites and ceremonies. Nay, so determined was
she that her royal will should be obeyed, that she
issued a proclamation requiring immediate luiifuruiity
in the vestments on pain of prohibition from preach-
ing and deprivation from office. Matters were lujw
brought to a crisis by this decided step ou the part
of the queen. Multitudes of godly nnnisters were
ejected from their churches and forbidden to preach
anywhere else. Hitherto they had sought reforma-
tion witliin the church, but now their hopes from that
quarter being wholly blasted, they came to the re-
solution ill 15G6, to form tlieniselvcs into a body
distinct from the Cliia-cli of England, which they re-
garded as only half reformed.
Elizabeth was enraged that her royal mandate
shoidd have been so signally set at nought. The
suspended ministers took strong groimd, and having
separated from the church as by law esfaljlished,
they published a treatise in their own vindication,
boldly declaring that tlie imposition of mere luiniau
appoimments, such as the wearing of particular vest-
ments by tlie clergy, was a decided infringement on
Christian liberty, which it was not only lawful Ijut a
duty to resist. In the face of persecution, and under
threats of the royal dls[ileasure, the Puritans, who,
.since the Act of Uniformity had been passed in 15C'2,
were sometimes called Nonconformkts, continued to
liold their private meetings. Their first attempt to
engage in judilic worship was rudely interrupted by the
officers of 
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